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Select 52 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
PROCESS DESIGN
Dynamic models improve
safety for high-pressure vessels
ENVIRONMENT
Investigation reviews
inert gas usage
HydrocarbonProcessing.com | MAY 2014
SAFETY
Hazard analysis identifies
alarm/control problems
SPECIAL REPORT:
Maintenance
and Reliability
SENTRON LD 5000
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MAY 2014|Volume 93 Number 5

HydrocarbonProcessing.com
21
10
52
SPECIAL REPORT: MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY
53
Reliability tips for centrifugal process pumps

H. P. Bloch
61
Micro-alloyed steel: New standard for reformer tubes

A. Steckmeyer, B. Fournier, H. Chasselin and C. Mougel
67
Evaluate piping for displacement-controlled loading

J. Tharakan and M. Anisuzzaman
PROCESS DESIGN
71
Use dynamic models when designing high-pressure vessels

J. Renfro, G. Stephenson, E. Marques-Riquelme and C. Vandu
REFINING DEVELOPMENTS
77
DEPARTMENTS
4
10
21
23
101
102
104
106
COLUMNS
9 Editorial Comment
What separates the best-of-class
companies from the rest?
25
Innovative catalyst solution mitigates FCC operational issue
back to service faster
29
M. Sawyer
ENVIRONMENT
99 What every refiner should know about
nitrogen generation and delivery
Automation Strategies
The automation challenge
requires new approaches
31
Project Management
Better strategies avoid
project delaysPart 2
J. Hair
SAFETY
95 Minimize false assurances in hazard analyses
Reliability
Make equipment decisions with
up-to-date technical information
J. Sexton, J. Highfield, N. Larsen, S. Ismail and D. Neuman
TERMINALS AND STORAGESUPPLEMENT

T-85 Use innovative solutions to return storage tanks
Industry Perspectives
News
Forum
Industry Metrics
Events
Marketplace
Advertiser Index
People
37
Global
Russian executives to build
countrys first waste oil refinery
39
Petrochemicals
Ammonia production booms
on cheap natural gas
43
Gas Processing
Asian gas market seeks lower pricing,
infrastructure expansion: Part 1
D. Connaughton
45
Cover Image: In Rotterdam, an entire refinery was shut down, modernized and put back into operation.
Bilfinger is the specialist for these extensive turnarounds. Photo courtesy of Bilfinger SE.
Boxscore Construction
Analysis
Qatars petrochemical sector
surges through new projects
49
Viewpoint
What characteristics define
the worlds best refineries?
www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Industry Perspectives
Reflections from a petrochemical giant
Frank Popoff, retired chairman and CEO of the Dow Chemical Co., shared his insight on the petrochemical industry at the
AFPMs 2014 International Petrochemical Conference (IPC).
With a career spanning over 41 years, Mr. Popoff has witnessed
the evolution of the petrochemical industry between two Gulf
coaststhe US and the Middle East.
As a former leader of an international petrochemical company, Mr. Popoff shared some observations on the industry to
IPC attendees. First, expect change in the business cycle; more
importantly, embrace it. Since its inception, the petrochemical
industry has always followed cycles. Unfortunately, companies
still over-invest in new capacity at the top of the business cycle,
thus creating an overcapacity situation. Second, change within
the petrochemical industry is accelerating. Operating companies
are enduring pressures internally and externally that are linked to
underperformance, especially with respect to profits.
Reality vs. perception. Mr. Popoff also remarked that the public
has a disconnected view of the downstream. In the 1950s, the petrochemical industry was viewed as an innovative and high-tech
industry. Fast-forward to present day, the petrochemical industry
is very disconnected from the public and the regulatory agencies.
More importantly, younger people do not consider employment
opportunities in the petrochemical industry. This perception of
the industry must change.
Advice from a veteran. How can the downstream change its
image? Mr. Popoff advised: First, companies will be judged by

their deeds, and not by their media programs. Petrochemical companies must be active and visible in their communities. Corporate
creditability is the key to success and the legacy of the industry.
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FIG. 1. Former Dow Chemical Chairman Frank Popoff (left) is

presented with the 18th Petrochemical Heritage Award by Jerry Law,
president of the Founders Club.
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JULY 3031, 2014

