Issued

Superseding
Dated

May 2000
BR 45(2)
May 1997

BR 45(2)
ADMIRALTY MANUAL OF
NAVIGATION
VOLUME II
ASTRO NAVIGATION

By Command of the Defence Council

COMMANDER IN CHIEF FLEET

CINCFLEET/FSAG/P45/2

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SPONSOR
This publication sponsored by the Commander in Chief Fleet. All correspondence concerning
this publication is to be forwarded to the Operational Publications Authority:
CINCFLEET/PFSA
Fleet Staff Authors Group
Pepys Building
HMS COLLINGWOOD
FAREHAM
Hampshire
PO14 1AS
Copied to the Sponsor Desk Officer:
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SO1 N7 NAV
Room 170
Office of the Commander in Chief Fleet
West Battery (PP 300)
Whale Island
HMS EXCELLENT
Portsmouth
Hampshire
PO2 8DX
Copied to the Subject Matter Specialist:

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SO(N)
Navigation Section
Endeavour Building
Maritime Warfare School
HMS COLLINGWOOD
Fareham
Hampshire
PO14 1AS

MOD 2000

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BR 45(2)
PREFACE
The Admiralty Manual of Navigation (BR 45) consists of seven volumes:
Volume 1 is a hard bound book (also supplied in A4 loose leaf from 2002), covering General
Navigation and Pilotage (Position and Direction, Geodesy, Projections, Charts and Publications,
Chartwork, Fixing, Tides and Tidal Streams, Coastal Navigation, Visual and Blind Pilotage,
Navigational Errors, Relative Velocity, Elementary Surveys and Bridge Organisation). This
book is available to the public from The Stationary Office.

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Volume 2 is a loose-leaf A4 book covering Astro Navigation (including Time). Chapters 1 to

3 cover the syllabus for officers studying for the Royal Navy Navigational Watch Certificate
(NWC) and for the Royal Navy n Course. (The NWC is equivalent to the certificate awarded
by the Maritime & Coastguard Agency (MCA) to OOWs in the Merchant Service under the
international Standardisation of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW) agreements.)
The remainder of the book covers the detailed theory of astro-navigation for officers studying
for the Royal Navy Specialist N Course, but may also be of interest to n level officers who
wish to research the subject in greater detail. Volume 2 is not available to the general public,
although it may be released for sale in the future.

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Volume 3 is a protectively marked loose-leaf A4 book, covering navigation equipment and

systems (Radio Aids, Satellite Navigation, Direction Finding, Navigational Instruments, Logs
and Echo Sounders, Gyros and Magnetic Compasses, Inertial Navigation Systems, Magnetic
Compasses and De-Gausing, Automated Navigation and Radar Plotting Systems, Electronic
Chart equipment). Volume 3 is not available to the general public.

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Volume 4 is a protectively marked loose-leaf A4 book covering conduct and operational methods
at sea (Navigational Command and Conduct of RN ships, passage planning and routeing, and
operational navigation techniques that are of particular concern to the RN). Assistance
(Lifesaving) and Salvage are also included. Volume 4 is not available to the general public.

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Volume 5 is a loose-leaf A4 book containing exercises in navigational calculations (Tides and

Tidal Streams, Astro-Navigation, Great Circles and Rhumb Lines, Time Zones, and Relative
Velocity). It also provides extracts from most of the tables necessary to undertake the exercise
calculations. Volume 5 (Supplement) provides worked answers. Volumes 5 and 5 (Supplement)
are not available to the general public, although they may be released for sale in the future.

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Volume 6 is supplied in three, loose-leaf A4 binders: the non-protectively marked Binder 1

covering generic principles of shiphandling (Propulsion of RN ships, Handling Ships in Narrow
Waters Manoeuvring and Handling Ships in Company, Replenishment, Towing, Shiphandling
in Heavy Weather and Ice), and the protectively marked Binders 2 and 3 covering all aspects of
class-specific Shiphandling Characteristics of RN Ships / Submarines and RFAs). Turning data
quoted in Volume 6 is approximate and intended only for overview purposes. Volume 6 is
not available to the general public, although Binder 1 may be released for sale in the future.

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Volume 7 is a protectively marked loose-leaf A4 book covering the management of a chart outfit
(Upkeep, Navigational Warnings, Chronometers and Watches, Portable and Fixed Navigational
Equipment, and Guidance for the Commanding Officer / Navigating Officer). Volume 7 is not
available to the general public.

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Note.

Terms appearing in italics in newer books are defined in the Glossary of each book.

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PROPOSALS FOR CHANGES
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Forward copies of the above form through the usual Administrative Channels to the addressees
listed on Page ii.

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BR 45(2)
RECORD OF CHANGES
Note: The incorporation of Temporary Amendments such as Signals, AILs etc should be recorded
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BR 45(2)
CONTENTS
Chapter 1

The Celestial Sphere - Introduction

Section 1
Basic Definitions and Structure
Section 2
The Magnitudes of Stars and Planets
Section 3
Methods of Identifying Heavenly Bodies

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Chapter 2

Time Systems

Chapter 3

Practical Planning, Taking, Reduction and Plotting of Sights

Section 1
Introduction
Section 2
Planning Astro Sights
Section 3
Description, Preparation and Use of Sextant
Section 4
Reducing Sights (Processing of Sextant Readings)
Section 5
Plotting Sights
Annex 3A
NAVPAC 2 - Extracts from HM Nautical Almanac Office
NAVPAC 2 User Instructions

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

The Celestial Sphere - Definitions, Hour Angles and the Theory of Time
Section 1
Ready Reference List
Section 2
Hour Angles
Section 3
Solar Time
Section 4
Sidereal Time
Section 5
Lunar and Planetary Time
Identification of Heavenly Bodies, Astronomical Position Lines, Observed
Position and Sight Reduction Procedures
Section 1
Identification of Heavenly Bodies
Section 2
Astronomical Position Lines
Section 3
Calculating Altitude, Azimuth and True Bearing
Section 4
Sight Reduction Procedures
Section 5
Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
Section 6
High Latitude (Polar) Sights
Annex 5A
Description and Setting of the Star Globe

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Meridian Passage and Polaris

Section 1
Meridian Passage
Section 2
Polaris

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The Rising and Setting of Heavenly Bodies

Section 1
Requirements and Generic Definitions
Section 2
Sunrise, Sunset and Twilights
Section 3
Moonrise and Moonset
Section 4
High Latitudes

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Chapter 8

Refraction, Dip and Mirage

Chapter 9

Errors in Astronomical Position Lines

Appendix 1

The Sky at Night

Appendix 2

Extracts from the Nautical Almanac (1997)

Index Index
LEP

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List of Effective Pages

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BR 45(2)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND COPYRIGHT
UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO)
Thanks are due to the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) for their permission and
assistance in reproducing data contained in this volume. This data has been derived from
material published by the UKHO and further reproduction is not permitted without the prior
written permission of CINCFLEET/PFSA and UKHO. Applications for permission should be
addressed to CINCFLEET/PFSA at the address shown on Page ii and also to the Copyright
Manager at UK Hydrographic Office, Admiralty Way, Taunton, Somerset TA1 2DN.
HM Nautical Almanac Office (HMNAO) and the Council for the Central Laboratory of the
Research Councils (CCLRC)
Thanks are due to the HM Nautical Almanac Office (HMNAO) for their assistance in
reproducing data contained in this volume. The material from the Nautical Almanac and from
NAVPAC and Compact data 2001-2005 (published by the Stationary Office) is reproduced by
kind permission of the Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils (CCLRC).
| NAVPAC and Compact data 2001-2005 is also published by Willmann-Bell in the US under
| the name AstroNavPC and Compact data 2001-2005. Further reproduction of this data is not
permitted without the prior written permission of CINCFLEET/PFSA and CCLRC. Applications
for permission should be addressed to CINCFLEET/PFSA at the address shown on Page ii and
also to HMNAO, Space Science and Technology Department, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory,
Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0QX, United Kingdom.
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General
Other parts of BR 45 Volume 2 not covered by the copyright notes above are MOD
copyright and further reproduction is not permitted without the prior written permission of
CINCFLEET/PFSA at the address shown on Page ii.

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BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 1
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - BASIC DEFINITIONS AND STRUCTURE
The Celestial Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angular Distance Between Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Apparent Path of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The First Point of Aries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Declination and Parallels of Declination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hour Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sunrise and Sunset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Twilight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geographic Position of a Heavenly Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Great Circles and Small Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greenwich Meridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rhumb Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Observers Zenith (Z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Celestial Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visible Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Azimuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Altitude (of a Heavenly Body) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0101
0102
0103
0104
0105
0106
0107
0108
0109
0110
0111
0112
0113
0114
0115
0116
0117
0118
0119

SECTION 2 - THE MAGNITUDES OF STARS AND PLANETS

The Solar and Stellar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stellar Magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0120
0121

SECTION 3 - METHODS OF IDENTIFYING HEAVENLY BODIES

The Identification of Heavenly Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of Computers for Identification of Heavenly Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description of the Star Finder and Identifier (NP 323) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0130
0131
0132
0133

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BR 45(2)

INTENTIONALLY BLANK

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BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 1
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1 - BASIC DEFINITIONS AND STRUCTURE
0101. The Celestial Sphere
To an observer on Earth, the sky has the appearance of an inverted bowl, so that the stars
and other heavenly bodies, irrespective of their actual distance from the Earth, appear to be
situated on the inside of a sphere of immense radius described about the Earth as centre. This is
called the Celestial Sphere (Fig 1-1). The Earths axis, if produced, would cut the Celestial
Sphere at the Celestial Poles (P, P). The Earths equator, if produced, would cut the Celestial
Sphere at the Celestial Equator (Q, Q).

Fig 1-1. Celestial Sphere, Celestial Poles and Celestial Equator

0102. Angular Distance Between the Stars
The appearance of the stars on the Celestial Sphere conveys no idea of their actual
distances from the Earth. Two stars chosen at random may actually be at vastly different
distances from earth, but as both are deemed to reside on the surface of the Celestial Sphere, the
only practical method of measuring their relative positions is to measure the angle between them.
This angle is known as an Angular Distance. As the stars are immensely far away, the Angular
Distances of stars remain virtually constant within the ordinary limits of time. The position of
a heavenly body on the celestial sphere can be defined by two Angular Distances - Declination
and Hour Angle which are explained more fully at Paras 0105-0106 and Chapter 4.
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BR 45(2)
0103. Apparent Path of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere

a. The Ecliptic. The Earth describes an elliptical orbit around the Sun which takes
one year to complete. The apparent path of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere is known as
The Ecliptic. It is a Great Circle, and makes an angle of 23 27' (23) with the
Celestial Equator because the Earths axis of rotation is tilted by that amount from the
perpendicular to the plane of the Earths orbit (Fig 1-2). The angle between the plane of
the Celestial Equator and that of the Ecliptic is known as the Obliquity of the Ecliptic.

Fig 1-2. Celestial Equator, Plane of the Ecliptic and First Point of Aries
b. Seasons, Tropics, Solstices and Equinoxes. The existence of the Earths 23 27'
tilt is of fundamental importance to life on earth, as it defines the limits of the tropics,
causes the seasons to change and the length of daylight to vary during the year (outside
the equatorial region where very little change takes place). The extent of the Suns
apparent movement can be established by plotting the Latitude of positions on Earth
where the noon sun is directly overhead at some time during the year (Fig 1-3) . The Sun
is directly over the Equator at the Spring Equinox (21 March), moves north to Latitude
23 at the Summer Solstice (21 June), back to the Equator at the Autumn Equinox (23
September), moves south to Latitude 23 at the Winter Solstice (22 December) and
back to the Equator at the Spring Equinox (21 March). The seasonal changes caused by
this apparent movement of the sun through the year have a profound effect on ocean
currents, weather systems and overall climate. Many biological ecosystems in the world
depend on these seasonal changes for their existence (Fig 1-4).
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BR 45(2)

Fig 1-3. Latitude of Positions on Earth where the Noon Sun is Directly Overhead

Fig 1-4. Change of Seasons during the Year, Associated with Suns Movement
0104. The First Point of Aries
To measure Angular Distances, a fixed point in space is needed as a datum; a star located
where the Ecliptic cuts the Celestial Equator would be ideal for this. When the early Greek
astronomers started to make observations, the Ecliptic cut the Celestial Equator at the Spring
Equinox (21st March) in the vicinity of the constellation of Aries; one star on the edge of the
constellation, known as the First Point of Aries (K ), was perfectly aligned and so was selected
as this datum (Fig 1-2). Over time, due to slow Precession of the earths tilt (see Para 0544f for
a full explanation of Precession), there has been a backward movement of the point of
intersection of the Ecliptic and the Celestial Equator. As a result, Aries has apparently moved
away from this position. However, the name First Point of Aries(normally abbreviated to
Aries or K ) for the spring intersection of the Ecliptic and the Celestial Equator has been
retained as the datum for calculations and tables ever since, even though no star now occupies
this position. The position of the autumn intersection of the Celestial Equator and the Ecliptic
(23rd September) is known as the First Point of Libra.
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BR 45(2)
0105. Declination and Parallels of Declination
Declination corresponds to terrestrial Latitude projected onto the Celestial Sphere and
is the Angular Distance of the heavenly body north or south of the Celestial Equator (Fig 1-6).
A Parallel of Declination corresponds to a terrestrial parallel of Latitude and is a Small Circle
on the Celestial Sphere, with its plane parallel to the plane of the Celestial Equator.
Note 1-1. Although the concept of projecting terrestrial Latitude onto the Celestial Sphere is
a very good description, Declination should never be described as Celestial Latitude because
this term is used by astronomers to measure an Angular Distance, referenced to the Ecliptic
rather than the Celestial Equator. Celestial Latitude has no use in the navigational problem.
0106. Hour Angles
Hour Angles loosely correspond to terrestrial Longitude projected onto the Celestial
Sphere, but the analogy is complicated by the easterly rotation of the Earth which continually
changes some Angular Distances with time. It was because of this fundamental link to time that
the term Hour Angles was used to describe this measurement. There are several variants of Hour
Angle which, depending upon which two bodies are to be referenced for measurement, can be
added or subtracted to calculate the required Angular Distance. Further details of these are at
Chapter 4 but do not concern students studying for the Royal Navy NWC (Navigational
Watchkeeping Certificate) except familiarity with the titles and where to look up the data if using
the Star Finder and Identifier (Paras 01312 and 0324) or The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram
(Para 0133). A brief summary of these terms is as follows:
a. Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA). The Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) is almost static for
stars and is tabulated once per 3 days for stars and planets in The Nautical Almanac.
b. Right Ascension (RA). Right Ascension (RA) is the same as SHA except measured
eastwards (rather than westwards as in SHA). Thus RA = 360 - SHA.
c. Greenwich Hour Angles (GHA). The Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) of the First
Point Aries (K ) and the GHAs of the Sun, Moon and Planets are tabulated hour-by-hour
(and can be established to the second using Increment Tables) in The Nautical Almanac.
d. Local Hour Angle (LHA). The Local Hour Angle (LHA) is GHA of the body +/the observerss Longitude.
Note 1-2. Although the concept of projecting terrestrial Longitude onto the Celestial Sphere
is a useful analogy, Hour Angles should never be described as Celestial Longitude because
this term is used by astronomers to measure an Angular Distance, referenced to the Ecliptic
rather than the Celestial Equator. Celestial Longitude has no use in the navigational problem.
0107. Sunrise and Sunset
a. Visible Sunrise or Sunset. Visible Sunrise or Sunset occurs when the Suns Upper
Limb (UL) appears on the Visible Horizon (ie. the Apparent Altitude of the Sun (UL) is
0 00'). The times of Visible Sunrise and Sunset for Latitudes 60S to 72N are
displayed on right hand pages of The Nautical Almanac. These times, which are given
to the nearest minute, are the UT of the Sunrise / Sunset on the Greenwich Meridian for
the middle day of the three days covered by each double page.
b. True (Theoretical) Sunrise or Sunset. True (Theoretical) Sunrise or Sunset occurs
when the Suns centre is on the Celestial Horizon, but due to Atmospheric Refraction the
Suns Lower Limb appears to be one Semi-Diameter above the Visible Horizon.
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BR 45(2)
0108. Twilight
Twilight is the period of the day when the Sun is between 0 and 18 below the Celestial
Horizon. During Twilight, although the Sun is below the Celestial Horizon, the observer is still
receiving light reflected and scattered by the upper atmosphere.
a. Civil Twilight (CT). The times of Morning Civil Twilight (MCT) and Evening
Civil Twilight (ECT) are tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment when the
Suns centre is 6 below the Celestial Horizon. The times are shown in chronological
order and the terms Morning and Evening are omitted. This is roughly the time at
which the horizon becomes clear (morning) or becomes indistinct (evening).
b. Nautical Twilight (NT). The times of Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT) and
Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT) are tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment
when the Suns centre is 12 below the Celestial Horizon. The terms Morning and
Evening are omitted as the times are in chronological order. Morning and evening stars
are usually taken between the times of Civil Twilight (CT) and Nautical Twilight (NT).
c. Astronomical Twilight. The time of Astronomical Twilight (AT) is the moment
when the Suns centre is 18 below the Celestial Horizon. Whilst the Suns centre is 18
or greater below the Celestial Horizon, Total Darkness (with respect to the Sun) is
deemed to exist and observations by astronomers may usefully take place. The times of
Astronomical Twilight (AT) have no significance in solving the astro- navigation problem
and so AT times are not tabulated in The Nautical Almanac.
0109. Geographic Position of a Heavenly Body
The Geographic Position of a heavenly body is the position where a line drawn from the
body to the centre of the Earth, cuts the Earths surface. To an observer at the Geographic
Position, the heavenly body would appear to be directly overhead, ie. at the Observers Zenith(Z).
0110. Great Circles and Small Circles
Great Circles and Small Circles are defined and discussed in BR 45 Volume 1. For the
convenience of readers their definitions are repeated here:

Great Circle. The intersection of a spherical surface and a plane which passes
through the centre of the sphere is known as a Great Circle. It is the shortest
distance between two points on the surface of a sphere.

Small Circle. The intersection of a spherical surface and a plane which does NOT
pass through the centre of the sphere is known as a Small Circle.

0111. Meridian
A Meridian is a semi - Great Circle on the Earths surface which also passes through
both Poles.
0112. Greenwich Meridian
The Greenwich Meridian is also known as the Prime Meridian, and passes through
Greenwich. It is the starting point (0) for the measurement of Longitude, East and West from
this Meridian.

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BR 45(2)
0113. Rhumb Lines
Rhumb Lines are defined and discussed in BR 45 (1). For the convenience of readers the
Rhumb Lines definition is repeated here:
Rhumb Line. A line on the Earths surface which cuts Meridians (of Longitude) and
Parallels (of Latitude) at the same angle is known as a Rhumb Line. It appears on
Mercator Charts as a straight line and equates to the (True) compass course steered. It
is NOT always the shortest distance between two points on the surface of a sphere. (See
BR 45(1) for information on Meridians, Parallels and Mercator Charts.)
0114. Observers Zenith (Z)
The Observers Zenith (Z) is the point where a straight line from the Earths centre
passing through the observers terrestrial position cuts the Celestial Sphere, and may be described
(loosely) as the point on the Celestial Sphere directly above the observer. The Declination of this
point (Z) on the Celestial Sphere is equal to the observers Latitude.
0115. Celestial Horizon
The Celestial Horizon is a Great Circle on the Celestial Sphere, every point of which is
90 from the Observers Zenith (Z). It corresponds to the projection of the terrestrial horizon onto
the Celestial Sphere, but without the errors associated with atmospheric optical refraction at the
Visible Horizon.
0116. Visible Horizon
The Visible Horizon is position on the Earths surface where a straight line drawn from
an observer, at a given Height of Eye, meets the Earths surface as a tangent to that surface.
0117. Azimuth
Azimuth may be regarded (loosely) as the True Bearing when using tables in The Nautical
Almanac. More precise definitions may be found at Paras 0535 and 0536.
0118. Altitude (of a Heavenly Body)
Altitude is (loosely) described as the angle between a horizon and the heavenly body,
but normally has to be qualified as Sextant Altitude, Apparent Altitude, Observed (True) Altitude
or Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude depending which horizon is used and which corrections are
applied.

Sextant Altitude. Sextant Altitude of a heavenly body is the angle measured by a

sextant between the Visible Horizon and the body on a Vertical Circle towards the
Observers Zenith(Z) and must be corrected before use.

Apparent Altitude. Apparent Altitude of a heavenly body is Sextant Altitude

corrected for Index Error and Height of Eye (Dip).

Observed (True) Altitude. Observed (True) Altitude is Apparent Altitude corrected

for atmospheric refraction errors. See Para 0348d.

Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude. See Para 0531.

1119. Vertical Circles

All Great Circles passing through the Observers Zenith (Z) are necessarily perpendicular
to the Celestial Horizon and are known as Vertical Circles.
1-8
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BR 45(2)
SECTION 2 - THE MAGNITUDES OF STARS AND PLANETS
0120. Solar and Stellar Systems
The Earth rotates on its axis to the east, and thus the bodies in the Celestial Sphere
appear to rotate westward (ie. rise in the east and set in the west).
a. Planets. The planets reflect light from the Sun and only Venus, Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn are sufficiently bright for navigational use. There are at least 1,500 other small
satellites and asteroids orbiting the Sun but none of these are relevant for navigational
use. The navigational planets move across the backdrop of stars in the Celestial Sphere
within a band of about 5 from the Ecliptic. The speed and volatility with which they
move is irregular due to their widely changing ranges from the earth and care is needed
to identify them. Further details of the Navigational Planets are at Appendix 1.
b. Stars. The stars transmit their own light from an immense distance and because of
this distance remain in a fixed pattern in the sky. Of the 4,850 stars visible to the naked
eye, only Polaris and the 57 other stars tabulated in The Nautical Almanac are
sufficiently bright for navigational use. Further details of the Navigational Starsare at
Appendix 1.
0121. Stellar Magnitudes
Hipparchus (2nd century BC) and Ptolemy (2nd century AD), arbitrarily graded stars and
planets into six magnitudes according to their brightness. Heavenly bodies of the first magnitude
were among the brightest in the sky and sixth magnitude were those just visible to the naked eye.
The discovery by Sir John Herschel in 1830 that a first-magnitude star was about one hundred
times brighter than a sixth-magnitude star, and that the brightness each magnitude of star varied
to the next magnitude by a factor of about 2.5 (the fifth root of 100) caused the Ptolemaic grading
to be modified slightly. Stars are now classified by brightness according to the definition that:
A first-magnitude star is one from which the earth receives exactly one hundred times as
much light as it received from a sixth-magnitude star.
By this definition, the intervening magnitudes between 1 and 6 are found from a
logarithmic scale, so that, if a is the numerical index of the quantity of light received:
a6 : a 100 : 1
ie. a5 = 100
a = 2.51
With numerically small magnitudes indicating the brightest objects, any object 2.51 times
brighter than a first-magnitude star must have a magnitude of 0 and any object brighter than this
must have a negative magnitude. Sirius is of magnitude -1.46, Venus at its brightest can be -4.4,
the Suns magnitude (as seen from earth) is !26.7, and the Moon when full is !12.5.
With brightness varying by a factor of 2.51 between each magnitude, it is simple to
calculate the relative brightness of heavenly bodies from the magnitude information given in The
Nautical Almanac: simply multiply 2.51 by power of the difference between magnitudes.
Egs.

Vega (0.1), Aldebaran (1.1)

Canopus (-0.9), Aldebaran (1.1)
Sirius (-1.6), Regulus (1.3)

Vega:
2.51(1.1-0.1) = 2.51(1) = 2.51 times brighter
Canopus: 2.51(1.1-(-0.9)) = 2.51(2) = 6.3 times brighter
Sirius: 2.51(1.1-(-1-6)) = 2.51(2.9) = 14.4 times brighter

0122-0129. Spare
1-9
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BR 45(2)
SECTION 3 - METHODS OF IDENTIFYING HEAVENLY BODIES
0130.

The Identification of Heavenly Bodies

In the practice of astro-navigation, star sights are usually taken at Morning Twilight and
Evening Twilight when the Visible Horizon and only a few bright stars/planets are visible at the
same time. This means that the background of constellations are not visible to assist the
navigator in star/planet identification, although an early start for morning stars can overcome
this difficulty. However, in the main, other methods of identification must be used.
0131.

Use of Computers for Identification of Heavenly Bodies

a. History. A variety of computer programs for star and planet identification became
available from 1980, and they also carried out rhumb line / great circle passage planning
and astro-navigation calculations. Between 1980 and 1996 the Hewlett Packard HP41CV
Hand-held Calculator was used in the Royal Navy for this purpose but was replaced in
1996 by a PC program produced by The Nautical Almanac Office called Compact Data
for Navigation and Astronomy 1996-2000' (short title NAVPAC 1), for star/planet
identification, rhumb line / great circle passage planning and astro-navigation
calculations.
b. NAVPAC 1. This program was effective and accurate, but the user interface was
labour intensive and rather awkward to use. The program ran under MSDOS and could
be operated on the simplest of PCs (minimum IBM 286 or equivalent). The ephemeral
data in the program expires on 31 December 2000 and it may not be used after this date.
It is to be replaced for Royal Navy use by NAVPAC 2 in mid-2000.
c. NAVPAC 2. NAVPAC 2 replaces the earlier (NAVPAC 1) version for the post2000 epoch. The program is Windows-based and needs a PC operating on a minimum
of Windows 95 and may also be used under later Windows systems (98, NT etc).
NAVPAC 2 incorporates a much improved user interface and has an extended
functionality. It is also capable of making calculations for dates prior to the year 2001
and so may be used for the worked exercises contained in BR 45(5). Operating
instructions for NAVPAC 2 are contained at Annex A to Chapter 3.
d. Command Support System. The inclusion of NAVPAC 2 into the Command
Support System in major warships is under consideration.

0132.

Description of the Star Finder and Identifier (NP 323)

The Star Finder is carried by all warships and affords a simple and speedy means of
identifying stars and planets. It is also independent of power supplies and the availability of
NAVPAC / computer facilities. It consists of a double-sided 30cm x 30cm cardboard star-chart
(Fig 1-5a) and eight transparent templates for Latitudes 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 75 (Fig
1-5b) respectively. One side of the star-chart is for use in the northern hemisphere and the other
for use in the southern hemisphere, although both have an overlap to allow equatorial stars to be
identified. The 57 navigational stars are printed on the star-chart, and on the templates show rings
of Altitude and curves of Azimuth. The edge of the star-chart is marked in LHA Aries for
alignment with the Meridian of the grids. Full instructions for use are printed on the star-chart
and are designed to allow a user with no prior experience of the Star Finder to obtain immediate
results.
1-10
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BR 45(2)

Fig 1-5a.

Fig 1-5b.

Star Finder and Identifier - Star Chart (Underlay)

Star Finder and Identifier - Example Template (Overlay)

1-11
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BR 45(2)
0133.

The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram

The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram shows the local mean time of Meridian Passage
(see Para 0325 for explanation of Meridian Passage) of the Sun and the five planets Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn in graphical form, together with lines showing the Local Mean
Time (LMT) (see Para 0435a for explanation of LMT) of Meridian Passage of even-hour circles
of Right Ascension (for every 30 of SHA). The horizontal argument on the page is date, and the
vertical argument is LMT. A band on either side of the time of transit of the Sun is shaded to
indicate the bodies within this area on a particular date which are too close to the Sun for
observation. The lines joining the times of transit of the five planets are drawn in a distinctive
manner to avoid confusion. The diagram is mainly intended for planning purposes when a star
globe is not available and by entering with the date alone gives the following information:
a. Observable. The diagram shows whether a planet is observable on that day or whether
it is too close to the Sun (within the shaded area).
b. Meridian Passage. The diagram shows the local mean time of Meridian Passage
for each planet. The time of Meridian Passage of a star may be found by inspection if
its SHA is known. Users may also plot an SHA / date line corresponding to any particular
star if desired.
c. Morning and Evening Stars. The diagram shows that when Meridian Passage is
at about 24h the planet is observable from Evening Twilight (in the east ), through the
night until Morning Twilight (in the west). When Meridian Passage falls just below the
shaded area (ie before 11h) , it is visible low in the east during Morning Twilight. When
Meridian Passage falls just above the shaded area (ie after 13h), it is visible low in the
west during Evening Twilight. In broad terms, a body in the bottom half of the diagram
is a morning star, and one in the top half is an evening star.
d. Confusion with Other Planets. The diagram shows whether other planets are in the
immediate vicinity, when care must be taken to avoid confusion.

1-12
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BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 2
TIME SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
Uniform Time System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Legal Time and Summer Time/Daylight Saving Time (DST) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Legal Time - Regional Designators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of Standard Time and Zone Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conversion between UT and LMT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
International Date Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clock Zone Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zone Times of RVs and ETAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Universal Time (UT1 or abbreviated to UT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0201
0202
0203
0204
0205
0206
0207
0208
0209
0210
0211

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BR 45(2)

INTENTIONALLY BLANK

2-2
Original

BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 2
TIME SYSTEMS
0201. Uniform Time System
The world is divided into 24 Standard Time Zones. Standard Time Zone is the generic
term for all Time Zones within the Uniform Time System, both on land and sea. Each zone is 15
wide and each zone is numbered and lettered. The Greenwich Meridian is the centre of Zone 0
and also the centre of the system. Zones to the east of Zone 0 are numbered !1, !2 etc., and
those to the west +1, +2 etc. The 12th zone is divided by the International Date Line (IDL), the
part to the west being !12 and that to the east +12. The zone number indicates the number of
hours by which Standard (or Zone) Time must be decreased or increased to obtain Universal
Time UT (previously known as GMT - see Para 0210). Time Zones may also be indicated by
letters; UT is Z (zero) and the zones to the east are lettered A to M (omitting J) and those to the
west N to Y. The Standard (or Zone )Time appropriate to Longitude (see Fig 2-1 and Fig 2-2) is
usually referred to as Zone Time and is the Time Zone normally kept at sea.

|
|

0202. Standard Legal Time and Summer Time / Daylight Saving Time (DST)
On land, countries may modify the Standard (or Zone)Time to suit local needs. The Time
Zone kept on land is decided by national laws and is known as Standard Legal Time (or Legal
Time). The ALRS Vol 2 (NP 282) gives the Standard Legal Time in each territory (see Fig 2-1
and Fig 2-2). Within NP 282 a negative prefix denotes that Legal Time is ahead of UT and
positive behind it; details are given if there is a seasonal change from the Standard Legal Time
to Daylight Saving Time (DST) (Summer Time); an asterisk indicates that a territory is not expected
to observe DST in the current year; DST dates followed by the letter E are estimates. The change
from Standard Legal Time to DST is normally effected before 0300 (Local Time) and the change
from DST to Standard Legal Time after 2200 (Local Time). Certain Islamic countries that
observe DST may revert to their Standard Legal Time during the 29 days of Ramadan. The list
is corrected in Section VI of the Weekly Edition of Admiralty Notices to Mariners. Standard
Legal Time (sometimes abbreviated to Legal Time) is the Time Zone kept on land.
0203. Standard Legal Time - Regional Designators
In countries extending over large east-west distances (eg USA), different Standard Legal
Times may be kept in separate geographical areas within a country. Such variations may have
their own regional designators. Regional designators may also be used to describe collectively
a common Standard Time adopted by a number of countries. The table below lists the regional
designators for Standard Time with their abbreviations and relationship to Universal Time UT.
A negative prefix denotes Standard Times in advance of UT; a positive prefix those behind UT,
as shown at Table 2-1.
Table 2-1. Standard Time Designators
Designator

Abbreviation

Standard Time

Atlantic Standard Time (Canada)

Central European Time
Central Standard Time (Canada and USA)
Eastern Standard Time (Canada and USA)
Mountain Standard Time (Canada and USA)
Newfoundland Standard Time (Canada)
Pacific Standard Time (Canada and USA)
Yukon Standard Time (USA)

AST
!
CST
EST
MST
NST
PST
YST

+04
!01
+06
+05
+07
+03
+08
+09

2-3
Change 1

BR 45(2)

Fig 2-1. Standard Time Zone Chart of the World

2-4
Change 1

BR 45(2)

Fig 2-2. Standard Time Zone Chart of Europe and North Africa

2-5
Change 1

BR 45(2)
0204. Use of Standard Time and Zone Time
UT is used as the standard Time Zone for worldwide reference books such as The
Nautical Almanac, is the Time Zone in which Ships Chronometers and Deck Watches are kept
and is also used for signal message Date-Time-Groups (DTGs). UT was previously known as
GMT (see Para 0210). It should be noted that Tides Tables, which are specific to local areas,
normally provide information in Standard Legal Time (See Para 0202) but care must be exercised
when any Daylight Saving Time (DST) is in force.
0205. Conversion between UT and LMT
Applying the Uniform Time System (Para 0201), the following rules may be established:
If a Longitude is West, ADD the time equivalent of the Longitude when changing
from Local Mean Time to UT (and vice versa - SUBTRACT if changing from UT to
LMT).
If a Longitude is East, SUBTRACT the time equivalent of the Longitude when
changing from Local Mean Time to UT (and vice versa - ADD if changing from UT
to LMT).
Examples 2-1 and 2-2. What are the LMT equivalents if UT is 23 hours 31 minutes 25 seconds
on 14 September, (1) at 48 West, and (2) at 22 East. Note that this is changing from UT to
LMT.
Example 2-1: At 48 West
Date

Example 2-2: At 22 East

Hrs Mins Secs

14 Sep UT

23

31

25

03

12

00

14 Sep LMT (48W) 20

19

25

Long W. (-)

Date

Hrs Mins Secs

14 Sep UT
Long E. (+)
15 Sep LMT (22E)

23

31

25

01

30

00

01

01

25

Examples 2-1 and 2-2. Converting UT (previously known as GMT) to LMT

(Note that the date has also changed in Example 2-2 at 22 East)
0206. International Date Line
a. Reason for the International Date Line. Inspection of Fig 2-1 will show that a
traveller leaving UK and heading east to make a trip around the world would advance
clocks by 1 hour on passing each successive Meridian 15 further east from Greenwich,
in accordance with the Standard (or Zone)Time arrangements of the Uniform Time
System (Para 0201). If this process were to continue until the traveller circumnavigated
the world and reached UK again, 24 hours would have been added to the travellers clock
and calendar, and thus the traveller would believe it to be the same time as kept in UK
but 1 day later (this fact was the key to the plot in Jules Vernes famous book, Around
the World in 80 Days which was later made into a classic film). To avoid this difficulty,
it has been agreed worldwide that at approximately 180 East, on crossing the
International Date Line, travellers would advance or retard calenders by 1 day (retard
when eastbound, advance when westbound) and simultaneously apply the new Time
Zone (-12hr to +12hr or vice-versa) to the new date.

2-6
Change 1

BR 45(2)
b. Co-ordinates of the International Date Line. To avoid populated areas, the
International Date Line does not follow the Meridian of 180 East exactly. The precise
co-ordinates of the International Date Line may be found from appropriate British
Admiralty charts and are also tabulated in the Standard Times section of the Admiralty
List of Radio Signals Volume 2 (NP 282).
c. Calculation of Dates and Times when Crossing the International Date Line.
When calculating dates and times involving any crossing the International Date Line:
(1) Convert all dates and times (eg ETDs and ETAs) on both sides of the
International Date Line to UT. See Para 0205 for conversion procedure.
(2) Make all passage calculations in UT, including the total of days/hours
available, the Speed Over All (SOA) and associated fuel requirements.
(3) Re-convert the dates / times at (2) above to the new Standard (or Zone)Times
and dates required. The International Date Line will be incorporated. Note that the
sign of the Time Zone has to be applied in reverse when converting from UT.
Note 2-1: The correct application of this procedure is essential to avoid confusion and error,
particularly when planning passages across the Pacific Ocean when time and fuel constraints
will often leave no room for mistakes.
Example 2-3. On 15th September at 0800(!12), a ship in position 30N, 178E travelling on a
course of 090 speed 16, crosses the International Date Line. What is the local time and date,
in Standard (or Zone)Time, 8 hours later?
Zone Date & Time
150800M Sep
Zone (-12)
!12
UT
Passage Interval

142000Z Sep
+0800

UT
Zone (+12)

150400Z Sep
-12

Zone Date & Time

141600Y Sep
Example 2-3. Summary of the International Dateline Conversion Calculation
0207. Clock Zone Changes
At sea, within the Royal Navy, it is normal to advance clocks (when travelling east) at
2330 local time and retard clocks (when travelling west) at 1830 local time, assuming a normal
cruising watch system.
0208. Zone Times of RVs and ETAs
Care should be taken when arranging any Rendezvous (RV) with other ships to ensure
correct Time Zones are applied by all participants. It is often more sensible to specify UT to
preclude the possibility of mistakes being made. Similarly, when making a port visit to a foreign
country, the Legal Times section of Admiralty List of Radio Signals Volume 2 (NP 282) should
be checked for the correct Time Zone, making sure that any DST (Para 0202) is taken into
account and any amendments to NP 282 have been correctly inserted. To prevent any possible
embarrassment, the visit letter (where applicable) should also be checked to confirm that this
agrees with the information in NP 282.
2-7
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BR 45(2)
0209. Universal Time (UT1 or abbreviated to UT)
Universal Time (UT1 or UT) is the Mean Solar Time (MST) (see Chapter 4 for definition
of MST) of the Prime Meridian obtained from direct astronomical observation and corrected for
the effects of small movements of the Earth relative to the axis of rotation (polar variation). Since
these time scales correspond directly with the angular position of the Earth around its axis of
diurnal rotation, they are used for astronomical navigation and form the time argument in The
Nautical Almanac.
0210. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
GMT may be regarded as the general equivalent of UT / UT1.
0211.

Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC)

a. Requirement. Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) has been developed to meet the
needs of scientific users for a precise scale of time interval, and those of navigators,
surveyors and others who require a timescale directly related to the Earths rotation (like
UT1).
b. UTC - TAI - UT1 Linkage. UTC corresponds exactly in rate with International
Atomic Time (TAI). TAI is based on atomic clocks and is independent of the Earths rotation
and UTC differs from it by an integral number of seconds. The UTC scale is adjusted by the
insertion or deletion of seconds (positive or negative leap seconds) to ensure that the
departure of UTC from UT1 does not exceed +/- 0.9 seconds. Further details of these time
systems may be found in Radio Time Signals section of the Admiralty List of Radio Signals
Volume 2 (NP 282).
c. Time Signal Broadcasting Stations. Operational details of stations broadcasting time
signals are listed in Radio Time Signals section of the Admiralty List of Radio Signals
Volume 2 (NP 282) and they broadcast in the UTC time scale unless otherwise indicated.
Leap seconds are notified in advance as corrections in a Table in the Radio Time Signals
section of NP 282. Changes to this Table are notified in Section VI of the Weekly Edition
of Notices to Mariners.
d. GPS Time-Transfer. GPS provides a very accurate source for time-transfer and may
be the most convenient source of UT for time checks (see Paras 0326c.2 and 0340), and to
establish any error in the chronometer time and any Deck Watch Error (DWE).

2-8
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BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 3
PRACTICAL PLANNING, TAKING, REDUCTION AND PLOTTING OF SIGHTS
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - INTRODUCTION
Assumptions Made and Scope of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0301

SECTION 2 - PLANNING ASTRO-SIGHTS

Ships DR / EP Position for Sights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Calculating SS / SR, CT, NT (RiseSet Pages) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Nautical Almanac - Calculating SS / SR, CT, NT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Prediction of a Bodys Azimuth (Bearing) and Altitude (FindIt Page) .
The Star Finder - Prediction of a Heavenly Bodys Altitude and Azimuth (Bearing) .
The Nautical Almanac - Calculating Time of Suns Meridian Passage . . . . . . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Calculating Time of Suns Meridian Passage (FindIt Page) . . . . . . . . . .
Other Organisational and Material Preparations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0320
0321
0322
0323
0324
0325
0326
0327

SECTION 3 - DESCRIPTION, PREPARATION AND USE OF SEXTANT

Sextant - Principle of Operation and Origin of Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description of Sextant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurements On and Off the Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Positioning and Marking of the Index Bar and Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viewing and Collar / Telescope Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sextant Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sextant Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sextant Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Care of a Sextant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using a Sextant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0330
0331
0332
0333
0334
0335
0336
0337
0338
0339

SECTION 4 - REDUCING SIGHTS (PROCESSING OF SEXTANT READINGS)

NAVPAC 2: Assumptions and Overall Arrangement of Sights Sub-Programs. . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Sights-Fix Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Sights-Legs Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Sights-Astronomical Observations Page (using Stars / Planets) . . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Sights-Astronomical Observations Page (using Sun / Moon Planets) . .
NAVPAC 2: Sights-Results, Sights-Log and Sights-Position Line Plot Pages . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Summary of Printing, Saving and Loading Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Nautical Almanac - Meridian Passage, Polaris and Altitude Corrections . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2: Almanac Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0340
0341
0342
0343
0344
0345
0346
0347
0348
0349

SECTION 5 - PLOTTING SIGHTS

NAVPAC 2: Plotting of Astronomical Position Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manual Plotting Astronomical Position Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0350
0351

ANNEXES
Annex A:

Extract of HM Nautical Almanac Office NAVPAC 2 User Instructions

3-1
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK

3-2
Original

BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 3
PRACTICAL PLANNING, TAKING, REDUCING AND PLOTTING OF SIGHTS
SECTION 1 - INTRODUCTION
0301. Assumptions Made and Scope of the Chapter
a. Navigational Watchkeeping Certificate (NWC). This chapter provides a practical
guide for planning, taking, reducing and plotting of astro-sights for readers studying for
the (Navigational Watchkeeping Certificate (NWC).
b.

c.

Assumptions.

Chapter 3 assumes that NAVPAC 2 is available on-screen and can be

worked through, step by step, with the instructions in the chapter; it is
not intended that the NAVPAC 2 elements of Chapter 3 should be read
in isolation.

It is assumed that NAVPAC 2 will be used to carry out the majority of

calculations.

Scope.

Although NAVPAC 2 is the primary method for solving calculations, some

simple procedures using The Nautical Almanac are also covered.

Although solutions of Great Circle and Rhumb Line sailings are contained in
NAVPAC 2 they are not included in Chapter 3; explanation of these sailings
are at BR 45 Volume 1 Chapters 2 and 5 and the NAVPAC 2 users manual
at Annex 3A includes instructions for making these calculations.

Astro-theory is covered at Chapters 4-9.

0302-0319. Spare
SECTION 2 - PLANNING ASTRO-SIGHTS
0320. Ships DR / EP Position for Sights
a. Star Sights. The starting point for all astro-sights is to establish an approximate DR
/ EP position from the Bridge chart for the time of the planned observation. It is only
possible to take star sights between Civil and Nautical Twilight, when both the horizon
and the brightest stars/planets are visible. This will require the calculation of Morning
Nautical Twilight (MNT), Morning Civil Twilight (MCT) and Sunrise (SR) or Sunset
(SS), Evening Civil Twilight (ECT) and Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT) as appropriate.
b. Sun Sights. The Suns position in the sky is normally self evident and calculation
to predict this is not required except for its Meridian Passage (Mer Pass). NAVPAC 2
does not specifically calculate the time of Mer Pass but an iterative process in the FindIt
page will allow the user to predict precisely when the Sun will cross the Observers
Meridian (ie due North or South of the observer). The Nautical Almanac may also be
used to calculate for the time of Mer Pass. If the ships Longitude is changing rapidly
both of these calculations may involve extensive iterative processes.
3-3
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BR 45(2)
0321.

NAVPAC 2: Calculating SS / SR, CT, NT (RiseSet Pages)

a. NAVPAC Home Page. On starting NAVPAC 2, the user is taken to a top-level
menu page referred hereafter as the Home page. To calculate SS / SR, CT or NT times,
click on the
button on the Home page
(see Fig 3.1) or key in Alt T. This brings NAVPAC 2 to the RiseSet page.

Note 3-1 . NAVPAC 2 provides keyboard shortcuts throughout the program by the use of Alt
and the key for letter underlined on the menu buttons (Eg. See Fig 3-1 below).

Fig 3-1. NAVPAC 2 Home Page.

b. RiseSet Page. A RiseSet page, with a variety of dialogue boxes (Fig 3-2 opposite)
for data input allows the user to select a DR / EP position
,
or
,
,
or
),
,
,
, the observers
of eye above sea level, the
required, the
predictions required and the
heavenly
for which rising and setting data is needed. The
should
be set to 1 (unless the ship will remain in the same position for more than 1 day), and
only the Sun, Civil Twilight and Nautical Twilight should be selected in the
option. When all details are complete, click the
button and the RiseSet - Results
page will be displayed.
c. RiseSet-Results Page. The RiseSet-Results page (Fig 3-3) may be printed or saved
(see Paras 0323e/f and 0347). The line showing MNT for morning stars or ECT for
evening stars should be clicked and the
or
buttons
should be clicked in order to save the time calculated for use in later. Irrespective of any
set, if saved, the appropriate UT will be transferred to subsequent
NAVPAC 2 menus. Click the
button to return to the Home page.
3-4
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BR 45(2)

Fig 3-2. NAVPAC 2 RiseSet Page.

Fig 3-3. NAVPAC 2 RiseSet-Results Page.

3-5
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BR 45(2)
0322. The Nautical Almanac - Calculating SS / SR, CT, NT
a. Latitude Time. Using the ships DR / EP position from the Bridge chart, from The
Nautical Almanac obtain the Latitude Time for the nearest Latitude on the mid-date for
the page in question for ENT / ECT / SS or SR / MCT / MNT. Note that The Nautical
Almanac displays this information in chronological order and so does not display the
prefix Evening or Morning with CT or NT. Because the tables only provide times at
intervals of 5 of Latitude, interpolation may have to take place. This is undertaken
either by mental arithmetic or by using TABLE 1 - FOR LATITUDE at the end of the
yellow pages at the back of The Nautical Almanac.
b. Date Interpolation. Should the date not be the central date on the on The Nautical
Almanac double page, then interpolation by mental arithmetic will require to be
undertaken between the pages before or after the required date.
c. Longitude. The result of the data extraction and interpolation at Paras 0322a and
0322b above is the UT of ENT / ECT / SS or SR / MCT / MNT on the Greenwich Meridian.
If the ship's position is not on the Greenwich Meridian, ie either East or West of the 0o line
of Longitude, a correction must be subtracted or added. Converting Longitude to Time is
undertaken either by mental arithmetic or by using the CONVERSION OF ARC TO TIME
table at the start of the yellow pages in The Nautical Almanac. A useful way to remember
whether to add or subtract is given by the rhymes:
East is Least - MINUS
West is Best - PLUS
Note 3-2. The Nautical Almanac Table II (at end of yellow pages) is for additional Moon
corrections, and is NOT for SR/SS corrections.
d. UT (GMT). If the data from The Nautical Almanac has been extracted / interpolated
correctly and the observers Longitude applied, the result will be the UT of ENT / ECT /
SS or SR / MCT / MNT as appropriate at the observers DR / EP position. If desired the
Time Zone may be applied to obtain Local Mean Time (LMT) (see Para 0205).
e. Summary and Example 3-1. The calculation is summarised below with an example
of SS (interpolated from The Nautical Almanac) at 1800, at 25 East, in Time Zone B(-2).
Worked examples of rising and setting calculations, and answers are contained in BR 45
(5), pages 1B-2 to 1B-3.
Interpolated SS (or SR/CT/NT) from NA

1800

Longitude (W+ or E-) (25E)

-0140

Local Mean Time UT(GMT)

1620Z

Zone(-2) (+ = subtract) (- = add)

+0200

Zone Time

1820B

Example 3-1. Summary of SS/SR/CT/NT Calculations

f. Further Iterations. If the time of the DR / EP position from the Bridge Chart was not
close to the time subsequently calculated for MNT (for morning stars) or ECT (for evening
stars), a further iteration of the calculation may be required to refine the answer.
3-6
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BR 45(2)
0323.

NAVPAC 2: Prediction of a Bodys Azimuth (Bearing) and Altitude (FindIt Page)

a. Use. The prediction of a heavenly bodys bearing and altitude is usually associated
with taking morning or evening stars, as the position of the sun (and sometimes the moon)
in the sky during the day is self evident. Note that NAVPAC 2 uses the astronomical term
navigational body throughout, instead of the traditional maritime usage heavenly body.
b. Transfer of Times and Positions. Assuming that the times of ENT / ECT / SS or SR
/ MCT / MNT have been calculated in NAVPAC 2 and the appropriate time saved (MNT
for morning stars or ECT for evening stars), then NAVPAC 2 will transfer that information
to the next NAVPAC 2 menu (Para 0321). Otherwise it must be entered manually into the
new menu in the next part of the program.
c.

FindIt Page. From the Home page of NAVPAC 2, click

or key Alt F; this brings the screen to the FindIt page (Fig 3-4). Confirm that
,
(UT),
(
/
) and
(
/
) have transferred correctly
into the dialogue boxes, or if not, correct them. Then:

In the
dialogue box, select an
shown set to the default in Fig 3-4 below) and an
if they have not already been set.

In the

Check all data is correct and click on the

page will then be displayed.

dialogue box, select

of

to

of

(not as
,

to

.
button; the FindIt-Results

Fig 3-4. NAVPAC 2 FindIt Page.

3-7
Original

BR 45(2)
d. FindIt-Results. The heavenly bodies visible on the date and time within the
parameters selected will now be displayed on the FindIt-Results page as a 360 plot and
a list (Fig 3-5). By clicking on
or
and then double-clicking
any star on the plot, the appropriate item will be identified on the list (and vice-versa).
Bodies which have been identified (double-clicked) will have their details transferred
through to the Sights-Astronomical Observations page.

Fig 3-5. NAVPAC 2 FindIt-Results Page.

e.

Printing FindIt-Results. The FindIt-Results page may be printed by clicking the

button or on the direct-print
button (see Para 0347a for a general explanation
of printing). A printout of both the plot and list will be needed for taking stars. When
printed, unlike the screen (Fig 3-5) , the plot will include the name of each body (Fig 3-6a).
The list of heavenly body details is provided on a separate sheet (Fig 3-6b).

f.

Saving FindIt-Results. The FindIt-Results page may be saved to a file using the
button. Clicking on the
button brings up the standard NAVPAC Saving Loading page (see Fig 3-18). See Paras 0347b/c for general explanations of saving and
loading.
0324.

The Star Finder - Prediction of Heavenly Bodys Altitude and Azimuth (Bearing)
The Star Finder and Identifier is described in full at Para 0132. Full instructions for use
are printed on the star-chart (shown at Figs 1-5a and 1-5b) and are designed to allow a user with no
prior experience of the Star Finder to obtain immediate results. In summary, by placing one of the
8 transparent templates over the star-chart underlay the Altitude and Azimuth (Bearing) of the
heavenly bodies may be read of the template. The Star Finder and Identifier provides a quick,
cheap method of identifying heavenly bodies and is independent of power supplies. However, it is
less accurate than NAVPAC 2.

3-8
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BR 45(2)

Fig 3-6a. Printout of NAVPAC 2 FindIt-Results Page (Plot)

FindIt Altitudes and Azimuths
Lat N32 45.0
Long W015 30.0
Date 2001/02/09 Time 06:56:00 UT
Mag.
Name
+2.1
+2.5
+2.4
>+1.3
>+0.1
>+0.9
+2.1
+2.1
+2.3
+2.0
+2.6
+1.7
>+1.2

Altitude
o '
32 03.5
05 02.3
54 49.3
27 34.6
48 29.8
21 48.4
51 35.2
10 38.4
82 10.3
09 10.9
33 51.6
12 46.4
28 01.7
38 21.3
40 58.2
19 16.4
39 16.9
71 31.5
24 29.7
40 43.1
23 05.6
18 19.4
67 13.5
56 48.3
41 35.3
48 32.0

Azimuth
o '
000 08.8
019 49.5
045 23.8
051 52.4 <
066 36.7 <
093 24.5 <
113 15.3
130 58.2
138 59.6
141 31.3
145 00.0
151 40.5
160 17.3 <
171 24.8 *
186 37.7
193 48.4
214 36.0 <
226 10.2
226 39.4
260 51.6 <
270 59.4 *
272 42.0
322 48.2
324 42.2
326 02.3 <
357 50.0

Polaris
Schedar
Eltanin
Deneb
*
Vega
*
Altair
*
Rasalhague
Nunki
Alphecca
Kaus Australis
Sabik
Shaula
Antares
*
*Mars
+2.9
Zubenelgenubi
+2.3
Menkent
>+1.2 Spica
*
+0.2
Arcturus
+2.8
Gienah
>+2.2 Denebola
*
*Moon
+1.3
Regulus
+1.9
Alkaid
+1.7
Alioth
>+2.0 Dubhe
*
+2.2
Kochab
--------------------------------------------------------------------Printed on 2000 January 27 at 11:48:23 (Computer Clock Time).
Produced by HM Nautical Almanac Office's NavPac v 2.0-2.
Copyright Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils

Fig 3-6b. Printout of NAVPAC 2 FindIt-Results Page (List)

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BR 45(2)
0325. The Nautical Almanac - Calculating Time of Suns Meridian Passage
a. Background. By taking the altitude of the Sun at Meridian Passage(Mer Pass),
when it crosses the Observers Meridian (ie due North or South of the observer) and is near
to its highest point in the sky (see Para 0348b), a simple manual calculation will provide
the observers Latitude. However, it is necessary to know what time this phenomenon will
occur and recourse to The Nautical Almanac may be necessary.
b. Method. The Local Mean Time of the Suns Mer Pass on the Greenwich Meridian
is tabulated for each day at the bottom of the right hand daily pages of The Nautical
Almanac. No interpolation is necessary, but the observers Longitude and Time Zone in use
need to be applied in the same way as in SR / SS calculations (see Para 0322), in order to
calculate the Local Mean Time of Mer Pass on the Observers Meridian. If the time of the
DR / EP was not close to the time subsequently calculated for Mer Pass, a further iteration
of the calculation may be required to refine the answer. The calculation is summarised
below at Example 3-2 with Mer Pass at 1210, at 25 W, in Time Zone O(+2). Worked
examples with answers are at BR 45(5) pages 1B-7 and 1B-8.
Mer Pass Time from Nautical Almanac

1210

Longitude (W+ or E-) 25W

+0140

Local Mean Time UT(GMT)

1340Z

Zone(+2) (+ = subtract) (- = add)

-0200

Zone Time

1140(O)

Example 3-2. Summary of Mer Pass Calculations

0326.

NAVPAC 2: Calculating Time of Suns Meridian Passage (FindIt Page)

The exact time of the Suns Meridian Passage may be established to the nearest second by
using the
dialogue box in NAVPAC 2's FindIt page in an iterative manner to obtain a bearing
of 180 or 000 for the Sun on the FindIt - Results page (see Para 0323, Figs 3-4 and 3-5). Given
the errors that may be induced (see Para 0348b) by taking the Mer Pass sight at the moment of
highest altitude rather than at the time when the heavenly body is in the Observers Meridian (ie
bearing 180 or 000) using NAVPAC 2 is the preferred method of calculating the time of Mer
Pass. Its limiting accuracy is the Longitude component of the ships DR / EP, which in turn affects
the calculation. However, this potential error is common to both the tabular method from The
Nautical Almanac (see Para 0325) and NAVPAC2. Leaving aside this possible source of error, of
the two methods, NAVPAC 2 provides a more precise output for the remainder of the calculation.
0327.

Other Organisational and Material Preparations

a.

Sextant. Guidance on the care and use of the Sextant is at Paras 0338-0339.

b. NOs Assistant. Before taking morning or evening stars and also for most sunsights,
a carefully briefed assistant is needed, who can take the Deck Watch Time at the instant of
observation and write down the Sextant reading, as well as to hold the star plot / list and
assist with the spotting of stars. In extremis, an experienced NO can manage alone, but care
is needed to avoid Deck Watch Time errors.
3-10
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BR 45(2)
c.

Deck Watch Time, Deck Watch Error and Mistakes.

(1) GMT. The Deck Watch Time (DWT) should always be UT .
(2) Deck Watch Error (DWE). The difference between DWT and UT is the Deck
Watch Error (DWE) and must be known precisely. DWT must be manually corrected
for DWE before inputting the resultant time (UT ) into NAVPAC 2.
(3) Analogue Clocks. Deck Watches are 12-hour analogue clocks and care must be
taken not to confuse 0600 with 1800 and thus inject a 12 hour error into the NAVPAC
2 calculation. If this is done it should become evident by the excessive size of the
intercepts and/or a refusal by NAVPAC 2 to compute a sensible observed position.
(4) Errors in Recording Time. The second and minute hands of the Deck Watch
should be aligned precisely, so that there can be no possibility of an error when the
reading the minute hand. If times are being taken by an assistant, it is advisable for
the minute hand to be checked by the NO as well. Times should be read to the nearest
second. It is useful to be able to count in seconds so that, if there is no one else
available to take times, the NO can count the seconds until it is possible to read the
Deck Watch.

d. Mustering in Good Time. Both the NO and the NOs Assistant should be up on the
Bridge in plenty of time for stars, particularly in the morning. For morning stars there
should be time to adjust to night vision to help spot the best stars while they are really
bright against a dark sky. As a general rule, the astro team should be on the Bridge ready
to go for taking stars just after Sunset for evening stars and by Nautical Twilight for
morning stars. In the tropics the periods of twilight are much shorter than in temperate
Latitudes and an even earlier start is often prudent.
e. Rough Weather. Taking star shots on a stormy morning or evening from a lively
Bridge Roof, with spray flying and patches of cloud skudding past the stars giving only a
few seconds for a snatched observation can be a challenging experience. The NO and the
NOs Assistant need to be correctly dressed as wet clothes and cold hands make accurate
Sextant work much harder. Similarly, the Sextant mirrors and lenses need to be protected
from spray; if they become wet the Sextant rapidly becomes impossible to use accurately
and any clumsy attempts to wipe the mirrors clean will probably introduce unknown errors
into an otherwise zeroed Sextant. Having a suitably sized towel ready and keeping the
Sextant covered with it until immediately before raising it to the eye often solves the
problem in such conditions. If the Sextant does get wet, a damp chamois leather or a small,
clean, dry, soft, absorbent, lintless cloth should be immediately available to dry it quickly
and carefully before the next sight. Afterwards the Sextant will need careful cleaning and
oiling.
0328-0329. Spare

3-11
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BR 45(2)
SECTION 3 - DESCRIPTION, PREPARATION AND USE OF SEXTANT
0330.

Sextant - Principle of Operation and Origin of Name

If a ray of light is reflected twice in the same plane by two plane mirrors, the angle between
the first and the last ray is twice the angle between the mirrors. Thus the Sextant has a graduated
Arc of about 1/6th of a circles circumference (60- hence the name), but the arc is graduated to 120.
0331.

Description of Sextant
The micrometer Sextant in Royal Navy service is illustrated at Fig 3-7 and consists of
elements built around the Main Frame. The bottom edge of the Main Frame is the Arc, which has
its geometric centre at the top of the Main Frame. An adjustable Collar is fitted on the rear edge
of the Main Frame into which a removable Telescope is fitted. The Index Bar, which can rotate
about the geometric centre of the Arc, is hinged at the top of the Main Frame and has a Clamp at
the bottom; an Index Mark and Micrometer Drum are fitted at the Clamp end. The Horizon Glass,
which is half-silvered and half-clear, is mounted on the front of the Main Frame. Various Shades
are fitted to filter the Suns rays and a Reading Lamp for observing the scales is also fitted.

Fig 3-7. The Marine Sextant

3-12
Original

BR 45(2)
0332.

Measurements On and Off the Arc

The Arc is graduated in degrees of observed altitude, and so arranged that when the Index
Glass is parallel to the Horizon Glass, the Index Mark on the Index Bar should point to the zero on
the Arc scale. Angles read on the main part of the scale part are said to be On the Arc. The
graduations are continued over a small arc on the other side of the zero; this is called the Arc of
Excess and angles read on this part are said to be Off the Arc. When establishing the Index Error
of the Sextant (see Para 0336), if the Micrometer Drum reads Off the Arc, this error must be
added to subsequent Sextant readings and if On the Arc the error must be subtracted. The sign of
the correction can easily be remembered by the rhyme:
When its Off its on (+), and when its On its off (-)
0333.

Positioning and Marking of the Index Bar and Arc

The Index Bar can be set to any position on the Arc by means of the Clamp; this releases
or engages a worm thread in the teeth of a rack that extends along the entire periphery of the Arc.
When clamped, the Index Bars motion along the Arc can be controlled in either direction by
turning the Micrometer Drum which rotates the worm in the rack. With this arrangement it is the
worm and the rack that govern the accuracy of the setting. One rotation of the Micrometer Drum
moves the Index Bar one degree along the Arc. When reading the Sextant, the engravings on the
Arc are read against the Index Bar to the nearest whole degree, while the Micrometer Drum
provides the intermediate reading for minutes. In Fig 3-7 the Sextant may be seen to read 34 58.1'.
0334.

Viewing and Collar / Telescope Adjustments

a. Telescope and Mirror Alignment. The Telescope is fitted in the Collar so that its
axis makes the same angle with the plane of the Horizon Glass as the latter makes with the
line joining the centres of the Index Glass and Horizon Glass, thus ensuring the Sextant is
capable of accurate altitude readings of heavenly bodies.
b. Telescope Adjustment Facility. The Collar can be moved nearer or further from the
Main Frame by means of a Milled Head beneath the frame. In the normal (mid) position
of the Collar, the optical centre of the Telescope is aligned with the silvered/unsilvered
boundary of the Horizon Glass and equal parts of the silvered and unsilvered halves of the
horizon glass should be visible; the Telescope should normally be aligned to this position.
c. Telescope Adjustment Effect. The action of moving the Collar and Telescope nearer
or further from the Main Frame regulates the brilliance of the reflected image, which will
greatest when the Telescope is nearest to the Main Frame. As the Telescope is moved
away from the Main Frame, less of the silvered part of the Horizon Glass appears in the
field and the reflected image is less bright. This action can be useful when an
experienced user wishes to regulate the relative brilliance of the horizon and the
reflected heavenly body but is not recommended for inexperienced users who will
find the Sextant very difficult to handle when configured away from the mid-setting.
d. Shades and Reading Lamp. Sets of neutral density Shades are mounted in front of
both the Index Glass and Horizon Glass for use when observing the Sun. Three legs and
a handle are fitted on the other side of the Main Frame to that shown in Fig 3-7. The
handle contains a battery and switch for operating the swivel-mounted Reading Lamp.

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BR 45(2)
0335.

The Sextant Telescopes

The Sextant is provided with two telescopes: a Star Telescope and a Sun Telescope.
a. Star Telescope. The (short, fat) Star Telescope (shown in Fig 3-7) is an erecting
telescope which shows objects the right way up; it has a large object lens with a low
magnification. The Star Telescope is designed for taking star-sights and for observing
terrestrial objects (ie. vertical and horizontal Sextant angles) but should also be used
by inexperienced Sextant users for taking sun-sights.
b. Sun Telescope. The (long, thin) Sun Telescope is an inverting telescope which
shows objects upside down; it has a small object lens with a high magnification. It is
designed for taking sun-sights in good conditions only, as it is hard to hold steady. It has
two eyepieces, one of which has higher magnification than the other. Each eyepiece is
fitted with cross-wires at its focus (to define the line of collimation, which is the line
joining the focus to the centre of the object-glass). The eyepiece of higher power has two
cross-wires and the lower power eyepiece has four. These cross-wires are fragile and can
be destroyed by careless cleaning. The high-power eyepiece is designed for use when the
horizon is bright and the ship is very steady. Experienced Sextant users can achieve a
higher degree of accuracy with the Sun Telescope than with the Star Telescope. However,
inexperienced Sextant users will find great difficulty in using the Sun Telescope at
first and should wait until manual dexterity has been achieved with the Star Telescope
before graduating to the Sun Telescope.

0336.

Sextant Errors
Apart from a lack of manual dexterity in using the Sextant (which is overcome by practice),
the greatest single cause of inaccurate sights is the presence of unknown errors in the Sextant. There
are 3 adjustable errors which must be corrected or determined by the user and also 2 non-adjustable
errors which if significant will require the Sextant to be returned for workshop repair. The
adjustable errors must be adjusted or established for each sight in the following order:
a. Perpendicularity. This is the perpendicular (90) alignment of the Index Glass to
the plane of the Arc and thus to the Sextant. To check Perpendicularity, remove the
Telescope and set the Index Bar to about 60 (roughly the middle of the Arc). Hold the
instrument horizontal at arms length with the Index Glass nearest to oneself and look into
the Index Glass as nearly as possible along the plane of the Arc in order to see the reflected
image of the Arc at the edge of the Index Glass mirror, in line with the actual Arc observed
directly. The Index Bar may need to be moved slightly to allow this to be seen. If the
reflected image of the Arc is not absolutely aligned with the directly observed part of the
Arc, bring the two in line by adjusting the small screw in the centre of the Index Glass
frame. This adjustment is critical and must be carried out before any others.
b. Side Error. Side Error is a variation from the perpendicular alignment of the Horizon
Glass to the plane of the Arc and thus to the Sextant. Side Error adjustment cannot be
carried out successfully unless Perpendicularity of the Index Glass (see Para 0336a above)
has already been correctly set. Once the presence of Side Error has been established (see
sub-paras below), it can be removed by turning one of the two adjusting screws on the
Horizon Glass. Side Error may be established as shown below and the screw used to
correct it may be remembered by the linkage of the word side:
Side Error may be removed by adjusting the screw on the side of the Horizon Glass.
3-14
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BR 45(2)
(1) To check for Side Error, fit a Telescope (the Sun Telescope provides the most
accurate results but the Star Telescope may be preferred by inexperienced Sextant
users due to the difficulty of holding the Sun Telescope sufficiently steady).
(2) With the chosen Telescope fitted, hold the Sextant in the vertical plane ( ie as
normal) and look at a well-defined distant object such as a medium-bright star and
move the Index Bar across the zero of the Arc.
(3) As the Index Bar passes the zero of the Arc (+/- any Index Error), the reflected
image should be exactly superimposed over the direct image of the star. (Very bright
objects such as Venus or Saturn should be avoided, as it will be found their very size
and extreme brightness make them awkward to use for this purpose).
(4) If two images sit level, but to the left and right of each other, Side Error is
present and adjustment can be made (as above) until the images are superimposed.
c. Index error. Index Error is a variation from the parallel alignment of the plane of the
Horizon Glass to the plane of the Index Glass when the Index Bar is set to the zero position
on the Arc. If Index Error is zero, when the Sextant is pointed at a well-defined distant
object (such as a medium-bright star) it should show exactly 0 00.0' on the Arc scale when
the direct and reflected images of a distant heavenly body are coincident. This seldom
occurs in practice because the two glasses are rarely adjusted so well that they are exactly
parallel at this point. When this difference occurs, the zero on the scale is therefore not the
true zero of the instrument and a small correction has to be made (see Para 0332). Index
Error can be determined by 4 methods, and once its presence has been established (see
sub-paras below), it can be removed by turning one of the two adjusting screws on the
Horizon Glass. If the Index Error is less than 3.0' of arc it may be left and allowed for
mathematically (see Para 0332). If the Index Error is larger than 3.0' of arc it should be
removed or reduced by turning the adjustment screw at the bottom of the Horizon Glass.
If the method of recalling the correct adjustment screw for Side Error is remembered (see
Para 0336b), it is simple to ensure the other screw is used for Index Error.
(1) By Observing the Diameter of the Sun #On& and #Off& the Arc. To check for
Index Error set the Sextant to about 0 30', fit shades and adjust the Micrometer Drum
to make the edges of the two images of the Sun touch (Fig 3-8a). Note the On the
Arc reading. Reverse the images (Fig 3-8b) and note the Off the Arc reading. To
obtain the Index Error halve the difference in readings and note the resultant sign
from the larger reading. If Index Error exists either correct it (see Para 0336c above)
or make a note its amount and whether it is On or Off the Arc (see Para 0332).

Fig 3-8a. Index Error On the Arc

Fig 3-8b. Index Error Off the Arc

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BR 45(2)
(2) Difficulties in Observing the Diameter of the Sun #On& and #Off& the Arc. To
check Index Error by the Sun #On& and #Off& the Arc method (Para 0336c(1) above)
is a particularly awkward procedure. For accurate results the adjacent images have to
be sighted exactly under each other (ie At the maximum tangential reading). The
slightest error in this vertical alignment will induce an additional accidental error as
shown by Fig 3-8c and Fig 3-8d.

Fig 3-8c. Correct Alignment of Images

Fig 3-8d. Incorrect Alignment of Images

Note 3-3. The Suns semi-diameter given for the day in The Nautical Almanac will provide a check
on accuracy - the Sextant readings #On& and #Off& the Arc added together should equal four times
the semi-diameter of the Sun.
WARNING
NEVER OBSERVE THE SUN WITHOUT FIRST
FITTING SEXTANT / TELESCOPE SHADES.

(3) By Observing a Star. The best method of checking for Index Error is to set the
Index Bar a few minutes of arc to one side of zero, then bring the two images of a star
together so that they are coincident. If any error exists either correct it (see Para 0336c
above) or make a note of its amount and whether it is On or Off the Arc (see Para
0332). The choice of telescope is similar to Side Error procedure (see Para 0336b(1)).
(4) By observing the horizon (or other distant terrestrial object). This is a variation
on the star method but is the least reliable method of checking for Index Error. The
reflected horizon (or distant object) is brought in line with the directly observed
horizon (or distant object). The accuracy of this method depends on having a clearly
defined, sharp horizon or a sharply defined distant object; it is much preferable to
observe a heavenly body if one is available. Having aligned horizons/objects as
carefully as possible, if any error exists either correct it (see Para 0336c above) and
or make a note its amount and whether it is On or Off the Arc (see Para 0332).
d. Collimation Error. Collimation Error is an variation from the parallel alignment
of the axis of the Telescope to the plane of the instrument. Collimation Error should
be checked periodically but cannot normally be corrected outside a specialist
workshop and correction should not be attempted by users. It is a difficult error to
establish (see Para 0336e below) and should only be attempted in good conditions and
with the utmost care.

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BR 45(2)
e. Collimation Error Check. After having corrected the Sextant for Perpendicularity,
Side Error and Index Error, check the Sextant for Collimation Error as follows:
(1) To check for Collimation Error, ship the inverting telescope with the wires
parallel to the plane of the instrument. Then choose two heavenly bodies not less
than 90E apart, and bring them into accurate contact on one wire of the telescope.
(2) Then move the telescope until the bodies are on the other wire. If they are not
still in contact, there is Collimation Error and the Sextant should be returned.
f. Backlash in a Micrometer Sextant. The Micrometer Drum might wear over time
and develop an error due to backlash. The amount of backlash may be determined by
setting the Index Bar a few minutes of arc to one side of zero (as for Index Error checks
on a star), rotating the Micrometer Drum clockwise to bring a star into coincidence and
then repeating this, but turning anti-clockwise. The difference in the two readings will
reveal any backlash. It should be negligible in operational Sextants in ships but may exist
in those used regularly by students for training. If there is sufficient backlash to justify
making a correction, either make two observations by bringing the drum from opposite
directions and mean the result, or habitually turn the Micrometer Drum from one
direction and apply any backlash established as a correction to the Sextant Altitude.
g. Micrometer Drum Friction Clutch. In a micrometer Sextant, if the Index Error
adjustment screw on the Horizon Glass (see Para 0336c) has reached the extent of its
travel, the index setting may also be adjusted by releasing the friction clutch of the
Micrometer Drum. The friction clutch should then be reset lightly in conjunction with
the Index Error adjustment screw, and by trial and error, the index setting reduced and
set close to zero. The clutch should then be tightened again carefully and firmly. The need
to carry out this procedure is very rare and it must be done with particular care.
0337.

Sextant Calibration
Marine Sextants are calibrated when first supplied and on completion of repair or
refurbishment, either by a MoD Agency or a contractor. A calibration certificate (or certificates),
located in the Sextant box list any small residual errors due to prismatic errors in the mirrors and
shade glasses, and aberrations in the lenses of the telescopes. These corrections do not normally
exceed a maximum if 0.8' of arc on any part of the Arc, and may be applied to Sextant readings
for absolute accuracy. However, in most Royal Navy Sextants these errors are so small as to be
almost negligible. Once calibrated, these characteristics should not change if the Sextant is
stored. When in regular use for astronomical observations, the Sextants general performance
(Perpendicularity, Side Error, Index Error) can be checked and corrected by the navigator. Sextants
should therefore only be returned for re-calibration or repair if:
a. They have been badly knocked, dropped, otherwise physically damaged or have a
significant Collimation Error.
b.

The mirrors lose their reflective coating.

c. There is a strong reason to suspect their accuracy (eg Worm and racks errors in the
Micrometer Drum which change with wear, and other mechanical defects).

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BR 45(2)
d.

Parts of the equipment are missing.

e.

The calibration certificate is in excess of ten years old.

0338.

Care of a Sextant
Handle a Sextant with care as any slight blow is liable to upset the adjustments. Always
lift a Sextant by the centre of the Frame, and, once lifted, hold it by the handle and never by the
Arc or Index Bar. Micrometer Sextants need care to avoid damage to the worm and rack; press
the Clamp in fully to disengage the worm and never grind the worm on the rack. Keep the rack
free of dirt and corrosion by applying a little light oil from time to time, brushing it off gently
afterwards to ensure that it is evenly and thinly distributed. It is recommended that a safety neck
lanyard should be secured to the central handle of the instrument; this will enable altitude
information to be written down without placing it on the deck. Bear in mind the following points
when using a Sextant:
a. Telescope. When screwing a Telescope into the Collar, take care not to burr the
threads.
b. Lanyard. Always use a safety lanyard around ones neck in case the Sextant slips
from ones grasp.
c. Care. Never leave the Sextant lying unattended out of its box. It is a valuable and
fragile instrument.
d. Exposure to Sun. Never leave the Sextant exposed to the Sun unnecessarily, as the
expansion caused by the Suns rays will alter the Sextants errors.
e. Preservation. If the Sextant is to be stowed away for a long period, put a thin coat
of vaseline on the Arc to preserve it.
f. Stowage. When putting a Sextant away, see that the Shades are closed and the Index
Bar set in a position that allows the instrument to be put in the case. Secure the Sextant
with the rotating clip in the box and close the lid gently. Keep the box in a safe place.
If possible do not allow a Sextant to travel in the care of anyone except its custodian.
0339.

Using a Sextant
a. Errors. Always test the Sextant for Perpendicularity, Side Error and Index Error
before taking sights (see Para 0336). The first two errors should always be removed.
If the Index Error is under 3N, it may be left in and allowed for arithmetically. When
possible, take the Index Error both after sights as well as before them.
b. Glasses. After adjusting the Index Glass or Horizon Glass, see that they are firm in
their mountings and that no adjusting screws are loose. It is a good plan to flick the
Glasses with a finger nail and then note if this produces any change in the errors.
c. Telescope. For convenience, mark the position of the infinity of the telescope
eyepieces for the personal focus of the observer. Take observations in the centre of the
field of view so that light rays from the object are parallel to the plane of the instrument.

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BR 45(2)
d. Shades. Unless there are other considerations, it is preferable to use a Telescope
Shade rather than the Sextant Shades. Dazzle from the Sun can cause permanent
damage to the eyes and must be avoided.
WARNING
NEVER OBSERVE THE SUN WITHOUT FIRST
FITTING SEXTANT / TELESCOPE SHADES.
e.

Batteries. Batteries for the Reading Lamp should be fully charged and checked.

f. Time of Sights. In daylight it is sometimes possible to obtain observations of the

Sun, Moon and Venus. Sights should be taken between Civil and Nautical Twilight
when the horizon and heavenly bodies are visible. The horizon is visible earlier in the
east in the morning and later in the west at evening twilight. However, the best
observations are usually taken late at morning twilight and early at evening twilight
when the horizon is best.
g. Visibility. Take observations from the highest convenient position in clear weather
as this will give the best view from the ship. Take observations from the lowest
convenient position in fog, haze or mist as the visible horizon will be closest.
h. Records. Record the name of the heavenly body (if known), the Deck Watch Time
(DWT), Sextant Altitude and the approximate bearing of the body for each observation.
i. Temperature Errors. If a cold Sextant is taken from an air conditioned ship into
hot tropical temperatures all the previously zeroed errors will change rapidly as the
Sextant components start to expand. In hot climates, either take sun-sights very quickly
indeed, or allow the Sextant to warm up thoroughly and zero it when hot. During
starsights in hot damp climates, in addition to expansion errors, bringing a cold
Sextant out into a balmy but very damp tropical morning can cause condensation to form
instantly on the optical surfaces of the Sextant. In polar conditions condensation will also
form on a warm Sextant and then freeze, making the Sextant unusable. To prevent this,
place the Sextant in an airtight plastic bag while it cools (see Para 0560 for details).
j.
Choice of Heavenly Bodies. When choosing stars, note the weather and the
direction in which the horizon is likely to be clearest. After obtaining a list and plot of
bearings and elevations of stars and planets from NAVPAC 2 or the Star Identifier,
choose three or more stars and planets to give the best cuts. The best combination is
four stars at 90 apart in azimuth (grouped in pairs, in opposition) because any Abnormal
Refraction error will be eliminated by using opposite horizons. Stars should be selected
between 30 and 60 and where possible with approximately the same altitude. At least
four additional stars (and preferably all the available NAVPAC 2 / Nautical Almanac
selected stars) should also be selected as standbys, in case the sky is partly clouded and
the preferred stars are obscured.
k. Spray. When there is spray or after using the Sextant in damp or rough weather, use
a chamois leather or an absorbent, clean lint free cloth to wipe away all moisture,
particularly on the Arc and Glasses (see also Para 0326e).
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BR 45(2)
l. Swinging the Sextant. When taking the altitude of any heavenly body, the Sextant
should be swung in an arc, in a plane perpendicular to the line of sight to the heavenly
body. When carried out correctly, this will cause the heavenly body to appear to swing
in an arc in the field of view. The Micrometer Drum should be rotated at the same time
until the heavenly body touches the horizon at bottom-dead-centre of the arc (Star
Telescope) or top-dead-centre of the arc (Sun Telescope). Taking the altitude at the
instant of contact at either of these dead-centre positions will ensure that the correct
vertical angle has been taken. If this swinging procedure is not carried out correctly,
significant errors will result which may negate the entire sight.
m. Sextant - Normal Method. Set the elevation of the chosen star on the Sextant (for
Polaris see Para 0623). Look through the Star Telescope on the approximate bearing and
sweep the horizon at this point. The star will frequently be found before it is visible to
the naked eye while the horizon is still good (ie. take the brightest star early at Evening
Stars). This is the best way of finding dim stars. Familiarity with this method is
invaluable if there is broken cloud when a star may be visible for only a few seconds.
n. Sextant - Inverting Method. In broken cloud conditions it can also be helpful to
invert the Sextant and point the clear part of the Horizon Glass at the star, and bring the
horizon to the star instead of the normal method (see Para 0339.m above). Once an
approximate angle has been set on the Sextant with the star in the field of view, the
Sextant can be turned the right way up and normal sighting procedures resumed.
o. Rising and Falling onto the Horizon. An alternative method of sighting a heavenly
body is to bring it down to the horizon and then note whether it is rising or setting - if
the body is west of the meridian it will be setting, if east of the Meridian it will be rising.
If it is setting, move the Micrometer Drum until the object is slightly above the horizon:
then, leaving the Sextant set, swing it gently from sided to side (see Para 0339.l above)
until the star or limb just touches the horizon. If it is rising, move the Micrometer Drum
until the object is slightly below the horizon, and carry out the same procedure.
p. Sets of Observations. When possible, take observations of a heavenly body in sets
of three or five at equal time or altitude intervals, which should provide evenly changing
results. This will provide a confidence check on the accuracy of the sights, particularly
if the horizon is poor. An uneven pattern of results will indicate whether one or more of
the sights are inaccurate (rogue) sights.
q. Unknown Body. Having taken a set of observations of a star or planet, the identity
is uncertain, take a bearing of it.
r. Rolling. When the ship is rolling heavily, errors due to rapidly changing Dip (see
Chapter 8) may be reduced and more accurate observations obtained by observing from
a position close to the centre line of the ship.
s. Sights by Moonlight. On a clear night within about two days of Full Moon, star
sights can be taken by experienced Sextant users to a reasonable degree of accuracy with
a horizon illuminated by moonlight. This should only be attempted when the Moon is
high. The horizon on the bearing of the moon appears to dip and is therefore suspect.
The Moon itself and stars near it should not be used.
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BR 45(2)
SECTION 4 - REDUCING SIGHTS (PROCESSING OF SEXTANT READINGS)
0340.

NAVPAC 2: Assumptions and Overall Arrangement of Sights Sub-Programs

a. Assumptions. Full instructions for NAVPAC 2 are at Annex 3A. In the procedures
for reducing sights in this Section, the following assumptions have been made:

The DR/EP position for the fix time is known (see Para 0320-0322 and 0325).

The Deck Watch Error (DWE) is known (see Paras 0212.d and 0326.c.2).

The Sextant errors have been checked, adjusted where necessary and any
residual Index Error recorded (see Para 0336).

The identity of the heavenly bodies observed are known, and the Deck Watch
Time (DWT), the Sextant Altitude and the approximate bearing of the body
have been recorded for each observation (see Paras 0323-0324 and 0326c.4).

The other organisational and material preparations at Para 0326 and the
precautions when using the Sextant at Para 0339 have been observed.

NAVPAC 2 is available on a suitable PC and a printer is available.

For Morning and Evening Stars, NAVPAC 2 has been used to find the time
of twilight, for the prediction of the approximate bearings and altitudes of the
heavenly bodies, and that the data from these predictions has been transferred
across to other parts of the program (see Para 0321.c and 0323.b).

If NAVPAC 2 is used for sun sights or star sights without having transferred
data across to other parts of the program, the body observed will be selected
manually from the menu within the Astro sub-program (see Para 0323.b).

b. Overall Arrangement of NAVPAC 2 Sights Sub-Programs. An understanding

of the relationships between the various Sights sub-programs of NAVPAC 2 is
important, and this is best summarised in a diagram, shown at Fig 3-9 below.

Fig 3-9. Overall Arrangement of NAVPAC 2 Sights Sub-Programs

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BR 45(2)
0341.

NAVPAC 2: Options Page

a. Options Page. The Options page (see Fig 3-10 opposite), which may be selected
button on the Home page (or key in Alt O), can be altered at
by clicking the
any time and the configuration saved. While the Options settings are not critical when
doing preparatory work in the FindIt page, before using the Sights pages (ie Fix, Legs,
Astronomical Observations, Log, Results, Position Line Plot), it will be found helpful
to save convenient settings for:

Units of

and
and

, Time
and

and

of eye.

(Bearing).
.

for saving files.

button (or key in Alt S).

b. Saving Options. To save chosen settings, click on
When the Saving-Loading page (Fig 3-17) appears, click the
button (or Alt
S) and then complete the file name in the dialogue box. See the general explanation and
instructions for saving at Para 0347b).
c. Saving Default Settings. To change the default settings, carry out the procedures
in Saving Options above but re-save file as Navpac2.ini. It is strongly recommended
that a copy of the original Navpac2.ini is kept in another folder/disc in case any
problems develop.
d. Loading Options. To load chosen settings on starting NAVPAC 2, open the
(Alt L), then from the Saving Options page and click
Loading page presented (see Fig 3-17), click
(Alt L), then click the chosen
file.
0342.

NAVPAC 2: Sights-Fix Page

a. From the NAVPAC 2 Home page, click on
in Alt P) to open the Sights-Fix page (see Fig 3-11 opposite).

(or key

b.

On the Sights-Fix page (see Fig 3-11opposite), carry out the following:

Then check that the

,
(in UT),
and
/ EP for the time of fix are correct; if they are not, correct them.

IF REQUIRED to purge other (previous) data and calculations from the program
(see Para 0343), THEN click
button.

of the DR

Note 3-4. The space bar acts as a separator for each element of the data fields, irrespective of
the punctuation displayed. After inputting the changes for each complete data field, click the
Return / Enter key. The punctuation will then appear in the data field and helps check what
has been entered at each stage.
Note 3-5. Care should be taken to ensure dates are input in the format YYYY/MM/DD.
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BR 45(2)

Fig 3-10. NAVPAC 2 Options Page

Fig 3-11. NAVPAC 2 Sights-Fix Page

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BR 45(2)
0343.

NAVPAC 2: Sights-Legs Page

When data displayed in the Sights-Fix page has been checked correct or amended (see
button on the Sights-Fix page
Para 0342), click on
(or key in Alt L). This will bring up the Sights-Legs page (see Fig 3-12 below). and carry out
the following procedure:

First check that the

and
(in UT) displayed on the Sights-Legs page
are correct (ie have been correctly transferred); if not, correct them. In some
cases, particularly where classroom examples with widely differing positions
have been used immediately before, it may be necessary to use the
facility on the Sights-Fix page (see Para 0342b) before
proceeding further. If the
and
(in UT) are not correct on the SightsLegs page, significant errors will occur in subsequent calculations.

Using the white dialogue boxes and the yellow

button, enter the
s
and
s for the period during which NAVPAC 2 will have to make
calculations. The Leg No may be selected using the or buttons.

Once course and speed data for the leg has been input, click the yellow
button. Repeat the procedure for each leg.

Leg inputs may be changed retrospectively if the ship manoeuvres after

initial inputs have been made.

To move to the Sights-Astronomical Observations page, click the yellow

button (Alt A).

Fig 3-12. NAVPAC 2 Sights-Legs Page

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BR 45(2)
0344.

NAVPAC 2: Sights-Astronomical Observations Page (using Stars / Planets)

The Sights-Astronomical Observations page (see Fig 3-13) is normally entered by
button in the Sights-Legs page (see Para 0343 opposite), but can also
clicking on the
be accessed directly from the Home or other pages in the program by clicking on the appropriate
button. Once in the Sights-Astronomical Observations page, carry out the following procedure:

Check that

Select the body observed by clicking on the

using the
buttons for the previous or next observation.

Input

(Index Error Correction),

/
,
Check that
(Height of Eye),
(Temperature) and
are correctly input; if they
are not, then correct them.

button (all data in the

When content with all inputs, click on the yellow
large window in Sights-Astronomical Observations page displayed in red).

Set
button to
(tick displayed, and all data in the large
window in the Sights-Astronomical Observations page displayed in blue).

Repeat this process for subsequent sights. When all sights are input, double
check that the
in Sights-Fix page menu is correct (see Para 0342)
and return to the Sights-Astronomical Observations page.

Click

is correct (note that the format is YYYY/MM/DD).

UT (DWT corrected for DWE), and

with

button, or by
selected.

. This brings up the Sights-Results page.

Note 3-6. The space bar acts as a separator for each element of the data fields, irrespective of
the punctuation displayed. After inputting the changes for each complete data field, click the
Return / Enter key. The punctuation will then appear in the data field and helps check what
has been entered at each stage.

Fig 3-13. NAVPAC 2 Sights-Astronomical Observations Page

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BR 45(2)
0345.

NAVPAC 2: Sights-Astronomical Observations Page (using Sun / Moon Planets)

The procedure for Sun and Moon sights is as for Stars /Planets (see Para 0344), except:

Upper and Lower Limbs. In the Sights-Astronomical Observations page,

defaults to
- for the Sun and Moon. Care must be taken to select
the
button when inputting Sun and Moon altitudes if the Upper Limb
has been observed.

Single Sun Sights. With single/running Sun-sights, NAVPAC 2 will NOT work out
an observed position or display the Sights-Plot page. When data has been input in
the Sights-Astronomical Observations page,
button clicked, and
button set to
, the large dialogue window on that page will show
sufficient information to plot the sights manually (see Para 0351). The information
supplied in the large dialogue window is as follows (see Fig 3-13 on previous page):
<

Estimated Position of Sight at (Time) UT at the top of the dialogue window

is the Run position allowing for course and speed between the Observation
Time and the Initial time set on the Sights-Fix page (see Para 0342).

<

Azimuth, Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude & Observed (True) Altitude are

displayed on the next three lines of the dialogue window and the difference
between the last two items is the Intercept, which is also displayed near the
bottom of the window. This may be plotted manually from the Run position
displayed a few lines above.

<

The procedure for manual plotting of the Position Line is at Para 0351

Fix Time. With running astro-fixes (eg Sun-run-Sun, or Sun-run-Mer Pass),

update the
for the later sight on the Sights-Fix page. If this is not done,
NAVPAC 2 will run the second sight back to the initial (first sight) time.

Plotting Lines Symbology. NAVPAC 2 displays Position Lines as solid black

lines if they have been run on or back less than 15 minutes, and as dashed black
lines if they have been run on or back more than 15 minutes

0346.

NAVPAC 2: Sights-Results, Sights-Log and Sights-Position Line Plot Pages

After inputting sights in the Sights-Astronomical Observations page and clicking on
the Calculate button (see Para 0344), the Sights-Results page is displayed and provides
information in a large window with other facilities via yellow buttons, as follows (see Fig 3-14):
a.

b.

3-26
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Sights-Results Page Data. The dialogue window contains the following data:

A summary of the DR / EP position (top right of dialogue window).

Calculated Position at the Time of Fix (bottom of dialogue window and

equating to Observed Position).

Intercepts for each observation and associated confidence data.

Sights-Log Page. On clicking the

button in the Sights-Results page,
the Sights-Log page is displayed (see Fig 3-15 opposite) and gives full details of
each sight. This may be printed or saved, and Sights-Fix, Sights-Astronomical
Observations, Sights-Legs or Home pages may displayed as required by clicking
the appropriate buttons. To return to the Sights-Results page, go to SightsAstronomical Observations page and click on the
button.

BR 45(2)

Fig 3-14. NAVPAC 2 Sights-Results Page

Fig 3-15. NAVPAC 2 Sights-Log Page

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BR 45(2)
c. Sights-Position Line Plot Page. When the
button in the Sights-Results page
(see Fig 3-14) is clicked, the Sights-Position Line Plot page is displayed, usually
showing a 20 mile diameter colour plot of the sight (see Fig 3-16 below). The initial DR
/ EP position is marked with a red cross, the Confidence Ellipse (equivalent to an
Error Ellipse - see Para 0902) in magenta, Star lines in blue, Sun and Moon lines in
black, and Venus/Mars/Jupiter/Saturn lines in magenta/red/cyan/green respectively. To
avoid confusion when viewing Sun-run-Sun sights, Position Lines that have been Run
(Transferred) for more than 15 minutes are shown as hatched lines. This plot can be
zoomed, re-scaled and printed by using the appropriate buttons. Once the plot has been
examined and/or printed, the display can be returned to the Sights-Results page by
clicking on the
button at the bottom right corner of the screen.

Fig 3-16. NAVPAC 2 Sights-Position Line Plot Page

d. Sights-Results Page: Adopt Fix Button. If the user is happy with the sight, having
carefully examined the Sights-Results, Sight-Log and Position Line Plot pages and
taken any prints necessary (see Note below) , the
button on the Sights-Results
page (see Fig 3-14 on previous page) may be clicked. On clicking
button, the
(calculated) Observed Position will replace the original DR / EP position input in the
Reduction of Sights page and the Intercepts will change from being relative to the DR
/EP, to being relative to the (calculated) Observed Position.
Note 3-7. If it is desired to record the original intercepts from the DR / EP position (eg for
use with BR 45(5) worked examples and answers), take a print the Sights-Results, Sight-Log
and Position Line Plot pages as required, before clicking on the Adopt Fix button on the
Sights-Results page.

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BR 45(2)
0347.

NAVPAC 2: Summary of Printing, Saving and Loading Facilities

a. Printing. Throughout NAVPAC 2, prints can be obtained by the direct-print
button or via the
button. If the direct-print
is clicked, the page will be
printed using the default printer. If the
button is used, a standard Windows
printer box (see Fig 3-17 below) is displayed and the user can customise arrangements
for the print including printing to a file. Prints can be obtained from the following pages:

RiseSet Results Page. The print command(s) on this page cause the contents
of the RiseSet Results page window (Fig 3-3) to be printed.

FindIt-Results Page: This 2-sheet print contains a polar diagram of the

visible heavenly (navigational) bodies for the selected time, date and position,
together with a list of those bodies detailing their name, magnitude, altitude
and azimuth (see Fig 3-5 and Figs 3-6a / 3-6b).

Sights-Results Page. The print command(s) on this page cause both the
Sights-Results page window (Fig 3-15) and the Position Line Plot page (Fig
3-16) to be printed. This double print is sufficient for general navigation use.

Sights-Log Page. The print command(s) on this page cause the Sights-Log
page (Fig 3-15) and all the data from the Sights-Astronomical Observations
page (Fig 3-13) to be printed. This gives a comprehensive record of the sight
on one sheet of paper and is a most useful facility for detailed analysis of the
sight (eg for training purposes), especially when used in conjunction with the
Sights-Position Line Plot print.

Sights-Position Line Plot Page. The print command(s) on this page cause the
Sights-Position Line Plot page (Fig 3-16) to be printed. This gives a visual
appreciation of the sight and is a most useful facility for general navigation.
It is also useful for detailed analysis of the sight (eg for training purposes)
especially when used in conjunction with the Sights Log page print.

Fig 3-17. NAVPAC 2 Standard Windows Printer Dialogue Box

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BR 45(2)
b. Saving. Saving facilities are provided so that all or part of the work in progress may
be saved to a file on disc for future use via a combined Saving-Loading page (see Fig
3-18) . By default this data (except Options - see below) is saved to the NAVPAC 2 \
Examples folder. This facility has particular value in the training situation where
students may wish to record their work, either for later use or for discussion with their
instructors. It also has a use in ships where the computer used for NAVPAC 2 is not
dedicated to this task and may have to be restarted and the data reloaded during the days
run. Data may be saved from the following pages:

FindIt Results Page: This file saves all the FindIt results data.

Options. Saving a new Options file allows it to be reloaded at any time, but
NAVPAC 2 will always restart to the default settings. A new file saves the
chosen settings. Options has a slightly modified Saving-Loading page (see
Fig 3-19)

Default Options Setting. The default Options file (navpac2.ini) contains the
home parameters and paths for the ephemerides and examples and must be
kept in the top level folder with the execution program. Care must be taken
with this file; it contains non-printing characters. If it is desired to change the
Options default settings, it is essential to make a copy/copies of the original
navpac2.ini in case of any subsequent problems in the modified Options
default file, so that the original can be restored.

Sights-Fix / Sights-Legs / Sight-Astronomical Observations / Sight-Results

/ Sight-Log. Saving is possible at all these points in the program. The dialogue
boxes are identical except for the
button in the bottom right
corner. This button is context sensitive. The arrangement of dialogue boxes at
Fig 3-18 shows the user was on one of the Sights pages.

Fig 3-18. NAVPAC 2 Saving-Loading Page (From Sights Page)

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BR 45(2)

Fig 3-19. NAVPAC 2 Saving-Loading Page (From Options Page)

c. Loading. Loading facilities are provided so that all or part of the work in progress
previously saved may be re-loaded from a file on disc with the minimum of fuss. The
button is on the same shared page as the
button and both are
shown for general use at Fig 3-18 and for use with Options only at Fig 3-19). The
Loading process is the mirror image of the Saving process (see Para 0347b opposite).

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BR 45(2)
0348.

The Nautical Almanac - Meridian Passage, Polaris and Altitude Corrections

a. Time for Observing the Suns Meridian Passage (Mer Pass). By taking the
altitude of the Sun at Meridian Passage(Mer Pass), a very simple manual calculation
will provide the observers Latitude. The Mer Pass observation should be at the moment
when the Sun is in the Observers Meridian (ie. bearing 180 or 000) as calculated at
Para 0325. For a stationary observer, Mer Pass will also be the Suns highest altitude.
b. Mer Pass - Potential Errors of Timing. Although Mer Pass equates to the Suns
highest observed altitude for a stationary observer, if the observer is moving with any
appreciable north-south component, taking the altitude of the Sun at its highest altitude
rather than at the calculated time will induce an error (see Chapter 6). This error may of
up to 5' of altitude (which equates to 5' of Latitude) for a fast moving ship on a northsouth course. Thus it is important that the observation be made at the time, to the nearest
minute, as calculated at Para 0325, rather than at the Suns highest altitude.
c. Mer Pass - Requirement for Deck Watch Time. If NAVPAC 2 is used to
calculate the intercept and plot the sight as a normal Sun-sight, the precise Deck Watch
Time (DWT) will also be needed. If a manual Latitude calculation (of which there are 3
variants) is made, provided the observation has been taken at the time (to the nearest
minute) calculated at Para 0325, the precise DWT is not needed.
d. Correcting Sextant Altitude to Observed (True) Altitude. Before applying it to
the Mer Pass formulae at Paras 0348f-h, or the Polaris formula at Para 0348j, the Sextant
Altitude must be corrected for Index Error (IE), Height of Eye (Dip) and Refraction to
obtain the Observed (True) Altitude, as follows:

Index Error(IE) is added or subtracted as described in Para 0332.

The Dip correction (obtained from a Table in the inside front cover of The
Nautical Almanac at Page A2) is always subtracted. The resultant (Sext. Alt
IE - Dip) is known as the Apparent Altitude.

Altitude correction (Refraction) tables for stars and the Sun are in the front of
The Nautical Almanac (Pages A2 / A3) and those for the Moon are inside the
back cover of The Nautical Almanac (Pages xxxiv / xxxv). They are entered
with arguments of Apparent Altitude, Time of Year, HP (see Note 3-8), and
UL or LL as appropriate.

Note 3- 8. HP (Horizontal Parallax) is not significant except in the case of the Moon, where a
separate correction is needed which may be taken from the HP tables at the back of The Nautical
Almanac. A similar, very small correction is listed for Venus and Mars as an Additional
Correction at the front of The Nautical Almanac. See Para 0401 Horizontal Parallax for a
more detailed explanation.

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Additional (Refraction) corrections tables for unusual temperature and

pressure conditions are found in the front of The Nautical Almanac (Page A4)
but these are very small and are only significant at very low Apparent
Altitudes.

The total Refraction corrections are added to subtracted from Apparent

Altitude as indicated in the tables to obtain Observed (True) Altitude.