2014
2014 Speakers Include:
V.K. Arora
Director-Process & Operations
Kinetics Process Improvements, Inc
Norris Conference Centers CityCentre

Houston, Texas
Hear from Experts at the

Forefront of GTL Technology
Join us for the second annual GTL Technology Forum, to be held July 30-31, 2014
in Houston, Texas, as we explore the latest trends and cutting-edge solutions at
work as GTL usage and products continue to gain momentum. Over the course
of two-days, attendees will hear from experts at the forefront of GTL technology
regarding the economics of GTL, market opportunities, the latest products and
developments, case histories, new project announcements and more. Register
online today at GTLTechForum.com.
2014 Sessions will Focus on:

Syngas
Whats new in small scale GTL?
Catalysts
The future of non-FT

Emerging technology and future users
Modular construction
Panel Discussions Devoted to:

George Boyajian
Vice President,
Business Development
Primus Green Energy
Modular GTLs
Future uses of GTL
Real-World Case Studies on:

GTL technology development-The optimal path to Micro-GTL commercialization
Renery integration with gasication
>> Plus, attendees will hear presentations on the economics of natural gas and
ammonia production from off-gases. Dont miss this opportunity to learn from
industry experts and connect with top operators and technology leaders from
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Who Should Attend:

Jeff McDaniel
Commercial Director
Velocys
Professionals at Engineering & Construction

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Ways to Participate:
To Register Offline: Gwen Hood, Events Manager, at +1 (713) 520-4402
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Speaker Inquiries: Melissa Smith, Events Director, at +1 (713) 520-4475
or Melissa.Smith@GulfPub.com
Ebrahim Salehi
Process Engineer
Hatch
Sponsor/Exhibitor Inquiries: Lisa Zadok, Events Sales Manager, at +1 (713) 525-4632

or Lisa.Zadok@GulfPub.com
GTLTechForum.com
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2014 Agenda at a Glance:
Wednesday, July 30, 2014
Thursday, July 31, 2014
8:45 a.m.
Keynote Presentation
8:45 a.m.
Keynote Presentation
9:15 a.m.
The Economics of Monetizing North

American Natural Gas
Tom Jones, Manager of Studies, Bechtel
Hydrocarbon Technology Solutions, Inc.
9:15 a.m.
Economics of Ammonia Production

from Off-Gases
VK Arora, Director-Process & Operations,
Kinetics Process Improvements, Inc
Session 1: Syngas
10:10 a.m.
Co-processing of Waste CO2 with

Natural Gas to Produce High Value
Transport Fuels
Paul E Koppel, Vice President, Process
Technology, Fluor Enterprises
10:35 a.m.
Autothermal Reforming a Preferred

Technology for Conversion of Natural
Gas to Synthesis Gas in Industrial
GTL Applications
Neils Udengaard, Haldor Topsoe
11 a.m.
Partial Oxidation Gas-Turbine Based

Turbo-POx Syngas Generation
Technology for GTL Applications
Kenneth Sprouse, Chief Technology Ofcer,
Aerojet Rocketdyne Energy Systems
11:25 a.m.
Session 4: Emerging Technology

and Future Users
10:10 a.m.
Mixed Alcohols as an Oxygenate and

Fuel Extender
Peter Tijm, Chief Technology Ofcer, Standard
Alcohol Company of America, Inc.
10:35 a.m.
Case Study: Renery Integration

with Gasication
Dr. K.S. Balaraman, Chief Consultant,
Wissenschaftler Consulting Engineers
11:05 a.m.
Panel Discussion: Future Uses of GTL
12:30 p.m.
Lunch
Session 5: Catalysts
1:30 p.m.
Effect of Addition of Zeolite to Iron-Based

Activated-Carbon-Supported Catalyst for
FischerTropsch Synthesis in Separate Beds
and Mixed Beds
Avinash Karre, Jacobs Engineering
1:55 p.m.
The New CatFTTM Process

Dr. Thomas Holcombe, President & CEO,
EnviRes LLC
Lunch
Session 2: The Future of Non-FT