BR 45(2)
e. Correcting Sextant Altitude to Observed (True) Altitude. An example of this
calculation for an observation in extreme conditions, thus including every possible
correction, is at Example 3-3 below:
Example 3-3. What is the Observed (True) Altitude for an observation with a Sextant Altitude
of 10 00.0' for the Sun (LL) in March, a temperature of -10C, an atmospheric pressure of 1010
millibars, a Height of Eye of 6.2 metres and Index Error Correction of -1.6'?
Sextant Altitude

10 00.0'

IE

- 01.6'

Dip (-)

- 04.4'

Sub-Total

- 0 06.0'

Apparent Altitude

09 54.0'

Altitude Corrections.

+0 10.9'

Sub-Total

10 04.9'

Temperature/Pressure

- 0 00.5'

Observed (True) Altitude

10 04.4'

- 06.0'

Example 3-3. Correcting Sextant Altitude to Observed (True) Altitude

f. Mer Pass - Latitude Greater than Declination with Same Names (N or S). If
observing Mer Pass when the observers Latitude and the Suns (or other heavenly
bodys) Declination have the SAME (ie. N or S) names and the Latitude is greater than
the Declination (Lat > Dec), then the observers Latitude may be calculated by applying
the following formula (the proof of which is at Para 0612):
Latitude = Declination - Observed (True) Altitude + 90
g. Mer Pass - Declination Greater than Latitude with Same Names (N or S). If
observing Mer Pass when the observers Latitude and the Suns (or other heavenly
bodys) Declination have the SAME (ie. N or S) names and the Declination is greater
than the Latitude (Dec > Lat, ie. the opposite of Para 0348f above), then the observers
Latitude may be calculated by applying the following formula (the proof of which is at
Para 0612):
Latitude = Declination + Observed (True) Altitude - 90
h. Mer Pass - Latitude and Declination with Opposite Names (N or S). If
observing Mer Pass when the observers Latitude and the Suns (or other heavenly
bodys) Declination have CONTRARY (ie. N or S) names, then the observers Latitude
may be calculated by applying the following formula (proof of which is at Para 0612):
Latitude = 90 - Observed (True) Altitude - Declination
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BR 45(2)
i. Mer Pass - Lower Transit. There is a further Mer Pass case in which the
heavenly body makes a Lower Meridian Passage, some 12 hours before or after the
Upper Meridian Passage for which the formulas are given at Paras 0348f-h above. In
the case of the Sun, this Lower Meridian Passage would take place at around midnight;
the Sun is not visible at that time except in very high Latitudes at certain times of the
year. However, certain stars do make Lower Meridian Passages in moderate Latitudes
at times when they are visible and if observed, it is possible to derive the observers
Latitude by a simple calculation. In practice, Lower Meridian Passage sights are not
normally observed as such and so the appropriate formula is not provided here.
However, the formula and a full explanation of the calculation are at Para 0612e.
j. Polaris. NAVPAC 2 (Astronomical Observations Sights sub-program) can be used
in the conventional way with an observation of Polaris (the Pole Star) to produce the
observers Latitude and the direction of true North. However, with a very simple manual
calculation from Nautical Almanac data, observation of Polaris (the Pole Star) will
provide the same information even more simply. The ability to obtain the direction of
true North at any time of the night (without needing a horizon) is particularly useful. The
Polaris Tables are found in The Nautical Almanac after the Daily Tabulated Pages and
their Explanation Section, but before the Sight Reduction Tables; they are usually on or
around page 274/275. The procedure is as follows:

Correct Sextant Altitude to Observed (True) Altitude (see Para 0348d).

The upper Polaris Table is entered with LHA Aries (K ) (see Paras 0106d and
0324b) to determine the column of the Table to use; each column refers to a
range of 10 of LHA Aries (K ). With mental interpolation, correction a0 is
taken from this upper Polaris Table with units of LHA Aries (K ) in degrees as
the argument.

Corrections a1 and a2 are taken, without interpolation, from the second and
third Tables with arguments Latitude and month respectively.

Corrections a0, a1 and a2 are always +ve and are applied in the formula:
Latitude = Observed (True) Altitude -1 + a0 + a1 + a1

The final table gives the Azimuth (true bearing) of Polaris.

Example 3-4 (Polaris). On 9 December 1997 in DR position 62 17.0'N 030 47.0'W Polaris
was observed. The Observed (True) Altitude (Sextant Altitude, corrected for Index Error, Height
of Eye and Refraction) was 62 19.6' and the LHA of Aries at the moment of observation was
314 43.0'. What was the observed Latitude and true bearing of Polaris? (See extract of 1997
Nautical Almanac at Appendix 2.)
Observed (True) Altitude
From Polaris Tables
Sub-Total
Constant
Latitude

a0
a1
a2

'
'
'

62 19.6'
+ 00 53.4'
+ 00 00.8'
+ 00 00.9'
63 14.7'
- 1 00.0'
62 14.7'

Bearing (by inspection) = 001

Example 3-4. Summary of Polaris Calculations

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BR 45(2)
0349.

NAVPAC 2: Almanac Facilities.

a. Summary of NAVPAC 2: Almanac. In addition to its wide ranging computation
facilities, NAVPAC 2 also provides basic Nautical Almanac data, which may also be
printed, for all navigational heavenly bodies. The Almanac page (see Fig 3-20) is
accessed by clicking on the
button (or keying Alt A) from the NAVPAC
2 Home page. When displayed, the Almanac page tabulates the GHA and Declination
for all navigational bodies to a precision of 0.1'. It also tabulates the semi-diameter (S)
of the Sun, the Horizontal Parallax (HP) of the Moon, Venus and Mars, and the
magnitudes of all the stars. Almanac also introduces an additional (imaginary) body
called Aries for which the GHA only is tabulated.
b. Almanac Inputs and Outputs. To obtain Almanac data, input
and
(UT)
into the appropriate dialogue boxes and click on the list heavenly bodies as appropriate.
The required data will be shown in the large dialogue box window. If selecting
heavenly bodies, note that Aries does not appear in alphabetical order, but at the very end
of the output list, after the Sun, Planets and Moon.
c. Printing. The Almanac data output may be printed by clicking on the
button
or on the direct-print
button (see Para 0347a for a general explanation of printing).

Fig 3-20. NAVPAC 2 Almanac Page with Almanac Data Displayed

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BR 45(2)
SECTION 5 - PLOTTING SIGHTS
0350.

NAVPAC 2: Plotting of Astronomical Position Lines

a. General. Full instructions for NAVPAC 2 are at Annex 3A. NAVPAC 2 has a
sophisticated calculation and plotting system which will normally preclude the
requirement to carry out manual plotting. Provided that the calculation procedures at
Paras 0340-0347 are carried out correctly, NAVPAC 2 will display and print the
appropriate fix on demand. Especially when conducting Sun-run-Sun calculations or a
full Days Run, it is important to be meticulous in updating each page correctly,
otherwise serious errors may result (see Paras 0351d / 0346d).
b. Display of Position Lines. To avoid confusion, Sun-run-Sun sights, Position Lines
that have been Run (Transferred) for more than 15 minutes are shown as hatched lines.
c. Saving of Data. If conducting a Days Run in NAVPAC 2 it is valuable to save
each element as a file, which can be reloaded and updated for the next calculation. See
Paras 0347b/c for general explanations of saving and loading.
d. NAVPAC 2 Recording and Plotting Form. A convenient NAVPAC 2 Recording
and Plotting Form is at Fig 3-21 (overleaf) and may be reproduced locally. See Para
0351e opposite for guidance on its use. The use of the form is optional but it does
provide a place to make the important manual DWT / DWE / UT (GMT) calculation
prior to inputting UT (GMT) to NAVPAC 2 for each sight (see Para 0344).

0351.

Manual Plotting of Astronomical Position Lines

a. Concept. An Astronomical Position Line is actually a small element of the
circumference of a Small Circle (see Para 0110) centred on the Geographic Position (see
Para 0109) of the star with a radius equivalent to 90 - Altitude, converted into nautical
miles. This radius is usually between 1200 n. miles (Altitude 70) and 4200 n. miles
(Altitude 20) in length, and is impossible to plot on any chart of a reasonable scale.
However, if the Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude for the DR position is subtracted from
the Observed (True) Altitude and the result (converted into nautical miles and known as
the Intercept ) is plotted from the DR / EP position either To or From the bearing
of the star, then plotting at a reasonable scale on a normal chart is possible. Given the
large radius of the Small Circle, it is accepted that for short distances the Astronomical
Position Line may be considered to be a straight line.
b. Runs. Astro-sights for a fix cannot all be taken at the same instant; typically, star
sights may take place over a 10 or 15 minute period. To plot an accurate fix, the DR / EP
position for each sight must be Run-on or Run-back (Transferred) along the ships
course and speed (allowing for any tidal stream or current), to a common time. In the
case of Sun-run-Sun sights or other similar running fixes, the earlier sight is normally
Run-on (Transferred) to the time of the latter. Astronomical Position Lines are
displayed on paper charts with a single open arrowhead at each end and Transferred
Astronomical Position Lines with a double open arrowhead at each end.

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BR 45(2)
c. Procedure. The following procedure is used to plot Astronomical Position Lines
manually from NAVPAC 2 data:

Select the Fix Time required (usually the nearest convenient quarter hour).

NAVPAC 2 automatically produces a DR position for each sight, which is

already run-on or run-back along the ships course and speed as set in the
Sights-Legs page (Fig 3-12), to the time set in the Sights-Fix page (Fig 3-11).

Select a suitable Mercator Plotting Sheet or draw up a D6018 (Plotting Sheet

for Astro Fixing) (see Para 0526).

Plot each Astronomical Position Line from the NAVPAC 2 Latitude and
Longitude which is set in the Sights-Fix page (Fig 3-11) as a straight line at
right angles to the heavenly bodys Azimuth (bearing), at an Intercept
distance, either To or From from the direction of the heavenly bodys
Azimuth (bearing).

Note 3-9. NAVPAC 2 includes the run in the DR position from which each sight is plotted; it
is important NOT to apply the run manually when plotting, as this will induce an error rather
than correct it.

To establish whether to plot the Intercept To or From from the direction of

the heavenly bodys Azimuth (bearing), check the NAVPAC 2 printout for the
sign of the Intercept:
NAVPAC 2 displays To intercepts as +ve and From intercepts as -ve.

Another method of establishing whether to plot the Intercept To or From

is to inspect the two altitudes (Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude and Observed
(True) Altitude) on the NAVPAC 2 printout, using the rule:
TABULATED (Calculated) TINIER TOWARDS

d. Potential Errors when Plotting Intercepts from NAVPAC 2. If it is intended to

plot sights manually (eg if presenting a Days Run or when using BR 45(5) worked
examples and answers), it is essential to take a print ( or record details manually) from
the Sights-Results, Sight-Log and Position Line Plot pages as required, before clicking
on the
button on the Sights-Results page, for the reasons given at Para 0346d.
e. NAVPAC 2 Recording and Plotting Form. A convenient NAVPAC 2 Recording
and Plotting Form is at Fig 3-21 (overleaf) and may be reproduced locally. This form
is intended for manual completion and may be used instead of, or in addition to, the
NAVPAC 2 printouts and plot. The form itself contains comprehensive instructions for
the plotting procedure required. The use of the form is optional. See Para 0350d
opposite concerning calculation of UT from DWT and DWE.

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BR 45(2)

Fig 3-21. NAVPAC 2 Recording and Plotting Form (May be reproduced locally)
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CHAPTER 4
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - DEFINITIONS, HOUR ANGLES & THEORY OF TIME
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - READY REFERENCE LIST
Celestial Sphere and Associated Terms - Definitions and References . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0401

SECTION 2 - HOUR ANGLES

Hour Angles - Explanation and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hour Angles and Declination - Pictorial Representation & Standard Nomenclature . .
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and Local Hour Angle (LHA) of a Heavenly Body . . .

0420
0421
0422

SECTION 3 - SOLAR TIME

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Solar Day and Solar Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Apparent Solar Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The True Sun and the Mean Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mean Solar Day / Time and UT, the Civil Day and the Astronomical Day . . . . . . .
Local Mean Time (LMT) and Universal Time (UT) / Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) . .
Longitude and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conversion between UT / GMT and LMT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of Standard Time and Zone Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Equation of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0430
0431
0432
0433
0434
0435
0436
0437
0438
0439

SECTION 4 - SIDEREAL TIME

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sidereal Day and Sidereal Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Length of the Sidereal Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Local Sidereal Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relationship between UT / GMT and GHA Aries (K ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0440
0441
0442
0443
0444

SECTION 5 - LUNAR AND PLANETARY TIME

The Hour Angle of the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lunation or Lunar Month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phases of the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Hour Angle of the Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0450
0451
0452
0453

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CHAPTER 4
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - DEFINITIONS, HOUR ANGLES & THEORY OF TIME
SECTION 1 - READY REFERENCE LIST
0401. Celestial Sphere and Associated Terms - Definitions and References
Some elements of the Celestial Sphere have already been introduced at Chapter 1. For
a full understanding of astro-navigation theory, precise definitions of all elements of the Celestial
Sphere and some associated terms are needed at the outset. A convenient ready reference list
of terms with their definitions or a brief explanation to support more detailed study, is
included below (positioned at the start of the main theory chapters) and is primarily
intended for RN Specialist N Course students. The main reference(s) are included in this list,
but comprehensive cross-referencing is available via the Index.

Abnormal Refraction. The atmosphere contains many irregularities which are

erratic in their influence upon Atmospheric Refraction; where these irregularities
exceed the corrections contained in The Nautical Almanac, conditions of Abnormal
Refraction are deemed to exist. See Paras 0339j, 0804, 0807.

Altitude (of a heavenly body). The Altitude (of a heavenly body) is (loosely)
described as the angle between a horizon and the heavenly body, but normally has
to be qualified as Apparent Altitude, Sextant Altitude, etc, depending which
horizon is used and which corrections are applied.
See Para 0118 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Apparent Altitude
Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude
d (Altitude Difference (d) from NP 401)
Observed (True) Altitude
Sextant Altitude
Tabulated Altitude
Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights

Altitude Difference (d).

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for d (Altitude Difference (d) from
NP 401).

Angle of Incidence (N). The Angle of Incidence (N) is the angle at which a ray of
light travelling in one medium meets the boundary of another medium.
See Para 0802.

Angle of Refraction (). The Angle of Refraction ( ) is the angle through which
a ray of light is bent when passing from one medium to another of different
density. See Para 0802.

Angular Distance. Heavenly bodies are deemed to reside on the surface of the
Celestial Sphere and the only method of measuring their relative positions is to
measure the angle between them, known as an Angular Distance. See Para 0102.

Apparent Altitude. The Apparent Altitude of a heavenly body is Sextant

Altitude corrected for Index Error and Height of Eye (Dip). See Para 0118.

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|

Apparent Solar Day / Time. The interval that elapses between two successive
transits of the Sun across the same Meridian is an Apparent Solar Day.
See Para 0432.

Aries (K ). The name First Point of Aries(often abbreviated to Aries or K )

is given to the spring intersection of the Ecliptic and the Celestial Equator and
is used as the datum for calculations and tables. See Paras 0104, 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Astronomical Day. The Astronomical Day (which uses 24 hour notation) and
the Civil Day (which uses the am / pm notation) both contain 24 Mean Solar
Hours. See Para 0434.

Astronomical Position Line / Position Line. An Astronomical Position Line

(often abbreviated to Position Line) is a small element of the circumference of
a Small Circle centred on the Geographic Position of the star with a radius
equivalent to 90 - Altitude, converted into nautical miles. See Paras 0350,
0351, 0521.

Astronomical Twilight (AT). The time of Astronomical Twilight (AT) is the

moment when the Suns centre is 18 below the Celestial Horizon.
See Paras 0108, 0724, 0725, 0726.

Atmospheric Refraction. The Earths atmosphere generally decreases in

density with increased height and so has a gradually changing Refractive Index.
When a ray of light from a star approaching the Earth enters the Earths
atmosphere, this causes it to be bent progressively and thus to follow a curved
path; this gradual change of direction which occurs is called Atmospheric
Refraction.
See Paras 0802, 0803, 0804.

Autumn Equinox.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Equinoxes - Spring & Autumn.

Axis (of the Earth). The Earths Axis is its shortest diameter, about which it
rotates in space.

Azimuth (of a heavenly body). The Azimuth (Z) of a heavenly body is the angle
between the observers Meridian and the Vertical Circle through the heavenly
body. Azimuth is measured and expressed in different ways by different
authorities.
See Paras 0117, 0535, 0536 & also separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Azimuth Angle (of a heavenly body)
Calculated (Tabulated) Azimuth
Supplementary Azimuth
True Bearing (of a heavenly body)

Azimuth Angle (of a heavenly body). The Azimuth Angle (Z) is the Azimuth of
a heavenly body when measured and named East or West from the Observers
Meridian ( if LHA of Body <180 Azimuth is West, if LHA of Body > 180
Azimuth is East). Azimuth is named N or S from the Elevated Pole.
See Paras 0536 and 0543.

Bearing.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for True Bearing (heavenly body).

4-4
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BR 45(2)

Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude. The Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude is the

Altitude of a heavenly body calculated from the Chosen Position at the exact time
of observation, based on ephemeral data (from The Nautical Almanac or
computer information). It is also known as Calculated Altitude or Tabulated
Altitude and is thus expressed in BR 45(2) as Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude.
See Paras 0118, 0531.

Calculated (Tabulated) Azimuth. The Calculated (Tabulated) Azimuth is the

Azimuth (or Azimuth Angle) of a heavenly body calculated from the Chosen
Position at the exact time of observation, based on ephemeral data (from The
Nautical Almanac or computer information). It is also known as Calculated
Azimuth or Tabulated Azimuth and is thus expressed in BR 45(2) as Calculated
(Tabulated) Azimuth. See Paras 0530, 0531.

Calculated (Tabulated) Co-Declination. The Calculated (Tabulated) CoDeclination is the Angular Distance of a heavenly body from the Elevated Pole
calculated from the Chosen Position at the exact time of observation, based on
ephemeral data (from The Nautical Almanac or computer information).
See Para 0531 and also separate entry (at Para 0401) for Co-Declination (also
known as Polar Distance).

Calculated (Tabulated) LHA. The Calculated (Tabulated) LHA is the LHA of

a heavenly body calculated from the Chosen Position at the exact time of
observation, based on ephemeral data (from The Nautical Almanac or computer
information). It is also known as Calculated LHA or Tabulated LHA and is thus
expressed in BR 45(2) as Calculated (Tabulated) LHA. See Para 0531.

Calculated (Tabulated) Position Circle. The Calculated (Tabulated) Position

Circle is the Position Circle of a heavenly body calculated from the Chosen
Position at the exact time of observation, based on ephemeral data (from The
Nautical Almanac or computer information). It is also known as Calculated
Position Circle or Tabulated Position Circle and is thus expressed in BR 45(2)
as Calculated (Tabulated) Position Circle. See Paras 0522, 0524 and also
separate entry (at Para 0401) for Position Circle.

Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (CZD). The Calculated (Tabulated)

Zenith Distance is the Zenith Distance of a heavenly body calculated from the
Chosen Position at the exact time of observation, based on ephemeral data (from
The Nautical Almanac or computer data). It is also known as Calculated Zenith
Distance or Tabulated Zenith Distance. To avoid confusion between
abbreviations for True Zenith Distance (TZD) and Tabulated Zenith Distance, the
latter title is not used in BR 45(2), where for clarity it is expressed either as
Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (CZD) or Calculated Zenith Distance
(CZD). See Para 0524 and also separate entry (at Para 0401) for Zenith
Distance.

Calculated Zenith Distance (CZD).

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith
Distance (CZD).

Celestial Equator. The Earths Equator, if produced, would cut the Celestial
Sphere at the Celestial Equator. See Paras 0101, 0421 / Fig 4-1.

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Celestial Horizon. The Celestial Horizon is a Great Circle on the Celestial

Sphere, every point of which is 90 from the Observers Zenith (Z). It corresponds
to the projection of the terrestrial horizon onto the Celestial Sphere, but without the
errors associated with atmospheric optical refraction at the Visible Horizon.
See Para 0115.

Celestial Latitude. Celestial Latitude is a term used by astronomers to measure

an Angular Distance referenced to the Ecliptic rather than the Celestial Equator.
Celestial Latitude as used by astronomers has no use in solving the navigational
problem and should not be confused with Declination. See Para 0105
(Note 1-1).

Celestial Longitude. Celestial Longitude is a term used by astronomers to

measure an Angular Distance referenced to the Ecliptic rather than the Celestial
Equator. Celestial Longitude as used by astronomers has no use in solving the
navigational problem and should not be confused with Hour Angle.
See Para 0106 (Note 1-2).

Celestial Meridian. A Celestial Meridian is a Semi-Great Circle joining the

north and south Celestial Poles and corresponds exactly to a terrestrial Meridian.
See Para 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Celestial Poles. The Earths axis, if produced, would cut the Celestial Sphere
at the Celestial Poles. See Paras 0101, 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Celestial Sphere. To an observer on Earth, the sky has the appearance of an

inverted bowl, so that the stars and other heavenly bodies, irrespective of their
actual distance from the Earth, appear to be situated on the inside of a sphere of
immense radius described about the Earth as centre. This is called the Celestial
Sphere. See Paras 0101, 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Chosen Declination. To avoid enormously bulky and expensive tables, NP 401

uses the method of entering its main tables with an integer Chosen Declination
rather than the exact value of Declination. Tabular interpolation for the actual
Declination is then required to compensate for this initial approximation.
See Para 0542g.

Chosen Latitude.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Chosen Position.

Chosen Longitude.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Chosen Position.

Chosen Position. The Chosen Position is a position, usually close to or at the

DR / EP position, and consisting of a Chosen Latitude and Chosen Longitude,
selected by the Navigator for mathematical convenience in reducing the sight. It
will vary for each sight, and can be adjusted for time difference of observations
by running it on or back along the ships course or course made good (allowing
for tidal stream/ ocean current). See Paras 0524, 0542f, 0544.

Circumpolar. Although every heavenly body is circumpolar (in that to an

observer on Earth it describes a circle about the Celestial Pole) the term
Circumpolar is normally used to denote that a heavenly body never sets and is
always above the observers Visible Horizon. See Para 0727.

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Civil Day. The Civil Day (which uses am / pm notation) and the Astronomical
Day (which uses 24 hour notation) both contain 24 Mean Solar Hours. See Para
0434.

Civil Twilight (CT).

See separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Evening Civil Twilight (ECT)
Morning Civil Twilight (MCT)

Cocked Hat. Astronomical Position Lines obtained from three observations

(which, for simplicity are considered as being taken simultaneously) are unlikely
to pass through a common point. With Astronomical Position Lines, the most
likely reason for a Cocked Hat being formed is that the Zenith Distances are
incorrect.
See Paras 0906, 0907.

Co-Declination (also known as Polar Distance). The Co-Declination is the

Angular Distance of a heavenly body from the Elevated Pole. The Co-Declination
is also the Polar Distance (PX) and can be calculated from the Declination of the
body, depending on whether the Elevated Pole and Declination have SAME or
OPPOSITE names (north/south), as follows:
Elevated Pole and Declination have SAME names: PX = (90 - Declination)
Elevated Pole and Declination have OPPOSITE names:PX = (90 + Declination)
See Para 0534b and also separate entry for Calculated (Tabulated) CoDeclination at Para 0401.

Co-Latitude. The Co-Latitude is (90 - Latitude). See Para 0531.

Collimation Error.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Sextant-Collimation Error.

Common Equal Error (corrections). If it is believed that there is a Common

Equal Error in magnitude and sign for each Sextant sight (as in an incorrect Index
Error), then simple constructions or iterations will allow the true Observed
Position to be plotted. The most common use of this technique is among
experienced and skilled Sextant users who consistently have a small personal
error caused by always cutting the heavenly body deep (or shallow) on the
horizon.
See Para 0906 and CAUTIONS at Para 0907.

Confidence Ellipse. Confidence Ellipse is the name given within NAVPAC 2

for what is otherwise known as an Error Ellipse.
See Para 0346c and also separate entry for Error Ellipse at Para 0401.

CONTRARY (name). Term used with NP 401 and NP 303 to indicate that
Declination and Latitude within the calculation have opposite (North / South)
names.
See Para 0542b and also separate entry (at Para 0401) for SAME (name).

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BR 45(2)

Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC). UTC corresponds exactly in rate with

International Atomic Time (TA1) but differs from it by an integral number of
seconds. The UTC scale is adjusted by the insertion or deletion of seconds
(positive or negative leap seconds) to ensure that the departure of UTC from
Universal Time (UT1 or UT) does not exceed +/- 0.9 seconds. See Para 0211.

Corrected Tabulated Altitude (Corr Tab Alt). Corrected Tabulated Altitude

(Corr Tab Alt) is the result of applying First Difference Corrections (FDC) ()
to Tabulated Altitude in NP 401 calculations to solve the PZX triangle.
See Paras 0542g, 0543.

d (Altitude Difference (d) from NP 401). Altitude Difference (d) ord is the
difference of Altitude in minutes of arc of one Declination entry and that for the
next higher degree, and is used with the interpolation table to establish the exact
calculated Altitude. See Paras 0542d, 0542g, 0543a.

d / d corrn (Declination correction from The Nautical Almanac). The

d / d corrn is the hourly difference in Declination, tabulated in The Nautical
Almanac and is used with the (yellow) Increments and Corrections tables at the
back of The Nautical Almanac to calculate the precise Declination of the Sun,
Moon or Planets with NP 400 (Sight Form) and NP 401 method of solving the
PZX triangle. See Para 0543b.

Daily Difference (suffixed with MP, MR or MS as appropriate). The LMT of

the Moons Mer Pass and Visible Moonrise / Moonset is not constant for all
Longitudes and must be corrected for the Daily Difference between consecutive
Moons Mer Pass, Visible Moonrises or Visible Moonsets at the Latitude
considered. See Paras 0607c (Note 6-1), 0731 (Note 7-1).

Day. A Day is the interval that elapses between two successive transits of a
heavenly body across the same Meridian.
See Para 0431 and also separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Apparent Solar Day / Time
Astronomical Day
Civil Day
Lunar Day / Month
Mean Solar Day
Sidereal Day / Time
Solar Day

Daylight Saving Time. Daylight Saving Time (DST) is a seasonal change from
the Standard Legal Time to make the best use of the available light, usually in
summer. See Para 0202.

Deck Watch. An accurate timepiece (now issued as a quartz wristwatch), normally

kept in Time Zone 0 (UT ), and used to take the precise times of astro observations.
See Para 0903 and also separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Deck Watch Time
Deck Watch Error

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Deck Watch Error (DWE). This is the exact difference between the Deck Watch
Time of an individual Deck Watch and UT. It must be applied to Deck Watch
Time (DWT) before the latter is used for sight reduction purposes. See Para 0327,
0903 and also separate entry for Deck Watch Time (DWT) at Para 0401.

Deck Watch Time (DWT). This is the time kept on individual Deck Watches and
used to record the exact time of astronomical observations.
See Para 0327 and also separate entry for Deck Watch Error (DWE) at Para 0401.

Declination. Declination corresponds to terrestrial Latitude projected onto the

Celestial Sphere and is the Angular Distance of the heavenly body north or south
of the Celestial Equator. It should NOT be confused with Celestial Latitude .
See Paras 0105, 0421 /Fig 4-1 and also separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Chosen Declination
Parallels of Declination
Tabulated Declination.

Declination Increment (Dec Inc). The Declination Increment (Dec. Inc.) is the
excess minutes of actual Declination over the integer Declination used to enter the
main NP 401 tables. This ranges from 0.0' to 59.9'. See Para 0542g.

Depressed Pole. The Depressed Pole is the Pole located in the Lower Hemisphere.
See Para 0741.

Diamond of Error. When a position is decided by the result of two Position Lines
or Astronomical Position Lines, and they are given an Assessed Possible Error, the
ship may or may not lie within a parallelogram (Diamond of Error) with sides
parallel to the Position Lines and spaced at the Assessed Possible Error distance
from them.
See Para 0902 and also separate entry for Error Ellipse at Para 0401.

Differenced.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for d(Altitude Difference from NP 401).

Difference of Time for Longitude (suffixed MP, MR or MS as appropriate).

The Difference of Time for Longitude (suffixed MP (Mer Pass), MR (Moonrise)
or MS (Moonset) as appropriate) is the proportion of the relevant Daily Difference
which is applied to the tabulated time for the Greenwich Meridian. See Paras
0607d, 0731c.

Dip. Dip is the angle by which the line of sight to the Visible Horizon differs from
the horizontal at an observer who is some Height of Eye above the Earths surface.
See Para 0806.

Double Second Difference Correction. The Double Second-Difference (DSD)

correction is an additional tabular interpolation correction used in NP 401 on the
occasions when the rate of change of Altitude is large relative to a 1 change in
Declination. See Paras 0542g, 0543.

Earths Axis.
See separate entry at Para 0401 Axis (of the Earth).

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Ecliptic. The apparent path of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere is known as The
Ecliptic. It is a Great Circle, and makes an angle of 23 27' with the Celestial
Equator because the Earths axis of rotation is tilted by that amount from the
perpendicular to the plane of the Earths orbit. See Para 0103a.

Elevated Pole. The Elevated Pole is the Celestial Pole above the observers
horizon ( ie located in the Visible Hemisphere). See Para 0741.

EP (Estimated Position). This is the most accurate position that can be obtained
by calculation and estimation alone. It is derived from the DR position (course and
speed steered) adjusted for the effects of leeway, tidal stream, current sand surface
drift. An EP symbol may also be used to update a DR/EP if only one Position Line
is available. See Para 0905 and also BR 45(1) Chapters 8 and 16.

Epoch. Epoch is the term given to a period (usually a specific year 5 years) for
which the positions of heavenly bodies have been calculated taking the Precession
and Nutation of the Earth into account. It applies specifically to NP 303, the Star
Globe and some other star charts. The use of these tables / aids outside the (usually
10 year) Epoch will result in some errors. See Paras 0544e, 0544f.
Equation of Time. The Equation of Time is the difference between Mean Solar
Time and Apparent Solar Time and is represented by the equation:
Equation of Time = LHA Mean Sun - LHA True Sun
See Para 0439.

Equator. The Equator is the line traced out on the Earths surface by the mid
points of the Meridians. See Para 0903 and also BR 45(1) Chapter 1.

Equinoxes - Spring and Autumn. The Equinox is the moment when the position
of the Sun is directly over the Equator (ie when the Ecliptic crosses the Celestial
Equator). This event occurs twice per year, at the Spring Equinox (21 March), and
the Autumn Equinox (23 September). The word Equinox is derived from Latin,
meaning equal periods of day and night; at the Equinoxes the time difference
between Sunrise and Sunset is 12 hours and the Sun rises due east and sets due west.
See Para 0103b.

Error Ellipse. An Error Ellipse is formed when Position Lines or Astronomical

Position Lines cross and Standard Deviation calculations are used to provide a
more useful measurement of probable error than a simple Diamond of Error.
NAVPAC 2 produces an Error Ellipse (which is referred to within the program as
a Confidence Ellipse), when three or more observations are made.
See Para 0902 and BR 45(1) Chapters 8 and16.

Estimated Position (EP).

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for EP (Estimated Position).

Evening Civil Twilight (ECT). The times of Evening Civil Twilight (ECT) are
tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment when the Suns centre is 6
below the Celestial Horizon. The times of Morning and Evening Civil Twilights
are shown in chronological order and thus the term Evening is omitted. This is
roughly the time at which the horizon becomes clear (morning) or becomes
indistinct (evening). See Paras 0108, 0724, 0725.

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BR 45(2)

Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT). The times of Evening Nautical Twilight

(ENT) are tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment when the Suns centre
is 12 below the Celestial Horizon. The times of Morning and Evening Nautical
Twilights are shown in chronological order and thus the term Evening is omitted.
Star sight observations are normally taken between Civil Twilight and Nautical
Twilight.
See Paras 0108, 0724, 0725.

First Difference Correction (FDC). The First Difference Correction is a tabular

interpolation correction used in NP 401 to obtain the Corrected Tabulated Altitude
(Corr Tab Alt) from Tabulated Altitude. See Paras 0542g, 0543.

First Point of Aries (K ).

See separate entry at Para 0401 Aries (K ).

First Point of Libra.

See separate entry at Para 0401 Libra.

First Quarter (of the Moon). The First Quarter (of the Moon) is the description
given to the Moon when it is one quarter of the way round its orbit of the Earth,
starting from a New Moon. It appears as a D shape to an observer on Earth with
only the westerly side of the Moon being illuminated. This occurs about 7 days
after a New Moon and about 7 days before a Full Moon. See Para 0452.

Full Moon. The Full Moon is the description given to the Moon when it is half
way round its orbit of the Earth, starting from a New Moon. It appears fully
illuminated as a O shape to an observer on Earth. This occurs about 14 days after
and before a New Moon. See Para 0452.

Geographic Position. The Geographic Position of a heavenly body is the position

where a line drawn from the body to the centre of the Earth, cuts the Earths surface.
To an observer at the Geographic Position, the heavenly body would appear to be
directly overhead, ie. at the Observers Zenith(Z). See Para 0109.

Great Circle. A Great Circle is the intersection of a spherical surface and a plane
which points on the surface of a sphere. See Para 0110.

Greenwich passes through the centre of the sphere. It is the shortest distance
between two Celestial Meridian. The Greenwich Celestial Meridian is the
projection of the terrestrial Greenwich Meridian onto the Celestial Sphere.
See Para 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA). The Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) is the
Angular Distance, measured westwards from the projection of the Greenwich
Meridian on the Celestial Sphere and the Meridian of the heavenly body.
See Paras 0106, 0420c, 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Greenwich Hour Angle Increment (GHA Increment). In The Nautical Almanac,

GHAs are only tabulated for whole hours, and the additional amount of GHA
corresponding to the minutes and seconds after the whole hour are obtained by
looking in the yellow Increment and Correction pages at the back of The Nautical
Almanac. This additional GHA is known as the GHA Increment. See Para 0543b.

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Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) may be regarded
as the general equivalent of UT / UT1. See Paras 0210, 0435, and also separate
entry for Universal Time (UT) at Para 0401.

Greenwich Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian is also known as the Prime

Meridian, and passes through Greenwich. It is the starting point (0) for the
measurement of Longitude, East and West from this Meridian. See Para 0112.

Height of Eye. The height of an observers eye above the Earths surface.
See Para 0806 and also separate entry (at Para 0401) for Dip.

High Latitude (Polar) Sights. High Latitude (Polar) Sights may be reduced by
NAVPAC 2 or the normal use of NP 401, but when in Latitudes above 87 an
abbreviated method of reduction and plotting is possible using the Pole as the
Chosen Position. This latter method is only likely to be taken by submariners,
unless overland expeditions are anticipated. See Paras 0560, 0561, 0562.

High Altitude (Tropical) Sights.

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Very High Altitude (Tropical)
Sights.

Horizon.
See separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Celestial Horizon
Plane of the Celestial Horizon
Visible Horizon

Horizontal Parallax. The value of Parallax is greatest when the heavenly body is
close to the horizon when it is known as Horizontal Parallax (HP). It is not
significant except for the Moon (due to its close proximity to Earth) and to a much
lesser extent, Venus and Mars. Most Parallax corrections are incorporated in the
main Altitude Correction Tables of The Nautical Almanac but in the case of the
Moon, a separate HP correction is needed and may be taken from the HP tables at
the back of The Nautical Almanac. A similar, very small correction is listed for
Venus and Mars as an Additional Correction at the front of The Nautical
Almanac.
See Para 0348d and separate entry for Horizontal Parallax (HP) at Para 0401.

Hour Angles.
See separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)
Local Hour Angle (LHA)
Right Ascension (RA)
Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)

Index Error (IE). See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Sextant: Index Error.

Index of Refraction (). See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Refractive Index.

Intercept. An Intercept is the angular difference, converted into nautical miles,

between the Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude of a heavenly body for the DR / EP
position at the exact time of observation and the Observed (True) Altitude of that
body. See Paras 0351, 0521, 0524 / Fig 5-3, Fig 5-4, 0543.

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International Atomic Time. International Atomic Time is determined by the

comparison of very accurate (better than 1 microsecond a day) atomic clocks
located at national observatories throughout the world. Unlike UT / UT1, TAI does
not change with variations in the rate of the Earths rotation. TAI provides the most
accurate and uniform unit of time interval for scientific purposes. See Para 0211b.

International Date Line. The International Date Line is an internationally agreed

line on the Earths surface at approximately 180 East (but varying from this
Longitude to avoid populated areas). On crossing the International Date Line
travellers advance or retard calenders by 1 day (retard when eastbound, advance
when westbound) and simultaneously apply the new Time Zone (-12hr to +12hr or
vice-versa) to the new date. See Para 0201, 0206.

Last Quarter (of the Moon). The Last Quarter (of the Moon) is the description
given to the Moon when it is three quarters of the way round its orbit of the Earth,
starting from a New Moon. It appears as a D shape to an observer on Earth with
only the easterly side of the Moon being illuminated. This occurs about 7 days after
a Full Moon and about 7 days before a New Moon. See Para 0452.

Latitude. The Latitude of a place on the Earths surface (also called the Geodetic,
Geographical or True Latitude) is the angle that the perpendicular at that place
makes with the plane of the Equator and is measured from 0 to 90 North or South
of the Equator. See BR 45(1) Chapter 1.

Least Square (method of calculation). The Least Square method of calculation is

used to derive the Most Probable Position from three or more Position Lines.See
Paras 0904, 0906 and also BR 45(1) Annex 16A (pages 494-496).

Legal Time. See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Standard Legal Time.

Libra. The name First Point of Libra( abbreviated to Libra) is the point on the
Celestial Sphere where the Ecliptic and Celestial Equator intersect at the Autumn
Equinox. See Para 0104.

Local Hour Angle (LHA). The Local Hour Angle (LHA) is the Angular Distance,
measured westwards, of the projection of the observers Meridian onto the Celestial
Sphere and the Meridian of the heavenly body. It equates to the GHA of the body
+/- the observerss Longitude. See Paras 0106, 0420d, 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Local Mean Time (LMT). Local Mean Time (LMT) is the mean time kept at any
place when the Local Hour Angle of the Mean Sun is measured from Meridian of
that place. However, as the Local Hour Angle of the Mean Sun is measured from
the Greenwich Meridian and the Civil/Astronomical Day are both measured from
180 (12 hours) from the Greenwich Meridian, LMT is defined as follows:
LMT at any instant is the Local Hour Angle of the Mean Sun at that instant,
measured westwards from the Meridian of that place, +/- 12 hours.
See Paras 0325, 0435.

Local Sidereal Time (LST). Local Sidereal Time (LST) is equivalent to the LHA
of First Point of Aries (K ). See Para 0443.

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Longitude. The Longitude of a place on the Earths surface is the angle between the
Greenwich (Prime) Meridian and the Meridian of that place measured from 0 to
180 East or West of Greenwich. See BR 45(1) Chapter 1.

Looming (Mirage). When a Mirage is experienced, if the object appears elevated

and the Visible Horizon farther away, it is termed Looming. See Para 0808b.

Lower Hemisphere. The Celestial Horizon divides the Celestial Sphere into
hemispheres, the upper (containing the Observers Zenith Z) is the known as the
Visible Hemisphere, and the other as the Lower Hemisphere. Subject to
atmospheric refraction, all heavenly bodies in Visible Hemisphere are visible to the
observer but bodies in the Lower Hemisphere cannot be seen. See Para 0502 (Note
5-1).

Lower Limb (LL). The Lower Limb of the Sun or Moon is the portion of its
circumference nearest to the Visible Horizon, as seen from an observer on the
Earths surface. See Para 0704.

Lower Mer Pass / Lower Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body). Lower
Meridian Passage occurs when the heavenly body is on the Meridian that differs
in Local Hour Angle from the Observers Meridian by 180.
See Paras 0348i, 0603, 0610, 0612e and separate entry (at Para 0401) for Mer
Pass / Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body).

Lunar Day. A Lunar Day is 29 divided by 28 Mean Solar Days which equates
to approximately 24 hours 50 minutes (Mean Solar Time). This is the reason why
tides generally advance at about 50 minutes per day. See Para 0451.

Lunar Month. The Lunation or Lunar Month is the interval between two
successive New Moons (when the Moon lies in a straight line between the Earth and
the Sun and therefore not visible) and is important in tidal prediction. A Lunation
or Lunar Month is equivalent to29 Mean Solar Days. See Para 0451.

Lunar Units. The units derived from Lunar Days are Lunar Units. See Para 0450.

Lunation. See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Lunar Month.

Mean Refraction. Mean Refraction is average condition of Atmospheric

Refraction for which Altitude Correction Tables (which also include SemiDiameters for the Sun and Moon) are given at the front and back of The Nautical
Almanac respectively. See Paras 0803, 0805.

Mean Solar Day. The interval between two successive transits of the Mean Sun
across the same Meridian is called the Mean Solar Day. See Para 0434.

Mean Solar Hour / Mean Solar Time. Mean Solar Time is based on the Mean Solar
Day. The Mean Solar Day is divided into 24 Mean Solar Hours. See Para 0434.

Mean Sun. The Mean Sun is an imaginary body which is assumed to move in the
Celestial Equator at a uniform speed around the Earth and to complete one (360)
revolution in the time taken by the True Sun to complete one (360) revolution in
the Ecliptic. See Para 0433.

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Meridian. A Meridian is a semi - Great Circle on the Earths surface which also
passes through both Poles.
See Para 0111 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Celestial Meridian
Greenwich Meridian
Greenwich Celestial Meridian
Lower Mer Pass / Lower Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body),
(also known as Meridian Passage below the Pole)
Mer Pass / Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body),
(also known as Upper Mer Pass / Upper Meridian Passage)
Observers Meridian
Prime Meridian

Meridian Passage Below the Pole. Meridian Passage Below the Pole is another
name for Lower Meridian Passage, but the usage is rare. See separate entry (at
Para 0401) for Lower Mer Pass / Lower Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body).

Mer Pass / Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body). Meridian Passage (Mer
Pass) occurs when a heavenly body is in the observers Meridian or in the Meridian
180 from the observers Meridian. Mer Pass can occur as Upper or Lower
Meridian Passage, but common usage of Meridian Passage / Mer Pass normally
refers to Upper Meridian Passage.
See Paras 0325, 0348f-g, 0601, 0602, 0606, 0607, 0608, 0609,0611, 0612 and
separate entry (at Para 0401) for Lower Mer Pass / Lower Meridian Passage (of
a heavenly body).

Midnight Sun. If the Suns Declination remains above the Celestial Horizon, the
Sun can never set and this effect is known colloquially as the Midnight Sun. In
the Northern Hemisphere, the limiting Latitude for the Midnight Sun to occur is:
90 minus the Suns greatest northerly Declination (90!23)N = 66 N.
See Para 0726 / Figs 7-2 and 7-4.

Mirage. A Mirage is an optical phenomenon in which objects appear displaced,

distorted, magnified, multiplied or inverted, owing to varying Atmospheric
Refraction in layers close to the surface of the Earth due to large air density
differences. This may occur when there is an erratic or irregular change of
temperature or humidity in the Earths atmosphere with changes in height.
See Para 0808 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Looming
Stooping
Sinking
Towering

Month. See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Lunar Day / Month.

Moonrise, Moonset.
See separate entries (at Para 0401), which co-ordinate all variants, for:
True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon)
Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon)

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Morning Civil Twilight (MCT). The times of Morning Civil Twilight (MCT) are
tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment when the Suns centre is 6
below the Celestial Horizon. The times of Morning and Evening Civil Twilights
are shown in chronological order and thus the term Evening is omitted. This is
roughly the time at which the horizon becomes clear (morning) or becomes
indistinct (evening). See Paras 0108, 0724, 0725.

Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT). The times of Morning Nautical Twilight

(MNT) are tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment when the Suns
centre is 12 below the Celestial Horizon. The times of Morning and Evening
Nautical Twilights are shown in chronological order and thus the term Evening is
omitted. Star sight observations are normally taken between Civil Twilight and
Nautical Twilight. See Paras 0108, 0724, 0725.

Most Probable Position (MPP). The Most Probable Position may be derived
mathematically from 3 or more Position Lines by the Least Square method of
calculation. The MPP lies within the Probable Position Area (PPA). See Paras
0904-0906 and also BR 45(1) Chapters 8, 16 / Annex 16 (pages 494-496).

Nautical Twilight (NT).

See separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT)
Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT)

NAVPAC 2 / NAVPAC 1. NAVPAC 2 superseded NAVPAC 1 in 2000 and both

are PC-based computer programs for navigational use. They calculate: very accurate
sight reductions; rising, setting and twilight times; the location of all heavenly
(navigational) bodies; Great Circle and Rhumb Line problems. See Chapter 3.

New Moon. The New Moon is the description given to the Moon when it lies in
a straight line between the Earth and the Sun during its orbit of the Earth. At this
time the Moon is not visible to an observer on Earth. The time of a New Moon is the
starting point for lunar calculations. See Para 0451.

Nutation. Nutation is the small, continuous but slightly erratic sinusoidal

oscillation of the Earths rotational axis superimposed about the larger Precession
motion. Nutation is caused by the varying positions of the bodies (especially the
Moon) within the solar system. See Para 0544f.

Obliquity of the Ecliptic. The Obliquity of the Ecliptic is the angle between the
plane of the Celestial Equator and that of the Ecliptic. See Para 0103a.

Observed Position (Obs. Pos). The Observed Position (Obs. Pos) is the point on
the Earths surface at which two or more Astronomical Position Lines cross, after
adjustments have been made for the differing times of observations and errors. See
Para 0346d and also separate entry (at Para 0401) for Observed (True) Position.

Observed (True) Altitude. The Observed (True) Altitude of a heavenly body is its
Sextant Altitude, corrected for Index Error, Dip (Height of Eye), and Refraction
Corrections. It is also known as Observed Altitude or True Altitude and is thus
expressed in BR 45(2) as Observed (True) Altitude. See Paras 0118, 0348d.

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Observed (True) Position. The Observed (True) Position is a point through which
an Observed (True) Position Circle passes.
See Para 0524 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Observed Position (Obs. Pos)
Observed Position
Observed (True) Position Circle
Position Circle

Observed (True) Position Circle. The Observed (True) Position Circle is the
Position Circle based on the Observed (True) Altitude of a heavenly body.

See Paras 0524a, 0524b and also separate entry (at Para 0401) for Position
Circle.

Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD). The Observed (True) Zenith Distance
(TZD) is also known as the Observed Zenith Distance or the True Zenith Distance
(TZD), and is thus expressed in BR 45(2) as Observed (True) Zenith Distance
(TZD). See Para 0524 and separate entry (at Para 0401) for Zenith Distance.

Observed Zenith Distance.

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Observed (True) Zenith
Distance(TZD).

Observers Meridian. The Observers Meridian is the Celestial Meridian which

passes through the Observers Zenith (Z). See Para 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Observers Zenith (Z). The Observers Zenith (Z) is the point where a straight line
from the Earths centre passing through the observers terrestrial position (O) cuts
the Celestial Sphere, and may be described (loosely) as the point on the Celestial
Sphere directly above the observer. The Declination of this point (Z) on the
Celestial Sphere is equal to the observers Latitude. See Para 0114.

Parallax. The angular difference between the True Altitude of a heavenly body
(taken from the centre of the Earth) and its altitude above the horizontal plane
(taken from a position on the Earths surface) is known as the Parallax in Altitude
or usually just Parallax, and is a correction that must be added to the Sextant
Altitude. Most Parallax corrections are incorporated in the main Altitude
Correction Tables of The Nautical Almanac and need not concern the user for most
heavenly bodies. However for the Moon, substantial Horizontal Parallax (HP)
corrections (and for Venus and Mars very small Additional Corrections) from The
Nautical Almanac are needed.

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Horizontal Parallax.

Parallel of Declination. A Parallel of Declination corresponds to a terrestrial
parallel of Latitude and is a Small Circle on the Celestial Sphere. The plane of this
Small Circle is parallel to the plane of the Celestial Equator. See Para 0105.

Parallels of Latitude.
See BR 45(1) Chapter 1.

Perpendicularity (error).
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Sextant: Perpendicularity (error).

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Plane of the Celestial Horizon. Where it is convenient to show the whole visible
sky, it must be drawn on the Plane of the Celestial Horizon, as if the Celestial
Sphere was seen from a position directly above the Observers Zenith (Z). Z appears
in the centre of a circle which is the Visible Horizon. The Celestial Equator appears
as a curve offset from the centre by an amount equal to the observers Latitude.
See Para 0503 (Note 5-2).

Polar Distance (PX).

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for alternative title of Co-Declination.

Polaris. Polaris is the Pole Star and is very nearly located at the Celestial Pole.
Observation of the star provides Latitude and a bearing of True North after very
simple calculations. See Paras 0348j, 0620, 0621, 0622, 0623, 0624.

Polar Variation. Polar Variation is a small movement of the Earth relative to the
Axis of rotation. Its effects are corrected within UT / UT1 and it is does not directly
concern the solution of the astro-navigation problem.

Poles (of the Earth). The Earths Poles are the extremities of the Axis of the Earth.

Position Circle. A Position Circle is a Small Circle on the Celestial Sphere

projected onto the Earths surface about a centre of the Geographical Position of
a heavenly body. The radius of the Position Circle is 90- Altitude of the heavenly
body, converted to nautical miles (1 = 60 n. miles).
See Para 0522, 0524 and also separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Observed (True) Position Circle
Calculated (Tabulated) Position Circle

Position Line. A Position Line may be based on observation or detection of some

terrestrial or astronomical information and represents a line on the Earths surface
on which the observer is believed to lie. Within the context of Astro-Navigation the
term Position Line is frequently used as an abbreviation for Astronomical
Position Line, and this abbreviation is used in BR 45(2) where confusion is not
likely to occur.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Astronomical Position Line.

Precession. Precession is the conical motion of the Earths rotational axis about
the vertical to the plane of the Ecliptic. The result of Precession is a slow westward
movement of the intersection between the plane of the Celestial Equator and the
plane of the Ecliptic, and thus the Equinox. For this reason Precession is sometimes
called Precession of the Equinoxes. The time for one complete rotation of
Precession is 25,800 years. See Paras 0104, 0544f.

Precession of Equinoxes.
See separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Precession
Equinoxes - Spring and Autumn

Prime Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian (0 Longitude) is also called the Prime
Meridian. See Para 0112.

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Probable Position Area (PPA). The Probable Position Area (PPA) is the area
derived from a combination of appropriate Position Lines obtained from available
navaids or astronomical observations, after applying the relevant statistical error
correction to each Position Line in turn. The PPA may be shown on the chart as an
ellipse and within the PPA a Most Probable Position (MPP) may be determined.
See Para 0905 and also BR 45(1) Chapters 8 & 16 / Annex 16A, & BR 45(4).

PZX Triangle. The PZX triangle is the abbreviation commonly used for the
spherical triangle on the Celestial Sphere bounded by the Elevated Pole (P), the
Observers Zenith (Z) and the heavenly body (X). See Paras 0501, 0531.

P'Z'X Triangle. The PZX Triangle is the mirror image of the PZX Triangle, lying
completely below the Celestial Horizon (ie in the Lower Hemisphere) and is thus
geared to the Depressed Pole. See Para 0741.

Refraction. Refraction is the bending of light (or any other wave energy) when it
passes from a less dense to a more dense medium, or vice versa.
See Para 0801 and also separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Abnormal Refraction
Angle of Incidence
Angle of Refraction
Atmospheric Refraction
Mean Refraction
Refractive Index (also known as Index of Refraction)
Terrestrial Refraction

Refractive Index (). The Refractive Index () of a substance is a mathematical

constant which allows calculation of the amount by which light will be bent when
it passes from that medium to another medium. See Para 0802.

Rhumb Line. A Rhumb Line is a line on the Earths surface which cuts Meridians
(of Longitude) and Parallels (of Latitude) at the same angle. It appears on Mercator
Charts as a straight line and equates to the (True) compass course steered. It is
NOT always the shortest distance between two points on the surface of a sphere.
See Para 0113.

Right Ascension (RA). Right Ascension (RA) is the Angular Distance, measured
eastwards (rather than westwards as in SHA), from the Meridian of the First Point
of Aries (K ) to the Meridian of the heavenly body. ie. RA = 360 - SHA.
See Paras 0106 and 0420a/b.

Run / Run-on, Run-back. Astro-sights for a fix cannot all be taken at the same
instant; typically, star sights may take place over a 10 or 15 minute period. To plot
an accurate fix, the DR/EP position for each sight must be Run-on or Run-back
(Transferred) along the ships course and speed (allowing for any tidal stream or
current), to a common time. In the case of Sun-run-Sun sights or other similar
running fixes, the earlier sight is normally run-on (Transferred) to the time of the
latter. Astronomical Position Lines are displayed on paper charts with a single open
arrowhead at each end and Transferred Astronomical Position Lines with a double
open arrowhead at each end. See Para 0351 and Note 3-9.

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SAME (name). Term used with NP 401 and NP 303 to indicate that Declination
and Latitude within the calculation have the same (North / South) names. See Para
0542b and also separate entry for CONTRARY (name) at Para 0401.

Semi-Diameter. The Semi-Diameter of a heavenly body is half its angular diameter

as viewed from the Earth. See Paras 0704, 0723.

Sextant. A Sextant is used for measuring the angle between a heavenly body and
the Visible Horizon, from the viewpoint of an observer. See Paras 0330-0339.
The following specific terms which define parts of the Sextant are explained
at Paras 0331- 0334 as indicated below and are displayed at Fig 3-7:
Sextant: Arc. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Arc of Excess. See Para 0332.
Sextant: Clamp (Index Bar). See Para 0331.
Sextant: Collar. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Horizon Glass. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Index Bar. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Index Glass. See Paras 0332, 0334d.
Sextant: Index Mark. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Main Frame. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Micrometer Drum. See Paras 0331, 0336f.
Sextant: Milled Head. See Para 0334b.
Sextant: On the Arc. See Para 0332.
Sextant: Off the Arc. See Para 0332.
Sextant: Reading Lamp. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Shades. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Star Telescope. See Para 0335.
Sextant: Sun Telescope. See Para 0335.
Sextant: Telescope. See Para 0331.

Note: Sextant Altitude and Sextant: Errors (various) are under separate entries at Para 0401.

Sextant Altitude. Sextant Altitude of a heavenly body is the angle measured by a

Sextant between the Visible Horizon and the body, on a Vertical Circle towards the
Observers Zenith(Z) and must be corrected before use.
See Para 0118 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Apparent Altitude
Observed (True) Altitude

Sextant: Collimation Error. Sextant: Collimation Error is the variation from the
parallel alignment of the axis of a Sextant Telescope to the plane of the instrument.
See Paras 0336d/e.

Sextant: Index Error. Sextant: Index Error is a variation from the parallel
alignment of the plane of the Horizon Glass to the plane of the Index Glass when
the Index Bar is set to the zero position on the Arc of a Sextant.
See Paras 0336c, 0336g.

Sextant: Side Error. Sextant: Side Error is a variation from the perpendicular
alignment of the Horizon Glass to the plane of the Arc of a Sextant. See Para
0336b.

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BR 45(2)

Sextant: Perpendicularity (error). Sextant: Perpendicularity is the perpendicular

(90) alignment of the Index Glass to the plane of the Arc of a Sextant and the
error is any variation from this. See Para 0336a.

Side Error.
See separate entry (at Para 0401)for Sextant: Side Error.

Sidereal Day / Time. A Sidereal Day is the interval between two successive
transits of the First Point of Aries across the same Meridian. The Sidereal Day is
sub-divided into hours, minutes and seconds. See Para 0441.

Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA). The Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) is the Angular
Distance, measured westwards, from Meridian of the First Point of Aries (K ) to the
Meridian of the heavenly body. It is almost completely static for stars and is
tabulated once per 3 days for each star and planet in The Nautical Almanac.
See Paras 0106, 0420a/b, 0421 / Fig 4-1.

Sidereal Hours / Minutes. Sidereal Hours / Minutes are units derived directly from
a Sidereal Day, using the same divisions (24 hrs / 60 minutes ) as in normal time.
See Para 0443.

Sinking (Mirage). When a Mirage is experienced, if the objects appears lower and
the Visible Horizon seems closer to the observer, it is termed Sinking. See Para
0808c.

Small Circle. A Small Circle is the intersection of a spherical surface and a plane
which does NOT pass through the centre of the sphere. See Para 0110.

Solar Day.
See separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Apparent Solar Day
Mean Solar Day
Day

Solar Time.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for: Mean Solar Hour / Mean Solar
Time.

Solstice. The Summer Solstice (21 June) and the Winter Solstice (22 December) are
the names given to the dates/times when the Suns position in the Celestial Sphere
is directly over the Tropic of Cancer (Latitude 23N) and the Tropic of Capricorn
(Latitude 23S) respectively. At Mer Pass, an observer on the appropriate Tropic
would see the Sun directly overhead and these dates correspond to the shortest and
longest days in the appropriate hemispheres. See Para 0103b.

Spring Equinox.
See separate entry (at Para 0401)for Equinoxes - Spring and Autumn.

Standard Deviation (method of calculation). Standard Deviation is a

mathematical treatment which is particularly useful in processing error data. It uses
Root Mean Square techniques to obtain a more useful output of errors.
See Para 0902 and also BR 45(1) Chapter 16 and Annex 16A.

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Standard Legal Time. Standard Legal Time (sometimes abbreviated to Legal

Time) is the Time Zone kept on land and is decided by national laws. In countries
extending over large east-west distances (eg USA), different Standard Legal Times
may be kept in separate geographical areas within a country. Such variations may
have their own regional designators.
See Paras 0201, 0202 / Figs 2-1, 2-2 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Time Zones
Zone Time.

Standard (or Zone) Time. The Standard (or Zone )Time appropriate to Longitude
is usually referred to as Zone Time and is the Time Zone normally kept at sea. It
should NOT be confused with Standard Legal Time / Legal Time.
See Para 0201, 0202, 0204, 0206, and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Standard Legal Time (sometimes abbreviated to Legal Time)
Standard Time Zones (sometimes abbreviated to Time Zones)
Zone Time

Standard Time Zones / Time Zones. Standard Time Zone is the generic term
given to all Time Zones within the Uniform Time System, both on land and sea. A
chart showing these zones is published by the UK Hydrographic Organisation
(UKHO) and is reproduced at Figs 2-1 and 2-2.
See Paras 0201, 0202 / Fig 2-1, Fig 2-2, 0206, 0208.

Stooping (Mirage). When a Mirage is experienced, if the lower part of a object

observed is raised more than the top and the object appears shorter overall, it is
termed Stooping. See Para 0808b.

Summer Solstice. See separate entry (at Para 0401)for Solstice.

Sun.
See separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Mean Sun
True Sun

Sunrise, Sunset.
See separate entries (at Para 0401), which co-ordinate all variants, for:
True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon).
Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon).

Supplementary Azimuth. Supplementary Azimuth is the geometric supplement

of Azimuth, (ie Azimuth + Supplementary Azimuth = 180 )
See Para 0742.

Tabulated Altitude (from NP 401 / NP 303). On entering NP 401 / NP 303, the

table provides Tabulated Altitude (Hc). Tabulated Altitude (Hc) results from using
round-figure integer arguments of LHA, Latitude and Declination. Although the
differences from the exact LHA and the exact DR/EP Latitude can be resolved by
plotting, interpolation for Declination is required to establish the exact calculated
Altitude. See Paras 0542d, 0543 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude
Corrected Tabulated Altitude (Corr Tab Alt)

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Tabulated Declination (used with NP 401 / NP 303). The Tabulated Declination

is the Declination figure for the whole number of hours of the observation and must
be corrected by the d / d corrn (Declination correction from The Nautical
Almanac) for the outstanding minutes and seconds.
See Paras 0543b and also separate entry (at Para 0401) for d / d corrn
(Declination correction from The Nautical Almanac).

Tabulated Zenith Distance.

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith
Distance (CZD).

Terrestrial Refraction. The bending of the light which is approaching the

observer on or near the surface of the Earth, is called Terrestrial Refraction and
affects the Dip of the Visible Horizon. See Para 0802.

Time.
See separate entries for:
Apparent Solar Day / Time
Astronomical Day
Civil Day
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Deck Watch Time
Equation of Time
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
International Atomic Time (TAI)
International Date Line (IDL)
Legal Time - see separate entry for Standard Legal Time
Local Mean Time (LMT)
Local Sidereal Time (LST)
Lunar Day
Mean Solar Day
Mean Solar Hour / Minute / Time
Sidereal Day / Time
Sidereal Hour / Minute
Solar Day
Solar Time
Standard Legal Time
Standard (or Zone) Time
Standard Time Zones
Summer Time - see separate entry for Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Time Errors
Time Zones - see separate entry for Standard Time Zones
Uniform Time System
Universal Coordinated Time - see Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
Universal Time (UT or UT1)
Zone Time - see separate entry for Standard (or Zone) Time

Note: All variations of Hour Angle will be found listed separately under Hour Angles.

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Time Errors. Time Errors in calculating Astronomical Position Lines are

infrequent, given the current generation of digital Deck Watches and time standard
equipment embarked in most naval ships. The most likely errors are to misread
the Deck Watch by a full minute at the time of observation (particularly if the
analogue minute and second hands are not perfectly aligned), or to apply any
known Deck Watch Error with the incorrect sign.
Any error in time will give rise to an error in the Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude,
equivalent to a displacement in Longitude by an amount equal to the error in Hour
Angle expressed in minutes of arc.
When the Azimuth of the body observed is 0 or 180 this error is zero (ie
Position Line is East-West), and is a maximum when the Azimuth of the body
observed is 90 (ie Position Line is North-South). When converting the Longitude
error to nautical miles, the same error in time will have a greater effect in distance
at the Equator than in high Latitudes due to the compression of Meridians with
Latitude. This error distance may be plotted or calculated.
See Para 0903.

Time Zones.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Standard Time Zones.

Total Darkness. Total Darkness occurs when the centre of the Sun is more than
18 below the Celestial Horizon (ie beyond Astronomical Twilight).
See Paras 0108, 0725.

Towering (Mirage). When a Mirage is experienced, if the object appears taller

than usual, it is termed Towering. See Para 0808b.

Transferred Position Lines.

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Run / Run-on, Run-back.

True Altitude.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Observed (True) Altitude.

True Bearing (of a heavenly body). The True Bearing of a heavenly body is its
direction seen from an observer and this is measured conventionally as the angle
from the Meridian of True North measured clockwise, ie. 0 to 360.
See Paras 0117, 0535, 0536.

True Sun. The True Sun is the body which gives light and heat to the Earth.
However, variations in the apparent speed of the True Sun along the Ecliptic make
the Hour Angle of the True Sun an impractical unit of measurement. To overcome
this and yet retain a link to the True Sun (which in reality governs much of life on
Earth), a Mean Sun is used instead.
See Para 0433 and also separate entry (at Para 0401) for Mean Sun.

True (Theoretical) Moonrise and Moonset.

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for True (Theoretical) Rising and
Setting (Sun and Moon).

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BR 45(2)
True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon). The time of True
(Theoretical) Rising and Setting occurs when the centre of a heavenly body is on the
observers Celestial Horizon, to the east or west of his Meridian. At these times the True
Zenith Distance is 90. Except in the case of the Moon, this phenomenon cannot be
observed directly from the Earths surface due to Atmospheric Refraction raising the
image of the body appreciably above the Visible Horizon.
True(Theoretical)Sunrise/Sunset must NOT be confused with Visible Sunrise Sunset
The special cases affecting the Sun and Moon are as follows:
<

The Moon. When the Moons centre lies on the Celestial

Horizon, due to Horizontal Parallax, the Moons centre appears
practically on the Visible Horizon. See Para 0702.

<

The Sun. When the Suns centre lies on the Celestial Horizon,
the Suns Lower Limb appears one semi-diameter above the
Visible Horizon.
See Paras 0107, 0702 and 0723.

True (Theoretical) Sunrise and Sunset.

See separate entry (at Para 0401)for True (Theoretical) Rising and
Setting (Sun and Moon).

True Zenith Distance (TZD).

See Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD) at Para 0401 above.

Twilight.
See separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Astronomical Twilight (AT)
Evening Civil Twilight (ECT)
Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT)
Midnight Sun
Morning Civil Twilight (MCT)
Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT)
Total Darkness

Uniform Time System. At sea the world is divided into twenty-four Time Zones.
Each zone is 15 wide and in each zone is numbered and lettered; this
arrangement is known as Standard(or Zone) Time. The 12th zone is divided by
the International Date Line (IDL), the part to the west being !12 and that to the
east +12. The zone number indicates the number of hours by which Zone Time
must be decreased or increased to obtain Universal Time UT. On land, countries
may modify the Standard (or Zone)Time to suit local needs. The Time Zone kept
on land is decided by national laws and is known as Standard Legal Time (or
Legal Time). See Paras 0201, (0202 / Fig 2-1, Fig 2-2), (0203), (0204), (0205),
(0206). Brackets indicate associated information.

Universal Time (UT or UT1). Universal Time (UT or UT1) is the Mean Solar
Time (MST) of the Prime Meridian obtained from direct astronomical observation
and corrected for the effects of small movements of the Earth relative to the axis
of rotation (Polar Variation). See Paras 0201, 0205, 0209, 0210, 0211, 0435.

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Upper Limb (UL). The Upper Limb of the Sun or Moon is the portion of its
circumference furthest from the Visible Horizon, as seen from an observer on the
Earths surface. See Para 0704.

Upper Mer Pass / Upper Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body). Upper Mer
Pass / Upper Meridian Passage is normally referred to as Mer Pass / Meridian
Passage.
See Paras 0602, 0603, 0612a nd also separate entry for Mer Pass / Meridian
Passage (of a heavenly body).

v corrn / v (velocity correction from The Nautical Almanac). v / v

corrn is a velocity correction to the hourly difference in Greenwich Hour Angle,
tabulated in The Nautical Almanac and is used with the (yellow) Increments and
Corrections tables at the back of The Nautical Almanac to calculate the precise
Greenwich Hour Angle of the Sun, Moon or Planets with NP 400 (Sight Form)
and NP 401 method of solving the PZX triangle. See Para 0543b.

Vertical Circles. All Great Circles passing through the Observers Zenith (Z) are
necessarily perpendicular to the Celestial Horizon and are known as Vertical
Circles. See Para 0119.

Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. Very High Angle (Tropical) Sights are
those observations of heavenly bodies where the Zenith Distances (90 Observed (True) Altitudes), when converted to nautical miles, are so small as to
make it necessary to plot them as circles, centred on the Geographic Positions of
the bodies. In practice, Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights may only be usefully
observed between Sextant Altitudes of about 88-89 and in these
circumstances, it is possible to obtain a 3 Position Line fix around the time of
the Suns Mer Pass in a period of about 10 minutes. There are also some practical
difficulties in observing a heavenly body with a Sextant at an Altitude approaching
90. See Paras 0521, 0523 and 0550.

Visible Hemisphere. The Celestial Horizon divides the Celestial Sphere into
hemispheres, the upper one of which (containing the Observers Zenith Z) is the
known as the Visible Hemisphere, and the other one as the Lower Hemisphere.
Subject to Atmospheric Refraction, all heavenly bodies in Visible Hemisphere are
visible to the observer but bodies in the Lower Hemisphere cannot be seen.
See Para 0502 (Note 5-1).

Visible Horizon. The Visible Horizon is position on the Earths surface where a
line of sight from an observer, at a given Height of Eye and in given conditions
of Refraction, meets the Earths surface as a tangent to that surface. The Visible
Horizon appears as a circle bounding the observers view at sea.
See Para 0116 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Celestial Horizon,
Plane of the Celestial Horizon

Visible Moonrise and Moonset.

See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Visible Rising and Setting (Sun
and Moon).

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Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon). Visible Rising and Setting occur
when the Upper Limb of a heavenly body is just appearing above or disappearing
below the observers Visible Horizon. In the cases of the Sun and Moon, the
tables in The Nautical Almanac give the times at which these phenomena occur.
True(Theoretical)Rising/Setting must NOT be confused with Visible
Rising/Setting
<

For the Moon:

<

For the Sun: See Paras 0107, 0320, 0321, 0322, 0702, 0703, 0720,
0721, 0722, 0725, 0740, 0741, 0742.

See Paras (0320, 0321, 0322 - non specific with

NAVPAC 2), and 0703, 0730, 0731, 0740, 0741,
0742.

Visible Sunrise and Sunset.

See separate entry (at Para 0401)for Visible Rising and Setting (Sun
and Moon).

Waning (of Moon). Waning is the name given to the change in the Moons
phases when it moves from a Full Moon, through the Last Quarter to a New
Moon. During this period, the part of the Moon visible to an observer on Earth
decreases day-by-day. See Para 0452.

Waxing (of Moon). Waxing is the name given to the change in the Moons
phases when it moves from a New Moon, through the First Quarter to a Full
Moon. During this period, the part of the Moon visible to an observer on Earth
increases day-by-day. See Para 0452.

Winter Solstice.
See separate entry (at Para 0401)for Solstice.

Zenith. See Observers Zenith (Z) at Para 0401 above.

Zenith Distance. The Zenith Distance is the Angular Distance between the
Observers Zenith and the position of a heavenly body.
See Para 0524 and separate entries (at Para 0401) for:
Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance
Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD)

Zone Time.
See separate entry (at Para 0401) for Standard (or Zone) Time.

0402-0419.

Spare

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SECTION 2 - HOUR ANGLES
0420. Hour Angles - Explanation and Definitions
Hour Angles and their specific variants were introduced at Para 0106 but may be defined
more precisely as follows:
a.
Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA). The Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) is the Angular
Distance, measured westwards, from the Meridian of the First Point of Aries (K ) to the
Meridian of the heavenly body (Fig 4-1). It is almost completely static for stars and is
tabulated once per 3 days for each star and planet in The Nautical Almanac. The SHA of
a planet is only used when using The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram or setting a Star
Identifier or Star Globe (see Paras 0133, 0324 and Annex 5A).
Note 4-1. At Fig 4-1 (facing page) the SHA of star X is labelled and is also represented by the
Angular Distance KX (measured westwards).
b.
Right Ascension (RA). Right Ascension (RA) is the Angular Distance, measured
eastwards (rather than westwards as in SHA), from the Meridian of the First Point of
Aries (K ) to the Meridian of the heavenly body. ie. RA = 360 - SHA. This measurement
is mostly used by astronomers but has a navigation application when using the Star
Identifier and Star Globe (see Para 0324 and Annex 5A). RA is not labelled at Figs 4-1,
4-2 or 4-3.
Note 4-2. At Fig 4-1 (facing page) the RA of star X is NOT labelled but is represented by the
Angular Distance KX measured eastwards (ie 360-KX measured westwards).
c.
Greenwich Hour Angles (GHA). The Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) is the
Angular Distance, measured westwards from the projection of the Greenwich Meridian
onto the Celestial Sphere and the Meridian of the heavenly body. The GHA of the First
Point Aries (K ) and the GHAs of the Sun, Moon and Planets are tabulated second-bysecond in The Nautical Almanac. Adding SHA of the body to the GHA of Aries (K )
(minus 360 if required) gives the GHA of the body. See Fig 4-1 and Paras 0421-0422.
Note 4-3. At Fig 4-1 (facing page) the GHA of star X and the GHA of K are both labelled and
are also represented by the Angular Distances GX and GK respectively (both measured
westwards).
d.
Local Hour Angle (LHA). The Local Hour Angle (LHA) is the Angular Distance,
measured westwards, of the projection of the observers Meridian onto the Celestial
Sphere and the Meridian of the heavenly body. It equates to the GHA of the body +/- the
observerss Longitude. See Fig 4-1 and Paras 0421-0422.
Note 4-4. At Fig 4-1 (facing page) the LHAs of star X measured westwards from the observer
O at H and K are labelled, and are also represented by the Angular Distances O(H)X and O(K)X
respectively.

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0421. Hour Angles and Declination - Pictorial Representation & Standard Nomenclature
Key Celestial Sphere definitions from Paras 0401 and 0420 are shown in pictorial form
at Fig 4-1 below, which is viewed from the Greenwich Celestial Meridian. Fig 4-1 also adopts
the standard nomenclature convention for lettering astro-navigation diagrams which will be
followed through the remainder of this book. Reading from the Celestial Poles and then left to
right, the nomenclature is as follows:
P, P The north and south Celestial Poles
Q, Q The Celestial Equator
O
Observers Meridian - may be suffixed K or H as appropriate, see O(H), O(K)
O(H) Observers Meridian when observer is at H (Longitude West)
X
Celestial Meridian of a heavenly body (may be either side of G)
G
Greenwich Celestial Meridian
K
Celestial Meridian of the First Point of Aries (K )
O(K) Observers Meridian when observer is at K (Longitude East)
Z
The Observers Zenith (Z) is not shown in Fig 4-1
RA
The Right Ascension (360- SHA) is not shown in Fig 4-1

Fig 4-1. Hour Angles and Declination

(Viewed from Greenwich Celestial Meridian)

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0422. Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and Local Hour Angle (LHA) of a Heavenly Body.
a.
GHA. From the definition at Para 0420c, it can be seen at Fig 4-1 and Fig 4-2
that the Angular Distance GX represents the GHA of the heavenly body. While the GHA
is tabulated in The Nautical Almanac second-by-second for the Sun, Moon, Planets and
Aries (K ), to do so for all 57 stars would produce an unacceptably large publication,
running to several volumes. However, the GHA of a star can easily be found instead, by
adding the SHA of the star (which is an almost fixed value and represented by the Angular
Distance K X), to the tabulated GHA of Aries (GHA K , represented by the Angular
Distance GK ).
b.
LHA. By adding or subtracting (+E,- W) the Angular Distance of the Longitude
of the Observers Meridian (either O(H) or O(K) at Fig 4-2; for simplicity abbreviated
to H or K below), to the Greenwich Hour Angle GX, the Local Hour Angle (HX or KX)
of the heavenly body, measured westwards, is found (see example on facing page).

Fig 4-2. GHA and LHA of a Heavenly Body.

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c.
LHA Calculation - Observer East of Greenwich. In the case of an observer
east of the Greenwich Meridian at O(K) - for simplicity abbreviated to K below - the
calculation for a star is as follows (GHA of Sun, Moon and Planets are tabulated):
GHA K
=
GK
(Stars only)
(measured clockwise)
SHA of X =
KX
(Stars only)
(measured clockwise)
GHA of X =
GX = K X + GK (-360 if req)(measured clockwise)
Longitude =
GK
(measured anti-clockwise)
LHA of X =
KGX = GX +KG
(measured clockwise)
=
GHA + Longitude (East)
d. LHA Calculation - Observer West of Greenwich. In the case of an observer west
of the Greenwich Meridian at O(H) - for simplicity abbreviated to H below - the
calculation is as follows:
GHA K and SHA of X calculations for GHA of stars as at Para 0422c above.
GHA of X =
GX (measured clockwise. 360 may be added if required)
Longitude =
GH (measured clockwise ie. the long way round)
LHA of X =
HX (measured clockwise ie. the long way round)
=
GX + (360 - GH)
=
GX - GH (since any sum greater than 360 is unaffected
if 360 is subtracted)
=
GHA - Longitude (West)
e. LHA Calculation - Summary. The above calculations can be summarised as
follows:
GHA of the Sun, Moon and Planets is Tabulated in The Nautical Almanac.
GHA of a Star = GHA K + SHA of X, + or - 360 if required
LHA of a heavenly body (X) = GHA of X + Observers Longitude (East)
or, = GHA of X - Observers Longitude (West)
Example 4-1. If the SHA of a star in Fig 4-2 is 166 19.2', the GHA of K is 256 20.0', the
Longitude of the Meridian through H is 164 47W, and that of the Meridian through K is 121
13E then the LHA can be calculated as follows:
At H
GHA of K
SHA of X
*GHA of X

At K

256 20.0'
+ 166 19.2'

GHA of K
SHA of X

256 20.0'
+ 166 19.2'

422 39.2

GHA of X

422 39.2
- 360 00.0'

GHA of X
422 39.2
Longitude (W) - 164 47.0'

GHA of X
Longitude (E) +

062 39.0'
121 13.0'

LHA of X

LHA of X

183 52.0'

257 52.2'

Example 4-1.

Summary of LHA Calculation

* Note 4-5. If the GHA of a body is less than the numerical value of the observers Longitude
(W), then 360 may be added to the GHA when calculating LHA.

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SECTION 3 - SOLAR TIME
0430.

Purpose
Sections 3-5 of Chapter 4, concerning Solar, Sidereal and Lunar Time, are primarily for
Royal Navy officers holding or studying for the Specialist N qualification. Due to the advent
of time systems based on atomic-standard clocks (see Chapter 2), computer programs capable of
instantaneous reduction of astro-navigation sights (see Chapter 3) and the withdrawal of the
Sidereal Stop Watch (previously used for one variant of manual rapid sight reduction), a
knowledge of Solar, Sidereal and Lunar Time is of less significance now than hitherto. However,
Solar Time information is still extant in the maritime domain and is published in the daily pages
of The Nautical Almanac. Implicit with their expert status, it remains relevant for the
Navigation Specialists of the Royal Navy to retain a knowledge of the astronomical factors
involved in Time as part of their general understanding of the workings of the Celestial Sphere.
The following paragraphs are intended to provide a readily available reference for this subject.
0431.

The Solar Day and Solar Time

The basis of time measurement in astro- navigation is the period of rotation of the Earth.
The rotation of the Earth results in the apparent rotation of the Celestial Sphere with relation to
a fixed observer, so that heavenly bodies appear to be crossing and returning to the Observers
Meridian once a day. A Day is the interval that elapses between two successive transits of
a heavenly body across the same Meridian. All heavenly bodies are thus timekeepers but some
are more useful than others. The Sun is not a perfect timekeeper as it is relatively close to the
Earth and its apparent speed along the Ecliptic is not constant. However, the Sun is central to life
on Earth and because of this, throughout history it has been used for timekeeping purposes. These
range from the simple constraints of only being able to work in the fields during daytime, to the
complex sundials of the type built by Henry VIII at the Royal Palace of Hampton Court.
0432.

The Apparent Solar Day

The interval that elapses between two successive transits of the Sun across the same
Meridian is an Apparent Solar Day. By the time the Earth has made one revolution (360)
measured against a star crossing the Observers Meridian, the Earth will have moved along its
orbit and its position relative to the Sun will have altered by a measurable amount. Thus for the
Sun to cross the Observers Meridian for a second time the Earth will have rotated slightly more
than one 360 rotation. Depending on its position in the annual orbit, this difference can be up
to 1 of rotation (ie. 361). This complicated by the Earth not moving along its elliptical orbit
around the Sun at a constant speed. Its speed is greatest when nearest the Sun and least when
furthest from the Sun; thus the difference is a variable amount both in quantity and sign (see Para
0439). Due to these factors the Apparent Solar Day is NOT a time interval of fixed length.
0433.

The True Sun and the Mean Sun

The apparently irregular movement of the Sun (see Para 0432) is revealed to an
observer on Earth by variations in the apparent speed of the Sun along the Ecliptic. If this motion
is projected on to the Celestial Equator, the Hour Angle of the Sun (referred to hereafter as
theTrue Sun) may be measured, and as expected, this shows a non-uniform rate of change. The
Hour Angle of the True Sun does not therefore give a practical unit of measurement. To overcome
this difficulty, and yet retain a link to the True Sun (which in reality governs much of life on
Earth), a Mean Sun is introduced, defined as follows:
The Mean Sun is an imaginary body which is assumed to move in the Celestial
Equator at a uniform speed around the Earth and to complete one (360) revolution
in the time taken by the True Sun to complete one (360) revolution in the Ecliptic.
4-34
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0434.

The Mean Solar Day / Time and UT , the Civil Day and the Astronomical Day
a. The Mean Solar Day. The interval between two successive transits of the Mean
Sun across the same Meridian is called the Mean Solar Day. In one Mean Solar Day the
Mean Sun moves westwards from the Meridian and completes one circuit of 360 in
Longitude in the 24 Mean Solar Hours into which the Mean Solar Day is divided. The
rate of travel of the Mean Sun is thus 15 of Longitude per hour, and thus 1 of
Longitude is equivalent to 4 minutes of time.
b. Mean Solar Time, UT and GMT. The Mean Solar Hour is divided into minutes
and seconds; it equates exactly to the UT/ UT1 and GMT hour (Paras 0209 and 0210).
c. The Civil Day and the Astronomical Day. The Civil Day (which uses the am / pm
notation) and the Astronomical Day (which uses 24 hour notation) both contain 24 Mean
Solar Hours (abbreviated hereafter hours). The Civil Day and the Astronomical Day
are deemed to start at midnight (when the sun is at its lower transit of the Observers
Meridian. ie. Its Hour Angle is exactly 12 hours before / after its upper transit of the
Observers Meridian when the Mean Sun is at its highest point in the daytime sky).

0435.

Local Mean Time (LMT) and Universal Time (UT) /Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
a. Local Mean Time (LMT). Local Mean Time (LMT) is the mean time kept at any
place when the Local Hour Angle of the Mean Sun is measured from Meridian of that
place. However, as the Local Hour Angle of the Mean Sun is measured from the
Greenwich Meridian and the Civil/Astronomical Day are both measured from 180 (12
hours) from the Greenwich Meridian (see Para 0434c), LMT is defined as follows:

LMT at any instant is the Local Hour Angle of the Mean Sun at that instant, measured
westwards from the Meridian of that place, +/- 12 hours.
b. Universal Time (UT) / Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT) is the Local Mean Time on the Greenwich Meridian, but has been largely
replaced by the term UT. However, as the Local Hour Angle of the Mean Sun is
measured from the Greenwich Meridian and the Civil/Astronomical Day are both
measured from 180 (12 hours) from the Greenwich Meridian (see Para 0434c), GMT
(and also UT) are defined as follows:
UT / GMT is the Greenwich Hour Angle of the Mean Sun at that instant, +/- 12 hours.
0436.

Longitude and Time

Since all places on earth are identified by reference to the Greenwich Meridian,
Longitude must provide the connection between LMT at any place and UT / GMT. Take for
example, New York which is roughly 75 west of Greenwich. The Mean Sun, travelling west at
15 per hour covers this Angular Distance in 5 hours, thus New York is 5 hours west of
Greenwich. When the Mean Sun reaches New Yorks Meridian, its Local Hour Angle with
reference to this Meridian is 0 hours, but with reference to the Greenwich Meridian it is 5 hours,
because that is the period since the Mean Sun crossed the Greenwich Meridian. Similarly, when
the Mean Sun crosses the Greenwich Meridian, the Local Hour Angle in New York is (24 hours 5 hours) = 19 hours. It can be seen that this calculation may also trigger a date change. What has
been shown for this example of New York holds good in principle for any other place, and leads
to the rule at Para 0437 of applying Longitude (expressed in time) to convert the LMT on one
Meridian to/from the LMT on the Greenwich Meridian (UT / GMT).
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0437.

Conversion between UT / GMT and LMT

Applying the principle at Para 0436, the following rules (also at Para 0205)are established:

If a Longitude is West, ADD the time equivalent of the Longitude when changing from Local
Mean Time to GMT (and vice versa - SUBTRACT if changing from UT / GMT to LMT).
If a Longitude is East, SUBTRACT the time equivalent of the Longitude when changing
from Local Mean Time to GMT (and vice versa - ADD if changing from UT / GMT to LMT).
Examples 4-2 and 4-3. What are the LMTs if UT/GMT is 23 hrs 31 mins 25 secs on 14
September, (1) at 48 West, and (2) at 22 East. Note that this is changing from UT / GMT to
LMT.
Example 4-2: at 48 West
Date

Example 4-3: at 22 East

Hrs Mins Secs

14 Sep UT / GMT

23

31

25

03

12

00

14 Sep LMT (48W) 20

19

25

Long W. (-)

Date

Hrs Mins Secs

14 Sep UT / GMT
Long E. (+)
15 Sep LMT

23

31

25

01

30

00

01

01

25

Examples 4-2 and 4-3. Worked Examples of Converting UT / GMT to LMT

(Note that the date has also changed in Example 4-3 at 22 East)
0438.

Use of Standard Time and Zone Time

It is clearly impracticable for each place to keep the time in its own Meridian, nor is it
practicable for places all over the world to keep the same time. Thus the system of Standard
(orZone) Time which includes dates has been agreed internationally (see Paras 0201-0204). UT
/ GMT is used as the standard Time Zone for worldwide reference books such as The Nautical
Almanac, is the Time Zone in which Ships Chronometers and Deck Watches are kept and is also
used for signal message Date-Time-Groups (DTGs). It should be noted that Tides Tables, which
are specific to local areas, normally provide information in Standard Legal Time (See Para 0202)
but care must be exercised when any Daylight Saving Time (DST) is in force.
0439.

The Equation of Time

Although the assumption of an imaginary Mean Sun makes the ordinary clock possible,
this same assumption also gives rise to a problem. The navigator, seeking to fix his position by
the Sun, necessarily measures the altitude of the True Sun, and the True Sun keeps Apparent
Solar Time (Paras 0432-0434). The instant of this observation is from a Deck Watch which that
keeps Mean Solar Time. The navigator must be able to connect Mean Solar Time with Apparent
Solar Time. The connection is the Equation of Time which is defined as:
The Equation of Time is the difference of Mean Solar Time from Apparent Solar Time
Equation of Time = LHA Mean Sun - LHA True Sun
The value of the Equation of Time varies in size and sign depending on the seasonal
position of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun (Para 0432). On about 15 April, 14 June, 1
September and 24 December it becomes zero and changes sign; its extreme values are +14 and
-16 minutes. The value of the Equation of Time is tabulated in The Nautical Almanac twice daily.
To overcome these difficulties, the tables in The Nautical Almanac allow for the Equation
of Time and are entered with the argument of UT(GMT). No further correction is needed.
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SECTION 4 - SIDEREAL TIME
0440.

Purpose.
See Para 0430 for explanation of the purpose of Sections 3-5 of Chapter 4.

0441.

The Sidereal Day and Sidereal Time

It was stated at Para 0431 that a Day is the interval that elapses between two successive
transits of a heavenly body across the same Meridian. All heavenly bodies are thus timekeepers
but some are more convenient than others. If the heavenly body selected for observation is a star,
the interval between successive transits across the same Meridian is known as a Sidereal Day,
to distinguish it from a Solar Day (or more fully, an Apparent Solar Day or a Mean Solar Day see Paras 0432-0434). The Sidereal Day is sub-divided into hours, minutes and seconds. For
convenience, the First Point of Aries (K ) is taken instead of an actual star (see Para 0104) and
the Sidereal Day is therefore defined as follows:
A Sidereal Day is the interval between two successive transits of the First Point of Aries
across the same Meridian.
0442.

Length of the Sidereal Day

It was established at Para 0432 that the Earth rotates through about 361 during one
Apparent Solar Day, whereas during a Sidereal Day the Earth completes exactly one revolution
(360), measured against any distant star crossing the Observers Meridian. Although the
Sidereal Day provides a precise and regular time interval, due to variations in the length of the
Apparent Solar Day of between +14 and -16 minutes (see Para 0432 and 0439), the numerical
difference between the Sidereal Day and the Apparent Solar Day is also a variable amount both
in quantity and sign. However, the difference between the Sidereal Day and the Mean Solar Day
is reasonably constant at about 4 minutes, which is the extra time taken by Earth to turn through
the extra amount.
In summary, the Sidereal Day is not a practical unit of time in a world governed by the Sun,
and except in observatories where it has uses in providing time interval, it may be ignored
for clock purposes but see Para 0443 for its important use as an Angular Distance.
0443.

Local Sidereal Time (LST)

Notwithstanding its limitations of use as a clock system, Sidereal Time as an Angular
Distance is of real importance to the navigator because it enters the problem of establishing a
stars Hour Angle and thus helps solve the navigational problem. The navigator is not concerned
with the duration of time which has elapsed since the First Point of Aries (K ) crossed the local
meridian, otherwise the Sidereal Hour and the Sidereal Minute - time units derived from the
Sidereal Day and differing slightly from Mean Solar Day/Hour/Minute - would become involved
and the connection between the two sets of units would have to be investigated more thoroughly.
This labour, however, is avoided when the navigator treats Sidereal Time as an Angular Distance,
because the units of arc in which he expresses it are constant units suitable for expressing the
Angular Distance of any heavenly body from his Meridian. To express the Angular Distance of
the First Point of Aries (K ) from an Observers Meridian, Local Sidereal Time is defined as
follows:
Local Sidereal Time (LST) is defined as the LHA of First Point of Aries (K ).

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0444. Relationship between UT / GMT and GHA Aries (K )
a. Relationship of Mean Suns GHA and SHA, and its UT/GMT. The movement of
the Mean Sun in the Celestial Equator (see Para 0433) enables a relation to be established
between the UT / GMT at which a star is observed and its Greenwich Hour Angle at that
instant. The Mean Suns uniform movement in the Celestial Sphere, along which path
the Sidereal Hour Angles are measured, implies an equally uniform decrease in the Mean
Suns Sidereal Hour Angle during the year. Point X, which lies on the Celestial Equator
in Fig 4-3, may therefore be taken as the Mean Sun at the moment under consideration.
Just as a stars Greenwich Hour Angle and a stars Sidereal Hour Angle are related (see
Para 0420c), it is apparent from Fig 4-3, that the Mean Suns Greenwich Hour Angle and
the Mean Suns Sidereal Hour Angle are similarly related as follows:
GHA Aries (K ) = GHA Mean Sun - SHA Mean Sun + (360 if req)
But as shown at Para 0435b:
GHA Mean Sun = UT +/- 12 hours
GHA Aries (K ) = UT +/- 12 hours - SHA Mean Sun + (360 if req)
b. Tabulation of GHA Aries (K ) Against UT. The SHA Mean Sun decreases at a
constant rate and can be predicted for any instant. It is thus possible to calculate GHA
Aries at any instant. GHA Aries (K ) is tabulated against UT in The Nautical Almanac.

Fig 4-3.
0445-0449. Spare.

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Mean Suns SHA, GHA of (K ) and Mean Suns GHA

BR 45(2)
SECTION 5 - LUNAR AND PLANETARY TIME
0450.

The Hour Angle of the Moon

a. Relationship of Moons GHA, Moons SHA and UT / GMT. If two successive
transits of the Moon were observed across the same Meridian, the interval between them
would be one Lunar Day. As shown at Fig 4-4, since the Moon itself is describing an
orbit around the Earth in the same direction as the Earths spin, the interval between the
two transits of the same Meridian would be longer than the Mean Solar Day.

Fig 4-4. The Orbit of the Moon during a Mean Solar Day (Not to Scale)
At Fig 4-4, AA is a measure of the Mean Solar Day, but while the Earth has moved
from A to A, the Moon has reached C, and so the Earth will have to turn through a
further angle approximately equal to BAC before it is on the Observers Meridian
again. (Distances in Fig 4-4 are not to scale; as the Sun is so far away, the lines shown
as Observers Meridian at A and A are in reality almost parallel.) The time taken to
turn the extra angle BAC varies between 39 and 64 minutes but averages 50 minutes.
The units derived from the Lunar Day are Lunar Units. It is not necessary, however, to
work in Lunar Units to find the Hour Angle of the Moon. The formula for the Hour
Angle of a heavenly body (see Para 0420c and 0434) applies equally to the Moon, thus:
GHA Aries (K ) = GHA Moon - SHA Moon + (360 if req)
But as shown in Para 0435b:
GHA Moon
= UT +/- 12 hours
GHA Aries (K ) = UT +/- 12 hours - SHA Moon + (360 if req)
b. Tabulation of GHA Moon Against UT / GMT. The SHA of the Moon can be
predicted and when combined with GHA Aries (K ) as above, gives GHA Moon. As a
result of such calculations, GHA Moon is tabulated against UT in The Nautical Almanac.
4-39
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0451.

|
|

The Lunation or Lunar Month

a. Length of the Lunar Month. The Lunation or Lunar Month is the interval between
two successive New Moons (when the Moon lies in a straight line between the Earth and
the Sun and therefore appears black) and is important in tidal prediction. The Moon
makes one complete revolution about the Earth in 27a Mean Solar Days, but if the
Moon were a New Moon at the beginning of this period, when the Earth is at A in Fig 45, it would not be a New Moon at the end of the period, because it would not lie in a
straight line with the Sun and the Earth, which is now at B. To achieve this position it
must move along its orbit round the Earth, and while this is happening, the Earth
continues along its own orbit round the sun to a position C. A further 21/6 Mean Solar
Days (approximately) elapse before the Moon is again a New Moon, and a Lunation or
Lunar Month is therefore equivalent to (271/3 + 21/6) or 29 Mean Solar Days.

Fig 4-5. The Lunar Month

b. Time Difference of Lunar Day and Mean Solar Day. During a Lunar Month the
Moon must cross the Observers Meridian once fewer times than the Sun, and this fact
establishes the 50-minute difference between the Mean Solar Day and the Lunar Day
because:
28 Lunar Days = 29 Mean Solar Days
1 Lunar Day
= 29 Mean Solar Days divided by 28
1 Lunar Day
= 24 hours and 50 minutes (Mean Solar Time)

4-40
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BR 45(2)
0452.

Phases of the Moon

a. Tabulated Data in Nautical Almanac. On each 3-day double tabular page, The
Nautical Almanac tabulates the semi-diameter of the Moon for each day, the age of the
Moon in days, its percentage illuminated each day and a symbol indicating the phase for
1200 (UT) on the middle day. Full Moons are indicated by a white circle and New
Moons by a black circle, with intermediate phase diagrams indicating the proportion of
the Moon which is illuminated. These intermediate phase diagrams do not indicate
which side of the Moon is illuminated from all Latitudes but are set for UK and other
(mostly northerly) Latitudes where the Sun passes to the south at Meridian Passage (see
Para 0325a). The dates and times of the Moons phases for the entire year are given in
UT on Page 4 of The Nautical Almanac.
b. Changes of the Moons Phases. Fig 4-6 provides a simplified diagram of the
Moons orbit around the Earth in relation to the Mean Sun (ignoring the movement of the
Earth in its orbit around the Sun). From this it can be seen that at New Moon the
illuminated side of the Moon is not visible from the Earth. However as the Moons orbit
progresses to the First Quarter, an observer on Earth first sees a thin crescent of
illuminated Moon which increases (Waxes) to half the Moon being illuminated. It then
waxes to three-quarters of the Moon being illuminated before reaching a Full Moon
when the whole surface of the Moon is illuminated. The illuminated sector of the Moon
progressively decreases (Wanes) to the Last Quarter and to the New Moon. It should be
noted that although Fig 4-6 gives an accurate picture of the Moons phases from a
position outside the Solar System, it does NOT make clear how the Moons crescent
will appear to an observer on the Earths surface. For an understanding of which way
the crescent faces during Waxing and Waning, and thus an instant appreciation of the
Moons phase by a single observation, an analysis of the Suns and Moons Hour Angles
is needed (see Para 0452c-f).

Fig 4-6. Phases of the Moon during Lunar Month (simplified)

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BR 45(2)
c. Hour Angles of the Sun and Moon at the Time of New Moon. It can be seen
from Fig 4-6 that the Moon always has its illuminated convex edge nearest to the Sun.
It is also apparent that at the time of a New Moon, the Moon and the Sun occupy
positions in the sky very close to each other and thus will have very similar Local Hour
Angles (LHA); a quick look at The Nautical Almanacs GHA column (see Note 4-6
below) for the Sun and Moon at the time of New Moon will confirm this. It is for this
reason that the Moon cannot be seen from Earth at New Moon; partly because the other
side of the Moon is being illuminated and partly because being so close to the Sun, the
Moon is only above the horizon in daylight.
Note 4-6. Longitude must be applied to both GHAs to obtain LHAs (see Paras 0420d and 0421),
but as it will be the same Longitude in both cases and only the relative LHAs are needed, it is
sufficient to compare GHAs.
d. Change in Hour Angles of the Sun and Moon: New Moon to Full Moon. As the
Moon moves towards the First Quarter and thence to Full Moon, the Suns LHA
advances more rapidly than the Moons. As Hour Angle is always measured westwards
(see Paras 0420 and 0421) this means that as the Suns LHA increases relative to the
Moons LHA, its WEST side will be illuminated, until at Full Moon the whole Moon is
illuminated. At this time, the Suns LHA is 180 (12 hours) ahead of the Moons LHA,
which explains why at the Equinoxes the Moon rises at the time the Sun sets (the
Harvest Moon phenominum). A glance at The Nautical Almanacs GHA column for
the Sun and Moon (see Note 4-6 above) from the time of New Moon to Full Moon will
confirm these relative changes of LHA.
e. Change in Hour Angles of the Sun and Moon: Full Moon to New Moon. As the
Moon moves towards the Last Quarter and thence to New Moon, the Suns LHA
continues to advance more rapidly than the Moons LHA, but as it is now MORE than
180 AHEAD of the Moons LHA, it is more convenient to think of it as LESS than 180
BEHIND and thus eastward of the Moon. This means that from Full Moon onwards it
will illuminate the EAST side of the Moon until, at New Moon, none of the Moon is
illuminated. At this time, the Suns LHA is once again synchronised with the Moons
LHA, and the cycle repeats itself. Another glance at the GHA column for the Sun and
Moon in The Nautical Almanac (see Para 0420d) from the time of Full Moon to New
Moon will confirm these relative changes of LHA.
f. Moons Phases, Waxing and Waning: Identification by Single Observation.
The implications of the relative movement of the Suns LHA compared to the Moons
LHA are that the phase of the Moon (and whether it is Waxing or Waning) can be
established by a single glance at the Moon without recourse to tables. The Moon always
has its illuminated convex edge nearest to the Sun (see Para 0452c above). When
Waxing the Moon has its west side illuminated (see Para 0452d above) and when Waning
has its East side illuminated (see Para 0452e above). From this a simple rule for the
Moons phases emerges:
The Moons illuminated convex edge is at the West when Waxing;
The Moons illuminated convex edge is at the East when Waning.

This can be neatly summarised as: West when Waxing; East when Waning.

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BR 45(2)
0453.

The Hour Angle of the Planets

The Planets belong to the solar system and for the purpose of finding their Hour Angles,
their motion in the Celestial Sphere may be treated in exactly the same way as for the Moon (see
Para 0450) and thus:
GHA Aries (K ) = GHA Planet - SHA Planet + (360 if req)
But as shown in Para 0435b:
GHA Planet
= UT +/- 12 hours
GHA Aries (K ) = UT +/- 12 hours - SHA Planet + (360 if req)

The SHA of the Planets can be predicted and when combined with GHA Aries (K ) as above,
gives GHA Planet. As a result of such calculations, GHA Planet for Venus, Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn are tabulated against UT in The Nautical Almanac.