12:25 p.m.
CO2 and CO fermentation: A Route

from Waste to Fuels and Chemical
Building Blocks at Scale
Dr. Michael Schultz, Vice President,
Engineering, LanzaTech, Inc
12:50 p.m.
A New Era in GTL: Cost-Effective

Technology Enables Conversion of
Natural Gas to Drop-In Liquid Fuels
at Small Scale
Dr. George Boyajian, Primus Green Energy
Session 3: Whats New in Small-Scale GTL

2:10 p.m.
2:35 p.m.
3:05 p.m.
Microchannel Fischer-Tropsch Reactors:

Enabling Smaller Scale GTL
Jeff McDaniel, Commercial Director, Velocys
Case Study: GTL Technology
Development The Optimal Path
to Micro-GTL Commercialization
Ebrahim Salehi, Process Engineer, Hatch
Session 6: Modular Construction

Presentations TBD
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Conference Fees
Early Bird
(by June 25)
Regular
Admission
Single Attendee
$891
$990
Team of Two
$1,634
$1,815
Group of Five
$3,787
$4,208
Panel Discussion: Modular GTLs
GTLTechForum.com
Customer:
Challenge:
Result:
Renery, Louisiana, USA.

Increase reliable, on-site power generation
within the plants existing carbon footprint.
An Elliott 36 MW FCC hot gas expander-generator
converts renery waste gas to electrical power.
They turned to Elliott

for green, reliable power.
The customer turned to Elliott because of our 50 years of experience and nearly 500 MW
of installed capacity in FCC power recovery. Elliott TH expanders routinely operate 5 years
and more between shutdowns, extending FCC maintenance cycles and reducing
maintenance costs. Who will you turn to?
EBARA CORPORATION
C O M P R E S S O R S
T U R B I N E S
G L O B A L
S E R V I C E
The world turns to Elliott.

www.elliott-turbo.com
Editorial
Comment
STEPHANY ROMANOW, EDITOR

Stephany.Romanow@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
What separates the best-of-class companies

from the rest?
Many metrics can be used to define
the top-performing downstream companies. Often, it includes financial (profits)
results, environmental and safety performance, equipment availability and more.
However, organizational culture probably
has the most impact in determining a companys performance. Also, it is the most
difficult to change. Before a company can
change its performance, it must amend or
upgrade its organizational culture.
Managing people is the toughest
task. A recent UK health, safety and en-
vironment (HSE) research program identified the top five human-factor errors.
These factors, sourced from previous organizational accidents listed in HSE databases, are:
1. Managing people
2. Procedures
3. Training and competence
4. Staffing
5. Organizational changes.
As the downstream workforce undergoes a significant shift change when
experienced employees retire, the listed
human factors will have an even higher
impact on an organizations performance.
Staffing and training will carry heightened
concerns as employers plan for a smaller
workforce undertaking vital roles in the
operation of process units and the maintenance of equipment. More important,
what resources will be used to train and
certify plant operators and crafts? As fewer
younger people enter apprentice and craft
training programs, the pool of qualified
and competent employees shrinks.
Maintenance is a key priority for topperforming facilities. Achieving high
equipment availability is an organizations

ability to minimize the amount of annualized turnaround downtime. The less time
that key equipment or process units are
down for repair increases the uptime of
the facility. The worlds best downstream

companies minimize both the duration
and the cost during a turnaround by rigorously challenging all of the work done
and how that work is executed. By using
state-of-the-art techniques for inspection
and repair, they are able to achieve performance that significantly outpaces the rest
of the world.
The organizational culture on maintenance is evolving. Predictive maintenance
programs strive to monitor equipment
and to do planned shutdowns, thus shortening the total duration for repairs.
Training. Employees come to work with
skills, knowledge and experience, and
they are trained for plant tasks. However,
there are huge performance differences
among operators. Some are competent
and some not so much. The goal is to ensure that they all are truly competent, but
that may not always be the case.
Organizations cannot just wave a
magic wand and fix all problems. Without
standards or discipline, it can take years to
resolve the problem.
The fix. Human error is a normal func-
tion of humans; it is inevitable, but it may