4-43
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK

4-44
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BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 5
IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES, ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES,
OBSERVED POSITION AND SIGHT REDUCTION PROCEDURES
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES
The Mathematics of Identifying Heavenly Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Star Globe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Star Identifier and The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0501
0502
0503

SECTION 2 - ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Position Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plotting Position Circles - Ordinary Sights and Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights .
The Intercept (Marq St Hilaire) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assumptions made when an Astronomical Position Line is Plotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plotting Sheets and Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0520
0521
0522
0523
0524
0525
0526

SECTION 3 - CALCULATING ALTITUDE, AZIMUTH AND TRUE BEARING

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Means of Solving the PZX Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solution of PZX Triangle for Zenith Distance - Cosine Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solution of PZX Triangle for Azimuth - Cosine Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solution of PZX Triangle for Azimuth - Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Azimuth and True Bearing of a Heavenly Body (RN and UK Maritime Usage) . . . . .
Differences in Meaning of Azimuth, Azimuth Angle and True Bearing . . . . . . . .

0530
0531
0532
0533
0534
0535
0536

SECTION 4 - SIGHT REDUCTION PROCEDURES

Summary of Methods Available for Sight Reduction and their Accuracies . . . . . . . . .
Use of NAVPAC 2 (See Chapter 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Explanation of Marine Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (NP 401 series) . . . . . . . .
Use of Marine Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (NP 401 series) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of Air Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (NP 303 series) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of Nautical Almanac Formulae and Procedures for Programmable Calculators . .
Use of Concise Nautical Almanac Reduction Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0540
0541
0542
0543
0544
0545
0546

SECTION 5 - VERY HIGH ALTITUDE (TROPICAL) SIGHTS

Practical Observation at all Altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planning, Taking and Reduction of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights . . . . . . . . . .
Plotting Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0550
0551
0552

SECTION 6 - HIGH LATITUDE (POLAR) SIGHTS

Taking High Latitude (Polar) Sights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reducing High Latitude (Polar) Sights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plotting High Latitude (Polar) Sights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0560
0561
0562

ANNEXES
Annex A:

Description and Setting of the Star Globe

5-1
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5-2
Change 1

BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 5
IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES, ASTRONOMICAL POSITION
LINES, OBSERVED POSITION AND SIGHT REDUCTION PROCEDURES
SECTION 1 - IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES
0501. The Mathematics of Identifying Heavenly Bodies
Methods of identifying heavenly bodies are covered at Paras 0130-0133 and 0323-0324.
However, the mathematics of these methods were not explained, although this is essential if the
means by which they operate is to be understood. Fig 5-1 shows the Celestial Sphere with a
heavenly body X with an observer on the Meridian of Q. The figure is oriented so that the
Celestial Horizon is horizontal and thus the Observers Zenith (Z) is at the 12 oclock position.

Fig 5-1 Obtaining SHA and Dec

a. The identity of a star (X) can be established when its Sidereal Hour Angle (or 360RA) and Declination (shown as dashed lines at Fig 1-13) are known. The observer must
deduce these from the stars True Bearing and Altitude. So, in Fig 5-1 it is required to
find KX (SHA of X) and XX (Declination of X), from AX (Altitude of X), the angle PZX
(the Azimuth of X) and the angle ZPX (which is the LHA of X found from the Deck
Watch Time). ZPX is represented by QX (when the observer is on the Meridian at Q).
b. Since KX (SHA) = QX (LHA of X )!QK (LHA of K ), the LHA of X is known and
LHA of Aries (K ) = GHA of Aries (K ) Longitude, the SHA of X may be calculated.
c. In the triangle PZX, PZ (Co-Latitude), ZX (90 ! Altitude of X) and the angle
PZX (the Azimuth of X ) are known, so the Angular Distance PX may thus be calculated.
However, XX = 90- PX, so XX (the Declination of X ) may be easily calculated.
5-3
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BR 45(2)
0502. The Star Globe.
a. Solution of Heavenly Bodys SHA and Declination. Para 0501 demonstrates
how the SHA of X and the Declination of X may be found, provided that the time of
observation or prediction is known, and given its altitude, True Bearing and access to
a Nautical Almanac or equivalent. It is of course possible to run this calculation in
reverse to calculate the predicted altitude and True Bearing of a known heavenly body
at any time.
b. Mechanical Model of the Celestial Sphere. While studying the Celestial Sphere,
it is infinitely preferable to have a dynamic 3-dimensional model rather than a series of
2-dimensional diagrams. For many years, such a model - The Star Globe - was issued
to all ships to provide a simple and speedy mechanical solution to the problem of
star/planet identification at morning and evening stars. However, with the advent of
NAVPAC 1, this expensive and delicate instrument was withdrawn from service.
c. Use of the Star Globe for Teaching Astro-Navigation Theory. The Star Globe
is easy to use and provides a very clear demonstration of the orientation of the Visible
Hemisphere (see Note 5-1 below) of the Celestial Sphere for any time and position on
the earths surface. Although this instrument has been declared obsolete for general use
in the Royal Navy, a small number of Star Globes (Epoch 1975) have been preserved at
the Navigation Section of the School of Maritime Operations (N Section, SMOPS) at
HMS DRYAD and are now used for the sole purpose of teaching astro-navigation
theory. A full description and instructions for use are at Annex 5A.
Note 5-1. Visible Hemisphere and Lower Hemisphere. The Celestial Horizon divides the
Celestial Sphere into hemispheres, the upper one of which (containing the Observers Zenith Z)
is the known as the Visible Hemisphere, and the other one as the Lower Hemisphere. Subject
to Atmospheric Refraction, all heavenly bodies in Visible Hemisphere are visible to the observer
but bodies in the Lower Hemisphere cannot be seen. The Star Globe displays the Visible
Hemisphere and the first 6 of the Lower Hemisphere below the Celestial Horizon. The
remainder of the Lower Hemisphere is covered by the Star Globes box and mounting
arrangements.
0503. The Star Identifier and The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram
The Star Identifier (NP 323) works in a similar manner to the Star Globe and is described
in full at Para 0132. It displays heavenly bodies drawn on the Plane of the Celestial Horizon (see
Note 5-2 below.) The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram is explained at Para 0133.
Note 5-2. Plane of the Celestial Horizon. Where it is convenient to show the whole (visible)
sky, it must be drawn on the Plane of the Celestial Horizon, as if the Celestial Sphere was seen
from a position directly above the Observers Zenith (Z). Z appears in the centre of a circle
which is the Visible Horizon. The Celestial Equator appears as a curve offset from the centre by
an amount equal to the observers Latitude.
0504-0519. Spare

5-4
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BR 45(2)
SECTION 2 - ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES
0520. Introduction
Instructions on how to plot Astronomical Position Lines are at Para 0351, but only with
an outline explanation of why plotting is carried out in this way. For the convenience of readers,
the explanation from Para 0351a is repeated at Para 0521 and a full explanation of this concept
follows.
0521. Concept (Repeated from Para 0351a)
An Astronomical Position Line is actually a small element of the circumference of a
Small Circle (see Para 0110) centred on the Geographic Position (see Para 0109) of the star with
a radius equivalent to 90 - Altitude, converted into nautical miles. This radius is usually
between 1200 n. miles (Altitude 70) and 4200 n. miles (Altitude 20) in length, and is impossible
to plot on any chart of a reasonable scale. However, if the Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude for
the DR position is subtracted from the Observed (True) Altitude and the result (converted into
nautical miles and known as the Intercept ) is plotted from the DR /EP position either To or
From the True Bearing of the star, then plotting at a reasonable scale on a normal chart is
possible. Given the large radius of the Small Circle, it is accepted that for short distances the
Astronomical Position Line may be considered to be a straight line.
0522. The Position Circle
It can be seen from Fig 5-2 that the observers position is at z on the circumference of
the Small Circle radius ZX, when it is projected onto the Earths surface at zx about a centre
x(Geographic Position of heavenly body X). The radius ZX = 90- AZ, when AZ is the
Observed (True) Altitude of the heavenly body. The Angular Distance zx( which equals ZX)
may be converted to nautical miles (1 = 60 n. miles). The circles ZX and zx are known as
Position Circles.

Fig 5-2. The Position Circle

5-5
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BR 45(2)
0523. Plotting Position Circles - Ordinary Sights and Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
The difficulty of plotting most Position Circles zx on a chart is explained at Para 0521.
However, in the case of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights around 89 (see Para 0525, 05500552), the Position Circle is very small and this method is a realistic option. With most ordinary
sights even if it were decided to attempt to plot such large distances on a normal mercator chart,
the necessary accuracy would be very difficult to achieve due to the distortion of the Latitude
scale in this projection. Thus another method of plotting most astro-sights is needed.
0524. The Intercept (Marq St Hilaire) Method
a. Zenith Distances. The Zenith Distance is the Angular Distance between the
Observers Zenith and the position of a heavenly body. The Observed (True) Zenith
Distance ZX and the Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance Z2X are shown at Fig 5-3.
In this example the Observed (True) Position Circle is shown as the outer circle and the
Calculated (Tabulated) Position Circle as the inner circle. In order to keep Fig 5-3
simple, both circles are shown on the surface of the Celestial Sphere but should be
imagined as having been projected down onto the Earths surface (in a similar manner
to Fig 5-2). The Intercept is the angular difference between Zenith Distances ZX and Z2X.

Fig 5-3. True and Calculated Zenith Distances and their Position Circles
b. Difference Between Zenith Distances. Fig 5-3 shows that if the tangents to both
Position Circles near the Chosen Position (see Para 0401) are plotted ( vicinity of Z /Z2
in Fig 5-3), they will approximate the Position Circles and the result will be two straight
parallel lines (see Para 0524d opposite). Importantly, the Calculated (Tabulated)
Position Circle will always pass through the Chosen Position (DR/ EP). The
Observed (True) Position Circle will pass through the Observed (True) Position.
c. Example. A similar situation is at Fig 5-4 where an example of a Calculated
(Tabulated) Altitude of 40 00.0' and an Observed (True) Altitude of 40 05.0' has been
used. These give Zenith Distances (90-Alt) of 50 00.0' and 49 55.0' respectively.
5-6
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BR 45(2)

Fig 5-4. Zenith Distances, Intercept and the Astronomical Position Line
d. Use of the Intercept. At Fig 5-4, the Astronomical Position Line (on which the
observers position lies), and the Chosen Position line (on which the Chosen Position
(DR/EP) lies) are tangents to the circumference of the Position Circle and so are oriented
at right angles to the direction of the centre (X) of the Position Circle. Thus they are
plotted at their Zenith Distances, as a Rhumb Lines at right angles to the True Bearing
of X. Rather than plot tangents from both Position Circles, it is only necessary to plot
the Astronomical Position Line at the Intercept distance from Chosen Position (DR/EP),
provided it can be established whether to plot itTo or From the direction of X.
e. Direction of Plotting of Intercept. To establish whether to plot the Intercept in the
direction To or From the direction of X, consider the example at Fig 5-4. Here the
Observed (True) Zenith Distance (normally abbreviated to TZD) was less than the
Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (normally abbreviated to CZD) and it is clear
that the Intercept has to be plotted towards the True Bearing of X. However, Zenith
Distances are defined as 90 - Altitude (see Para 0522) as shown below:
Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance of 50 00.0' = Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude of 40 00.0'
Observed (True) Zenith Distance of 49 55.0' = Observed (True) Altitude of 40 05.0'

Thus, as in this case when the Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude (40 00.0') is smaller
(tinier) than the Observed (True) Altitude (40 05.0') the intercept is plotted To the
direction of the heavenly body X. This gives rise to the rule for plotting intercepts
normally remembered by the rhyme quoted at Para 0351c:
TAB TINIER TOWARDS
The converse also applies, as shown in Fig 5-3, where TZD > CZD, so the Calculated
Altitude > True Altitude. The rhyme refers to the Altitudes, not the Zenith Distances.
f. Azimuth. The Azimuth of the heavenly body X is given by the angle PZX (see Para
0501 and Fig 5-1, and also Figs 5-2 and 5-3).
5-7
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BR 45(2)
0525. Assumptions made when an Astronomical Position Line is Plotted
Four assumptions are made when an Astronomical Position Line is plotted as a (straight)
Rhumb Line on a Mercator chart, but all three are justified in normal circumstances because the
error induced is negligible. Only in the case of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights, when the
Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD) and thus the associated Position Circle are very small
(see Paras 0522-23), are these assumptions inadmissible. The solution for plotting Very High
Altitude (Tropical) Sights is to plot the TZD directly from the Geographic Position of the
heavenly body as an arc of a circle. The detailed procedures for taking, reducing and plotting this
are at Paras 0550-0552. The four admissible assumptions for normal use are:

The True Bearing of the Geographic Position of the heavenly body is the same at
all points in the vicinity of the Chosen Position (DR / EP) and the Observed
Position (Obs Pos).

The direction of the Intercept, which is laid off as a (straight) Rhumb Line,
coincides with the Great Circle forming the actual line of True Bearing To (or
From) the heavenly body.

The Astronomical Position Line itself, which is plotted as a (straight) Rhumb Line,
coincides with the arc of the Observed (True) Position Circle over the short plotting
distances involved on the chart.

When plotting multiple Astronomical Position Lines, they are all Run-on / Run-back
to a common time (see Para 0351b). It should be noted that NAVPAC 2 does this
automatically (see Para 0351c).

0526. Plotting Sheets and Diagrams

Theoretically, an Astronomical Position Line can be plotted on any chart which provides
coverage of the required area. However, this is often impractical because the scale of the
available chart(s) may be unsuitable. In addition, the construction of Intercepts and individual
Position Lines may seriously detract from other information, particularly if astro-navigation is
being carried out for training or comparison. The manual plotting of sights is therefore usually
carried out on a separate sheet which may also be retained to provide a full record of the sights
being taken. If necessary, the Observed Position may be transferred onto the chart being used for
navigation. The UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) produces a series of Mercator Plotting Sheets
D6321-D6343 covering Latitudes from 0 to 69. These may be used by marking on Meridians
for East or West Longitudes as required, but in southerly Latitudes the sheet must first be
inverted. Additionally, Plotting Sheets for Astro Fixing - D6018' may be obtained from UKHO
in pads of 25 sheets. These may be used at any Latitude, but additional Meridians and a separate
scale of Longitude need to be constructed, following the instructions printed on the form. These
sheets are ideal for plotting the results of simultaneous sights or a Sun-run-Sun, but are generally
too limited in coverage for a full days run.
CAUTION
CARE MUST BE TAKEN ON PLOTTING SHEETS TO LABEL
THE SEQUENCE OF MERIDIANS OF LATITUDE AND
PARALLELS OF LONGITUDE CORRECTLY, PARTICULARLY
IF RECENT WORK HAS BEEN CARRIED OUT IN THE OTHER
HEMISPHERE WHERE OPPOSITE CONVENTIONS APPLY.
0527-29.
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Spare

BR 45(2)
SECTION 3 - CALCULATING ALTITUDE, AZIMUTH AND TRUE BEARING
0530. Introduction
Section 3 deals with the methods of determining the Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude, the
Calculated (Tabulated) Azimuth and its associated True Bearing. Once these are established, the
Intercept may be calculated by subtraction, and the Astronomical Position Line plotted.
0531. Means of Solving the PZX Triangle
In order to determine the Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude, the Calculated (Tabulated)
Azimuth and its associated True Bearing, it is necessary to solve the spherical triangle PZX.
From Fig 5-5 it can be seen that two sides and the included angle are known, as follows:

The angle ZPX is the Calculated (Tabulated) LHA of the heavenly body.
The side PZ is the Co-Latitude of the Chosen (DR /EP) Position.
The side PX is the Calculated (Tabulated) Co-Declination of the heavenly body.

Fig 5-5. PZX Triangle and Other Tabulated Angular Distances based on Chosen Position
0532. Solution of PZX Triangle for Zenith Distance - Cosine Method
As two sides (PZ, PX) and the included angle (ZPX) of the spherical triangle PZX are
known, it can be solved by the Cosine Formula (see BR 45(1) App 1), although other methods
are possible. The side ZX (the Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance CZD) is given by:
Cos ZX = Cos PZ . Cos PX + Sin PZ . Sin PX . Cos ZPX

However:
Cos ZX = Cos (90-Tab Alt) and may be expressed as Sin Tab Alt (see BR 45(1) App 1).
Cos PZ = Cos (90- Lat), and may be expressed as Sin Lat (see BR 45(1) App 1).
Cos PX = (90-Dec), and may be expressed as Sin Dec (see BR 45(1) App 1).
Angle ZPX is the LHA of X (see Para 0422), so Cos ZPX may be expressed as Cos LHA.
Thus the above Cosine Formula may be more conveniently expressed as:
Sin Tab Alt = Sin Lat . Sin Dec + Cos Lat . Cos Dec . Cos LHA
5-9
Original

BR 45(2)
0533. Solution of PZX Triangle for Azimuth - Cosine Method
Having established the value of the side ZX (see Fig 5-5 on preceding page), the Cosine
Formula can conveniently be used to determine the angle PZX (the Azimuth of X), as follows:
Cos PX = Cos PZ . Cos ZX + Sin PZ . Sin ZX . Cos PZX

Cos PZX = Cos PX - Cos PZ . Cos ZX

Sin PZ . Sin ZX

This expression may be modified in a similar way to the Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance
/ Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude formula at Para 0532 to read:
Sin Azimuth = Sin Dec - Sin Lat . Sin Alt
Cos Lat . Cos Alt
Azimuth may be converted to True Bearing as described at Para 0535 and shown at Fig 5-6.
0534. Solution of PZX Triangle for Azimuth - Other Methods
Calculation of Azimuth using NAVPAC 2 or a calculator and the formula at Para 0533
is simple, accurate and effective. However, for historical reasons various dating from precalculator times, other methods exist and are described briefly below. See also Paras 0540-0545.
a. Weirs Azimuth Diagrams. Two diagrams (5000 and 5001) exist and cover
Latitudes 0-65 and 65-80. They comprise of superimposed Latitude ellipses and
Hour Angle hyperbolas and an outer Azimuth (True Bearing - see Para 0536) ring on a
full size Admiralty chart-sized diagram. The diagrams are entered with arguments of
Latitude, Hour Angle and Declination, and after a small amount of plotting a reasonably
accurate Azimuth (True Bearing - see Para 0536) can be read off. Full instructions for the
rather complex plotting procedures are printed on each diagram.
b. ABC Tables. The ABC Tables are contained in NP 320 (Nories Nautical Tables)
which also contain a brief explanation of the use. The basis of the computation of these
tables is the Four-Part Formula which connects adjacent parts of a spherical triangle. In
this case these are Co-Declination (sometimes referred to as Polar Distance), Hour
Angle, Co-Latitude and Azimuth. The Four-Part Formula expressed in its most
convenient form and related to each ABC Table becomes:
Tan Dec . Cosec Hour Angle - Cot Hour Angle . Tan Lat = Cot Azimuth. Sec Lat
(Table B)
(Table A)
(Table C)
In practice, Table A is entered with Latitude and Hour Angle to obtain Correction A,
Table B is entered with Declination and Hour Angle to obtain Correction B, which are
added or subtracted depending on their respective Names and the rules on each page. The
resultant Correction (A B) and Latitude are used to enter Table C in order to extract
the Azimuth. Table C uses a variant of the Four Part Formula which can be expressed as:
Correction (A B) . Cos Lat = Cot Azimuth
Example 5-1.

Latitude 47N, Declination of Star 52 N and Hour Angle 50.

From Table A (Lat 47 & Hour Angle 50) Corrn A = 0.90 S (ie OPPOSITE to Lat)
From Table B (Dec 52N) and Hour Angle 50 Corrn B = 1.67N (see rule at Table)
From summation rule at Table C (the DIFFERENCE between Corrns A & B as their
NAMES are DIFFERENT), Corrn (A B) = 0.77N = Corrn C
From Table C (Corrn C 0.77N and Lat 47), Azimuth = N62.3 W (see rule at Table)
True Bearing is thus 360 - 62.3 = 297.7 (see Para 0535 and Fig 5-6)

5-10
Original

BR 45(2)
0535. Azimuth and Bearing of a Heavenly Body (RN and UK Maritime Usage)
a. True Bearing. The direction of a heavenly body seen from an observer is its True
Bearing and this is measured conventionally as the angle from the Meridian of True
North measured clockwise, ie. 0 to 360. (See Para 0536 below)
b. Azimuth. The Azimuth (of a Heavenly Body) is the angle between the observers
Meridian and the Vertical Circle through the heavenly body. (See Para 0536 below)
c. Conversion of Azimuth to True Bearing. Azimuth is measured and named East
or West from the Observers Meridian ( if LHA of Body <180 Azimuth is West, if LHA
of Body > 180 Azimuth is East). Azimuth is named N or S from the Elevated Pole.
Azimuths are always less than 180 and are linked to the True Bearing as shown in the
two cases at Fig 5-6. (See Para 0536 below)

Fig 5-6. Conversion of Azimuth to True Bearing

0536. Differences in Meaning of Azimuth, Azimuth Angle and True Bearing. Some
differences of meaning and usage of the terms Azimuth, Azimuth Angle and Bearing / True
Bearing have evolved between astronomers and some mariners as follows:
a. RN and UK. In the RN and other UK maritime communities, in astro-navigation,
the meaning of Azimuth and True Bearing are as at Para 0535.
b. Astronomers. Astronomers use the term Azimuth in the sense that Para 0535 uses
True Bearing (ie measured clockwise from north from 0 to 360).
c. USN and US. In the USN and other US maritime communities, in astro-navigation,
the term Azimuth is used in the same way as astronomers use it, and another term
Azimuth Angle, is used to take the meaning of Azimuth at Para 0535.
d. NAVPAC 2. NAVPAC 2 uses the astronomers version of Azimuth to mean True
Bearing.
0537-0539. Spare

5-11
Original

BR 45(2)
SECTION 4 - SIGHT REDUCTION PROCEDURES
0540. Summary of Methods Available for Sight Reduction and their Accuracies
Five methods for sight reduction calculations are available to the mariner; their accuracy
and the degree of labour involved vary. Details of the procedures for each method (except for
NAVPAC 2 which is at Chapter 3) are Paras 0541-0546. Details of Meridian Passage and Polaris
calculations are at Para 0348 and Chapter 6. The five available methods are:

NAVPAC 2 (Windows-based PC program). The program will calculate an

Observed Position to an accuracy of 0.15 nautical miles.

Marine Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (NP 401 series). The tables, which
are arranged in 6 volumes each of which covers 15 of Latitude, will generally
calculate an Observed Position to an accuracy between 0.2 and 0.3 nautical miles.

Air Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (NP 303 series). Vol 1 of NP 303 covers
all Latitudes and is the only volume of the series used within the RN. NP 303 will
generally calculate an Observed Position to an accuracy of 0.5 nautical miles.

Nautical Almanac Formulae and Procedures for Programmable Calculators.

The potential accuracy of these formulae is comparable to NAVPAC 2 (ie within
0.15 nautical miles) but will in practice depend on the precision of the ephemeral
data entered and the capability and use of the calculator.

Concise Nautical Almanac Reduction Tables. These concise tables will generally
calculate an Observed Position to an accuracy of 1.0 nautical miles, although this
could increase to 2.0 nautical miles in certain circumstances.

0541. NAVPAC 2
Details of the procedures for using NAVPAC 2 on a Windows-based PC for sight
reduction calculations are at Chapter 3, and an extract of HM Nautical Almanac Offices
NAVPAC 2 User Instructions is at Annex 3A.
0542. Explanation of Marine Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (NP 401 series).
a. Arrangement of Tables. These tables (NP 401) provide computed values of
Altitude and Azimuth for arguments of Latitude, Hour Angle and Declination tabulated
at intervals of 1. The tables are arranged in six volumes, each nominally covering 15
of Latitude. However, each volume is arranged in two 8-degree sections (or zones) of
Latitude; thus the first and last Latitude in each volume overlap those of the preceding
and succeeding volumes. NP 401 (a joint US/UK publication) uses the US notation and
abbreviations of Azimuth Angle (Z) and Azimuth (Zn) to mean what is known in the RN
as Azimuth and True Bearing respectively (see Para 0536). Each volume contains full
user instructions and to avoid confusion with these, the terms Azimuth Angle (Z)
and True Bearing (Zn) will be used when explaining NP 401 in this section. NP 401
is normally used with the Sight Form (NP 400 or NP 400a) to simplify calculations.
b. Arguments. The tables are entered with the Tabulated (or Calculated) arguments
(to the nearest whole degree) of Local Hour Angle (LHA), followed by Latitude, and
either Declination (SAME name as Latitude) or Declination (CONTRARY name to
Latitude). Whilst neither Latitude nor Declination are sides of the PZX Triangle (see
Para 0531 and Fig 5-5), Co-Latitude and Co-Declination are, and the tables make this
conversion to provide convenient entry arguments for the user. An extract of a doublepage from NP 401 is at Fig 5-7 opposite, and shows the arrangement of arguments.
5-12
Original

BR 45(2)

Fig 5-7. Extract of Double-Page from NP 401 Showing Arrangement of Arguments

(0542) c.

Arrangement of Arguments. The tables arrange the arguments as follows:

Choice of Page. It can be shown (see Para 0542e) that up to four different
PZX triangles can be solved using the same table. To save space, the tables are
arranged to allow this multiple application. The page required is selected by
LHA, as follows:
<

Left-hand Pages. Left-hand pages always show LHAs in the range of

0 to 90 and 360 to 270, for Latitude and Declination of the
SAME name.

<

Right-hand Pages. Right-hand pages (LHA read from the TOP) are
always in the range from 0 to 90 and 360 to 270, for Latitude and
Declination CONTRARY name. Right-hand pages (LHA read from
the BOTTOM) are always in the range from180 to 90 and 180 to
270 for Latitude and Declination of the SAME name. A horizontal
line in the table shows the SAME/CONTRARY boundary.

Latitude. The horizontal argument is Latitude, each of the eight columns on

a page being headed by a whole number (integer) degree.

Declination. The vertical argument is Declination from 0 to 90, which is

always entered as the whole number of degrees equal or below to the actual
value (eg. If actual Declination = 68 53', use 68 for entry to the table).
5-13
Original

BR 45(2)
(0542) d. Results from Entering Arguments. On entering the arguments, the table provides
Tabulated Altitude (Hc), Altitude Difference (d) and Azimuth Angle (Z). The Tabulated
Altitude (Hc) and Azimuth Angle (Z) obtained require further interpolation, as follows:

Tabulated Altitude (Hc) results from using round-figure integer arguments

of LHA, Latitude and Declination. Although the differences from the exact
LHA and the exact DR/EP Latitude can be resolved by plotting, interpolation
for Declination is required to establish the exact calculated Altitude.

Altitude Difference (d) ord is the difference of Altitude in minutes of arc of

one Declination entry and that for the next higher degree, and is used with the
interpolation table (see Para 0542g) to establish the exact calculated Altitude.

Azimuth Angle (Z), once converted to True Bearing (Zn), is normally required
to an accuracy of when plotting sights and it may be interpolated to the
actual (rather than rounded) value of Declination by inspection, although care
must be exercised, particularly when the increments between successive
tabulations of Azimuth Angle (Z) amount to several degrees. Each double page
of the tables give the rules (which vary with hemisphere and LHA - see Para
0535) for converting the interpolated Azimuth Angle( Z) to True Bearing (Zn).

e. Reason for Multi-Application Arrangement of LHA Argument. It can be seen

from Para 0535 and Fig 5-6, that depending on the Elevated Pole and the position of the
heavenly body, within the PZX Triangle, there can be four variants of True Bearing (Zn)
from a single Azimuth Angle (Z). Eg For an Azimuth Angle (Z) of 45, depending on the
circumstances and the choice of four heavenly bodies observed, the True Bearing (Zn)
could be: N45E = 045, or S45E = 135, or S45W = 225, or N45W = 315 .
In exactly the same way, within the PZX Triangle (see Para 0531 and Fig 5-5), where
the second angle is the LHA (the angle between the observers Meridian and that of each
heavenly body), there can be up to four variants of LHA which give the same numerical
value, although 2 are positive and 2 are negative (equating to SAME/CONTRARY).
This can be demonstrated by Fig 5-8 which is a simple Cosine curve from which it may
be seen that: Cos 45 = Cos 315 = +0.707 and, Cos 135 = Cos 225 = - 0.707
Applying this principle to the tables in NP 401, it can be seen that with care, the same
table can be used to solve the spherical triangle for up to four LHA and Latitude SAME
/ CONTRARY combinations. See also Para 0741a.

Fig 5-8. Cosine Curve, Showing Similar Numerical Values of 45,135, 225 and 315
5-14
Original

BR 45(2)
(0542) f. Selection of the Chosen Position to Avoid Latitude and LHA Interpolation.
As stated at Para 0542d, the need to make tabular interpolation for the exact values of
LHA and Latitude can be avoided by offsetting the plotting of intercepts. This saves both
time and the need for much more complex and bulky tables. Instead of plotting the
intercepts from the DR/EP position (see Para 0524), as is done when using non-tabular
calculator or computer methods (Eg NAVPAC 2), with NP 401 a separate Chosen
Position is selected for each sight from which the intercept is plotted, so that the errors
of entering the tables with a rounded integer figure for LHA and Latitude are exactly
compensated. However, the procedure does introduce the possibility of some small
errors which are considered at Chapter 9. The Chosen Position selection is as follows:

Chosen Latitude. The Chosen Latitude should be the nearest whole degree
to the DR. If the DR Latitude is 46 45N, the Chosen Latitude is 47 N.

Chosen Longitude. The Chosen Longitude is selected so that when applied

to the GHA of the body ( depending on whether Longitude is E or W, and
360), the resulting LHA is an integer figure. The Nautical Almanac
tabulates GHA of heavenly bodies in arc and a suitable Chosen Longitude may
easily be selected by inspection. The following examples illustrate this.

Example 5-2. If DR Longitude is 26 38W, and the GHA is 58 18.3, the Longitude of the
Chosen Position will be that nearest to 26 38W which makes the LHA a whole degree. Thus:
GHA
53 18.3'
Chosen Longitude 26 18.3' W (!)
LHA

27 00.0'

Example 5-3. If DR Longitude is 26 38E with the same GHA, then:

GHA
53 18.3'
Chosen Longitude 26 41.7' E (+)
LHA

80 00.0'

Example 5-4. If DR Longitude is 166 38W with the same GHA, ie greater than the GHA then
360 must be added to the GHA:
GHA

53 18.3'
360 00.0' (+)

413 18.3'
Chosen Longitude 166 18.3' W (!)
LHA

247 00.0

Example 5-5. If the DR Longitude is East and the sum of the GHA and Chosen Longitude
exceeds 360, then 360 must be subtracted:
GHA
253 18.3'
Chosen Longitude 166 41.7' (+)
420 00.0'
360 00.0' (-)
LHA

60 00.0'

5-15
Change 1

BR 45(2)
(0542) g. Interpolation Tables for Declination - Chosen Declination. As stated at Para
0542d, tabular interpolation for Declination is required to compensate for entering the
main tables with an integer Chosen Declination rather than its exact value. The only
alternative to this would be enormously bulky and expensive tables. The Interpolation
Tables are split and are located inside the front cover (0.0' to 31.9') and back cover (32.0'
to 59.9') of each NP 401 volume; an extract is at Fig 5-9 opposite. The slightly complex
procedure for their use is as follows:

Vertical Argument. The vertical argument is the excess minutes of actual

Declination over the integer Declination used to enter the main tables . This
is called the Declination Increment (Dec. Inc.) and ranges from 0.0' to 59.9'.

Horizontal Argument. The horizontal argument is the tabulated Altitude

Difference (d) (see Para 0542d), extracted from the body of the main tables
in minutes of arc with sign plus or minus. To save space, the d argument is
divided into two parts: the first being multiples of 10 minutes of d from 10
to 50, the second, the remainder (units and decimals), in the range 0.0 to
9.9. The interpolation table for tens of d comprises a column of values for
each multiple of 10 minutes set against the vertical argument of Dec. Inc. For
the units the values are arranged in sub-tables against each range of one
minute of Dec. Inc. (10 horizontal lines) with the decimal portion (.0 to .9) as
the vertical argument in each sub-table.

Resulting First Difference Corrections. The interpolation correction for

tens of d is extracted opposite the appropriate Dec.Inc. The correction for
the units is found in the appropriate sub-table opposite the range of one
minute in which the Dec.Inc. occurs. The corrections for tens and units are
then summed. These corrections, known as First Difference Corrections
(FDC), are then applied () to Tabulated Altitude in the same sense of the
sign of d to obtain the Corrected Tabulated Altitude (Corr Tab Alt).
Calculation and use of the FDCs are shown in the following example:

Example 5-6. LHA 331, Chosen Latitude 48N, Declination 2 28.2'N, Chosen Declination
2 (SAME name).
| #

The Main Tables (see Fig 5-7 on page 5-13) are entered for Latitude 48 and LHA 331.

|
|

For declination 2 (SAME ) the Tabulated Altitude (Hc) is found to be 37 38.9' and d
is +54.7'.

|
|

Entering the Interpolation Table (Fig 5-9 opposite) for Dec. Inc. 28.2', the correction for
tens of d (50') is 23.5'(+). The correction for units (4.7') is 2.2'(+).

5-16
Change 1

ie.

Tab Alt
FDC (tens)
FDC (units)
Corr. Tab Alt

37 38.9'
+ 23.5'
+ 2.2'
38 04.6'

d= +54.7' (tens 50.0' and units 4.7')

Double Second-Difference (DSD) Corrections. On the occasions when

the rate of change of Altitude is large relative to a 1 change in
Declination, the quantity of d will change rapidly, and it may be
necessary to make an additional interpolation correction known as the
Double Second-Difference (DSD) correction. This correction can be
applied for special precision on any occasion, but to indicate when it is
necessary to apply it in normal sight work, the quantity d in the body of
the tables is printed in italics followed by a dot.

BR 45(2)

Fig 5-9. Extract of Interpolation Table from NP 401

5-17
Change 1

BR 45(2)
(0542g cont) Resulting Double Second-Difference (DSD) Correction. Second differences
are the differences between successive values of d, and these are not tabulated;
thus the DSD has to be obtained mentally by determining the difference between
the tabulated values for d immediately below and above the d for the Chosen
Declination. Using the argument DSD in the column of the interpolation table
headed Double Second Diff and Corr, the correction is taken from the critical
table opposite the appropriate Dec. Inc. The DSD correction is always positive
and is applied (+) to Altitude. Calculation and use of the FDCs are shown in the
following example:
Example 5-7. LHA 29, Chosen Latitude 51N, Declination 46 35.8'N, Chosen Declination
46 (SAME name), Dec. Inc 35.8'.
|
|

#
#

| #
| #
|

The Main Tables (see Fig 5-7 on page 5-13) are entered for Latitude 51 and LHA 29.
For Declination 46 (SAME name) the Tabulated Altitude (Hc) is found to be 70 17.1'
and d is 24.4" with the italics and dot indicating that the DSD correction should be
applied.
Take the difference between the d on the line below that for the Tabulated Altitude
(21.8') and the d on the line above (26.8') to obtain the DSD (21.8' ~ 26.8' = 5.0).
From the Interpolation Table, obtain the First Difference Correction FDC (tens and
units) for Dec. Inc 35.8' and d +24.4', by the method previously described.
Enter the critical table opposite Dec. Inc 35.8' with DSD 5.0' to obtain the DSD correction
0.3'(+).
ie.
Tab Alt
70 17.1'
d= +24.4' (tens 20.0' and units 4.4')
FDC (tens) + 12.0'
FDC (units) + 2.6'
d below = 21.8, d above = 26.8
DSD = 26.8' - 21.8' = 5.0'
DSD Corrn + 0.3'
Corr. Tab Alt 38 04.6'
h.
Use of the Sight Form (NP 400 / NP 400A). To reduce the complexity of using
the NP 401 tables and the possibility of an accidental arithmetic error, a printed Sight
Form is supplied in booklets of 24 sheets (NP 400a) or as single sheets (NP400) by the
UKHO. Each sheet allows space for calculations for 4 heavenly bodies. It may also be
used with NP 303 and as a general aid-memoire.

5-18
Change 1

Advantages of the Sight Form. This form provides guidance on the

sequence in which calculations should be made and also a reminder in
some cases of whether to add or subtract certain values. It is also useful
as a reminder for calculation of Deck Watch Time, the correct plotting of
DR/EP and Chosen Positions, the correct Run-on or Run-back time /
distance for each sight, and for the sequence of corrections that must be
made to the Sextant Altitude before it can be used to calculate an
Intercept. In the worked examples at Paras 0543 and 0544 extracts of the
Sight Form are used to demonstrate the calculations.

Time Necessary for Calculation with NP 401. A navigator familiar with

NP 401 should be able to complete a 4-body calculation using the Sight
Form in 18 minutes from a standing start. Allowing a further 2 minutes
for plotting, using this method it should thus be possible to obtain an
Observed Position to an accuracy limited only by skill with the Sextant,
within about 20 minutes of finishing observation of Morning or Evening
Stars.

BR 45(2)
0543. Use of Marine Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (NP 401 series).
a.
Summary of NP 401 Procedure Using a Chosen Position. Following the full
explanation of NP 401 at Para 0542, and the procedure for plotting sights at Para 0524,
it is possible to summarise the entire process as follows.

Select a Chosen Latitude nearest in whole degrees to the DR / EP Latitude.

Obtain the GHA of the observed body from The Nautical Almanac, and select
a Chosen Longitude, nearest to the DR / EP Longitude, which will make the
LHA a whole number of degrees.

Select the volume of the tables in which the Chosen Latitude is contained and
the section covering the appropriate 8-degree zone of Latitude.

Enter the appropriate section using the LHA to find the double-page required.

Using Latitude and Declination (SAME) or Declination (CONTRARY),

determine whether to use the right-hand or left-hand page.

Enter the column for Chosen Latitude opposite the Chosen Declination and
obtain Tabulated Altitude (Hc) and Altitude Difference (d). If d is printed
in italics and followed by a dot, note that a Double Second Difference (DSD)
correction will be required.

Obtain the tabulated Azimuth Angle (Z) by interpolation to the actual

Declination.

From the rule printed at the top or bottom of the appropriate page, convert
Azimuth Angle (Z) to True Bearing (Zn).

Enter the Interpolation Table (inside front/back covers) with the Declination
Increment (Dec. Inc) against and the tens and units of d to obtain the
First-Difference Correction (FDC). Apply the correction with the sign of d.

Obtain the DSD correction if required. Always apply the correction as a

positive correction to the Tabulated Altitude to obtain the Corrected
Tabulated Altitude (Corr. Tab Alt).

Compare the Corr. Tab Alt with the Observed (True) Altitude (ie Sextant
Altitude corrected for Index Error, Dip and Refraction). The difference is the
Intercept.

Plot the Intercept from the appropriate Chosen Position (including the Run-on
or Run-back to allow for time differences(see Para 0351) either Towards or
Away from the bodys True Bearing (see Para 0524), using the rule:
TAB TINIER TOWARDS.

Note that each sight will have a different Chosen Position and care is needed
not to plot the wrong Intercept from the wrong Chosen Position.

In the Sight Form (NP 400/400a) the Stars, Planets, Sun and Moon do not all
have exactly the same Nautical Almanac inputs and corrections, due to
differing celestial motions. The differences between them are shown in the
two (following) worked examples and in The Nautical Almanac.

An extract from The Nautical Almanac (1997) is at Appendix 2 and will

allow the reader to check inputs to worked examples.

5-19
Original

BR 45(2)
(0543) b.
Worked Example of Sun/Moon Sight using NP 401 and The Sight Form. Two
worked examples using NP 401 and the Sight Form NP 400 / NP 400a, are as follows:
Example 5-8. Sun and Moon Sight. At 1000 (+4) on 23rd October 1997, in DR position 16
50N, 65 47W, the following observations were taken:
Body
Sun LL
Moon LL

DWT
14 00 05
14 03 00

Sextant Altitude
47 29.9'
40 20.9'

Height of eye 9.7 metres (32 feet), Index Error -2.3', DWE 15 secs fast. Assume the ship is
stopped and thus there is no Run-on or Run-back between sights. Draw the position lines
obtained and determine the Observed Position.

Comment on Example 5-8. The position lines and Observed Position are
shown at Fig 5-10 below, based on the calculations from a completed
Sight Form (NP 400) at Fig 5-11 opposite. The Suns Intercept was
plotted from A (17N 65 52.9'W) and the Moons Intercept from B
(17N 65 44.0W). The following additional points are relevant when
studying the completed Sight Form. Items contained within double
quotation marks are so marked to indicate their exact notation on the
Sight Form.
<

No v correction is necessary for the Sun.

<

For the Sun, Moon (and Planets) the Declination (called

Tabulated Dec on the form) and d, are copied from The
Nautical Almanac at the same time as GHA, and for the Moon
only HP (Horizontal Parallax). (See Para 0401 for definition
/ explanation of Parallax).

<

The d corrn should be extracted from the interpolation tables in

The Nautical Almanac with the GHA Increment and v corrn.

<

Tab. Dec. is obtained by choosing the nearest Declination below

the Dec. and is the vertical argument for entering NP 401.

<

1st Alt. Diff. refer to the Tens and Units First Difference
Corrections (FDC) respectively, described at Para. 0542g.

Fig 5-10. Plotting of Sun / Moon Sight from Example 5-8

5-20
Original

BR 45(2)

Fig 5-11. Use of Sight Form (NP 400/400a) to Calculate Intercepts from Example 5-8
5-21
Original

BR 45(2)
(0543b cont.) Example 5-9: Planet and Star Sight. At 1900Z on 23rd October 1997, in DR
position 14 05' S, 8 50' W, the following observations were taken:
Body
Venus
Vega

DWT
18 56 45
19 00 09

Sextant Altitude
39 59.9'
30 37.7'

Height of eye 9.7 metres (32 feet), Index Error -2.3', DWE 10 secs slow. Assume the ship is
stopped and thus there is no Run-on or Run-back between sights. Draw the position lines
obtained and determine the Observed Position.

Comment on Example 5-9. The position lines and Observed Position are
shown at Fig 5-12 below, based on the calculations from a completed
Sight Form (NP 400/400a) at Fig 5-13 opposite. Venus Intercept was
plotted from A (14S 009 01.8'W) and the Vegas Intercept from B
(14S 009 05.7'W). The following additional points are relevant when
studying the completed Sight Form. Items contained within double
quotation marks are so marked to indicate their exact notation on the
Sight Form.
<

For a star, the Tabulated GHA is the GHA of Aries to which the
stars SHA is added to give GHA of the star.

<

The stars Tabulated Declination is copied from The Nautical

Almanac at the same time as the SHA, and if the star is one of
the selected 57, these quantities can be obtained directly from the
daily pages; otherwise they may be obtained from the main star
table near the back of the book.

Fig 5-12. Plotting of Planet/Star Sight from Example 5-9

5-22
Original

BR 45(2)

Fig 5-13. Use of Sight Form (NP 400/400a) to Calculate Intercepts from Example 5-9
5-23
Original

BR 45(2)
0544. Use of Air Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (NP 303 series)
a.
Description. NP 303 Volume 1, although designed for the rapid reduction of
sights in Air Navigation, is also suitable for use at sea and covers all Latitudes for 7
selected stars. All NP 303 volumes have the same theoretical basis as NP 401 (see Para
0542). NP 303 Volumes 2 and 3 have similar content to NP 401 but with a different
layout optimised for air navigation and so are not used in the RN. An extract from NP
303 Volume 1 is at Fig 5-14 opposite and shows the selection of the seven best stars
available for observation according to the observers position and time. NP 401 provides
greater accuracy, but use of NP 303(1) is much faster if the selected stars can be
observed.
b.
Arguments. The entry arguments for NP 303(1) are Chosen Latitude and the
LHA of Aries (K ), and the resulting outputs are the Tabulated Altitude (Hc) and the
tabulated True Bearing (Zn) of 7 selected stars. The LHA of Aries (K ) is based on a
Chosen Longitude to bring the LHA to a whole number of degrees. For the best accuracy,
a correction for the Earths Precession and Nutation (See Paras 0544e and 0544f below)
is needed. The layout of NP303(1) is as follows:

The first argument is by page; pages are headed by whole degrees of

Latitude (North or South). From 69N to 69S the tabulations for a single
Latitude occupy a complete opening of two facing pages. From 70 to
89 (N and S), tabulations for a single Latitude occupy one page only.

The second (vertical) argument is LHA Aries (K ) from 0 to 360 at

intervals of 1, except between Latitudes 70 and 89 where the intervals
are at 2. Each page is divided into 2 columns of LHA Aries (K ) in order
to maximise the information on each page.

c.
Layout. As can be seen from Fig 5-14 opposite, the 7 selected stars are grouped
in blocks of 15 lines of LHA Aries (K ). In Latitudes up to 69 this equates to 15 of LHA
Aries(K) and in higher Latitudes to 30 of LHA Aries (K ). In all cases, the 7 selected stars
remain the same for each 15-line group. This grouping can be seen in Fig 5-14 opposite,
which also shows typical changes in the selection of stars from one group of entries to
the next. Each selection of 7 stars is arranged from left to right in clockwise order of
True Bearing, and 3 stars in each selection are marked with an asterisk as being suitable
in obtaining an observed position. A total of 41 stars are used in Volume 1, of which19
are first magnitude (brighter than magnitude 1.5). First magnitude star names are shown
in capital letters.
d.
Results. On entering the correct page, column and line of NP 303 (Volume 1),
the outputs are Tabulated Altitude (Hc) and True Bearing (Zn). From these the intercept
is plotted from the Chosen Position.
e.
Corrections. As NP 303 Volume 1 is tailored for a specific Epoch year, in
surface navigation a small correction to the Observed Position should be made to allow
for the Earths Precession and Nutation (see Para 0544f) if the tables are used in the 5
years either side of the Epoch year. The correction is based on the LHA of Aries (K ) and
Latitude, and is applied as a True Bearing and distance to the Observed Position (or
Astronomical Position Line). An approximate correction (designed for aircraft use) may
be obtained from Table 5 of NP 303(1) but a more accurate version for surface navigation
is provided as a separate pull-out supplement to NP303(1).

5-24
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BR 45(2)

Fig 5-14. Extract of NP 303(1) Showing Choices of the 7 Selected Stars

f.
Precession, Nutation and Epoch. The Earth is not a sphere but an irregular
ellipsoid with an equatorial bulge. The gravitational attractions of the Sun, Moon and
Planets acting on the ellipsoid cause a conical motion (Precession) of the Earths
rotational axis about the vertical to the plane of the Ecliptic and a further very much
smaller continuous but slightly erratic sinusoidal oscillation (Nutation) superimposed
about the Precession motion. Nutation is caused by the varying positions of the bodies
(especially the Moon) within the solar system. The result of Precession is a slow
westward movement of the intersection between the plane of the Celestial Equator and
the plane of the Ecliptic, and thus the Equinox. This causes the positions of the First
Point of Aries and First Point of Libra to move slowly with time, and for this reason
Precession is sometimes called Precession of the Equinoxes. The time for one complete
rotation of Precession is 25,800 years. Thus the SHA and Declinations of stars are
subject to small variations over time, and it is for this reason NP 303 (and the Star Globe)
are set for an Epoch year but may be used for 5 years before and after this Epoch year.
Small annual corrections may be applied from the Epoch year for best accuracy.
5-25
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BR 45(2)
g. Planning and Reduction of Observations. A Chosen Latitude is selected at the
whole degree nearest the DR / EP Latitude of the proposed time of observation (similar
to NP 401 procedure). The GHA of Aries (K ) is extracted from The Nautical Almanac
and a Chosen Longitude applied to it to obtain LHA of Aries (K ) as a whole number of
degrees (similar to NP 401 procedure). The tables are then entered with the Chosen
Latitude and LHA of Aries (K ) to find the seven selected stars.
Example 5-10. It is proposed to take stars at about 1720(+2) on 13th July, 1997 in DR 42
12S, 30 55W. Find the stars available for working by NP 303(1).
Chosen Latitude
42 S
Tabulated GHA Aries(UT 17h)
Increment (20m)

186 36.7
5 00.8

GHA Aries
Chosen Longitude

191 37.5
30 37.5W

LHA Aries

161

Example 5-10. Summary of LHA Calculation

Entering the table for Latitude 42S, LHA Aries 161 (see Fig 5-14), the selected stars are found
to be: Regulus, *Spica, Rigil Kent, *Achernar, Canopus, Sirius and *Procyon.
Example 5-11. At about 1720Z on 13th July, 1997, in DR 42 12S, 29 47W, the following
observations were taken:
Body
Canpous
Rigil Kent

DWT Sextant Altitude

05 22 05
45 38.5'
05 25 22
51 49.7'

Height of eye 10.9 metres (36 feet), Index Error +1.2', DWE 10 secs fast. Assume the ship is
stopped and thus there is no Run-on or Run-back between sights. Find the Intercepts and True
Bearings of the heavenly bodies.

5-26
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Comment on Example 5-11 . Items contained within double quotation marks

are so marked to indicate their exact notation on the Sight Form.