be preventable, said Ian Nimmo, president & CEO, of the Center for Human
Factors and Ergonomics, LLC. Everyone
makes mistakes and has lapses in attention.
Accordingly, management systems and
tools should be used to reduce error rates.
Nimmo recommends that an organization invest in a gap analysis and prepare
strategic operational plans to identify a
comprehensive investment plan. The plan
will itemize a path to achieve total performance improvements in a prioritized way.
Human error introduces risk that must
be addressed. Only when the holes in the
protection system are sealed and performance is measured, then companies can
find profits.
INSIDE THIS ISSUE
49Viewpoint.
What defines
the worlds best refineries?
New process equipment and a higher
refinery complexity index do not
guarantee a place on the worlds best
refineries. Other metrics, such as return
on investment, energy efficiency,
net cash margins, maintenance
practices and more, separate leading
from laggard performance in the
global refining industry.
and
52Maintenance
reliability.
Operating
companies use maintenance programs
to protect their capital investments.
Since equipment failures can result
in expensive unit and plant shutdowns,
or environmental or safety incidents,
best-of-class companies maintain the
mindset that spending to improve
reliability and equipment conditioning
is a great benefit to the organization.
71Process design.
In this article, rigorous

models are used to simulate effective
depressurization procedures for
high-pressure vessels containing
hazardous gases and liquids.
Well-designed depressurized events
review changes in the vessels contents
(vapor and liquids) and the effects from
changing pressure and temperature on
these fluids. Extremes in temperature
and pressure impact material choices
to construct such vessels.
95Safety.
Hazard analysis is
a powerful and effective tool
to evaluate potentially hazardous plant
and process conditions. What are the
best methods to use when identifying
job hazards involving maintenance
and operational tasks? This article
reviews several proven methodologies
to consider when performing
process safety reviews.
Hydrocarbon Processing|MAY 20149
| News
EU-US Energy Council discusses
European energy security
The EU-US Energy Council met recently in Brussels, Belgium.
Following the gathering, the council issued a statement indicating
that developments in Ukraine prove the need for reinforced energy
security in Europe.
The Council underscored that energy relations with Russia must
be based on reciprocity, transparency, fairness, non-discrimination,
openness to competition and continued cooperation to ensure a
level playing field for the safe and secure supply of energy, the
statement said.
Another result of the meeting was that the Council affirmed its
support for Ukraines efforts to diversify its supplies of natural gas,
including through the rapid enhancement of reverse flow capacities
and increased gas storage capacity. The Council also issued
remarks supporting the restructuring and reform of Naftogaz.
BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR

Billy.Thinnes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
News
While US total net crude oil imports

fell during 2013, the share of imports
last year from the US top three foreign
oil suppliersCanada, Saudi Arabia
and Mexicowas the highest in at least
four decades, according to preliminary
annual trade data from the US Energy
Information Administrations (EIAs)
Petroleum Supply Monthly report (FIG. 1).
These three countries provided almost
three out of every five barrels of oil imported into the US market last year.
US net crude oil imports in 2013 declined 10.2% to 7.6 million barrels per
day (MMbpd), the lowest level since
1996, as rising domestic crude oil production cut into the import volume
needed to meet refinery demand.
The overall decline in US net imports
has led to an increasing concentration of
net imports from Canada, Saudi Arabia,
and Mexico. Combined net oil imports
from these countries decreased by 1.5%
last year. As a result, the 4.6 MMbpd of
oil supplied by these three countries accounted for 61% of total US net oil imports in 2013, up from 55% the year before and their biggest share since at least
1973. These countries generally produce
medium to heavy sour crude oil that is
desirable to US refineries, while increasing US crude oil production from tight
oil formations is typically of the light
sweet quality. Also, with the exception
of Saudi Arabia, these countries are near
the US, with Mexico having a short shipping distance for its oil to the large number of refineries along the US Gulf Coast.
Canada, Saudi Arabia and Mexico
have consistently been Americas three
largest crude oil suppliers, although their
rankings vary from year to year.
Canada. Crude oil imports averaged
a record 2.5 MMbpd, up 3.9% from
2012. Canada has few other outlets for
Albertas rising heavy crude oil production, so most of it is exported to the US.
Saudi Arabia. Crude oil imports

averaged 1.3 MMbpd, down 2.6%, but
still the second highest in five years.
Through its Motiva Enterprises joint
venture, the countrys state oil company
is a partial owner of three large US Gulf
Coast refineries that it partially supplies
with Saudi crude.
Mexico. Crude oil imports of 850,000
bpd were down 13% and the lowest in
more than 20 years, reflecting the continued decline in Mexicos crude oil production. Still, Mexico produces significant
amounts of heavy crude that is well-suited for US Gulf Coast oil refineries.
Oil spill contained

at S-Oil Korean refinery
S-Oils refinery in Ulsan, South Korea, suffered an oil spill from a storage
tank in early April. The spill was contained after three days, but not before
140,000 bbl of crude had leaked. To
mitigate further problems with the damaged storage tank, refinery officials relocated an additional 380,000 bbl of crude.
The spill started after a broken blending
mixer created a hole in the storage tank.
The refinery will conduct an investigation into the exact cause of the accident
in cooperation with the police and the

fire authorities of Ulsan.
Murphy Oils Wales

refinery facing closure
Murphy Oil has indicated it could be
forced to close its Milford Haven refinery in Wales, UK, after talks with a private equity firm collapsed. Murphys UK
subsidiary Murco said it had started 45
days of consultation with employees and
their representatives on the future of the
135,000 bpd refinery.
UK refining remains a challenging
market, caused in part by declining demand and increased international completion, Murco said in a statement. The
UK has seven oil refineries, down from a
peak of 18 in the 1970s.
Murphy Oil has negotiated with numerous parties but has not yet been able
to find a buyer for the refinery. Private
equity company Greybull had been in advanced stages of talks with Murco to buy
the plant and associated assets for around
$500 million, but exclusive talks between
the two entities have expired.
Our focus today is on helping our people understand what this means for them,
said Murcos Director Tom McKinlay.
12
US annual net crude imports 20032013, MMbpd
US crude imports fall,

but share of top suppliers
highest in decades
Other nations
Mexico
Saudi Arabia
Canada
10
8
6
4
2
0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Source: US EIA, February 2014 Petroleum Supply Monthy
FIG. 1. US annual net crude imports, 20032013.

News
For over three years, we have left no stone
unturned in trying to find a buyer for the
plant. Our efforts highlight the challenges
and ongoing changes confronting the European refining industry and are in no way
a reflection on the attitude and work ethic
of the Murco team. We will continue to
do all we can to ensure our employees are
supported during this time.
The plant employs 370 staff and between 100 and 150 contractors.
BP to close Bulwer Island

refinery in Australia
BP intends to halt refining operations
at its 102,000-bpd Bulwer Island refinery in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,
by mid-2015. Andy Holmes, president
of BP Australasia, said that the growth
of very large refineries in the Asia-Pacific
region was driving structural change
within the fuels supply chain in Australia
and putting huge commercial pressure

on smaller-scale plants.
Its against this background that we
have concluded that the best option for
strengthening BPs long-term supply position in the East Coast retail and commercial fuels markets is to purchase product from other refineries, he said. And
while more of our transport fuel demand
will be met by imports in the future,
ample supplies are available to maintain
Australias energy security.
To ensure no disruption to customers,
alternate supply arrangements have been
made. This includes imports of jet fuel
and a long-term agreement with Caltex
to supply motor spirit and diesel from the
nearby Lytton refinery.
It is expected that it will take some
12 months to implement the changes required to maintain supply and safely shut
down the process units.
Once processing has been halted, the
import jetty, aviation fuel tanks and associated pipelines will remain operational
while other storage tanks and pipelines
will be placed on a care and maintenance
basis pending a decision to convert the
site to a multi-product import terminal.
The processing units will be isolated
and made safe while plans for their eventual removal and any environmental remediation are developed.
BP currently employs some 380 staff
at the refinery. Between now and mid2015, this is expected to fall to around 25.
The Bulwer Island refinery was built
on reclaimed land by Amoco between
1964 and 1965 and was bought by BP in
1984. Over the years, it has been subject
to a number of modifications and improvements. In 2000, it was significantly
upgraded to produce low-sulfur fuels.
IChemE unveils
new process safety
alliance with Texas A&M
The Institution of Chemical Engineers
(IChemE) and Texas A&M Engineering
have signed an agreement paving the way
for a suite of new process safety products
and services. The memorandum of understanding (MOU) will see both organizations commit to collaboration in process
safety education and strategic leadership.
The Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station is home to the Mary Kay
OConnor Process Safety Center, which
12
INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR THE