The working of the sight is at Fig 5-15. Corr. Tab Alt and True
Bearing are obtained from NP 303(1) (see Fig 5-14).

The plotting of the sights to obtain the position lines is done in the same
way as shown in NP 401 Examples 5-10 and 5-11 (see Figs 5-10 and 512).

A correction to allow for the effects of Precession and Nutation (see Paras
0544e and 0544f) must be applied as a True Bearing and distance to an
Observed Position (or Astronomical Position Line) for star sights worked
out by NP 301(1). In the example shown opposite, the position must be
moved 1.6 miles towards 120.

An extract from The Nautical Almanac (1997) is at Appendix 2 and will

allow the reader to check inputs to worked examples.

BR 45(2)

Fig 5-15. Use of Sight Form (NP 400/400a) to Calculate Intercepts from Example 5-11
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC
0545. Use of Nautical Almanac Formulae and Procedures for Programmable Calculators
The instructions contained in The Nautical Almanac for reducing sights using a
programmable calculator or computer and basic formulae (also to be found in BR 45(5) Chapter
4A, pages 4A-52 to 4A-58) are reproduced verbatim as follows:

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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

5-29
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

5-30
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

5-31
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

5-32
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

5-33
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

5-34
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC
0546. Use of Concise Nautical Almanac Reduction Tables
The instructions contained in The Nautical Almanac for reducing sights using The
Nautical Almanac Concise Sights are reproduced verbatim as follows. (This explanation and a
copy of the tables themselves may also to be found in BR 45(5) Chapter 4A, pages 4A-59 to 4A93.)

5-35
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

5-36
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

An extract of The Nautical Almanac Concise Reduction Tables is at Fig 5-16 (see Page 5-38).
The full Concise Reduction Table is also at BR 45(5) Annex 4A Pages 4A-62 to 4A-93.

5-37
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BR 45(2)
VERBATIM EXTRACT FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC

Fig 5-16. Extract of Nautical Almanac Concise Reduction Tables.

The full Concise Reduction Table is also at BR 45(5) Annex 4A Pages 4A-62 to 4A-93.

5-38
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BR 45(2)
SECTION 5 - VERY HIGH ALTITUDE (TROPICAL) SIGHTS
0550. Practical Observation at All Altitudes
a.
Use of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sextant Observations. At Sextant
Altitudes approaching 90 it is possible to obtain a 3 Position Line fix at the Suns Mer
Pass.
b.
Normal Range of Sextant Altitude Observations. The normal observation range
of Sextant Altitudes of heavenly bodies is between 30 and 60 (Para 0339j). It is possible
to observe heavenly bodies outside this range of altitudes, but inexperienced Sextant users
will find it progressively more difficult to do so accurately towards the extremes of
altitude. In practice, for the reasons explained below, heavenly bodies are normally
observed within the normal range of 30 to 60, with occasional observations between
Sextant Altitudes of 10 - 30 and 60 - 70 when there are no alternative bodies for
observation (see Paras 0550c and 0550d). In additionVery High Altitude (Tropical)
Sight observations of the Sun at Sextant Altitudes of 88- 89 may be taken (see Para
0550e), but considerable skill with a Sextant is need to achieve accurate results.
c.
Low Altitude Sextant Observations. At Sextant Altitudes below 30, the arc
through which the star moves when the Sextant is swung (see Para 0339l) becomes
increasingly constrained and thus it becomes progressively more difficult to judge the
instant at which the heavenly bodys arc of movement becomes a tangent to the horizon.
At Sextant Altitudes below 10 this effect is very pronounced and in addition the altitude
corrections for refraction become more difficult to predict accurately. However, the large
radius of the Position Circle generated by a low Sextant Altitude does mean that the
associated Position Line approximates a straight line very closely (see Paras 0351a /
0521) and thus minimises any Intercept method plotting errors in this respect.
d.
High Altitude Sextant Observations. At Sextant Altitudes above 60, the arc
through which the star moves when the Sextant is swung (see Para 0339l) becomes
increasingly large and thus it becomes progressively more difficult to judge the direction
at which the heavenly body has reached its maximum altitude in the Sextant field of view.
Above Sextant Altitudes of 70, the small radius of the Position Circle generated means
that the associated Position Line no longer approximates a straight line (see Paras 0351a
/0521); if long Intercepts are used, plotting becomes progressively less accurate.
e.
Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sextant Observations. At Sextant Altitudes
approaching 90, the True Bearing effect at Para 0550d is so marked that it is possible
to keep the Sun in the Sextants field of view while the observer makes a 360 turn on the
spot. Such extreme circumstances make it difficult to swing the Sextant and look down
the correct True Bearing to observe the maximum altitude of the Sun. However, in the
hands of a skilful Sextant user it is possible to make an accurate observation of the Sun
at a Sextant Altitude of up to 89, and in practice, this is the only body which can be
observed in this way. The resultant Position Circle has such a small radius that it has to
be plotted on the chart as a circle, centred on the Geographic Position of the Sun. This
method introduces a further error, due to the distortions of plotting a true circle on a
Mercator chart. In practice this method of plotting can only be used without significant
error for an Observed (True) Altitude (ie Sextant Altitude corrected for errors) of 88
and above. The maximum plotting errors for various Observed (True) Altitudes of the
Sun using this method are: 2.8' error at 86, 0.5' error at 87and 0.25' error at 88. Due
the combination of the plotting and Sextant errors, Very High Altitude (Tropical)
Sights may only be usefully observed between Sextant Altitudes of about 88-89.
5-39
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BR 45(2)
0551. Planning, Taking and Reduction of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
a.
Occurrence of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. Very High Altitude
(Tropical) Sights of the Sun only occur when the observers Latitude is within about 1
of the Suns Declination. This limits these observations to tropical Latitudes (ie between
23 North and South). Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights of the Sun taken around the
time of Mer Pass give a 3 Position Line astro-fix over a period of 6-10 minutes.
b.
Planning of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. If the ship will pass within
1 of the Suns Declination at Mer Pass, a calculation should be made to establish the
optimum time interval between the triple 3 Sun sights, so that the middle (Mer Pass)
sight provides a latitude, and the other two provide good cuts of about 45 to the
Latitude. Depending on the angular difference between the observers Latitude and the
Suns Declination this time interval will vary, but is likely to be between 3 and 5 minutes.
It is also prudent to plan two further observations, one before and one after the triple
observation, at the same time interval. This will be a invaluable to help the observers eye
and hand to become familiar with the peculiar difficulties of taking sights at such very
high altitudes and also to provide spare backup readings in case an error is made with one
of the primary triple sights.
c.
Avoiding a Mirror Image of the True Fix. It is also important to note whether
the ship is to pass to the North or South of the Sun when it crosses the Observers
Meridian and plot the results accordingly, as it is perfectly possible to plot the mirror
image of the true fix on the wrong side (North or South) of the Suns Geographic
Position. This error is most likely if the observer is very close to the Geographic Position
of the Sun at the time of observation, but it is possible with any Very High Altitude
(Tropical) Sight unless particular care is taken.
d.
Calculation of the Suns Predicted Geographic Positions. Start by calculating
the time of the Suns Mer Pass (see Paras 0325 / 0326 and Para 0606) and use this as the
preferred time for the middle observation. The use of the Chart Method described at Para
0606 will be found to be the most convenient method of doing this. With the exact Mer
Pass time, establish the Suns Geographic Positions for the other observations and their
optimum times. The whole planning procedure is as follows:

The Suns Declination equates to the Geographic Positions Latitude.

The Suns Geographic Positions Longitude equates to:

< Suns GHA ( 360 if required) + Longitude (E) = 360
<Suns GHA ( 360 if required) - Longitude (W) = 360

5-40
Original

<

Having established and plotted the Suns Geographic Position for Mer
Pass, from the chart select two further Longitudes (at the same Latitude)
which would provide a good cut of Position Lines. From the Longitudes of
these Geographic Positions, carry out the same (above) calculation in
reverse, to establish the optimum times for the first and third observations
of the triple observation.

<

Repeat this procedure to establish times for two further observations (one
before and one after the triple) both as practices and backup readings.

<

These 5 times are the planned times of observation.

<

Do NOT use these planning Geographic Positions for plotting the fix.

BR 45(2)
e.

Taking Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights.

(1)
Closing Up. The observation team should close up in good time and start
tracking the Sun through the Sextant to allow the observers eye and hand to
become familiar with the difficulties of taking sights at such very high Altitudes.
(2)
True Bearing Shift and Field of View. As the Suns Altitude increases it
will become increasingly difficult to determine the direction in which to point the
Sextant in order to achieve the maximum altitude in the Sextants field of view.
This is particularly the case as the time of Mer Pass is reached; in this phase the
Suns True Bearing shifts very rapidly from the East, through North or South to
West and the observer needs to be very alert to keep up. The ships course may
need to be adjusted to give the observer a clear field of view over the required
range of True Bearings.
(3)
Countdown and Records. The observers assistant should give a regular
countdown of time to the planned moments of observation. It is not essential to
take the observations at the exact moment planned, but is better to take them
when the observer is happy with the Sextant Altitude at a time close of the
planned moment for observation. Differences of up to 15-30 seconds in the actual
time of observation from the planned time of observation can be accommodated
in the plotting of results without too much penalty, but any greater differences
will result in progressively worse cuts of the Position Lines. The exact Deck
Watch Time of each observation must be recorded, together with the Sextant Altitude.
(4)
Hot Sextant Errors. By their very nature, observations of Very High
Altitude (Tropical) Sights of the Sun take place in very hot conditions and (unlike
a simple Mer Pass sight) it is not possible to avoid exposing the Sextant to the
direct heat of the Sun for a long period. It is thus essential to allow the Sextant
time to heat up to the ambient temperature (especially if it has been stored in an
air conditioned area) and to remove all the errors while it is in the hot state.
Failure to do this will result in sufficiently large errors in the observed Sextant
Altitude to negate the accuracy of the fix completely, which in turn will bring the
whole procedure into disrepute.

f.
Reduction of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. The reduction of Very
High Altitude (Tropical) Sights of the Sun is very simple and requires the following steps:

Correct Sextant Altitude for Index Error, Height of Eye and

Altitude corrections (Altitude corrections include Semi-Diameter
and Refraction).

Correct Deck Watch Time for Deck Watch Error to arrive at UT.

Calculate the Geographic Positions for each sight (see Table 5-1).

Calculate the Run on / Run back for each sight.

Calculate the True Zenith Distance (90-Altitude) for each sight

(see Table 5-2).

Plot the TZD from the Run Geographic Position for each sight
(see Table 5-2), taking care NOT to plot a mirror image of the
true fix.

Read off the Observed Position.

An example of these calculations and a plot of the results will be found on the next two
pages.
5-41
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BR 45(2)
Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sight Example 5-12. At Zone Time 1225( -6), on 20 January
1997, in DR position 20 55.0'S 86 45.0'E, course 300, speed 18, the following observations
of the Sun (LL) were taken (Deck Watch Error, Index Error, Height of Eye and Refraction
corrections have already been applied to these results).
Sun LL
DWT
Observed (True) Altitude
(1)
06 20 02 UT
88 42.1'
(2)
06 24 02 UT
89 05.9'
(3)
06 28 02 UT
88 41.9'
Obs. 1

06 20 02 UT

Dec

Geographic Position (1)

Obs. 2

06 24 02 UT

06 28 02 UT

GHA Sun
Long (E)
Total

272 15.1'
087 44.9'
360 00.0'
087 44.9'E

GHA Sun
Long (E)
Total

273 15.1'
086 44.9'
360 00.0'
086 44.9'E

GHA Sun
Long (E)
Total

274 15.0'
085 45.0'
360 00.0'
085 45.0'E

20 05.9'S
Dec

Geographic Position (2)

Obs. 3

S 20 05.9'

True Bearing
046 approx
000 approx
313 approx

S 20 05.8'

20 05.8'S
Dec

Geographic Position (3)

S 20 05.8'

20 05.8'S

Table 5-1. Calculation of Geographic Positions

The 3 Geographic Positions must be Run on / Run back to a common time (0625 UT) on course
300 speed 18, as follows: Obs (1) - 06 20 02 UT Run on 1.5 n miles, Obs( 2) - 06 24 02 UT
Run on 0.3 n miles, Obs (3) - 06 28 02 UT Run back 0.9 n miles.
From the Observed (True) Altitude, the True Zenith Distance (90 - Altitude) is calculated (see
Table 5-2 below).
Observation

Obs (1)

Obs (2)

Obs (3)

Approx Bearing of Sun

046

000

313

90
Observed (True) Altitude
TZD (angle)
TZD (n miles)

90 00.0'
88 42.1'
01 17.9'
77.9 n miles

90 00.0'
89 05.9'
00 54.1'
54.1 n miles

90 00.0'
88 41.9'
01 18.1'
78.1 n miles

Geographic Position
(from Table 5-1)

20 05.9'S
087 44.9'E

20 05.8'S
086 44.9'E

20 05.8'S
085 45.0'E

Run on / back

On 1.5 n miles

On 0.3 n miles

Back 0.9 n miles

Table 5-2. Calculation of True Zenith Distances, with Summary of Approximate True
Bearings of Sun, Geographic Positions and Runs
5-42
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BR 45(2)
0552. Plotting Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
The True Zenith Distances (see Table 5-2) are plotted as the arcs of circles from their
respective run Geographic Positions. Care must be taken NOT to plot a mirror image of
the true fix. The results of Table 5-2 are plotted at Fig 5-17 below.

Fig 5-17. Plot of Very High Angle (Tropical) Sight Example 5-12 Results (see Table 5-2)

5-43
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BR 45(2)
SECTION 6 - HIGH LATITUDE (POLAR) SIGHTS
0560. Taking High Latitude (Polar) Sights
a.
Use of a Sextant in Polar Temperatures. When a Sextant is brought from the
warmth of the ship or submarine into the open air at high Latitudes, condensation will
form on the mirrors and glasses. This will freeze almost instantaneously, making the
Sextant unusable. To prevent this happening, place the Sextant inside an airtight
polythene container before taking it outside. Then allow it to cool down in the open air.
On removal from the container, about 10 minutes will be available for taking
observations before the mirrors ice over.
b.
Abnormal Refraction. Conditions of Abnormal Refraction sometimes cause
errors of 2N or 3N in lower Latitudes. In polar regions, Abnormal Refraction errors
measured in degrees are not uncommon and an extreme value of 5 has been reported.
This error would cause the Sun to rise ten days earlier than expected and would produce
an error of 300 miles in a Position Line.
c.
Temperature and Pressure. If conditions of temperature and pressure appear
to be other than standard, the additional correction shown in Table A4 in The Nautical
Almanac must be used. (Table A3 gives the normal Altitude corrections to Apparent
Altitude of 10E down to zero for the Sun, Stars and Planets.) If more extreme conditions
are likely to be encountered application should be made to the UK Hydrographic Office
(UKHO) for additional tables.
d.
False Horizons and Dip. When navigating close to ice, the estimated height of
ice above water at the horizon must be subtracted from own height of eye before applying
Dip. Corrections tabulated for Dip allow for standard Refraction, but when conditions are
abnormal the correction will be wrong.
e.
Time Zones. Time Zones have little width or meaning near the poles, so UT
(GMT) is normally kept.
0561. Reducing High Latitude (Polar) Sights
High Latitude (Polar) Sights may be reduced by NAVPAC 2 or the normal use of NP 401,
but when in Latitudes above 87 an abbreviated method of reduction (see Para 0561c below)
and plotting is possible using the Pole as the Chosen Position. This latter method is only likely
to be taken by submariners, unless overland expeditions are anticipated.
a.
NAVPAC 2. NAVPAC 2 is the simplest and easiest method for reducing High
Latitude (Polar) Sights. The DR / EP position may be used as the basis for the
calculation, but if it is preferred to plot intercepts from the Pole, the Latitude to be used
on the NAVPAC 2 Sights-Fix page may be set to the Pole (but see the caveat at Para
0561c below). However, NAVPAC 2 will not accept 9000.0' (it resets to 00 00.0'); the
Latitude should be set to 89 59.9' instead. The accuracy of the calculation is unaffected
by either of these options.
b.
NP 401 using a Normal Chosen Position. NP 401 may be used in the
conventional manner with a Normal Chosen Position at all Latitudes and an example
of this calculation is at the High Latitude (Polar) Sights Example 5-13 on the page
opposite; the resulting plot is shown at Fig 5-19. Fig 5-19 also shows the alternative
method of plotting when the Pole is used as the Chosen Position (see Para 0561c below).

5-44
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BR 45(2)
High Latitude (Polar) Sights Example 5-13: Using a Normal Chosen Position. At 1235(Z)
on 17 April 1994, in DR position 88 48.0'N 014 18.0'E, stopped in the water, the following
observations were taken. What was the observed position at 1235(Z)?
Body
DWT
Sextant Alt
Sun LL
12 31 27 UT
11 35.0'
Moon LL 12 35 29 UT
19 17.9'
Deck Watch Error 1 minute 5 seconds slow, Index Error +0.5, Height of Eye 6.1 metres,
thickness of ice on horizon 1.0 metre, temperature -7C, pressure 990 mb.

Fig 5-18.

High Latitude (Polar) Sights Example 5-13, Using Normal Chosen Position
Nautical Almanac extract (1994) is at Para 0561e.
5-45
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BR 45(2)
c.
Using the Pole as the Chosen Position. NP 401 is not required for this method
and the reduction calculation is less laborious than with NP 401. Provided the DR/EP
position is within 2 of the Pole and the Sextant Altitude is less than 70E, the Pole itself
can be used as the Chosen Position. An example of this calculation is at High Latitude
(Polar) Sights Example 5-14 (with the same data as in Example 5-13) on the page
opposite; the resulting plot is shown at Fig 5-19 below. Fig 5-19 also shows the
alternative method of plotting when a Normal Chosen Position is used (see Para 0561b
above).

The GHA is the direction of the Intercept from the Pole (Chosen
Position).

Above Sextant Altitudes of 70, the small radius of the Position Circle
generated means that the associated Position Line no longer approximates
a straight line (see Paras 0351a / 0521); if long Intercepts are used,
plotting becomes progressively less accurate.

d.
NP 303 Volume I. For selected stars, High Latitude (Polar) Sights may be
reduced with NP 303 in lieu of NP 401 (see Para 0561b above). The accuracy of
reduction is sacrificed slightly for the sake of speed (see Para 0544).

Fig 5-19. Plot of High Latitude (Polar) Sights Examples 5-13 and 5-14
Note 5-3. Fig 5-19 (above) shows the sight plotted for theNP 401 and Polar methods from
the results of Figs 5-18 and 5-19. True Bearings for the NP 401 method are plotted by drawing
a line from the Chosen Position through the Pole and taking this as the 000 line. A protractor,
centred on the Chosen Position and aligned with the 000 line is then used to plot the Intercepts.
5-46
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BR 45(2)
High Latitude (Polar) Sights Example 5-14: Using the Pole as Chosen Position. At 1235(Z)
on 17 April 1994, in DR position 88 48.0'N 014 18.0'E, stopped in the water, the following
observations were taken. What was the observed position at 1235(Z)?
Body
DWT
Sextant Alt
Sun LL
12 31 27 UT
11 35.0'
Moon LL 12 35 29 UT
19 17.9'
Deck Watch Error 1 minute 5 seconds slow, Index Error +0.5, Height of Eye 6.1 metres,
thickness of ice on horizon 1.0 metre, temperature -7C, pressure 990 mb.

Fig 5-20.

High Latitude (Polar) Sights Example 5-14, Using Pole as Chosen Position
Nautical Almanac extract (1994) is at Para 0561e.
5-47
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BR 45(2)
e.

Extract of The Nautical Almanac (1994) for use with Examples 5-13 and 5-14.

Fig 5-21. Extract from The Nautical Almanac (1994) for use with Examples 5-13 and 5-14.
0562. Plotting High Latitude (Polar) Sights
a.
Mercatorial Plotting Sheets. These are available up to 69E, after which plotting
sheet 5004 should be used up to 75. It is of note that the Intercept is, in reality, a Great
Circle (Para 0524) and the Position Line itself is a Small Circle (Para 0521), although
they are normally approximated to straight lines without significant error at moderate
Latitudes. In high Latitudes, due to the errors associated with the convergence of
Meridians at the Pole, for the best accuracy Intercepts and Position Lines should be
plotted as curves; this is especially so if the Intercept is long. This is impracticable on a
Mercator projection and so other methods are needed above Latitude75.
b.
USHO 5600. Between 75of Latitude and the Pole, a polar stereographic
projection (see BR 45(1) Chapter 4) is required. The US Hydrographic Office polar
plotting sheet USHO 5600 is ideal and can be obtained from America by the UK
Hydrographic Office (UKHO). There is no British equivalent.
c.
Form S.376. Form S.376 (Manoeuvring Form) is recommended between 88of
Latitude and the Pole. An example of the use of Form S.376 for this purpose is at Fig 519. USHO 5600 portrays only a quadrant, which may be inconvenient so close to the
Pole.
d.
True Bearings on Polar Projections. True Bearings must be measured by
protractor (or station pointer) from the relevant point of reference on polar stereographic
projections. When the Polar method is used True Bearings are plotted from the Pole and
thus the printed graticule may be used for True Bearings. When using the NP 401 method
and plotting from the Chosen Position (or any other position) the procedure at Note 5-3
should be used (see under Fig 5-19, at Para 0561d).
5-48
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BR 45(2)
ANNEX A
DESCRIPTION AND SETTING OF THE STAR GLOBE
1.

Description of the Star Globe

The Star Globe is used to explain astro-navigation theory (see Para 0502). It consists of
a globe on which the stars, parallels of Declination, the Celestial Equator, the Ecliptic and the
Celestial Meridians at 15 intervals are shown. Approximately one Visible Hemisphere can be
seen at a time. The Celestial Equator carries two scales: on the north side RA in degrees so that
LHA can be set onto it directly, and on the south side, RA in units of time. The globe revolves
about the Axis through the Celestial Poles, in a vertical brass ring which is graduated in degrees
and represents the Observers Meridian. The Pole can be elevated for setting Latitude. The outer
edge of the Azimuth ring is graduated in degrees. A four-quadrant hemispherical cage graduated
in degrees is fitted over the globe; the Observers Zenith lies at the point of intersection of the
quadrants. In summary, the globe can be easily set to show the Visible Hemisphere at the correct
orientation for any time and place of observation.

Fig 5A-1. Star Globe

5A-1
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BR 45(2)
2.

Setting the Star Globe

Planets may be marked on the globe in chinagraph using their tabulated Declination and
Right Ascension RA (which is 360- SHA). The Elevated Pole is set to the Altitude on the
quadrant corresponding to the observers Latitude. The globe is revolved until the computed
LHA of Aries appears under the Meridian ring; this quantity is the same as the RA. The brass cage
is turned until one of the Altitude quadrants lies along the True Bearing of the body on the
Azimuth ring, and then move the small cursor to the required Altitude. The cursor will indicate
the Star that has been observed, or, if no Star is indicated, the position of the Planet.
Example 5A-1. At ZT 0600(+1) on 21st October, 1997, in DR position 45N, 15W, the
altitude of a bright body bearing 200 is 26. What is it?
ZT
Zone

0600 21st October

+1

UT/Date

0700 21st October

GHA Aries
Longitude

134 45.9
15 00.0W

LHA Aries
120 (to nearest whole degree)
Example 5A-1. Summary of LHA Calculation
1. Elevate the north Celestial Pole on the globe to correspond to Latitude 45.
2. Revolve the globe in the ring until Meridian 120 appears under the Meridian ring.
3. Turn the brass cage until one of the Altitude quadrants lies along True Bearing 075
and then move the cursor along this quadrant to 26. Sirius lies under the cursor.
Example 5A-2. At ZT 1900(!4) on 21st October, 1997, in DR position 30S, 55E, the altitude
of the brightest of 2 bodies close together bearing 260 is 40. What is it?
ZT
Zone
UT/Date

1900 21st October

!4
1500 21st October

GHA Aries
Longitude

255 05.6
55E

LHA Aries
310 (to nearest whole degree)
Example 5A-2. Summary of LHA Calculation
1. Elevate the south Celestial Pole on the globe to correspond to Latitude 30.
2. Revolve the globe in the ring until the Meridian 310 appears under the Meridian ring.
3. Adjust the brass cage to bearing 260 and the cursor to Altitude 40. No bright star
appears in the position indicated, the position lies close to the Ecliptic and the body must
therefore be a planet. From the scale along the Celestial Equator, its Right Ascension
is seen to be 252. The SHA is therefore 108 and its Declination is about 25S. The
Nautical Almanac shows that Venus and Mars have SHAs and Declinations
approximating to these values on the day. Venus, being known to be the brightest of the
two, was the body observed.

5A-2
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BR 45(2)

CHAPTER 6
MERIDIAN PASSAGE AND POLARIS
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - MERIDIAN PASSAGE
Definition and Use of Meridian Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Upper Meridian Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lower Meridian Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Moment of Meridian Passage - Maximum Altitude and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reason for Possible Difference in Maximum Altitude and Time of Mer Pass . . . . . . .
Meridian Passage of the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meridian Passage of the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meridian Passage of Aries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Upper Meridian Passage of Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lower Meridian Passage of Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meridian Passage of Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculation of Latitude at Meridian Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0601
0602
0603
0604
0605
0606
0607
0608
0609
0610
0611
0612

SECTION 2 - POLARIS
Position and Movement of Polaris around the North Celestial Pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Obtaining Latitude by the Altitude of Polaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Obtaining True North by the Bearing of Polaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Observation of Polaris at Twilight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NAVPAC 2 - Polaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0620
0621
0622
0623
0624

6-1
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BR 45(2)

INTENTIONALLY BLANK

6-2
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BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 6
MERIDIAN PASSAGE AND POLARIS
SECTION 1 - MERIDIAN PASSAGE
0601. Definition and Use of Meridian Passage.
The Meridian Passage (Mer Pass) of a heavenly body occurs when it is in the
Observers Meridian or in the Meridian 180 from the Observers Meridian. At that moment,
the Local Hour Angle of the heavenly body will be either 0 or 180, and the heavenly body is
either due North or due South (ie. bearing 180 or 000) from the observer. The Position Line
obtained, being at right-angles to the bearing, will instantly give the observers Latitude.
Although sights can be taken for the Meridian Passage of any heavenly body, it is normally only
observed for the Sun. Occasionally, Jupiter and Venus may also be usefully observed by day.
0602. Upper Meridian Passage
Upper Meridian Passage occurs when the heavenly body is on the Observers Meridian.
The Local Hour Angle of the body is then 0. In the northern hemisphere, the True Bearing of
the heavenly body is 180 or 000 depending on whether the Latitude is greater or less than its
Declination (both with the SAME name); when the Latitude and Declination have CONTRARY
names the bearing away from the North Pole and thus is 180. In the southern hemisphere, these
bearings are reversed. A diagram showing an example of Upper Meridian Passage for the
northern hemisphere with Latitude greater than Declination and both with SAME names is at Fig
6-1 below. A further example for the southern hemisphere with Latitude less than Declination
and both with SAME names is at Fig 6-2 overleaf. These diagrams also show the Lower
Meridian Passage (see Para 0603 below).

Fig 6-1. Mer Pass (Northern Hemisphere): Latitude > Declination, SAME Names

6-3
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BR 45(2)
0603. Lower Meridian Passage
a. Occurrence. Lower Meridian Passage occurs when the heavenly body is on the
Meridian that differs in Local Hour Angle from the Observers Meridian by 180. A
limited explanation of Lower Meridian Passage is also contained at Para 0348i for those
readers who do not require to study the theory of the phenomenon.
b. Bearing. The Local Hour Angle of the heavenly body is 180 at Lower Meridian
Passage and in the northern hemisphere, when the body is visible, the bearing is always
towards the North Pole and so 000, irrespective of whether the Declination or the
Latitude has the larger value. In the southern hemisphere the bearing is always the
bearing is always away from the North Pole and so 180. A diagram showing an
example of Lower Meridian Passage for the northern hemisphere with Latitude greater
than Declination and both with SAME names is at Fig 6-1 (previous page). A further
example for the southern hemisphere with Latitude less than Declination and both with
SAME names is at Fig 6-2 below. These diagrams also show the Upper Meridian
Passage (see Para 0602 above).

Fig 6-2. Mer Pass (Southern Hemisphere): Latitude < Declination, SAME Names
c. Limitations. When the Latitude and Declination have CONTRARY names, the
Lower Meridian Passage can never be observed, because the body is below the horizon.
Except in very high Latitudes in summer, the Suns Lower Meridian Passage cannot be
observed. A few stars may be observed at Lower Meridian Passage. For these reasons,
the mariner is chiefly concerned with the Upper Meridian Passage.
d. Nomenclature. Unless otherwise stated, within BR 45 the term Meridian
Passage / Mer Pass always refers to Upper Meridian Passage. The Lower Meridian
Passage is also known as the Meridian Passage Below the Pole but this usage is rare.
6-4
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BR 45(2)
0604. The Moment of Meridian Passage - Maximum Altitude and Time
a. Misconception about Mer Pass Sights. There is a widely held misconception that
the moment of Meridian Passage always occurs at the highest observed Altitude of the
heavenly body. This concept is true for a stationary observer, or one travelling due east
or west. However, if the observers movement has any appreciable north/south
component, then taking the Mer Pass sight at the moment of highest Altitude rather than
when it is in the Observers Meridian (ie bearing 180 or 000), will induce an error of
up to 5 nautical miles. An explanation of the reasons for this potential error are at Para
0605 below.
b. Timing of Mer Pass Sights. Attempting to establish the moment of Mer Pass by
taking an accurate bearing of a high heavenly body has practical difficulties and
introduces the risk of error due to compass inaccuracies. Thus the accepted method is
to take Mer Pass at the exact time predicted for this phenomenon . This may be
established to the nearest second by using the time selection in NAVPAC 2's Findit
program in an iterative manner (see Para 0326) or by making a manual calculation to the
nearest minute from The Nautical Almanac (see Para 0325b). The use of NAVPAC 2
is the preferred method for the reasons given in Para 0326. See also Para 0348.
0605. Reason for Possible Difference in Maximum Altitude and Time of Mer Pass
To a stationary observer, the Altitude of a heavenly body at Mer Pass is the maximum
Altitude observed, and to obtain an accurate Sextant Altitude, it is only necessary to watch the
body over a short period and record the maximum altitude observed. Three factors govern the
change in a heavenly bodys Altitude to a greater or lesser degree: the rotation of the Earth, the
Declination of the heavenly body and any component of North-South movement.
a. Rotation of the Earth. The rotation of the Earth ensures that a body appears to rise
in the East, attains a maximum altitude and sets in the West. This gives rise to the
normal movement of the Sun and other heavenly bodies across the sky and with which
everyone is familiar.
b. Declination of the Heavenly Body. The effect of Declination is not of concern in
practice, as the error induced is too small to be significant. In theory, any change in the
time of observation induces a change in Declination which alters the position of X or X
(Figs 6-1 and 6-2) in relation to Z and thus alters the Altitude. However, the short time
difference between Mer Pass and the moment of greatest Altitude is too small to change
the Declination of the heavenly body significantly and this error may be ignored.
c. North-South Component of Movement. Any North-South component of
movement introduces a small but significant error, because it is equivalent to a
movement of Z (see Figs 6-1 and 6-2). The Earths rotation by itself would give the
altitude its greatest value when the heavenly body reached the Observers Meridian. If
the ship is moving towards the body (ie North or South), the Altitude will increase
for a further period until the rate at which the bodys Altitude is decreasing due to
the Earths rotation becomes equal to the rate at which the movement of the ship
is increasing the Altitude. The greatest Altitude therefore occurs after Mer Pass.
Conversely, if the ship is moving away from the heavenly body, the greatest Altitude
occurs before Mer Pass. The time difference between the two Altitudes may lead to an
error of up to 5 nautical miles for a ship with a North-South course component,
depending on course and speed. There is no error for a ship on an East-West course.
6-5
Original

BR 45(2)
0606. Meridian Passage of the Sun
a. Background. No appreciable error is introduced if it is assumed that the Suns
apparent motion to the westward is exactly 15 of Longitude per hour. The tabulated
GHA of the Sun in The Nautical Almanac shows that the hourly change in GHA is almost
exactly 15 throughout the year.
b. Calculation Method. The time of the Suns Mer Pass may thus easily be calculated
at shown at Para 0325b. Example 3-2 which was given at Para 0325 (Mer Pass at 1210,
at 25 W, in Time Zone O(+2)) shows this calculation and is repeated below for the
convenience of readers.
Mer Pass Time from Nautical Almanac

1210

Longitude (W+ or E-) 25W

+0140

Local Mean Time UT (GMT)

1340Z

Zone(+2) (+ = subtract) (- = add)

-0200

Zone Time

1140(O)

Example 3-2 (Repeated from Para 0325). Summary of Sun Mer Pass Calculation
c. Chart Method. The time of Mer Pass calculated above may need to be refined with
a second approximation. Successive approximations can be avoided altogether when the
ships track is plotted on the chart. The Zone Times of Mer Pass for a few Meridians in
the vicinity of the ships position are written against these Meridians on the chart. The
time when the Sun and the ship are on the same Meridian can then be obtained to the
nearest half minute by inspection. If unexpected alterations of course or speed occur
before Mer Pass, the new Mer Pass time is merely read off the chart. A plot of Example
3-2 above is shown at Fig 6-3 with Mer Pass at 1140 with the ship on course 295, speed
20. If the ship alters to course 025 at 1050, by inspection, Mer Pass is at 1138.

Fig 6-3. Plotting of Mer Pass Times by the Chart Method

6-6
Original

BR 45(2)
0607. Meridian Passage of the Moon
a. Background. The Meridian Passage of the Moon is important in tidal prediction,
but is otherwise unlikely to be of importance to the navigator. Unlike the Sun (see Para
0606), an appreciable error is introduced if it is assumed that the Moons apparent
motion to the westward is exactly 15 of Longitude per hour. The GHA of the Moon in
The Nautical Almanac shows that the hourly change in GHA has quite wide variations.
b. Moons Mer Pass at Greenwich Meridian. It was shown at Para 0451 that a
Lunar Day is longer than a Mean Solar Day by between 39 minutes and 64 minutes,
averaging 50 minutes. The exact difference in the time of the Moons Mer Pass at the
Greenwich Meridian is obtained by subtracting the time of Mer Pass on one day from
the time of Mer Pass on the next.
c.

Moons Mer Pass at Observer Meridian - the Daily Difference . To calculate

the time of the Moons Mer Pass at the Observers Meridian it is first necessary to
take account of:

The observers Longitude

The time it has taken the Earth to rotate through this angle of Longitude.

As the Moon moves around its orbit of the Earth, in the time it has taken the
Earth to rotate through the angle of Longitude, the Moon turns through an
additional angle as it orbits the Earth. This can be seen more clearly over a 24
hour period at Fig 6-4.

Fig 6-4. The Orbit of the Moon during a Mean Solar Day (Not to Scale)
At Fig 6-4, AA is a measure of the Mean Solar Day (ie 360 change in Longitude), but
while the Earth has moved from A to A, the Moon has reached C, and so the Earth will
have to turn through a further angle approximately equal to BAC before it is on the
6-7
Original

BR 45(2)
Observers Meridian again. (Distances in Fig 6-4 are not to scale; as the Sun is so far away, the
lines shown as Observers Meridian at A and A are in reality almost parallel.) The time taken
to turn the extra angle BAC varies between 39 and 64 minutes and is known as the Daily
Difference (MP). The value of the Daily Difference for any particular day can be established
by comparing the times of Mer Pass for the Moon in The Nautical Almanac for that day and for
the day before/after it.
Note 6-1. The term Daily Difference is also used for Moonrise and Moonset, but that value is
the difference between consecutive Moonrises/Moonsets, rather than consecutive Mer Pass as
in this case. To avoid confusion, when the term Daily Difference is used in BR 45 Vol 2, it is
suffixed (MP), (MR) or (MS) as appropriate.
d. Calculation of Difference of Time for Longitude for Moons Mer Pass. To
calculate the time of Mer Pass for the Moon it is necessary to establish the proportion
of the Daily Difference (MP) which must be applied to the tabulated Mer Pass time for
the Greenwich Meridian: this is known as the Difference of Time for Longitude (MP).
From Fig 6-4 it can be seen that:
Difference of Time for Longitude(MP) = Observers Longitude x Daily Difference(MP)
360
Example 6-1.
If an observer was at 75 W and the Daily Difference (MP) was 54 minutes,
what is the Difference of Time for Longitude(MP) :
Difference of Time for Longitude (MP)

= 75 x 54 = 11 minutes
360
Example 6-1. Summary of Difference of Time for Longitude (MP) Calculation
e. Method of Calculation of the Moons Mer Pass at Observer Meridian. The
Zone Time of the Moons Mer Pass at the observers Observers Meridian is obtained
as follows. Two examples of this calculation are on the opposite page:

6-8
Original

The Local Mean Time of the Moons Mer Pass on the Greenwich Meridian is
established from the tabulated value for each day at the bottom of the right
hand daily pages of The Nautical Almanac.

Comparison to the preceding day (Longitude East) or to the following day

(Longitude West) allows the Daily Difference (MP) to be established by
simple subtraction.

From the Daily Difference (MP) and observers Longitude, the Difference of
Time for Longitude (MP) may be established by the calculation at Para 0607d
above or by using TABLE II - FOR LONGITUDE at the back of The Nautical
Almanac using the same arguments. The Difference of Time for Longitude
(MP) is added (Longitude West) or subtracted (Longitude East) to the Local
Mean Time of the Moons Mer Pass.

The observers Longitude is applied in the usual way (add if West or subtract
if East).

Time Zone in use is applied in the same way as in SR / SS calculations (see

Para 0322). This results in the Local Mean Time of Mer Pass on the
Observers Meridian.

BR 45(2)
Example 6-2.
What is the Zone Time (+4) of the Moons Mer Pass in 63 30'W? The Time
of the Moons Mer Pass at the Greenwich Meridian is 1834 and the Daily Difference (MP) to
the following day (because Longitude is West) is 46 minutes:
Mer Pass Time (LMT) from Nautical Almanac
Difference of Time (following day) for Longitude (from
TABLE II or 63 x 46360) (W+ or E-)
Corrected Time of Mer Pass at 63 30'W

1834
+8
1842

Longitude (W+ or E-) 63 30'W

+0414

Local Mean Time UT (GMT) at 63 30'W

2256Z

Zone(+4) (+ = subtract) (- = add)

-0400

Zone Time of Mer Pass

1856(+4)

Example 6-2. Summary of Moon Mer Pass Calculations

Example 6-3.
What is the Zone Time (-9) of the Moons Mer Pass in 128 15'E? The Time
of the Moons Mer Pass at the Greenwich Meridian is 1834 and the Daily Difference (MP) to
the preceding day (because Longitude is East) is 44 minutes:
Mer Pass Time (LMT) from Nautical Almanac
Difference of Time (preceding day) for Longitude (from
TABLE II or 128 x 44360) (W+ or E-)
Corrected Time of Mer Pass at 128 15'E

1834
-16
1818

Longitude (W+ or E-) 128 15'E

-0833

Local Mean Time UT (GMT) at 128 15'E

0945Z

Zone(-9) (+ = subtract) (- = add)

+0900

Zone Time of Mer Pass

1845(-9)

Example 6-3. Summary of Moon Mer Pass Calculations

6-9
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BR 45(2)
0608. Meridian Passage of Aries
The time of Meridian Passage of the First Point of Aries over the Greenwich Meridian
is given in The Nautical Almanac for the middle day of the three days on the double page. The
interval between successive Meridian Passages is 23h 56m, so that the times for intermediate days
and other Meridians can easily be derived. The method of calculating the precise time of the
Meridian Passage of Aries on any day for any Meridian is to find the UT (GMT) at which the
LHA of Aries is zero (or 360). There are two other points to note:

When converting the difference (see examples) from arc to time, The Nautical
Almanac Increments and Correction Tables for Aries must be used (in reverse)
and not the Arc to Time Table (which is for the Mean Sun).

In certain cases it may be doubtful which day should be used for extracting the GHA
of Aries from The Nautical Almanac; this can easily be resolved by first finding the
approximate UT of Mer Pass of Aries at the required Longitude, as shown in
Example 6-5 below. See extracts of The Nautical Almanac at Appendix 2.

Example 6-4. What is Zone Time (+4) of the Mer Pass of Aries in 57 51'W on 13 July 1997?
LHA Aries

000 00.0'

Longitude (W+ or E-)

057

GHA Aries

057 51.0'

Nearest GHA Aries for UT in whole hours (08)

051 14.5'

= 8 hours

Difference (fromIncrements and Correction Tables)

006 36.5'

= 26 min 22 secs

Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Aries

0826 22 (Z) 13 July

Zone(+4) (+ = subtract) (- = add)

- 0400

Zone Time of Mer Pass of Aries

0426 22 (+4) 13 July

Example 6-4. Summary of Mer Pass of Aries Calculations

Example 6-5. What is Zone Time (-10) of the Mer Pass of Aries in 154 05'E on 13 July 1997?
Approx LMT Mer Pass of Aries

0436

Longitude 154 05'E (W+ or E-)

1016

Approx UT (GMT) Mer Pass of Aries

1820

LHA Aries

000 00.0'

Longitude (W+ or E-)

154 05.0'E

GHA Aries

205 55.0'

Nearest GHA Aries for UT in whole hours (18)

200 40.0'

= 18 hrs (12 July)

Difference (fromIncrements and Correction Tables)

005 15.0'

= 20 min 56 secs

Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Aries

Zone(-10) (+ = subtract) (- = add)
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Aries

13 July
12 July

1820 56 (Z) 12 July

+1000
0420 56 (-10) 13 July

Example 6-5. Summary of Mer Pass of Aries Calculations

6-10
Original

BR 45(2)
0609. Upper Meridian Passage of Stars
The method of calculating precise time of the Meridian Passage of a Star on any day for
any Meridian is to find the UT (GMT) at which the sum of the LHA Aries and the SHA of the Star
is zero (ie. LHA Star = 0 or 360). There are two other points to note:

When converting the difference (see examples) from arc to time, The Nautical
Almanac Increments and Correction Tables for Aries must be used (in reverse)
and not the Arc to Time Table (which is for the Mean Sun).

In certain cases it may be doubtful which day should be used for extracting the GHA
of Aries from The Nautical Almanac; Mer Pass of the star occurs after that of Aries
by 360- SHA and can be resolved as at Example 6-7. See also Appendix 2.

Example 6-6. What is Zone Time (+4) of Mer Pass of Aldebaran in 57 51'W on 13 July 1997?
LHA Aldebaran (= LHA Aries + SHA
SHA Aldebaran
LHA Aries (LHA Aldebaran - SHA Aldebaran)
Longitude (W+ or E-)
GHA Aries
Nearest GHA Aries for UT in whole hours (13)
Difference (fromIncrements and Correction Tables)
Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Aldebaran
Zone(+4) (+ = subtract) (- = add)
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Aldebaran

360 00.0'
291 03.6'
068 56.4'
057 51.0'W
126 47.4'
126 26.8'
000 20.6'

= 13 hours
= 01 min 22 secs
1301 22 (Z) 13 July
- 0400
0901 22(+4) 13 July

Example 6-6. Summary of Mer Pass of Aldebaran Calculations

Example 6-7. What is Zone Time(-10) of Mer Pass of Aldebaran in 154 05'E on 13 July 1997?
Approx LMT Mer Pass of Aries
0436
13 July
360 - SHA Aldebaran = 360-291 = 069
0436
Approx UT (GMT) Mer Pass Aldebaran
0912
Longitude 154 05'E (W+ or E-)
-1016
Approx UT (GMT) Mer Pass of Aldebaran
2256
12 July
LHA Aldebaran (= LHA Aries + SHA Aldebaran) 360 00.0'
SHA Aldebaran
291 03.6'
LHA Aries(LHA Aldebaran - SHA Aldebaran
428 56.4'
Longitude (W+ or E-)
154 05.0'E
GHA Aries
274 51.4'
Nearest GHA Aries for UT in whole hours (22)
260 49.9'
= 22 hrs (12 July)
Difference (fromIncrements and Correction Tables)
014 01.4'
= 55 min 57 secs
Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Aldebaran
2257 57 (Z) 12 July
Zone(-10) (+ = subtract) (- = add)
+1000
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Aldebaran
0857 57 (-10) 13 July
Example 6-7. Summary of Mer Pass of Aldebaran Calculations
6-11
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0610. Lower Meridian Passage of Stars
Should the time of a stars Lower Meridian Passage be required, it can be calculated in
the same way as the Upper Meridian Passage except that the LHA of the star is 180 instead of
0 or 360.
0611. Meridian Passage of Planets
The times of Meridian Passages of the four navigational planets over the Greenwich
Meridian are given in the daily pages of The Nautical Almanac for the middle day of the three
days on the double page. Times for intermediate days and Meridians can readily be derived
and for normal navigational practice this approximation is sufficient (see Example 6-8
below). However, in some cases this approximation may be up to 3 minutes in error according
to the daily differences in times of the Meridian Passages. If a precise time of Meridian Passage
is required, the same procedure should be followed as for Aries (ie finding the UT (GMT) at
which the LHA of the planet is zero - see Para 0608 and Example 6-9 below).
Example 6-8.
What is the approximate Zone Time (+5) of Mer Pass of Venus in 76 10'W on
13 July 1997? See extracts of The Nautical Almanac at Appendix 2.
Mer Pass Time (LMT) from Nautical Almanac

1358

Longitude (W+ or E-) 76 10'W

+0505

Local Mean Time UT (GMT) at 76 10'W

1903Z

Zone(+5) (+ = subtract) (- = add)

-0500

Zone Time of Mer Pass

1403(+5)

Example 6-8. Summary of Approximate Mer Pass of Venus Calculations

Example 6-9.
What is the precise Zone Time (+5) of Mer Pass of Venus in 76 10'W on 13
July 1997? See extracts of The Nautical Almanac at Appendix 2.
Approx LMT Mer Pass of Venus

1358

Longitude 76 10'W (W+ or E-)

+0505

Approx UT (GMT) Mer Pass of Aries

1903Z

LHA Venus

000 00.0'

Longitude 076 10'(W+ or E-)

076 10.0'

GHA Venus

076 10.0'

Nearest GHA Venus for UT in whole hours

075 30.9'

= 19 hrs (13 July)

Difference (fromIncrements and Correction Tables)

000 39.1'

= 02 min 36 secs

Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Venus

Zone(+5 ) (+ = subtract) (- = add)
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Venus

13 July
13 July

1902 36 (Z) 13 July

-0500
1402 36 (-10) 13 July

Example 6-9. Summary of Precise Mer Pass of Venus Calculations

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0612. Calculation of Latitude at Meridian Passage
a. The Four Cases of Meridian Passage Calculations. As stated at Paras 0348f-i,
there are three possible cases for the calculation of Latitude from the Upper Meridian
Passage of a heavenly body and one additional case for the Lower Meridian Passage of
a heavenly body. Once the Sextant Altitude has been corrected for Refraction etc,
Latitude may be calculated very simply in each case from the Declination and the
Observed (True) Altitude of the heavenly body .

b.

Upper Mer Pass: Latitude > Declination with SAME names (N / S)

Upper Mer Pass: Latitude < Declination with SAME names (N / S)

Upper Mer Pass: Latitude and Declination with CONTRARY names (N / S)

Lower Mer Pass: Independent of values of Declination, Latitude and NAME.

Upper Mer Pass: Latitude > Declination with SAME Names. Fig 6-5 shows an
Upper Mer Pass situation in the northern hemisphere with Latitude > Declination
and SAME names. It can be seen by inspection that:
O(H)X= Observed (True) Altitude (ie Sextant Altitude, corrected for errors etc)
ZX = 90 - Observed (True) Altitude (ie 90 - O(H)X )
XQ = Declination
ZQ = Latitude
It may also be seen by inspection that:
ZX = ZQ (Latitude) - XQ (Declination) = 90 - O(H)X (Observed (True) Altitude)
Latitude = 90 - Observed (True) Altitude + Declination
or Latitude = Declination - Observed (True) Altitude + 90 (see Para 0348f)

Fig 6-5. Upper Mer Pass: Latitude > Declination with SAME Names
(Latitude = Declination - Observed (True) Altitude + 90)
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c.

Upper Mer Pass: Latitude < Declination with SAME Names. Fig 6-6 shows an
Upper Mer Pass situation in the northern hemisphere with Latitude < Declination
and SAME names. It can be seen by inspection that:
O(H)X= Observed (True) Altitude (ie Sextant Altitude, corrected for errors etc)
ZX = 90 - Observed (True) Altitude (ie 90 - O(H)X )
XQ = Declination
ZQ = Latitude
It may also be seen by inspection that:
ZX = XQ (Declination) - ZQ (Latitude) = 90 - O(H)X (Observed (True) Altitude)

Latitude = Declination + Observed (True) Altitude - 90 (see Para 0348g)

Fig 6-6. Upper Mer Pass: Latitude < Declination with SAME Names
(Latitude = Declination + Observed (True) Altitude - 90)

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d.