HYDROCARBON PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Bilfingers engineering department constantly works to offer the best and innovative solutions to the Hydrocarbon Processing Industry:
JOHNSON SCREENS SHAPED SUPPORT GRID (SSG)
designed to be installed into the bottom head of hydroprocessing
or gas dehydration vessels, allowing better liquid and gas flow,
bed utilization, distribution and an overall more efficient process
than traditional flat surface grid assemblies. Patented design.
JOHNSON SCREENS INLET DIFFUSER BASKET

designed to control velocities of gas or liquid distribution over
media, providing improved performance over traditional plate disc
type distributor designs as well as even distribution and minimal
scouring at the top of the bed. Patented design.
BILFINGER WATER TECHNOLOGIES

www.water.bilfinger.com
Australia - Asia Pacific
Phone +61 7 3867 5555
Fax +61 7 3265 2768
asiapacific.water@bilfinger.com
France
Phone +33 5 4902 1600
Fax +33 5 49021616
france.water@bilfinger.com
North & South America

Phone +1 651 636 3900
Fax +1 651 638 3171
usa.water@bilfinger.com
News
houses one of the worlds biggest process
safety libraries and is regarded as a leader
in process safety education.
The MOU was signed at the American Institute of Chemical Engineers 2014
Spring Meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana,
by IChemE chief executive David Brown
and Sam Mannan, director of the Mary
Kay OConnor Process Safety Center.
This is good news for IChemE and
good news for Texas A&M, but, impor-
tantly, this is good news for chemical and

process engineers with an interest in process safety, Dr. Mannan said.
The collaborations projects and priorities will be announced at IChemEs
Hazards 24 process safety conference
next month in Scotland.
Texas A&M and IChemE are both
recognized as international leaders in
the provision of process safety products
and services, Mr. Brown said. This new
CHANGE IS THE ONLY CONSTANT

SmartPlant Enterprise for Owner Operators
MAKE YOUR ENGINEERING DESIGN BASIS WORK FOR YOU

Good asset information is fundamental to good asset performance. Your
operations and maintenance personnel need ready access to complete,
accurate and comprehensive asset information to sustain a safe and
efcient operating environment. But managing change is a challenge.
Multiple, concurrent changes with overlapping scopes are a fact of life.
SmartPlant Enterprise for Owner Operators lets you take control of your
engineering information across the entire asset life cycle with full traceability.
Increase wrench-time by eliminating painstaking information searches.
Increase productivity by avoiding plant walk downs for data validation.
And improve safety and regulatory compliance with better conguration
management.
Your facility changes every day. Its time your facility information assets did
too.
www.intergraph.com/go/spo
Intergraph Corporation. All rights reserved. Intergraph is part of Hexagon. Intergraph, the Intergraph logo, and SmartPlant
are registered trademarks of Intergraph Corp. or its subsidiaries in the United States and in other countries.
14
agreement will help us to share information more freely and cooperate on a

range of new projects.
Siemens and McAfee

team up to offer industrial
security services
Siemens and McAfee, a division of
Intel Security, are extending their partnership to enhance the security offerings for industrial customers to protect
against rapidly evolving global cyber
threats. This partnership utilizes the
depth of both companies security portfolios and further enhances the joint effort started in 2011.
Industrial customers face unique new
challenges including a wider range of cyber threats than ever before. They often
lack the resources necessary to respond
efficiently to security incidents, and they
do not have access to the global threat
intelligence that would allow proactive
defensive measures. This critical information is needed in order to keep up with
evolving government regulations, industry standards, sector-specific best practices, and other risk information necessary
for making informed business decisions.
The cooperation with McAfee will
complement Siemens service offerings
by leveraging security solutions such as
next-generation firewall, security information and event management, endpoint
security, and global threat intelligence as
part of its managed security service along
with offering professional services. These
offerings provide greater visibility and
control at the factory level while reducing
the risk of intellectual property theft.
In addition, the companies will continue to cooperate on the development of
security products and solutions, specifically based on industrial protocols, that
will enhance managed security service
offerings for the process and factory automation industry.
Air Products to supply

nitrogen for Singapore hub
to store petrochemicals
Air Products was awarded a contract
to supply liquid nitrogen to Singapores
Jurong Rock Caverns ( JRC) project, an
underground storage facility for petrochemical products. It is the first of its kind
in the country and across Southeast Asia.
INTRODUCING
INSPECT
MECHANICAL INTEGRITY
A N D F I T N E S S - F O R - S E RV I C E S O F T WA R E
INSPECT assists with the decision to run, repair or

replace your pressure vessels and heat exchangers.
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Remaining Life:
Next Inspection Date:
API 579 / ASME-FFS
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Codewares COMPRESS package is the leading pressure vessel and
heat exchanger design software.
.
.
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28.6 years
03/04/2019
PASS
PASS
News
JRC is being developed by the JTC
Corp., a government agency responsible
for industrial infrastructure development
in Singapore. Located on Jurong Island,
the JRC project will complement and
enhance the existing infrastructure and
support the growth of the chemicals and
energy clusters.
Air Products liquid nitrogen will be
used as a blanketing gas for the oil storage
caverns for safety purposes.
We are honored to have been selected by JTC to take part in and supply this
groundbreaking solution to oil storage
needs, said Leong Wah Fong, managing
director of Air Products Southeast Asia.
Singapores energy and chemical industry is a strategic market for us and we
have built a foundation to serve its needs
through diverse supply modes.
Air Products began serving petrochemical customers on Jurong Island in 1997
through an air separation plant located at
Sakra. To meet the increasing gas demand
in Singapores major chemical hub, the
company has recently announced a pipeline
extension from the area to the newly developed areas in Tembusu to expand coverage.
In addition to the air separation plant
on Jurong Island, the company also has a
fleet of road tankers delivering liquid products, a helium and specialty gas plant in
Senoko and an epoxy additives and a polyamide plant in Gul Crescent.
be aided by regulatory changesparticularly regarding potable water quality, diesel

engine emissions and pollution from electric utilitiessupporting sales of existing
filters and the development of new products. The improved outlook for manufacturing and capital investment will also support filter demand stemming from greater
purchases of equipment that require filters.
The motor vehicle market will continue to account for the largest portion of to-
tal demand, with a 27% share in 2018, owing to the high volume of filters sold both
as original equipment and in the aftermarket. Motor vehicle filter demand will be
supported by a rising number of vehicles
in use and increasingly strict standards for
vehicle emissions. Value growth will also
be supported by the introduction and
increasing adoption of newer products,
such as cabin air filters and other specialty
and high-value vehicle filters. Demand for
US demand for filters

to reach $14.8 billion
in 2018
US demand for filters will advance 3.6%
annually to $14.8 billion in 2018, with replacement demand accounting for the vast
majority of filter sales. This is according to
a report from The Freedonia Group.
The filter aftermarket will be aided
by the increasing penetration of newer
products, said report contributor David
Petina, particularly motor vehicle cabin
air filters, diesel emissions filters, and
many varieties of home air and water filters, as well as rising end-user awareness
of their recommended service lives.
The development of filters featuring
technologies that extend their service
life will have a mixed impact on demand,
boosting sales since they are priced at a
premium, but also restraining demand in
volume terms. Both the original equipment and replacement filter markets will
17
Maximize Reliability, Availability & Protability

with Ariel API 618 Process Compressors
With more than 19,000 possible frame and cylinder congurations
for API 618 process service, Ariel compressors can be designed and
built to maximize your unique process operation. Ariel has been
producing durable, low-maintenance reciprocating compressors
since 1966 and API 618 compressors since 1999. Ariel offers high
quality compressors that ensure long continuous run-times.
WORLD STANDARD COMPRESSORS
Visit www.arielcorp.com to nd an Ariel Process distributor in

your region.
To learn more about Ariel Compressors, please visit www.arielcorp.com