Upper Mer Pass: Latitude and Declination with CONTRARY Names. Fig 6-7
shows an Upper Mer Pass situation in the northern hemisphere. It should be noted
that the heavenly body X is below the Celestial Equator (ie Declination
CONTRARY name to Latitude) but above the Celestial Horizon. It can be seen by
inspection that:
O(H)X= Observed (True) Altitude (ie Sextant Altitude, corrected for errors etc)
ZX = 90 - Observed (True) Altitude (ie 90 - O(H)X )
QX = Declination
ZQ = Latitude
It may also be seen by inspection that:
ZX = ZQ (Latitude) + QX (Declination) = 90 - O(H)X (Observed (True) Altitude)

Latitude = 90 - Observed (True) Altitude - Declination (see Para 0348h)

Fig 6-7. Upper Mer Pass: Latitude and Declination with CONTRARY Names
(Latitude = 90 - Observed (True) Altitude - Declination)

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e. Lower Mer Pass: Independent of values of Declination, Latitude and Name. The
Lower Mer Pass of the Sun is rarely encountered as it occurs at around midnight, some
12 hours before or after the Upper Mer Pass transit. The Sun is not visible at midnight
except in very high Latitudes at certain times of the year. However, certain stars do make
Lower Meridian Passages in moderate Latitudes at times when they are visible, and if
observed, it is possible to derive the observers Latitude by a simple calculation. In
practice, Lower Meridian Passage sights are not normally observed as such and so the
appropriate formula is not provided at Para 0348i. However, the formula and a full
explanation of the calculation is shown at Fig 6-8 below. It can be seen by inspection
that:
O(H)X= Observed (True) Altitude (ie Sextant Altitude, corrected for errors etc)
ZX = 90 - Observed (True) Altitude (ie 90 - O(H)X )
XQ = Declination
ZQ = Latitude
It may also be seen by inspection that, based on the Celestial Equator as a baseline:
|
|

ZX = 180 - ZQ (Latitude) - XQ (Declination) = 90 - O(H)X (Observed (True) Altitude)

Latitude = 180 - 90 + Observed (True) Altitude - Declination
or Latitude = 90 + Observed (True) Altitude - Declination

Fig 6-8. Lower Mer Pass: Independent of values of Declination, Latitude and Name.
(Latitude = 90 + Observed (True) Altitude - Declination)

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SECTION 2 - POLARIS
0620. Position and Movement of Polaris around the North Celestial Pole.
a. Position and Use of Polaris. Polaris (the Pole Star) is the name given to the secondmagnitude star which lies close to the North Celestial Pole. If its position coincided
exactly with the North Celestial Pole, a Sextant observation of Polaris would provide
an instantaneous measurement of Latitude, because the Observed (True) Altitude of the
North Celestial Pole would equal the Latitude of the observer (see Fig 6-9). In addition,
a compass bearing of Polaris would provide an instantaneous check for true North and
thus any compass error. However, with small, easily applied corrections, both these
problems are overcome.

Fig 6-9. Daily Movement of Polaris around the North Celestial Pole
b. Daily Movement of Polaris. To be in coincidence with the North Celestial Pole
the Declination of Polaris would have to be 90N; in fact the Declination of Polaris is
approximately 89N. The Polar Distance (Co-Declination) is thus approximately 1, and
in the course of a day, Polaris describes a Small Circle about the North Celestial Pole
with an angular radius of approximately 1. This is shown by (an exaggerated) Small
Circle (displayed as a dashed line) centred about the North Celestial Pole in Fig 6-9
below). The Observed (True) Altitude of Polaris is thus not quite equal to the Latitude
of the observer and the compass bearing of Polaris is not always exactly true North.
Note 6-2. The Small Circle centred about the North Celestial Pole in Fig 6-9 above has been
expanded at Fig 6-10 overleaf, so that further detail can be shown.

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0621. Obtaining Latitude by the Altitude of Polaris
The Small Circle centred about the North Celestial Pole in Fig 6-9 has been expanded
at Fig 6-10 below, so that further detail can be shown.
a. Construction of Point Y. If a point Y is constructed on the Observers Meridian
O(H)P at an Angular Distance equal to AX (the Observed (True) Altitude of Polaris (X)
measured from the Celestial Horizon) so that O(H)Y = AX, then the observers Latitude
PO(H) can be established as follows:
Latitude PO(H) = Observed (True) Altitude (AX) Angular Difference PY

Fig 6-10. Daily Movement of Polaris around the North Celestial Pole
Expanded Scale (see Fig 6-9). Viewed from directly above the Pole
b. Effect of LHA of Polaris on Sign of PY. In the example shown at Figs 6-9 and 610, by inspection, the Angular Distance PY is positive (+). However, depending on the
position of X on the Small Circle during any 24 hour period, it could be negative(-). The
sign of Angular Distance PY is thus dependent on the LHA of Polaris (X), and that LHA
is also the angle XPY (known as h).
c. First Approximation of the Correction PY. A point Y' is constructed on the
Observers Meridian O(H)P so that the perpendicular to O(H)P passes through X. As
Polaris describes a Small Circle about the North Celestial Pole with an angular radius
of approximately 1, the arc XY closely approximates the perpendicular XY. Thus as
a first approximation PY almost equals PY'. As both the LHA (h) of Polaris and the
angular radius (PX) of Polaris movement around the North Celestial Pole are known,
PY' can be established by the formula:
PY'= PX cos h
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d. Second and Third Approximations of the Correction PY. The Nautical Almanac
makes two further approximations to refine the calculation and tabulates the three
corrections which are called a0 , a1 and a2. For mathematical convenience , constants
are included in these tabular corrections to make them positive(+) at every value of
Polaris LHA (h). The constants are arranged so that their sum is exactly 1, thus:
PY = +a0 + a1 + a2 - 1
e. Latitude from Polaris Altitude. The formula at Para 0621a may thus be rewritten as:
Latitude = Observed (True) Altitude +a0 + a1 + a2 - 1
f. Use of The Nautical Almanac Polaris Tables. The method of using The Nautical
Almanac Polaris Tables is explained at Para 0348j which includes a worked example of
the procedure. An extract of The Nautical Almanac Polaris Tables are at Appendix 2.
0622. Obtaining True North by the Bearing of Polaris
The same principles used for Latitude (Paras 0620-0621 and Para 0348j) may be used to
establish the difference between the bearings of Polaris and true North. The Nautical Almanac
has a further table, which is entered with the arguments LHA of Aries and approximate Latitude
between 0 and 65. The output of the table is termed Azimuth but this term is used in
astronomical sense (see Para 0536b) and actually equates to the True Bearing of Polaris. A
worked example of the procedure for using the Polaris Azimuth tables is at Para 0348j. Above
Latitude 65 North, observational errors in obtaining a bearing of Polaris become significant and
it is no longer a sufficiently accurate method for navigational use.
0623. Observation of Polaris at Twilight
Polaris is not a particularly bright star (Magnitude 2.1) and it does not appear to the naked
eye until the horizon has become indistinct in the gathering dusk. An effective way of overcoming this difficulty is to subtract a0 from the DR Latitude and add 1. If this approximate
altitude is set on the Sextant, the star will be visible in the telescope long before the naked eye
can detect it, enabling an observation to be taken while the horizon is still good.
0624. NAVPAC 2 - Polaris
NAVPAC 2 provides all the data necessary for Polaris calculations and will carry them
out.

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CHAPTER 7
THE RISING AND SETTING OF HEAVENLY BODIES
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - REQUIREMENT AND GENERIC DEFINITIONS
Operational Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visible Rising and Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Semi-Diameter, Upper and Lower Limb of the Sun or Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0701
0702
0703
0704

SECTION 2 - SUNRISE, SUNSET AND TWILIGHTS

Visible Sunrise and Sunset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
True Altitude at Visible Sunrise and Sunset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Times of Visible Sunrise and Visible Sunset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time and Altitude of True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Twilight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Duration of Twilights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Midnight Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circumpolar Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0720
0721
0722
0723
0724
0725
0726
0727

SECTION 3 - MOONRISE AND MOONSET

Tabulated Times of Moonrise and Moonset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0730
Calculation of Moonrise and Moonset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0731
SECTION 4 - HIGH LATITUDES
Rising and Setting in High Latitudes - Methods of Prediction Available . . . . . . . . . . .
Theoretical Explanation of NP 401 Method for Negative Apparent Altitudes . . . . . . .
Nautical Almanac and Sight Reduction Tables (NP 401) Method - Procedure . . . . . . .

0740
0741
0742

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CHAPTER 7
THE RISING AND SETTING OF HEAVENLY BODIES
SECTION 1 - REQUIREMENT AND GENERIC DEFINITIONS
0701. Operational Requirement
A thorough understanding of the rising and setting of heavenly bodies is essential to the
Specialist N. This is not only in order to plan the time at which star sights may be taken, but
more importantly, for planning operations which require total darkness, twilight or moonlight.
0702. True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting
The time of True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting occurs when the centre of a heavenly
body is on the observers Celestial Horizon, to the east or west of his Meridian. At these times
the True Zenith Distance is 90. Except in the case of the Moon, this phenomenon cannot be
observed directly from the Earths surface due to Atmospheric Refraction raising the image of
the body appreciably above the Visible Horizon.

The Sun. It is shown at Para 0723 below, that when the Suns centre lies on the
Celestial Horizon (ie at the moment of True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting), the
Suns Lower Limb appears one Semi-Diameter above the Visible Horizon. It is for
this reason that Sunrise / Sunset compass checks are taken when the Suns Lower
Limb is one semi-diameter above the Visible Horizon.

The Moon. However, it is also shown at Para 0730 below, that when the Moons
centre lies on the Celestial Horizon (ie at the moment of True (Theoretical) Rising
and Setting), due to Horizontal Parallax, the Moons centre appears practically on
the Visible Horizon. (See Para 0401 for definition / explanation of Parallax).

0703. Visible Rising and Setting

Visible Rising and Setting occur when the Upper Limb of a heavenly body is just
appearing above or disappearing below the observers Visible Horizon. In the cases of the Sun
and Moon, the tables in The Nautical Almanac give the times at which these phenomena occur.
0704. Semi Diameter, Upper and Lower Limb of the Sun or Moon
a. Semi-Diameter. The Semi-Diameter of a heavenly body is half its angular diameter
as viewed from the Earth.
b. Upper Limb (UL). The Upper Limb of the Sun or Moon is the portion of its
circumference furthest from the Visible Horizon, as seen from an observer on the Earths
surface.
c. Lower Limb (LL). The Lower Limb of the Sun or Moon is the portion of its
circumference nearest to the Visible Horizon, as seen from an observer on the Earths
surface.
0705-0719. Spare

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SECTION 2 - SUNRISE, SUNSET AND TWILIGHTS
0720. Visible Sunrise and Sunset
Visible Sunrise or Sunset occurs when the Suns Upper Limb appears on the Visible
Horizon. At this moment, the Apparent Altitude (equivalent to Sextant Altitude corrected for
Index Error and Height of Eye) of the Suns Upper Limb is 0 00.0'.
0721. True Altitude at Visible Sunrise and Sunset
a. True Zenith Distance of Sun at Visible Sunrise or Sunset. By correcting this
Apparent Altitude of 0 00.0' for the Suns Upper Limb at Visible Sunrise or Sunset ,
first the Observed (True) Altitude and then the True Zenith Distance of the Suns centre
may be calculated. Thus if the observer is assumed to have no Height of Eye, and the
Suns Semi-Diameter on the day in question is 16.0', then:
Apparent Altitude

0 00.0'

Refraction

!34.0'

Sub-Total

!0 34.0'

Semi-Diameter

!16.0'

Observed (True) Altitude

!0 50.0'

90

90 00.0'

True Zenith Distance

90 50.0'

Example 7-1. True Zenith Distance of Sun at Visible Sunrise or Sunset

b. Sequence of Visible Sunrise / Sunset and True Theoretical Sunrise /Sunset.
From Example 7-1 is can be seen that the Suns centre is 50.0' below the Celestial
Horizon when its Upper Limb is just visible above the Visible Horizon, and the True
Zenith Distance of the Suns centre is 90 50.0'. For this reason, Visible Sunrise occurs
before True Theoretical Sunrise, and Visible Sunset occurs after True Theoretical
Sunset.
0722. Times of Visible Sunrise and Visible Sunset
The Nautical Almanac gives the times of Visible Sunrise and Visible Sunset for a range
of Latitudes from 60S to 72N on the right hand side of the 3-day double pages . These times,
which are given to the nearest minute, are strictly the UT of the phenomena on the Greenwich
Meridian for the middle day of the three on each page. They are approximately the LMT of the
corresponding phenomena on any other Meridian and may be used, with interpolation, for any
of the 3 days on the double page. The use of these tables to calculate the Zone Time of Visible
Sunrise and Visible Sunset (and Twilights) is explained at Para 0322.
0723. Time and Altitude of True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset
a. Times of True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset. The times of True Theoretical
Sunrise and Sunset are not usually required in the practice of navigation, but if they
should be, they can be found by solving the spherical triangle for the angle at the
Celestial Pole when the True Zenith Distance is 90. This angle is the LHA of the Sun
at True Theoretical Sunrise or Sunset.
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b. Altitude of the Sun at True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset. The Apparent
Altitude of the Sun at True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset is important for compass
checks. At Fig 7-1, the real and apparent positions of the Sun at True Theoretical
Sunrise and Sunset are shown. From Fig 7-1 it will be seen that the Sun appears to be
approximately a Semi-Diameter above the Visible Horizon at that moment.
(ie 34.0' Refraction - 16.0' Semi-Diameter = 18.0' = approximately one Semi-Diameter).

It is for this reason that Nories Nautical Tables provide Amplitude Tables to calculate
the true compass bearing of the Sun when the Suns Lower Limb is one Semi-Diameter
above the Visible Horizon.

Fig 7-1. Altitude of the Sun at True Theoretical Sunrise or Sunset

0724. Twilight
Twilights were defined at Para 0108, but for the convenience of the reader are repeated
here. The use of The Nautical Almanac to calculate the Zone Time of Twilights is at Para 0322.
a. Civil Twilight (CT). The times of Morning Civil Twilight (MCT) and Evening
Civil Twilight (ECT) are tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment when the
Suns centre is 6 below the Celestial Horizon. The times are shown in chronological
order and the terms Morning and Evening are omitted. This is roughly the time at
which the horizon becomes clear (morning) or becomes indistinct (evening).
b. Nautical Twilight (NT). The times of Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT) and
Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT) are tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment
when the Suns centre is 12 below the Celestial Horizon. The terms Morning and
Evening are omitted as the times are in chronological order. Morning and evening stars
are usually taken between the times of Civil Twilight (CT) and Nautical Twilight (NT).
c. Astronomical Twilight. The time of Astronomical Twilight (AT) is the moment
when the Suns centre is 18 below the Celestial Horizon. Whilst the Suns centre is 18
or greater below the Celestial Horizon, absolute darkness (with respect to the Sun) is
deemed to exist and observations by astronomers may usefully take place. The times of
Astronomical Twilight (AT) have no significance in solving the astro-navigation problem
and so AT times are not tabulated in The Nautical Almanac.
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0725. Duration of Twilights
a. Morning Twilight. Morning Twilight, whether Civil, Nautical or Astronomical,
begins when the Suns centre is at the appropriate angular depression (6, 12or 18
respectively) below the Celestial Horizon, and lasts until Visible Sunrise.
b. Evening Twilight. Evening Twilight begins at Visible Sunset and lasts until the Sun
has reached the appropriate depression (6, 12 or 18)below the Celestial Horizon.
c. Twilight and Total Darkness. The relative positions of the Sun at True Theoretical
Sunset (position X), Visible Sunset (position X), and at the end of Twilight (position X)
are shown at Fig 7-2.

Position X can represent Civil Twilight, Nautical Twilight or Astronomical

Twilight depending on the angular depression below the Celestial Horizon.

The angles ZPX, ZPX and ZPX are the corresponding Hour Angles of the
Sun for these positions, and ZX (90), ZX (90 50) and ZX1 (96, 102
or108 as required) the respective True Zenith Distances.

If the circle of Declination of the Sun does not fall 18 below the horizon,
Astronomical Twilight does not end until Visible Sunrise, and then there is no
Total Darkness overnight. This situation occurs when the observers
Latitude and the Suns Declination the SAME name and their sum is greater
than 72 (ie Lat + Dec > 72 90-(Lat +Dec) < 18).

Similar limits for Civil Twilight and Nautical Twilight are obtained by using
circles of Declination of the Sun of 6 and 12 respectively, instead of 18.

Fig 7-2. Positions of the Sun at Sunsets and Twilights

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d. Duration of Twilight. The actual duration of Twilight depends on the angle which
the Suns path makes with the Celestial Horizon.

High versus Low Latitudes. If the angle which the Suns path makes with
the Celestial Horizon is small, as it must be in high Latitudes (Fig 7-3a),
Twilight lasts considerably longer than it does in low Latitudes where the
angle is large (Fig 7-3b). Thus Nautical Twilight in the tropics usually lasts
just under an hour, in the south of England at midsummer it lasts through most
of short night and off northern Scotland in midsummer it lasts all night.

Fig 7-3a High (Northern) Latitude

Suns Angle of Descent Small
e.

Fig 7-3b Low (Northern) Latitude

Suns Angle of Descent Large

Calculation of Twilight and Total Darkness Times.

Civil Twilight and Nautical Twilight. The times of Civil Twilight and
Nautical Twilight can be obtained from the dedicated tables in The Nautical
Almanac (see Para 0322).

Astronomical Twilight and Total Darkness. If necessary for operational

purposes, Astronomical Twilight and thus the times of Total Darkness may be
calculated by the angle XPX (in Fig 7-1), which is the difference between
the Hour Angles in the two triangles PZX and PZX. From the time of
Visible Sunset/Sunrise note the GHA of the Sun, add/subtract 18, read back
into the GHA table and note the times of Astronomical Twilight. Alternatively,
NAVPAC 2 will provide the times of Astronomical Twilight on demand.

f. Need for Artificial Light. Artificial light becomes necessary for most purposes
when the Sun is 6 or more below the Visible Horizon (ie after Civil Twilight).

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0726. The Midnight Sun
If the circle of Declination (Fig 7-2) remains above the Celestial Horizon, the Sun can
never set and this effect is known colloquially as the Midnight Sun. From Fig 7-4 it can be seen
that in the Northern Hemisphere, the limiting Latitude for the Midnight Sun to occur is:
90 minus the Suns greatest northerly Declination (90 ! 23) N = 66 N.
In that Latitude the Sun will remain above the Visible Horizon all night on one occasion only
during the year, although as the observers Latitude increases, the number of days in a year that
the Sun never sets also increases, because smaller Declinations satisfy the condition. For a
similar reason, Astronomical Twilight will last all night on one night of the year in (90! 23
! 18) N = 48 N. These limits, with their names altered to South, also apply in Southern
Latitudes.

Fig 7-4. The Midnight Sun

0727. Circumpolar Bodies
Although every heavenly body is circumpolar (in that to an observer on Earth it describes
a circle about the Celestial Pole) the term Circumpolar is normally used to denote that a
heavenly body never sets and is always above the observers Visible Horizon.
0728-0729. Spare

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SECTION 3 - MOONRISE AND MOONSET
0730. Tabulated Times of Moonrise and Moonset
a. Tabulated Times. The precise times of Moonrise and Moonset may be found by
solving the triangle PZX for the LHA in the same way as it can be solved for the Sun, but
the calculation is even more laborious, the Moons Declination and SHA are both
changing so rapidly that a method of successive approximation must be employed in
order to obtain the proper Declination and GHA at the instant of Moonrise or Moonset.
To avoid this, tables are incorporated in The Nautical Almanac giving the times, to an
observer on the Greenwich Meridian with no Height of Eye, when the Moons Upper
Limb is just touching the Visible Horizon (ie Visible Moonrise and Visible Moonset).
b. Position of the Moon at Visible Rising or Setting. At this instant of Visible
Moonrise / Moonset, when the Moons Upper Limb touches the Visible Horizon, the
Observed (True) Altitude of the Moons centre is given by the following calculation. This
shows that the Moons centre is then roughly on the Celestial Horizon:
Apparent Altitude
Refraction
Sub-Total
Semi-Diameter
Sub-Total
Horizontal Parallax
Observed (True) Altitude

0 00.0'
!34.0'
!0 34.0'
!16.0'
!0 50.0'
+ 0 57.0'
00 07.0'

Example 7-2 Observed (True) Altitude of Moon at Visible Moonrise or Moonset

0731. Calculation of Moonrise and Moonset
a. Layout of Moonrise and Moonset Tables. The exact LMT of Visible Moonrise /
Moonset on the Greenwich Meridian is given for 4 days on the right-hand of the 3-day
double pages of The Nautical Almanac for a range of Latitudes between 72N and 60S.
The data for 4th day is tabulated on the same page to aid interpolation without having to
turn to the page. Where no phenomenon occurs during a particular day (as happens once
a month) the time of the phenomenon on the following day, increased by 24 hours, is
given. For example, there is no Visible Moonrise in Latitude 40S on 21st December
1997 (see Appendix 2). The time 2408 refers to the rising at 0008 on 22nd December.
b. Interpolation Requirements. The LMT of Visible Moonrise / Moonset is not
constant for all Longitudes and must be corrected for the Daily Difference between
consecutive Visible Moonrises or Visible Moonsets at the Latitude considered. The
correction for Longitude must be applied to the LMT at the Greenwich Meridian in the
same way as the correction is applied to the Moons Mer Pass (see Para 0607).
Note 7-1. The term Daily Difference is also used for Mer Pass of the Moon, but that value is
the difference between consecutive Mer Pass, rather than consecutive Moonrises/Moonsets as
in this case. To avoid confusion, when the term Daily Difference is used in BR 45 Vol 2, it is
suffixed (MP), (MR) or (MS) as appropriate.
7-9
Original

BR 45(2)
c. Longitude Interpolation Formula. It is also of note that the method of
interpolating for Difference of Time for Longitude(MR/MS) correction for Visible
Moonrise / Moonset uses the same formula as for the Mer Pass of the Moons Difference
of Time for Longitude(MP) correction (see Para 0607d), only with the Daily Difference
(MR/MS) instead of Daily Difference (MP). The Nautical Almanac Table II(Page xxxii),
referred to at Para 0731d below, is thus based on the following formula:
Difference of Time for Longitude(MR/MS) = Observers Longitude x Daily Difference(MR/MS)
360
d. Method of Calculation of the Moonrise or Moonset at Observers Meridian.
The Zone Time of the Visible Moonrise / Moonset at the Observers Meridian is obtained
as follows. Demonstrations of two of these calculations (Longitudes East and West) are
on the facing page at Example 7-3.

7-10
Original

The Local Mean Time of the Visible Moonrise / Moonset on the Greenwich
Meridian is established from the tabulated value for each day at the nearest
Latitudes at the right hand daily pages of The Nautical Almanac.

Interpolation for Latitude required is carried out by using The Nautical

Almanac Table I (Page xxxii) at the back of the book, for the times on
consecutive Latitudes on the day wanted and also on the preceding day
(Longitude East) or to the following day (Longitude West). The result should
be times for the exact Latitude on two consecutive days. In extreme conditions
near
or
symbols, interpolation for Latitude may be possible in
only one direction; accurate times are of little value in such circumstances.

Taking the difference between the times for the exact Latitude on two
consecutive days (see bullet point immediately above), interpolate for
Difference of Time for Longitude(MR/MS) using The Nautical Almanac Table
II (Page xxxii) at the back of the book. The correction obtained from Table II
should be applied to the time for the day wanted. It is normally added if West
or subtracted if East, but if, as occasionally happens, the times become earlier
each day instead of later, the signs of the corrections must be reversed. In
extreme conditions near
or
symbols, interpolation for Difference
of Time for Longitude(MR/MS) may be possible only in one direction; accurate
times are of little value in such circumstances.

The observers Longitude is applied in the usual way (add if West or subtract
if East).

Time Zone in use is applied in the same way as in SR / SS calculations (see

Para 0322). This results in the Local Mean Time of Visible Moonrise / Moonset
on the Observers Meridian.

BR 45(2)
Visible Moonrise / Moonset Example 7-3.
Moonset on 20th January 1997 at:

What are the Zone Times of Visible Moonrise /

(1) 33 27.0'S 125 00.0'E in Zone (-8)

and (2) 33 27.0'S 076 31.0'W in Zone (+5)
(1) 33 27.0'S 125 00.0'E
LMT in 30S

Moonrise

Moonset

1636 (20 Jan)

0239 (20 Jan)

(2) 33 27.0'S 076 31.0'W

Moonrise
1636 (20 Jan)

Moonset
0239 (19 Jan)

La. Corrn

+7

-7

+7

-7

Long Corrn

-18

-17

+11

+10

Corrected LMT

1625 (20 Jan)

0215 (20 Jan)

1654 (20 Jan)

0242 (20 Jan)

Long (-E or +W)

-0820 E

-0820 E

+0506 W

+0506 W

UT (GMT)

0805 (20 Jan)

1755 (19 Jan)

2200 (20 Jan)

0748 (20 Jan)

Zone

+8

+8

-5

-5

Zone Time

1605(-8) 20 Jan 0155(-8) 20 Jan

1700(+5) 20 Jan 0248(+5)20 Jan

Example 7-3. Summary of Visible Moonrise / Moonset Calculations

7-11
Original

BR 45(2)
SECTION 4 - HIGH LATITUDES
0740. Rising and Setting in High Latitudes - Methods of Prediction Available
There are three methods available:

The Nautical Almanac provides dedicated Visible Rising / Setting and Twilight
data for the Sun, and Visible Rising / Setting data for the Moon between 72
North and 60 South.

NAVPAC 2 will calculate Rising and Setting data for all heavenly bodies, plus
Twilight data, accurately to Latitude 89 59.9'. NAVPAC 2 is the quickest
and most convenient method of calculating Rising / Setting /Twilight data.

However, if desired, it is possible to use a combination of The Nautical

Almanac and Sight Reduction Tables for Marine Navigation (NP 401 series)
as described at Para 0742 below to achieve similar results.

Note 7-2. A further method using Rising and Setting Diagrams for High Northern Latitudes (NP
301) is no longer available. Theses diagrams were withdrawn in March 1998.
0741. Theoretical Explanation of NP 401 Method for Negative Apparent Altitudes
a. PZX and P'Z'X Triangles. Conventionally, NP 401 solves the PZX triangle using
the Elevated Pole to obtain Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude and Azimuth. The Celestial
Horizon forms a Great Circle dividing the Celestial Sphere into two hemispheres. When
using NP 401 for solving problems below the Celestial Horizon (ie negative Apparent
Altitudes) the P'Z'X triangle lies completely below the Celestial Horizon and is geared
to the Depressed Pole (as indicated at Para 0542e) and shown at Fig 7-5 below. NP 401
gives a choice of two LHAs which solve the PZX and P'Z'X triangles. The choice of the
correct LHA for calculation of Visible Rising / Setting and Twilights requires care.

Fig 7-5. Negative Apparent Altitudes - The PZX and P'Z'X Triangles
7-12
Original

BR 45(2)
b. Choice of LHA for Calculation. In normal circumstances, the LHA at Sunset is
always less than 180 (westwards) and the LHA at Sunrise is always more than 180
(eastwards). If Declination and Latitude are SAME, then LHA is greater than 90, but
if they are CONTRARY then LHA is less than 90. However, as this problem requires
negative Apparent Altitudes, the criteria are different and following guidelines should be
used to select the correct LHA. When selected, the LHA is converted to time, and is then
added and subtracted to the time of Mer Pass on the day in question.

If Declination and Latitude are SAME, select the first of the two LHAs
printed on the bottom of the page.

If Declination and Latitude are CONTRARY, select the first of the two
LHAs printed on the top of the page.

Note 7-3. The procedure at Para 0741b (above) uses the figure opposite to the SAME /
CONTRARY labelling on the top/bottom of the page.
c. Choice of Azimuth for Calculation. The Azimuth obtained from NP 401 will need
to be converted to the Supplementary Azimuth (ie 180- Azimuth) because NP 401
provides Azimuth relative to the Depressed Pole and this needs to be converted to an
Azimuth relative to the Elevated Pole so that the normal True Bearing conversion
procedure (see Para 0535) may be used. The True Bearing obtained should be on the
same side of the 090 / 270 line as Declination.
d. Correction from True Theoretical Rising / Setting to Visible Rising / Setting.
The Nautical Almanac and Sight Reduction Tables (NP 401 series) method will give the
approximate time of the True Theoretical Rising / Setting to which Refraction and SemiDiameter (combined) plus Dip corrections (and HP correction for the Moon) must be
applied to obtain the time of Visible Rising / Setting. This is normally about -1E from the
Observed (True) Altitude, and this correction should be applied to the tabulated Altitude
(Hc) before the LHA is extracted from NP 401.
e. Twilights. Civil Twilight / Nautical Twilight / Astronomical Twilight can be
obtained in the same way using an Altitude (Hc) of -6,E -12 or -18 respectively (plus
the Refraction and Semi-Diameter (combined) and Dip corrections). At the Poles the Sun
will rise and set once a year (when its Declination is zero), and in Polar regions, the
above calculations are often necessary to determine whether the Sun or stars are visible.
0742. Nautical Almanac and Sight Reduction Tables (NP 401) Method - Procedure
a. The NP 401 method produces approximate answers due to rounding-up. The
procedure is as follows:

From The Nautical Almanac, extract the approximate Declination of the

heavenly body required and round to the nearest whole degree.

Calculate Refraction plus Semi-Diameter (combined), plus Dip corrections (&

HP if required); apply to the 0, -6, -12 or -18 Altitude (Hc), depending
whether Rising / Setting, Civil Twilight / Nautical Twiglight / Astronomical
Twilight respectively are required. Call this Corrected Altitude (Hc).

Enter NP 401 with arguments of Latitude and approximate Declination; note

whether they are SAME or CONTRARY names to establish whether to read
LHA from the top or bottom of the page (see Para 0741b above).
7-13
Change 1

BR 45(2)

By inspection of NP 401, use the approximate Declination to find the LHA

which gives the approximate Corrected Altitude (Hc) (see above), and if
required, the Azimuth (Z), taking particular care on the following important
points:
<

Beware the ambiguity between the two LHAs listed on the NP 401
page which will refer to either Rising or Setting; the correct choice
should be clear by inspection of Azimuth when converted to
Supplementary Azimuth and then True Bearing. See Example 7-4.

<

Note also that the Azimuth at the Corrected Altitude (Hc) line, must
be converted to Supplementary Azimuth by being subtracted from
180 before being used to calculate True Bearing. (See NP 401(6) Page
xv Para 3)

<

Be very careful to identify a negative rather than a positive Altitude.

A CONTRARY / SAME line (Altitude zero) is printed across the tables
and NP 401(6) Pages xiv - xv contain detailed guidance for interpolation
of positive / negative Altitudes at or near the horizon and use of Azimuths.
However, for LHAs at the top of the right hand page, altitudes below the
horizon zero line are negative and for LHAs at the bottom of the right
hand page, altitudes above the horizon zero line are negative. In short,
when an Altitude is taken from the wrong side of the CONTRARY
/ SAME line, it indicates a negative Altitude.

Convert Supplementary Azimuth into True Bearing (see Para 0535 and also
the instructions at top/bottom of the NP 401 page) and confirm that the correct
phenomenon (Visible Rising or Visible Setting) has been identified.

Convert the LHA extracted into hours (divide by 15 for most heavenly bodies.
In the case of the Moon this will be inaccurate and a better answer is achieved
by dividing the LHA by the hourly change in the Moons GHA (from The
Nautical Almanac) on the day in question (14 19' in the following example),
corrected by adding or subtracting the mean hourly velocity correction v on
the day in question.

Add or subtract this period to the LMT of Mer Pass and apply Longitude and
Zone corrections as normal to obtain the Zone Time of Visible Rising /Setting.

b. NAVPAC 2 Method. NAVPAC 2's RiseSet program provides Rising and Setting
times for all heavenly bodies and Twilight times for the Sun, at all Latitudes. These times
may be transferred to the Almanac and FindIt programs but it should be noted that
FindIt works on the centre of the body and so does not allow for the Sun or Moons
Semi-Diameter or for the observers Height of Eye.
c. Sight Reduction Tables Method Rising / Setting Example 7-4. A full example
of the Sight Reduction Method is on the following pages at Example 7-4, including
calculations at Examples 7-4a and 7-4b. For comparison, the results of NAVPAC 2 for
the same calculation are summarised at Example 7-4c.

7-14
Change 1

BR 45(2)
Sight Reduction Tables Method Rising/ Setting Example 7-4. In DR position 80S 115W,
on 14th October with a Height of Eye of 8.0 metres, what are the Zone Time and True Bearings
of Visible Sunrise and Visible Sunset? Assume that the Sun's Declination on 14th Oct is 8 S and
the LMT of the Suns Mer Pass was at 1146.

Correction for Refraction (Apparent Altitude 005.0') / Semi-Diameter (combined)

plus Dip (HE 8.0 metres) are -49.2' and -5.0' = -54.2' . The Corrected Altitude
(Hc) is therefore -54.2' for Visible Sunrise.

By inspection, entering NP 401 for Latitude 80ES and Declination 8ES (ie SAME),
find the page (see Fig 7-6) where the tabulated Altitude (Hc) is 54.2' or nearly so
above CONTRARY / SAME line, thus indicating -54.2' (ie a negative Altitude):

Fig 7-6. Extract from NP 401 for Latitude 80S, Declination 8 S

From Fig 7-6, by inspection:

LHA = 153, 207 Azimuth(Z) = 153.3E Supplementary Azimuth = 036.7E

From NP 401 instructions (at bottom left corner of Fig 7-6):

<
<
<

LHA > 180 Bearing (Zn) = 180 - Az (Z)

But for Az(Z) read Supplementary Azimuth (ie 180- Az(Z))
So, for LHA 207, Bearing (Zn) = 180 - 036.7E (Z) = 143.3 (ie Sunrise)

From NP 401 instructions (at bottom left corner of Fig 7-6):

<
<
<

LHA < 180 Bearing (Zn) = 180 + Az (Z)

But for Az(Z) read Supplementary Azimuth (ie 180- Az(Z))
So, for LHA 153, Bearing (Zn) = 180 + 036.7 (Z) = 216.7 (ie Sunset)

7-15
Original

BR 45(2)

Using LHA 153, the Sun will have to travel through 153 of Longitude before and
after reaching the Observer's Meridian (ie at Mer Pass), so:

LMT Mer Pass

1146

LMT Sunrise

LMT of Mer Pass - 153/15 =

1146 - 1012 =

0134

Long (115W)

+ 0740

UT Sunrise

= 0914

Zone (+8)

- 0800

Zone Time Sunrise

= 0114

True Bearing

(See Supplementary Azimuth calculation above) = 143.3

Example 7-4a. Summary of High Latitude (NP 401 Method)Visible Sunrise Calculation
LMT Mer Pass

1146

LMT Sunset

LMT of Mer Pass + 153/15 =

1146 + 1012

2158

Long (115W)

+ 0740

UT Sunrise

= 0548

Zone (+8)

- 0800

Zone Time Sunrise

= 2138

True Bearing

(See Supplementary Azimuth calculation above) = 216.7

Example 7-4b. Summary of High Latitude (NP 401 Method)Visible Sunset Calculation

NAVPAC 2 produces accurate answers, although the FindIt program does not allow
for the Sun or Moons Semi-Diameter or for the observers Height of Eye. Having
first entered the RiseSet program to establish the initial times of Rising, Setting or
Twilight, FindIt may be used to establish the bearing, provide the Altitude is offset
for Semi-Diameter or for the observers Height of Eye (ie -21.0 approx). The
slightly different times from RiseSet and/or FindIt may be used to enter the
Almanac program to obtain GHA and Declination. The results of this process are
at Example 7-4c.

NAVPAC RiseSet
SR/SS
Time

FindIt
Time

FindIt /
Almanac
GHA

LHA
(LHA =
GHA -Long W)

FindIt /
Almanac
Dec

FindIt
Altitude

FindIt
Bearing

(No SD+Dip)

SR

0117(+8) 0108(+8) 320 34.2' 207 42.0'

S 08 02.2' -00 20.6' 154 41.6'

SS

2152(+8) 2202(+8) 274 01.0' 156 34.3'

S 08 21.6' -00 20.1' 200 45.2'

Example 7-4c. Summary of NAVPAC 2 High Latitude Visible Sunrise/Sunset Calculations

7-16
Original

BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 8
REFRACTION, DIP AND MIRAGE
CONTENTS
Introduction to Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Refraction Angles and Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Atmospheric Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abnormal Conditions of Atmospheric Refraction - Abnormal Refraction . . . . . . . . . . .
Air Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure Correction Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Methods of Correcting for Abnormal Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mirages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0801
0802
0803
0804
0805
0806
0807
0808

8-1
Original

BR 45(2)

INTENTIONALLY BLANK

8-2
Original

BR 45(2)
CHAPTER 8
REFRACTION, DIP AND MIRAGE
0801. Introduction to Refraction
Light, or other wave energy, is assumed to travel in a straight line at uniform speed,
provided the medium through which it is travelling has uniform properties. However, if light
passes from a less dense to a more dense medium at an angle to the surface, it will be bent
towards the normal in the more dense medium as it is slowed down, and this change of direction
is called Refraction. This can be likened to the speed of waves being progressively reduced as
shown in Figs 8-1a and 8-1b.
0802. Refraction Angles and Indices.
The amount of change in direction is directly proportional to the angle between the
direction of travel and the normal to the surface (angle ABN in Fig 8-1b). The ratio of this angle
to the similar angle after Refraction (angle CBN in Fig 8-1b) is constant, so as one increases,
the other increases at the same rate. Thus, the difference between them (the change in angle) also
increases at the same rate. The closer the incident ray is to parallelling the surface, the greater
the Refraction. Different substances have different Indices of Refraction () which depend on
the density of the material. If in Fig 8-1b ABN is called the Angle of Incidence (N) and angle
CBN the Angle of Refraction (). See Para 0401 for definitions of these terms. N and 2 are
related by Snells Law which states that:

|
|
|
|

The sines of the Angle of Incidence and Angle of Refraction are inversely proportional
to the Indices of Refraction in which they occur.

|
|

Thus, if 1 is the Index of Refraction in which N occurs, and 2 is the Index of Refraction of the
substance in which 2 occurs, then:

|
|

If the change in Refraction is sudden, as shown in Fig 8-1b, then the change in direction will also
be sudden. However, if a ray of light passes through a medium of gradually changing Index of
Refraction, then its path is curved. This is the situation in the Earths atmosphere, which
generally decreases in density with increased height. This gradual change of direction is called
Atmospheric Refraction. For a ray of light which is approaching the observer on or near the
surface of the Earth, the bending of the light is called Terrestrial Refraction and affects the Dip
of the Visible Horizon.

Fig 8-1a. Light Normal to the Surface

Fig 8-1b. Light at an Angle to the Surface

8-3
Change 1

BR 45(2)
0803. Atmospheric Refraction
a. Effect of Atmospheric Refraction. When a ray of light from a star approaching
the Earth enters the Earths atmosphere it is bent by Atmospheric Refraction (see Para
0802). The effect of Atmospheric Refraction is to make a heavenly body appear higher
in the sky than it otherwise would, and this is shown in Fig 8-2 below.
b. Size of Atmospheric Refraction Errors. If a heavenly body is at the Observers
Zenith (ie approaching the atmosphere at 90), its light is not Refracted ( ie the error is
zero) except for a very slight amount if the various layers of the atmosphere are not
exactly horizontal. As the Zenith Distance increases, the Atmospheric Refraction becomes
greater. At an Apparent Altitude of 20 the error is about 2.6'; at 10 it is 5.3'; at 5 it is
9.9', and at the horizon 34.5'.
c. Atmospheric Refraction Correction Tables. Altitude Correction Tables for
Atmospheric Refraction (including Semi-Diameters for the Sun and Moon) are given at
the front and back of The Nautical Almanac respectively. The values given in these
Tables are for Mean Refraction which are average conditions; these correction values are
entirely reliable provided that abnormal conditions do not apply (see Para 0804).

Fig 8-2. Atmospheric Refraction

0804. Abnormal Conditions of Atmospheric Refraction - Abnormal Refraction
The atmosphere contains many irregularities which are erratic in their influence upon
Atmospheric Refraction; where these irregularities exceed the corrections contained in The
Nautical Almanac, conditions of Abnormal Refraction are deemed to exist. It is not normally
possible to correct for Abnormal Refraction conditions, but the mariner should be aware when
they may occur and be prepared for incorrect results.
|

a. Meteorological and Oceanographic Conditions. The following meteorological

and oceanographic conditions are known to create Abnormal Refraction errors:

8-4
Change 1

After the passage of a squall.

After the passage of a weather front.

When there is a large difference between air and sea temperatures.

On very calm days, when air forms in layers, a mirage condition might exist.

BR 45(2)
b. Geographic Areas. The following geographic areas around the world are known
to be particularly vulnerable to Abnormal Refraction errors:

The vicinity of the Grand Banks.

The West Coast of Africa from Mogador to Cap Blanc and from the Congo to
Cape of Good Hope.

The Red Sea.

The Persian Gulf

Over ice-free water in Polar regions.

When offshore winds blow from high snow-covered mountains to nearby

tropical seas, as along the west coast of South America.

When cold water from large rivers flow into a warm sea, when a strong current
flows past a bay or coast, causing colder water to be drawn to the surface, as
in:
<

The Bay of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)

<

Off Santos (Brazil)

<

The coast of Africa from Cape Palmas to Cape Three Points during
the time of the southwest monsoon.

<

The east coast of Africa in the vicinity of Capo Gardafui during the
summer.

0805. Air Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure Correction Tables

a. The Nautical Almanac - Altitude Correction Tables. The Altitude Correction
Tables for Mean Refraction in The Nautical Almanac are based on an air temperature
of 50F (10C) an atmospheric pressure of 1010mb (29.83 inches of mercury) at sea
level on the Earth. At other temperatures the value of the Mean Refraction error is
changed, becoming larger at lower temperatures / higher atmospheric pressures and
smaller at higher temperatures / lower atmospheric pressures.
b. The Nautical Almanac - Additional Correction Table. An Additional
Correction Table is at Table A4 in the front of The Nautical Almanac, and is used to
allow for the combined effects of non-standard temperature and pressure.
c. Nories Nautical Tables - Refraction Correction Tables. Separate Refraction
Correction Tables for temperatures and pressure are also available in Nories Nautical
Tables.
d. Use of Correction Tables. Variations from the Mean Refraction will result in
changes of the Refractive Index, but unless the changes are great, the differences are likely
to be small. The Nautical Almanac Additional Correction Table A4 is normally only
used in extremely low temperatures or at very low Apparent Altitudes or a combination of
both. In Polar regions, however, particularly near the surface and for altitudes of less than
5, variations of several minutes are not uncommon.

8-5
Original

BR 45(2)
0806. Dip
a. Definition of Dip. The Dip of the Visible Horizon (in minutes of arc) is the angle by
which the Visible Horizon differs from the horizontal at the eye of the observer. It is
reresented by angle DOH in Fig 8-3a (see explanation at Para 0806c below).
b. Application of Dip. Dip therefore only applies when the Visible Horizon is used as
a reference and must be applied to Sextant observations of all heavenly bodies.
c. Calculation of Dip - Without Refraction. If the eye of the observer were at the
surface of the Earth, the Visible Horizon and the horizontal plane tangential to the Earths
surface at the observers position would coincide, and there would be no Dip. This is shown
at Fig 8-3a , where the observer is on the Earths surface at O, and the angle HOX is the
Apparent Altitude of heavenly body X . However, as the observers Height of Eye rises to
position O, it can be seen that the angle DOX (the Apparent Altitude of heavenly body X
when at Height of Eye OO) is greater than angle HOX , by an amount equal to angle
DOH. Angle DOH is the angle of Dip. OX and OX are deemed to be parallel.
d. Calculation of Dip - With Refraction. The principle of Dip, explained at Para 0806c
above remains the same, but Terrestrial Refraction (Atmospheric Refraction at the Earths
surface - see Para 0802) bends the observers line of sight as shown at Fig 8-3b. While the
observer would expect the Visible Horizon to be at position T, due to Terrestrial Refraction,
it is actually at position T. So instead of seeing the line OTD, the observer actually sees the
tangent to the curved line OT, which is the straight line OD. Thus the angle of Dip (with
Refraction) is reduced by the angle DOD when compared to angle of Dip (without
Refraction) Thus the effect of Terrestrial Refraction is to decrease the angle of Dip. The
angle of Dip (with Refraction) may be computed by the formula:
Angle of Dip (minutes) = 0.97 %Height of Eye (feet) = 1.758 %Height of Eye (metres)
e. The Nautical Almanac - Dip Table. In practice, The Nautical Almanac tables of
Dip include Terrestrial Refraction and so the user does not need to allow for it separately.

8-6
Original

BR 45(2)
0807.

Other Methods of Correcting for Abnormal Refraction

In addition to correction for Atmospheric Refraction by tables, in cases of Abnormal
Refraction there are two other methods which may be used to help overcome the problem,
including a solution for any abnormal Terrestrial Refraction. However, sights taken with
Abnormal Refraction should be used with the utmost caution.
a Pairs of Stars 180 in Opposition. If it is believed that the Abnormal Refraction is
the same in both directions, one straightforward method of overcoming Abnormal
Refraction is to select pairs of stars for observation on opposite sides of the horizon (ie
180 of bearing apart). When the Position Lines are plotted, halve the distance between
them, thus taking the mean. By choosing pairs of stars 180 of bearing apart, any a
Abnormal Refraction of whatever sort will cancel out. Select a further pair of stars 90
different in bearing from the original pair and repeat the process.
b. Over the Shoulder Sights. Another method of overcoming Abnormal Refraction,
but one which requires considerable skill with a sextant, is to take the Sextant Altitude of
a reasonably high star normally, and then repeat the observation over the shoulder (ie at
an angle greater than 90, above the back horizon, 180 from the normal bearing). The
difference between the sum of the two Sextant Altitudes (corrected for Index Error) and
180 is the sum of the Dip and Refraction to the horizon in the two directions. If it is
believed that the Abnormal Refraction is the same in both directions, this sum is twice the
Dip and Refraction to the horizon in each direction.
0808.

Mirages
a. Definition and Reason. When Refraction is not normal, some form of Mirage may
occur. A Mirage is defined as an optical phenomenon in which objects appear displaced,
distorted, magnified, multiplied or inverted, owing to varying Atmospheric Refraction in
layers close to the surface of the Earth due to large air density differences. This may occur
when there is an erratic or irregular change of temperature or humidity in the Earths
atmosphere with changes in height.
b. Effects - Temperature Increase with Height. Increased temperature with height (a
temperature inversion) will make the Refraction greater than normal, particularly if
accompanied by a rapid decrease in humidity. The effects of Mirage may then be:

If the object appears elevated and the Visible Horizon seems farther away, it
is termed Looming.

If the object appears taller than usual, it is termed Towering.

If the lower part of a object is raised more than the top and the object appears
shorter overall, it is termed Stooping.

c. Effects - Temperature Decrease with Height. If the temperature decrease with

height is much greater than normal, Refraction is less than normal. The effects of
Mirage may then be:

Objects will appear lower and the Visible Horizon will seem closer to the
observer. This is called Sinking.

d. Geographic Areas where Mirages are Possible. Geographic areas vulnerable to

abnormal Atmospheric Refraction errors, including Mirages, are listed at Para 0804b.
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CHAPTER 9
ERRORS IN ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES
CONTENTS
Contributory Errors to Astronomical Position Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Errors in the Observed (True) Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Errors Inherent in the Method by Which the Sight is Reduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Errors in Course and Speed Made Good Between Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Cocked Hat formed by Astronomical Position Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Caution in Applying Common Equal Error Corrections to Cocked Hats . . . . . . . . . . . .

Para
0901
0902
0903
0904
0905
0906
0907

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CHAPTER 9
ERRORS IN ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES
0901. Contributory Errors to Astronomical Position Lines
Errors may be introduced in to the Astronomical Position Lines by contributory errors
which are of four types:
a.

Errors in the Observed (True) Altitude (see Para 0902 below).

b.

Time errors (see Para 0903 below).

c.

Errors inherent in the method by which the sight is reduced (see Para 0904 below).

d.

Errors in course and speed made good between observations (see Para 0905 below).

0902. Errors in the Observed (True) Altitude

a. Sources of Error. When the Sextant Altitude of a heavenly body has been corrected
for Perpendicularity, Side Error, Index Error, Dip, Refraction, Semi-Diameter and
Parallax, the Observed (True) Altitude may still be incorrect owing to a combination of
sextant errors, errors of observation and incorrect values of the Dip and Refraction. This
resultant error is reflected in the Intercept which may be either too large or too small, and
in consequence the Astronomical Position Line itself will be plotted incorrectly.
b. Limiting Areas of Error. When a position is decided by the result of two
Astronomical Position Lines and they are given an Assessed Possible Error, the ship
may or may not lie within a parallelogram (Diamond of Error) with sides parallel to the
Position Lines and spaced at the Assessed Possible Error distance from them, as shown
at Fig 9-1 below. However, using Standard Deviation calculations a more useful Error
Ellipse may be calculated (see Fig 9-1 below and BR 45 Vol 1 Chapters 8 and 16).
NAVPAC 2 produces an Error Ellipse when three or more observations are made. These
estimates of position rely on making a realistic assessment of the possible errors.

Fig 9-1. Position Lines, Diamond of (Possible) Error and Error Ellipse
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c. Reason for Large Errors. The errors most likely to increase the size of the overall
error budget, in order of probability, are:

Operator error in cutting the heavenly body onto the horizon. With
very great reliance being made on GPS and Loran for offshore navigation,
personal operator skill with a sextant has generally reduced in the Fleet.
This skill is perishable and officers needs to keep in practice with a
sextant. This can easily be achieved without great labour if NAVPAC 2
is used to reduce and plot the sights.

Incorrect removal of Perpendicularity Error (see Para 0336a). Failure

to understand the procedure for identification of Perpendicularity Error
and inability to remove it accurately produces Sextant Altitudes with
significant errors. This error is especially prevalent in the sights of
inexperienced junior officers training for the Navigation Watchkeeping
Certificate (NWC). It is essential that their sextants are checked by an
experienced officer before sights are taken, until these young officers are
able to detect and remove this error accurately themselves.

Incorrect allowance for Refraction and Dip. Errors in Sextant Altitude

arising from incorrect allowance for Refraction and Dip when Abnormal
Refraction exists can give rise to significant errors. These errors are
particularly insidious as the user may not even suspect their
presence. See Chapter 8 for a detailed explanation of these phenomena
and guidance on possible countermeasures against them.

Incorrect removal of Side and Index Errors (see Paras 0336b/c). Side
and Index Errors are much less likely to cause errors in the Sextant
Altitude than undetected Perpendicularity Error. This is because they are
easy to identify and their removal is normally addressed, even by
inexperienced users. However Side and Index Errors must be corrected
after removing Perpendicularity Error, otherwise there is little point.

0903. Time Errors

a Sources of Error. Time Errors in calculating Astronomical Position Lines are
infrequent, given the current generation of digital Deck Watches and time standard
equipment embarked in most naval ships. The most likely errors are to misread the Deck
Watch by a full minute at the time of observation (particularly if the analogue minute and
second hands are not perfectly aligned), or to apply any known Deck Watch Error with
the incorrect sign.
b. Size of Error. Any error in time will give rise to an error in the Calculated
(Tabulated) Altitude, equivalent to a displacement in Longitude by an amount equal to
the error in Hour Angle expressed in minutes of arc. When the Azimuth of the body
observed is 0 or 180 this error is zero (ie Position Line is East-West), and is a
maximum when the Azimuth of the body observed is 90 (ie Position Line is NorthSouth). When converting the Longitude error to nautical miles, the same error in time
will have a greater effect in distance at the Equator than in high Latitudes due to the
compression of Meridians with Latitude. This error distance may be plotted or
calculated. The relationships between the error distance, Hour Angle error (ie Longitude
error) and Latitude is given (see BR 45 Vol 1 Chapter 4) by the formula:
Error Distance = Error in Hour Angle (ie Longitude error) x Cosine Latitude.
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c. Direction of Error. The direction of displacement depends on whether the time
used for the observation is too large (ie time late) or too small (ie time early) when
compared to UT (GMT).

If the time used is too large (ie time late) then the Astronomical Position
Lines will be shifted to the West and must be moved East to correct the error.

If the time used is too small (ie time early) then the Astronomical Position
Lines will be shifted to the East and must be moved West to correct the error.

0904. Errors Inherent in the Method by Which the Sight is Reduced

a. NAVPAC 2. NAVPAC 2 produces a very accurate sight reduction process based
on extremely precise ephemeral data and employs iterative processes not appropriate to
manual methods. Where there are three or more observations NAVPAC 2 employs a
Least Square method of calculation to obtain the Most Probable Position (See BR 45
Vol 1 Annex 16A) and can provide an Observed Position to an accuracy of 0.15 nautical
miles (see Para 0540).
b. Manual Methods with the Sight Form (NP 400). When using The Nautical
Almanac and Sight Reduction Tables for Marine Navigation (NP 401 series) or other
similar publications, there are unavoidable errors due to rounding up or down of values
in the tables and interpolation between them. These errors are cumulative. There is also
the further risk of error through mistakes in the manual process of transcribing data from
the tables into NP 400, and also in any mistakes in manual addition and subtraction while
working the form. See Para 0540 for the accuracies that the various tabular methods of
sight reduction can provide.
c. Manual Methods with Formulae. If the basic ephemeral data from The Nautical
Almanac is entered into a formula (eg The Cosine Formula or Haversine Formula), then
the method employed to solve the equation will have an effect on the accuracy of the
answer. If using five-figure logarithms the resulting error will be minimal, but logarithm
tables using smaller numbers of significant figures will increase the error budget.
Programmable calculators are now widely available and can carry out these calculations
to a high degree of accuracy (which can be similar to NAVPAC 2), but this accuracy
does depend on the source and accuracy of the ephemeral data used, and the specification
and performance of the calculator in use (see Para 0540).
d. General Error Information. Attention is drawn to the general information on
calculating navigational errors at BR 45 Vol 1 Chapter 16 and Annex 16A.
0905. Errors in Course and Speed Made Good Between Observations
When some time elapses between observations of heavenly bodies (eg. Sun-run-Sun),
there is a likelihood that the first Astronomical Position Line will be incorrectly transferred,
either because the course laid off on the chart may differ from the course actually made good, or
the distance estimated to have been made good may differ from the correct distance made good.
A full explanation of the procedures for constructing an Estimated Position (EP), a Probable
Position Area (PPA) and the Most Probable Position (MPP) , and which allow for course and
speed made good errors, may be found as follows:

Estimated Position (EP)

BR 45 Vol 1 Chps 8 and 16
Probable Position Area (PPA) BR 45 Vol 1 Chps 8 & 16/16A and BR 45 Vol 4
Most Probable Position (MPP) BR 45 Vol 1 Chps 8 &16/16A and BR 45 Vol 4
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0906. The Cocked Hat formed by Astronomical Position Lines
a. Reasons for a Cocked Hat. In general, the Astronomical Position Lines obtained
from three observations (which, for simplicity are considered as being taken
simultaneously) are no more likely to pass through a common point than for three
terrestrial Position Lines to do so, though for different reasons, as follows:

With terrestrial Position Lines, the error is one of True Bearing, and if
the same constant error applies to each True Bearing (ie the result of
a compass error of lubbers line misalignment) the bearing differences
can be re-plotted with a station pointer and the constant error quantified
and corrected (see BR 45 Vol 1 Chapter 9). The corrected True Bearings
may then be re-plotted and will result in a different fix position with True
Bearings skewed slightly from the original ones.

With Astronomical Position Lines, the most likely reason for a Cocked
Hat being formed is that the Zenith Distances are incorrect. Correction
to the Zenith Distance displaces the Position Line parallel to itself.

b. Correction for Errors Causing A Cocked Hat. There are two general groups of
errors in Astronomical Position Lines relating to the Observed (True) Altitude itself:

Common Equal Error. If it is believed that there is a Common Equal

Error in magnitude and sign for each sight (as in an incorrect Index
Error), then simple constructions or iterations will allow the true
Observed Position to be plotted. The most common use of this technique
is among experienced and skilled Sextant users who consistently have a
small personal error caused by always cutting the heavenly body deep
(or shallow) on the horizon. See CAUTIONS at Para 0907.

Individual Random Errors. Unless individual errors for each sight are
known and applied (which is most unlikely), then the true Observed
Position cannot be found with certainty. However, assuming that any
constant or systematic errors (eg incorrect Index Error) have been
removed, but that a Cocked Hat caused by normally distributed random
errors in the Position Lines still remain, then a derivation of the Most
Probable Position is possible using a Least Squares calculation. The
Least Squares mathematical technique is explained in full at BR 45 Vol
1 Annex 16A (pages 494-496). Where there are three or more
observations NAVPAC 2 employs a Least Square method of calculation
to obtain the Most Probable Position (See BR 45 Vol 1 Annex 16A).

c. Methods of Applying Common Equal Error Corrections. If it is believed

that there is a Common Equal Error in magnitude and sign for each sight, it is
possible to re-plot the fix in two ways, as follows. See CAUTIONS at Para 0907.

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Mathematical Construction. Re-plot the intercepts as if for a new Index

Error. With a new line, join the original intersection of any two
Position Lines to the intersection of their adjusted Position Lines.
Repeat this procedure with the same Index Error for each pair of sights.
Produce each new line so constructed until they meet; this is the true
Observed Position. Care must be taken to plot adjusted Position Lines
in the correct Intercept (to or from) direction, otherwise serious errors
will result. Examples of this method are at Figs 9-2 and 9-3 opposite.

BR 45(2)

Fig 9-2. Applying Common Equal Error Corrections - Mathematical Construction

(All intercepts towards - True Obs Pos inside original Cocked Hat)

Fig 9-3. Applying Common Equal Error Corrections - Mathematical Construction

(Mixed intercepts from and towards - True Obs Pos outside original Cocked Hat)
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Iterative Method. A similar but simpler method of achieving the same

result as the Mathematical Construction method above, is merely to replot the intercepts as if for a different Index Error (taking care to plot the
intercepts in the correct to or from direction). Having plotted all three
adjusted Position Lines, it can be determined by inspection whether this
has made the fix better or worse. The process can be repeated on an
iterative basis with different adjustment values and signs until the true
Observed Position is determined. See CAUTIONS at Para 0907.

NAVPAC 2 Version of the Iterative Method. With NAVPAC 2 the

quickest way to achieve the Iterative Method is to alter the Index Error
setting for each sight, re-calculate and observe the computer generated
plot. See CAUTIONS at Para 0907.

0907. Caution in Applying Common Equal Error Corrections to Cocked Hats

The following important CAUTIONS should be borne in mind when considering the use
of the above constructions (Para 0906c) for applying Common Equal Error corrections to
Observed (True) Altitudes:

CAUTIONS
1.
THE ABOVE CONSTRUCTIONS ARE VALID ONLY WHEN
THE ERRORS IN THE ZENITH DISTANCES OBTAINED ARE EQUAL
IN MAGNITUDE AND SIGN, AS THEY ARE WHEN THE INDEX
ERROR IS INACCURATE.
2.
THE ABOVE CONSTRUCTIONS CAN BE MADE WHETHER OR
NOT OTHER ERRORS ARE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION AND
MAY THUS GIVE A FALSE SENSE OF PRECISION.
3.
FOR THESE REASONS, NO RELIANCE SHOULD BE PLACED
ON SUCH CONSTRUCTIONS UNLESS IT IS FIRMLY BELIEVED THAT
THE TOTAL ERRORS IN EACH INTERCEPT ARE EQUAL IN
MAGNITUDE AND SIGN.
4.
THE TRUE OBSERVED POSITION LIES OUTSIDE THE
ORIGINAL COCKED HAT ONLY IF ALL THREE BEARINGS CAN BE
ENCLOSED BY 180.

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APPENDIX 1
THE SKY AT NIGHT
1.

An Overview of the Navigational Stars

The 58 Navigational Stars are shown at Fig App 1-1. The red line indicates the most
convenient route for identifying one star from another, if observing the stars without instruments.

Fig App 1-1. The 58 Navigational Stars

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2.

The Navigational Planets

The Declinations of the four navigational planets rarely exceed the limits of 26N and
26S and therefore are seen near the Ecliptic (the apparent path of the sun in the Celestial
Sphere). Nevertheless, against the backdrop of stars, the planets movements in the sky are
relatively volatile. The mean distance of the 5 main planets from the Sun are:
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn

67,000,000 miles
93,000,000 miles
142,000,000 miles
483,000,000 miles
886,000,000 miles

a. Venus. Venus lies between the Earth and the Sun, and is therefore said to be an
inferior planet. To an observer on the Earth, it is never more than 47 removed from
the Sun, for which reason it cannot be seen throughout the night in temperate Latitudes.
It is thus a morning or evening planet. Its magnitude varies slightly, but is on the
average !3.4. No other star or planet is so brilliant.
b. Mars. Mars has an average magnitude of about !0.2, varies appreciably in
brilliance, but may distinguished with care by its reddish light.
c.

Jupiter. Jupiter has an average magnitude of !2.2 and is next to Venus in brilliance.

d. Saturn. Saturn has an average magnitude of 1.4, is not readily identified. Saturns
rings are not visible through the telescopes and binoculars normally used on the bridge.
3.

The Constellations
Stars maintain an almost static position relative to each other and the bright
navigational stars appear mostly within certain well-defined constellations. Once these
constellations have been memorised, it is possible with practice to identify the stars by eye from
the relative positions which they maintain. The constellations still carry the fanciful names given
to them by early (mostly Greek) astronomers, but these names require significant imagination to
represent the objects described. The star charts in The Nautical Almanac show all the
navigational stars.
a. Ursa Major or The Great Bear. The constellation of Ursa Major is popularly
known as The Plough, and it is important because a line drawn through its Pointers
directs one towards Polaris (the Pole Star). Fig App 1-1 shows the position of The
Plough in relation to other constellations. In the Latitude of UK, the entire constellation
is circumpolar (that is, the heavenly body never sets) and thus remains above the
observers horizon; when the constellation is above the Pole it will look as in Fig App12 whereas when below the Pole it will appear as in Fig App 1-3. It can also be seen in
Figs App1-2 and App1-3 why the stars Dubhe and Merak are referred to as The
Pointers.
b. Ursa Minor or The Little Bear. Ursa Minor is not unlike the Plough in shape but
is much smaller and fainter. Its stars form a saucepan shape reminiscent of the Plough
though with the curve in its handle reversed. Ursa Minors main claim to distinction
lies in its possession of Polaris at its extreme end, nearest to the Celestial Pole.
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Fig App 1-2. The Plough (Above the Pole, Observer Looking North)

Fig App 1-3. The Plough (Below the Pole, Observer Looking North)
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c. Cassiopeia. This constellation - sometimes known as The Chair - is found on the
side of the pole opposite to Ursa Major, and about the same distance away. It does not
contain any stars of first-magnitude, but it is fairly prominent in the sky, and is useful
in identifying Pegasus (Fig App 1-4).
d. Pegasus. This constellation (Fig App 1-4) - sometimes known as The Square is useful to anybody wishing to obtain some idea of sidereal time, because the side
formed by Alpheratz and Algenib lies almost on the Meridian through the First Point
of Aries.
e. Aries (K ). This constellation (Fig App 1-4) is not is itself particularly significant
except that it lends its name to a position where the Ecliptic once cut the Celestial
Equator at the Spring Equinox (21st March). The name First Point of Aries (K ) has
been retained for this position, even though Aries itself has apparently moved away and
no longer occupies this prime site in the Celestial Sphere. See Para 0104.

Fig App 1-4 Pegasus or the Square ( Below the Pole, Observer Looking North)

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f. Orion. This constellation (Fig App 1-5), contains stars of N. and S. Declination
and important signposts to others. It is supposed to resemble a giant, and the three
close stars in the centre of the constellation are referred to as Orions Belt. The belt
points almost directly at Sirius (the Dog star), in the constellation of Canis Major (The
Great Dog); a line through Rigel and its centre button leads to Castor in the
constellation of Gemini (The Twins). The constellations of Canis Minor (The Little Dog)
which contains Procyon, and of Taurus (The Bull) which contains Aldebaran, lie nearby.
g. The Southern Cross (Crux). This constellation (Fig App 1-6) forms a cross if the
observer imagines diagonal lines joining the four stars. Its significance is more poetic than
navigational, and it is too far removed from the South Celestial Pole to be useful in
finding the observers Latitude directly, as may be done with Polaris in the northern
hemisphere. Two bright stars in the constellation Centaurus help the observer to find it.

Fig App 1-5 Orion (Observer Looking South)

Fig App 1-6 The Southern Cross (Observer Looking South)

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4.

Specific Navigational Stars

From knowledge of the constellations, an observer should be able to pick out the
navigational stars - if they are above the horizon - by referring them to imaginary lines in the
Celestial Sphere.
a. Achernar ( Eridani, Mag. 0.6). This star lies midway between Canopus and
Fomalhaut on the line joining them (Fig App 1-1)
b. Aldebaran ( Tauri, Mag. 1.1). This star can be fixed in relation to Orions belt,
which points roughly at it in one direction and at Sirius in the other and lies almost midway
between them (Fig App 1-5). Aldebaran is further distinguished by a reddish tint.
c. Altair ( Aquilae, Mag. 0.9). A line from Capella through Caph in Cassiopeia points
to Altair, which also lies between two less bright stars in a line with Vega (Fig App 1-1).
d. Antares ( Scorpii, Mag. 1.2). This, another reddish star, lies at the centre of a small
bow which points directly at another bow (Fig App 1-1).
e.

Arcturus ( Bootis, Mag. 0.2). This is one of the brightest stars, and is found by
continuing the curve of the Great Bears tail (Fig App 1-1).

f. Bellatrix ( Orionis, Mag. 1.7). This is one of the three bright stars that mark corners
of the quadrilateral in the constellation of Orion (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
g. Betelgeuse ( Orionis, Mag. 0.5 - 1.1). This is another of the three bright stars that
mark corners of the quadrilateral in the constellation of Orion. It may be identified by its
reddish colour (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
h. Canopus ( Carinae, Mag. !0.9). Next to Sirius, Canopus is the brightest star. It
lies about half-way between Sirius and the South Celestial Pole, and on the line joining
Fomalhaut and Achernar (Fig App 1-1).
i. Capella ( Aurigae, Mag. 0.2). This bright star forms a rough equilateral triangle
with Betelgeuse and Castor, about half-way between Orion and Polaris (Fig App 1-1).
j. Castor ( Geminorum, Mag. 1.6). A line from Rigel through the middle star of
Orions Belt points to Castor (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
k. Rigil Kent ( Centauri, Mag. 0.1), and Hadar ( Centauri, Mag. 0.9). These are
two bright stars on the line joining Antares and Canopus (Fig App 1-1).
l. Fomalhaut ( Piscis Australis, Mag. 1.3). The line joining Scheat and Markab in
Pegasus, produced away from Polaris, passes through Fomalhaut (Fig App 1-1).
m. Polaris or The Pole Star ( Ursae Minoris, Mag. 2.1). A line through the Pointers
of the Plough (Ursa Major or the Great Bear) leads to this star and the observer can
easily verify that he has chosen the correct star by measuring its altitude, which is
roughly his Latitude (Figs App 1-1, App1-2 and App1-3).

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n. Pollux ( Geminorum, Mag. 1.2). This as the name of the constellation suggests,
will be seen close to Castor (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
o. Procyon ( Canis Minoris, Mag. 0.5). Procyon, Betelgeuse and Sirius form an
equilateral triangle (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
p. Regulus ( Leonis, Mag. 1.3). A line from Bellatrix through Betelgeuse points to
Regulus, which is about 60 from Betelgeuse (Fig App 1-1).
q. Rigel ( Orionis, Mag. 0.3). This is the third of the three bright stars that, together
with Orionis, form the quadrilateral in the constellation of Orion (Figs App 1-1 and
App 1-5).
r. Sirius ( Canis Majoris, Mag. !1.6). Sirius is the brightest star. It lies to the southeast of Orion, approximately in a line with the Belt (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
s. Spica ( Virginis, Mag. 1.2). This bright star may be found by continuing the curve
of the Great Bears tail through Arcturus, which lies about midway between the tail and
Spica (Fig App 1-1).
t. Vega ( Lyrae, Mag. 0.1). Vega is found by extending the line joining Capella to
Polaris about an equal distance on the opposite side of the pole. Near Vega is a distinct
W of small stars (Fig App 1-1).

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APPENDIX 2
EXTRACTS FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC (1997)

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INDEX
1.
Paragraph numbers in BOLD TYPE indicate the primary references, which give
the main definition and/or explanation, including definitions / explanations at Para 0401.
2.
Paragraph numbers in ORDINARY TYPE indicate other occurrences of the term.
Where appropriate, cross references to other variants of the term are given. Paragraph
NUMBERS IN BRACKETS indicate associated information.
3.
Software commands and terms used exclusively within NAVPAC 2 are NOT
INCLUDED in this Index, although they will be found in the text of Chapter 3 and Annex
3A. Terms used in the verbatim extracts from The Nautical Almanac at Paras 0545 and
0546 are NOT INCLUDED in this Index, unless found elsewhere in the book.
Abnormal Refraction. Paras 0339j, 0401, 0560, 0804, 0807, 0902.
Altitude (of a heavenly body). Paras 0118, 0132, 0324, 0350, 0351, 0401, 0501, 0521, 0524,
0542, 0551, Anx 5A, 0604, 0605, 0723, 0741, 0742.
See also separate entries for:
Apparent Altitude
Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude
d (Altitude Difference (d) from NP 401)
Observed (True) Altitude
Sextant Altitude
Tabulated Altitude
Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
Altitude Difference (d). See separate entry for d (Altitude Difference (d) from NP 401).
Angle of Incidence (N). Paras 0401, 0802.

Angle of Refraction (). Paras 0401, 0802.

Angular Distance. Paras 0102, 0104, 0105, 0106, 0401, 0420, 0422, 0436, 0442, 0443, 0501,
0522, 0601, 0621.
Apparent Altitude. Paras 0107, 0118, 0348, 0401, 0560, 0720, 0721, 0723, 0730, 0741, 0742,
0803, 0805, 0806.
Apparent Solar Day / Time. Paras 0401, 0432, 0439, 0441, 0442.
Aries (K ). Paras 0104, 0106, 0420, 0401, 0421 / Fig 4-1, 0441, 0443, 0444, 0450, 0453, 0501,
0543, 0544, Anx 5A, 0608, 0609, 0622, App 1.
Astronomical Day. Paras 0401, 0434, 0435.
Astronomical Position Line / Position Line. Paras 0345, (0346), 0350, 0351, 0401, 0520,
0521, 0524, 0525, 0526, 0530, 0544, 0550, 0551, 0560, 0561, 0562, 0601, 0801, 0807, 0901,
0902, 0903, 0905, 0906. Brackets indicate associated information.
Index-1
Change 1

BR 45(2)
Astronomical Twilight (AT). Paras 0108, 0401, 0724, 0725, 0726, 0741, 0742.
Atmospheric Refraction. Paras 0107, 0502 (Note 5-1), 0401, 0702, 0802, 0803, 0804, 0806,
0807, 0808.
|

Autumn Equinox. See separate entry for Equinoxes - Spring and Autumn.
Axis (of the Earth). Para 0401 Axis (of the Earth), Anx 5A.
Azimuth (of a heavenly body). Paras 0117, 0324, 0345, 0348, 0351, 0401, 0501, 0524, 0533,
0534, 0535, 0536, 0542, Anx 5A, 0622, 0742, 0903.
See also separate entries for:
Azimuth Angle (of a heavenly body)
Calculated (Tabulated) Azimuth
Supplementary Azimuth
True Bearing (of a heavenly body)
Azimuth Angle (of a heavenly body). Paras 0401, 0536, 0542, 0543, 0741.
Bearing. See separate entry for True Bearing (of a heavenly body).
Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude. Paras 0118, 0345, 0351, 0401, 0531, 0521, 0524, 0530, 0531,
0532, 0533, 0542, 0741, 0903. See also separate entry for Tabulated Altitude.
Calculated (Tabulated) Azimuth. Paras 0401, 0530, 0531, 0535, 0536, 0741.
Calculated (Tabulated) Co-Declination. Paras 0401, 0531. See also separate entry for CoDeclination (also known as Polar Distance).
Calculated (Tabulated) LHA. Paras 0401, 0531.
Calculated (Tabulated) Position Circle. Paras 0401, (0522), 0524. See also separate entry for
Position Circle. Brackets indicate associated information.
Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (CZD). Paras 0401, 0524, 0532, 0533.
Calculated Zenith Distance. See separate entry Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (CZD).
Celestial Equator. Paras 0101, 0103, 0104, 0105, 0106, 0401, 0421 / Fig 4-1, 0433, 0444,
0501 (Note 5-1), 0503, 0544f, Anx 5A, 0612d/e, App1.
Celestial Horizon. Paras 0107, 0108, 0115, 0119, 0401, 0501 (Note 5-1), 0612d, 0621, 0702,
0721, 0724, 0725, 0730, 0741.
Celestial Latitude. Paras 0105 (Note 1-1), 0401.
Celestial Longitude. Paras 0106 (Note 1-2), 0401.
Celestial Meridian. Paras 0401, 0421 / Fig 4-1, Anx 5A.
Index-2
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BR 45(2)

Celestial Poles. Paras 0101, 0401, 0421 / Fig 4-1, Anx 5A, 0620, 0621, 0723, 0727.
Celestial Sphere. Paras 0101, 0102, 0105, 0106, 0114, 0115, 0120, 0401, 0420, 0421 / Fig 4-1,
0430, 0431, 0444, 0453, 0501, 0502, 0503, 0524, 0741, App 1.
Chosen Declination. Paras 0401, 0542, 0542g, 0543, 0544, App 1.
Chosen Latitude. See separate entry for Chosen Position.
Chosen Longitude. See separate entry for Chosen Position.
Chosen Position. Paras 0401, 0524, 0525, 0531, 0542, 0542f, 0543, 0544, 0561, 0562.
Circumpolar. Paras 0401, 0727.
Civil Day. Paras 0401, 0434, 0435.
Civil Twilight (CT). Paras 0108, 0401, 0724, 0725, 0741, 0742.
See also separate entries for:
Evening Civil Twilight (ECT)
Morning Civil Twilight (MCT)
Cocked Hat. Paras 0401, 0906, 0907, and BR 45(1) Chapter 9 and Appendix 7.
Co-Declination (also known as Polar Distance). Paras 0401, 0534b, 0542, 0620. See also
separate entry for Calculated (Tabulated) Co-Declination.
Co-Latitude. Paras 0401, 0501, 0531, 0534, 0542.
Collimation Error. See separate entry for Sextant: Collimation Error.
Common Equal Error (corrections). Paras 0401, 0906, 0907.
Confidence Ellipse. Para 0346c, 0401, 0902. See also separate entry for Error Ellipse.
CONTRARY (name). Paras 0401, 0542b, 0542, 0543, 0602, 0603, 0612, 0741, 0742.
Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC). Paras 0211, 0401.
Corrected Tabulated Altitude (Corr Tab Alt). Paras 0401, 0542g, 0543, 0544g.
d (Altitude Difference (d) from NP 401). Paras 0401, 0542, 0542d, 0542g, 0543a.
d / d corrn (Declination correction from The Nautical Almanac). Paras 0401, 0543b.
Daily Difference (suffixed with MP, MR or MS as appropriate). Paras 0401, 0607c (Note 6-1),
0731 (Note 7-1).

Index-3
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BR 45(2)
Day. Paras 0401, 0431, 0441.
See also separate entries for:
Apparent Solar Day / Time
Astronomical Day
Civil Day
Lunar Day / Month
Mean Solar Day
Sidereal Day / Time
Solar Day
Daylight Saving Time (DST). Paras 0202, 0204, 0401, 0438.
Deck Watch. Paras 0401, 0903.
Deck Watch Error (DWE). Paras 0211, 0327, 0340, 0350, 0351, 0401, 0543, 0544g, 0551, 0561,
0903.
Deck Watch Time (DWT). Paras 0327, 0339, 0340, 0348, 0350, 0351, 0401, 0501, 0542h, 0543,
0544g, 0551, 0561.
Declination. Paras 0105, 0114, 0348f, 0348g, 0348h, 0401, 0421 / Fig 4-1, 0501, 0502, 0532,
0534, 0542, 0543, 0551, Anx 5A, 0602, 0603, 0605, 0612, 0620, 0725, 0726, 0730, 0741, 0742,
App 1. See also separate entries for:
Chosen Declination
Parallels of Declination
Tabulated Declination.
Declination Increment (Dec Inc). Paras 0401, 0542g, 0543, 0544f.
Depressed Pole. Paras 0401, 0741.
Diamond of Error. Paras 0401, 0902.
Difference d. See separate entry for d(Altitude Difference from NP 401).
Difference of Time for Longitude (suffixed MP, MR or MS as appropriate). Paras 0401,
0607d, 0731c.
Dip. Paras 0118, 0339r, 0348, 0401, 0543, 0560, 0741, 0742, 0802, 0806, 0902.
Double Second Difference Correction (from NP 401). Paras 0401, 0542g, 0543.
Earths Axis. See separate entry for Axis (of Earth).
Ecliptic. Paras 0103a, 0104, 0105, 0106, 0120, 0401, 0431, 0433, 0544f, Anx 5A, App1.
Elevated Pole. Paras 0401, 0535, 0542, Anx 5A, 0741.
EP (Estimated Position). Paras 0401, 0905. See also BR 45(1) Chapters 8 and 16.
Index-4
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BR 45(2)
Epoch. Paras 0401, 0544e, 0544f.
Equation of Time. Paras 0401, 0439.
Equator. Paras 0401, 0903. See also BR 45(1) Chapter 1.
Equinoxes - Spring and Autumn. Paras 0103b, 0104, 0401, 0452, 0544f, App 1.
Error Ellipse. Para 0902. See also separate entry for Confidence Ellipse and BR 45(1) Chapters
8 and16.
Estimated Position (EP). See separate entry for EP (Estimated Position).
Evening Civil Twilight (ECT). Paras 0108, 0320, 0321, 0322, 0323, 0339, 0401, 0724, 0725,
0741, 0742.
Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT). Paras 0108, 0320, 0321, 0322, 0323, 0339 0401, 0724,
0725, 0741, 0742.
First Difference Correction (FDC) (from NP401). Paras 0401, 0542g, 0543.
First Point of Aries (K ). See separate entry for Aries (K ).
First Point of Libra. See separate entry for Libra.
First Quarter (of the Moon). Para 0401, 0452.
Full Moon. Paras 0339s, 0401, 0452.
Geographic Position. Para 0109, 0401, 0521, 0525, 0550, 0551, 0552.
Great Circle. Paras 0103, 0110, 0111, 0115, 0119, 0301, 0401, 0525,0562, 0741.
Greenwich Celestial Meridian. Paras 0401, 0421 / Fig 4-1.
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA). Paras 0106, 0401, 0420c, 0421 / Fig 4-1, 0422, 0435, 0444,
0450, 0452, 0453, 0501, 0542, 0543, 0544, 0551, Anx 5A, 0606, 0607, 0608, 0609, 0725, 0730,
0742.
Greenwich Hour Angle Increment (GHA Increment). Para 0401, 0543b.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Paras 0201, 0210, 0350, 0401, 0434, 0435, 0436, 0437, 0450,
0560, 0606, 0607, 0608, 0609, 0611, 0731, 0903. See also separate entry Universal Time (UT).
Greenwich Meridian. Paras 0112, 0322, 0325, 0401, 0420, 0422, 0435, 0607, 0608, 0611,
0722, 0730, 0731.
Height of Eye (HE). 0116, 0118, 0344, 0348, 0401, 0551, 0561, 0720, 0721, 0730, 0742, 0806.
See also separate entry for Dip.
Index-5
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BR 45(2)
High Latitude (Polar) Sights. Paras 0401, 0560, 0561, 0562.
High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. See separate entry for Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights.
Horizon.
See separate entries for:
Celestial Horizon
Plane of the Celestial Horizon
Visible Horizon
Horizontal Parallax. Paras 0348d (Note 3-8), 0401, 0543, 0702, 0730, 0741, 0742, 0902.
Hour Angles. Paras 0106, 0401, 0420, 0421 / Fig 4-1, 0433, 0443, 0452, 0453, 0534, 0542,
0725, 0903.
See also separate entries for:
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)
Local Hour Angle (LHA)
Right Ascension (RA)
Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)
Index Error (IE). See separate entry for Sextant: Index Error.
Index of Refraction (). See separate entry for Refractive Index.
Intercept. Paras 0345, 0346, 0351, 0401, 0521, 0524 / Fig 5-3, Fig 5-4, 0525, 0526, 0542h,
0543, 0544g, 0550, 0561, 0562, 0902, 0906.
International Atomic Time (TAI). Paras 0211b, 0401.
International Date Line (IDL). Paras 0201, 0206, 0401.
Last Quarter (of the Moon). Paras 0401, 0452.
Latitude. Para 0401 and BR 45(1) Chapter 1.
Least Square (method of calculation). Paras 0401, 0904, 0906 and also BR 45(1) Annex 16A
Legal Time. See separate entry for Standard Legal Time.
Libra. Para 0104, 0401, 0544f.
Local Hour Angle (LHA). Paras 0106, 0132, 0348j, 0401, 0420d, 0421 / Fig 4-1, 0422, 0435,
0436, 0452, 0453, 0501, 0532, 0535, 0542, 0543, 0544, Anx 5A, 0601, 0602, 0603, 0608, 0609,
0610, 0611, 0621, 0622, 0723, 0741, 0742.
Local Mean Time (LMT). Paras 0133, 0205, 0322, 0325, 0401, 0435, 0436, 0437, 0606, 0607,
0608, 0609, 0611, 0722, 0731, 0742.
Local Sidereal Time (LST). Paras 0401, 0443.
Index-6
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BR 45(2)
Longitude. Para 0401 and BR 45(1) Chapter 1.
Looming (Mirage). Paras 0401, 0808b.
Lower Hemisphere. Paras 0401, 0502(Note 5-1). See also separate entry for Visible Hemisphere.
Lower Limb (LL). Paras 0170b, 0348d, 0401, 0702, 0704, 0723.
Lower Mer Pass / Lower Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body), (also known as Meridian
Passage Below the Pole). Paras 0348i, 0401, 0602, 0603, 0610, 0612e.
Lunar Day / Month. Paras 0401, 0450, 0451, 0607.
Lunar Units. Paras 0401, 0450.
Lunation. Paras 0401, 0451.
Mean Refraction. Paras 0401, 0803, 0805.
Mean Solar Day. Paras 0401, 0434, 0442, 0443, 0441, 0450, 0451, 0607.
Mean Solar Hour / Minute / Time. Paras 0209, 0401, 0434, 0439, 0443, 0451.
Mean Sun. Paras 0401, 0433, 0434, 0435, 0436, 0439, 0444, 0452, 0608. See also separate
entry for True Sun.
Meridian. Paras 0107, 0111, 0112, 0132, 0201, 0206, 0320, 0325, 0326, 0339, 0401, 0420, 0422,
0431, 0432, 0434, 0435, 0436, 0438, 0441, 0450, 0501, 0526, 0535, 0542, 0562, Anx 5A, 0601,
0602, 0603, 0606, 0608, 0609, 0611, 0702, 0722, 0903.
See also separate entries for:
Celestial Meridian
Greenwich Meridian
Greenwich Celestial Meridian
Lower Mer Pass / Lower Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body), (also known as
Meridian Passage below the Pole)
Mer Pass / Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body),(also known as Upper Mer Pass /
Upper Meridian Passage)
Observers Meridian
Prime Meridian
Meridian Passage Below the Pole. See separate entry for Lower Mer Pass / Lower Meridian
Passage (of a heavenly body).
Mer Pass / Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body), (also known as Upper Mer Pass / Upper
Meridian Passage). Paras 0133, 0320, 0325, 0326, 0348f-g, 0348i, 0401, 0452, 0540, 0550,
0551, 0601, 0602, 0603, 0604, 0605, 0606, 0607, 0608, 0609, 0610, 0611, 0612, 0731, 0741,
0742.
Midnight Sun. Para 0726.
Index-7
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BR 45(2)
Mirage. Paras 0401, 0808.
See also separate entries for:
Looming
Stooping
Sinking
Towering
Month. See separate entry for Lunar Day / Month.
Moonrise, Moonset.
See separate entries (which co-ordinate all variants) for:
True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon)
Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon)
Morning Civil Twilight (MCT). Paras 0108, 0320, 0321, 0322, 0323, 0339, 0401, 0724, 0725,
0741, 0742.
Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT). Paras 0108, 0320, 0321, 0322, 0323, 0327, 0339, 0401,
0724, 0725, 0741, 0742.
Most Probable Position (MPP). Paras 0401, 0904, 0905, 0906. See also BR 45(1) Chapter 16
/ Annex 16A, and BR 45(4).
Nautical Twilight (NT). Paras 0108, 0401, 0724, 0725, 0741, 0742.
See also separate entries for:
Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT)
Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT)
NAVPAC 2 / NAVPAC 1. Paras 0131, Chapter 3, 0401, 0502, 0525, 0540, 0541, 0561, 0604,
0624, 0725, 0740, 0742, 0902, 0904, 0906.
New Moon. Paras 0401, 0451, 0452.
Nutation. Paras 0401, 0544b, 0544e, 0544f, 0544g.
Obliquity of the Ecliptic. Paras 0103a, 0401.
Observed Position (Obs. Pos). Para 0346d, 0401, 0525, 0526, 0540, 0542h, 0543, 0544, 0551,
0904, 0906. See also separate entry for Observed (True) Position.
Observed (True) Altitude. Paras 0118, 0345, 0348d, 0401, 0351, 0521, 0522, 0524, 0543,
0550, 0551, 0612, 0620, 0621, 0721, 0730, 0741, 0901, 0902, 0906, 0907.
Observed (True) Position. Paras 0401, 0524b. See also separate entry Observed Position.
Observed (True) Position Circle. Paras 0401, (0522), 0524, 0525. See also Position Circle.
Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD). Paras 0401, 0524, 0525, (0551f), (0552), (0702,
(0721), (0723), (0725). Brackets indicate associated information.
Index-8
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BR 45(2)
Observed Zenith Distance. See separate entry for Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD).
Observers Meridian. Paras 0320, 0325, 0326, 0348, 0401, 0421 / Fig 4-1, 0422, 0431, 0432,
0434, 0442, 0443, 0450, 0451, 0535, 0551, Anx 5A, 0601, 0602, 0603, 0604, 0605, 0607, 0621,
0731, 0742.
Observers Zenith (Z). Paras 0109, 0114, 0115, 0118, 0119, 0401, 0421, 0501, 0502
(Note 5-1), 0503, Anx 5A, 0803.
Parallax. See separate entry for Horizontal Parallax.
Parallels of Declination. Paras 0105, 0401.
Parallels of Latitude. See BR 45(1) Chapter 1.
Perpendicularity (error). See separate entry for Sextant: Perpendicularity (error).
Plane of the Celestial Horizon. Paras 0401, 0503 (Note 5-2).
Polar Distance (PX). See separate entry for alternative title of Co-Declination.
Polaris. Paras 0348j, 0401, 0540, 0620, 0621, 0622, 0623, 0624.
Polar Variation. Para 0401.
Poles (of the Earth). Paras 0111, 0401, 0561, 0562, 0602, 0603, 0741. See also separate entry
for Celestial Poles.
Position Circle. Paras 0401, 0522, 0523, (0524) 0525, 0550, 0561. Brackets indicate associated
information.
See also separate entries for:
Observed (True) Position Circle
Calculated (Tabulated) Position Circle
Position Line. See separate entry for Astronomical Position Line.
Precession. Paras 0104, 0401, 0544b, 0544f, 0544e, 0544g.
Precession of Equinoxes. Paras (0104), 0401, 0544f. See also separate entry for Equinoxes Spring and Autumn.
Prime Meridian. Paras 0112, 0209, 0401.
Probable Position Area (PPA). Paras 0401, 0905. See also BR 45(1) Chapter 16 / Annex 16A,
and BR 45(4).
PZX Triangle. Paras 0401, 0501, 0531, 0532, 0533, 0534, 0542, 0741.
P'Z'X Triangle. Paras 0401, 0741.
Index-9
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BR 45(2)
Refraction. Paras 0348d, 0349, 0401, 0543, 0551, 0612, 0723, 0730, 0741, 0742, 0801, 0802,
0803, 0804, 0805, 0806, 0807, 0808, 0902.
See also separate entries for:
Abnormal Refraction
Angle of Incidence
Angle of Refraction
Atmospheric Refraction
Mean Refraction
Refractive Index (also known as Index of Refraction)
Terrestrial Refraction
Refractive Index (). Paras 0401, 0802, 0805.
Rhumb Line. Para 0113, 0301, 0401, 0524, 0525.
Right Ascension (RA). Paras 0106, 0133, 0401, 0420a/b, 0421, 0501, Anx 5A.
Run / Run-on, Run-back. Paras 0345, 0346, 0350, 0351 and Note 3-9, 0401, 0525, 0524h,
0543, 0544g, 0551.
SAME (name). Paras 0401, 0542b, 0542, 0543, 0602, 0603, 0612, 0725, 0741, 0742.
Semi-Diameter. Paras 0107, 0401, 0551, 0702, 0704, 0721, 0723, 0730, 0741, 0742, 0803, 0902.
Sextant. Paras 0330-0339, 0401, 0542g, 0550, 0551, 0552, 0620, 0622, 0806 and entries for:
Sextant: Altitude. See separate entry Sextant Altitude on following page.
Sextant: Arc. Paras 0331, 0332, 0333, 0336, 0338, 0339.
Sextant: Arc of Excess. Para 0332.
Sextant: Clamp (Index Bar). Paras 0331, 0333, 0338.
Sextant: Collar. Paras 0331, 0334, 0338.
Sextant: Collimation Error. Paras 0335, 0336d/e.
Sextant: Horizon Glass. Paras 0331, 0332, 0334, 0336, 0339.
Sextant: Index Bar. Paras 0331, 0332, 0333, 0336, 0338.
Sextant: Index Error. Paras 0118, 0332, 0336c, 0336g, 0337, 0339, 0340, 0344, 0348,
0543, 0544g, 0551, 0561, 0720, 0807, 0902, 0906.
Sextant: Index Glass. Paras 0332, 0334d, 0336, 0339.
Sextant: Index Mark. Paras 0331, 0332.
Sextant: Main Frame. Paras 0331, 0334, 0338.
Sextant: Micrometer Drum. Paras 0331, 0332, 0333, 0336f, 0339.
Sextant: Milled Head. Paras 0334b.
Sextant: On the Arc. Paras 0332, 0336.
Sextant: Off the Arc. Paras 0332, 0336.
Sextant: Perpendicularity (error). Paras 0336a, 0337, 0339, 0902.
Sextant: Reading Lamp. Paras 0331, 0334, 0339.
Sextant: Shades. Paras 0331, 0334, 0338, 0339.
Sextant: Side Error. Paras 0336b, 0337, 0339.
Sextant: Star Telescope. Paras 0335, 0336, 0339, 0902.
Sextant: Sun Telescope. Paras 0335, 0336, 0339.
Sextant: Telescope. Paras 0331, 0334, (0335), 0336, 0338.
Index-10
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Sextant Altitude. Paras 0118, 0336, 0339h, 0340, 0348, 0401, 0542h, 0543, 0544g, 0550, 0551,
0561, 0605, 0612, 0702, 0807, 0902.
Side Error. See separate entry for Sextant: Side Error.
Sidereal Day / Time. Paras 0401, 0441, 0442, 0443.
Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA). Paras 0106, 0133, 0401, 0420a/b, 0421 / Fig 4-1, 0422, 0444,
0450, 0453, 0501, 0502, 0543, 0544f, Anx 5A, 0609, 0730.
Sidereal Hour / Minute. Paras 0401, 0443.
Sinking (Mirage). Paras 0401, 0808c.
Small Circle. Paras 0110, 0351, 0401, 0521, 0522, 0562, 0620, 0621.
Solar Day. Paras 0401, 0431.
Solar Time. Paras 0209, 0401, 0431. See also Mean Solar Hour / Minute / Time.
Solstice. Paras 0103b, 0401.
Spring Equinox.

See separate entry for Equinoxes - Spring and Autumn.

Standard Deviation (method of calculation). Paras 0401, 0902. See also BR 45(1) Chapter 16
and Annex 16A.
Standard Legal Time. Paras 0201, 0202 / Fig 2-1, Fig 2-2, 0203, 0204, 0206, 0401, 0438.
Standard (or Zone) Time. Paras 0201, 0202, (0203), 0204, 0206, 0322, 0325, 0401, 0438,
Anx 5A, 0606, 0607, 0608, 0609, 0611, 0722, 0724, 0731, 0742. Brackets indicate associated
information.
Standard Time Zones / Time Zones. Paras 0201, 0202 / Fig 2-1, Fig 2-2, 0204, 0206, 0208,
0322, 0325, 0401, 0438, 0560, 0606.
Stooping (Mirage). Paras 0401, 0808b.
Summer Solstice. See separate entry for Solstice.
Sun.
See separate entries for:
Mean Sun
True Sun
Sunrise, Sunset.
See separate entries (which co-ordinate all variants) for:
True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon).
Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon).
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Supplementary Azimuth. Paras 0401, 0741, 0742.
Tabulated Altitude (from NP 401 / NP 303). Paras 0401, 0542d, 0542g, 0543, 0544.
See also separate entries for:
Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude
Corrected Tabulated Altitude (Corr Tab Alt)
Tabulated Declination (used with NP 401 / NP 303). Paras 0401, 0543b
Tabulated Zenith Distance. See separate entry Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (CZD).
Terrestrial Refraction. Paras 0401, 0802, 0806, 0807.
Time.
See separate entries for:
Apparent Solar Day / Time
Astronomical Day
Civil Day
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Deck Watch Time
Equation of Time
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
International Atomic Time (TAI)
International Date Line (IDL)
Legal Time - see separate entry for Standard Legal Time
Local Mean Time (LMT)
Local Sidereal Time (LST)
Lunar Day
Mean Solar Day
Mean Solar Hour / Minute / Time
Sidereal Day / Time
Sidereal Hour / Minute
Solar Day
Solar Time
Standard Legal Time
Standard (or Zone) Time
Standard Time Zones / Time Zones
Summer Time - see separate entry for Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Time Errors
Time Zones - see separate entry for Standard Time Zones / Time Zones
Uniform Time System
Universal Coordinated Time - see Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
Universal Time (UT or UT1)
Zone Time - see separate entry for Standard (or Zone) Time
Note: All variations of Hour Angle will be found listed separately under Hour Angles.
Time Errors. Paras 0401, 0901, 0903.
Index-12
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Time Zones. See separate entry for Standard Time Zones / Time Zones
Total Darkness. Paras 0108, 0401, 0725.
Towering (Mirage). Paras 0401, 0808b.
Transferred Position Lines. See separate entry for Run / Run-on, Run-back.
True Altitude. See separate entry for Observed (True) Altitude.
True Bearing (of a heavenly body). Paras 0117, 0324, 0348, 0401, 0501, 0502, 0521, 0524,
0525, 0530, 0531, 0533, 0534, 0535, 0536, 0542, 0543, 0544, 0551, 0562, Anx 5A, 0602, 0622,
0741, 0742, 0906.
True Sun. Paras 0401, 0433, 0439. See also separate entry for Mean Sun.
True (Theoretical) Moonrise and Moonset. See separate entry for True (Theoretical) Rising
and Setting (Sun and Moon).
True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon).
See detailed entries for:
Moon. Paras 0401, 0702, 0730.
Sun.
Paras 0401, 0107, 0702, 0721, 0723, 0725.
True (Theoretical) Sunrise and Sunset. See separate entry for True (Theoretical) Rising and
Setting (Sun and Moon).
True Zenith Distance (TZD). See separate entry for Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD).
Twilight. Paras 0108, 0322, 0401, 0722, 0724, 0725, 0740.
See also separate entries for:
Astronomical Twilight (AT)
Evening Civil Twilight (ECT)
Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT)
Midnight Sun
Morning Civil Twilight (MCT)
Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT)
Total Darkness
Uniform Time System. Paras 0201, (0202 / Fig 2-1, Fig 2-2), (0203), (0204), (0205), (0206),
0401. Brackets indicate associated information.
Universal Time (UT or UT1). Paras 0201, 0205, 0209, 0210, 0211, 0321, 0322, 0325, 0327,
0350, 0351, 0401, 0434, 0435, 0436, 0437, 0439, 0444, 0450, 0451, 0452, 0453, 0551, 0560, Anx
5A, 0606, 0607, 0608, 0609, 0611, 0722, 0731, 0742, 0903.
Upper Limb (UL). Paras 0107a, 0345, 0348d, 0401, 0703, 0704, 0720, 0721, 0730.

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Upper Mer Pass / Upper Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body). Paras 0401, 0602, 0603,
0610, 0612. See also separate entry for Mer Pass / Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body).
v corrn / v (velocity correction from The Nautical Almanac). Paras 0401, 0543b.
Vertical Circles. Paras 0118, 0119, 0401, 0535.
Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. Paras 0401, 0523, 0525, 0550, 0551, 0552.
Visible Hemisphere. Paras 0401, 0502 (Note 5-1), Anx 5A. See also separate entry for Lower
Hemisphere.
Visible Horizon. Paras 0107, 0115, 0116, 0118, 0401, 0503, 0702, 0703, 0704, 0721, 0723,
0726, 0727, 0730, 0802, 0806, 0808.
Visible Moonrise and Moonset. See separate entry for Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and
Moon).
Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon).
See detailed entries for:
Moon. Paras (0320, 0321, 0322 - non specific with NAVPAC 2), 0401, 0703, 0730,
0731, 0740, 0741, 0742.
Sun. Paras 0107, 0320, 0321, 0322, 0401, 0702, 0703, 0720, 0721, 0722, 0725, 0740,
0741, 0742.
Visible Sunrise and Sunset. See separate entry for Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon).
Waning (of Moon). Para 0401, 0452.
Waxing (of Moon). Para 0401, 0452.
Winter Solstice. See separate entry for Solstice.
Zenith. See separate entry for Observers Zenith (Z).
Zenith Distance. Paras 0401, 0524, 0803, 0906, 0907.
See also separate entries for:
Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (CZD)
Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD)
Zone Time. See separate entry for Standard (or Zone) Time.

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