News
filters in the industrial and manufacturing, consumer, and utilities markets will
all witness above-average growth.
In 2013, fluid filters and internal combustion engine and related filters accounted for 37% and 35% of total filter sales,
respectively. However, air filters, which
represented the remaining 28% of sales in
2013, will achieve the fastest gains through
2018, benefiting from changes in pollution
regulations, improvements in manufacturing activity, rising consumer interest and
rebounding construction spending.
health, safety and environmental (HSE)

programs and initiatives.
Our employees are our most valued
asset and we are committed to their wellbeing, said Vincent Volpe, Dresser-Rands
CEO. Safety is a core, critical company
value. Our total recordable injury rate for
2013 was 0.38a great result and one of
which we are extremely proud.
The judges of the Gulf Coast Oil & Gas
Awards reviewed more than 400 entries
and selected 75 finalists. Dresser-Rand

was one of four finalists in the health and
safety category.
This recognition elevates our commitment to becoming an operationally
excellent company without injuries, said
Peter Salvatore, Dresser-Rands chief safety officer. Our ultimate goal is to eliminate workplace injuries through disciplined processes, execution and employee
empowerment and engagement.
US approves Jordan Cove

LNG exports in Oregon
The US Energy Department has conditionally authorized the Jordan Cove
Energy Project to export domestically produced LNG to countries that do not have a
free-trade agreement (FTA) with the US.
The exports will originate from the Jordan
Cove LNG terminal in Coos Bay, Oregon.
The Jordan Cove application was next
in the order of precedence after the Energy Department conditionally authorized
the proposed Cameron LNG facility, according to department officials. Subject
to environmental review and final regulatory approval, the facility is conditionally
authorized to export at a rate of up to the
equivalent of 0.8 Bcfd of natural gas, for a
period of 20 years.
US federal law generally requires approval of natural gas exports to countries
that have an FTA with the US. For countries that do not have an FTA with the
US, the Natural Gas Act directs the US
Department of Energy (DOE) to grant
export authorizations unless the DOE
finds that the proposed exports will not
be consistent with the public interest.
Given the situation in Ukraine, this
license sends a positive signal to our allies and to energy markets that the United
States is ready to join the growing global
gas trade, US Senator Lisa Murkowski
(R-Alaska) said. While this license
moves us in the right direction, I would be
strongly opposed to any pause for further
study, as some have proposed.
Dresser-Rand wins US
Gulf supplier safety award
MEG RECLAMATION,
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Dresser-Rand, a global supplier of

rotating equipment solutions, recently
won a Gulf Coast Oil & Gas Award for its
19
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GULF PUBLISHING EVENTS

Melissa.Smith@GulfPub.com
Forum
IRPC 2014: Defining the

course of the global HPI
Leading hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI) executives and technical experts will come together June 2426 in Verona, Italy, to share ideas, innovation and
vision for the global downstream industry
at Hydrocarbon Processings fifth annual
International Refining and Petrochemical
Conference (IRPC).
As major forces reshape the HPI, managers and engineers are actively seeking
information and solutions to make their
companies more efficient, to increase
equipment reliability and to meet safety
and environmental regulations. Many
downstream products are commodity
products and traded worldwide. To participate in the international downstream
markets, HPI companies will put into action innovative technologies and ideas to
improve the profitability and performance
of existing plants. Such developments will
be used to build grassroots plants.
Where innovation happens. IRPC
2014 will feature more than 70 technical

presentations by company leaders, managers, engineers and other professionals. In addition, the 2014 forum will use
three technical tracks to cover the broad
spectrum of HPI topics and disciplines.
The tracks are refining, petrochemicals
and biofuels.
The refining track will address the processing of heavy oil into clean transportation and marine fuels. Presentations will
address new processing technologies to
handle present-day crudes, and heavy and
extra-heavy feedstocks. The petrochemicals track will focus on olefins and aromatic operations and demand trends. The
biofuels track will feature next-generation
biofuels and the methods to integrate
them into transportation fuel systems.
Other technical sessions are dedicated
to energy efficiency, process optimization,
corrosion mitigation/prevention methods, petrochemical-refinery integration,
clean fuel technologies, advanced catalytic
technologies, licensed technologies for refining and petrochemicals, water management, process control, process modeling /
simulation, maintenance techniques and
planning and plant management.
The conference will feature several
keynote presentations. Giacomo Respoli,
Vice President of Research and Development Projects of Eni SpA, will discuss the
design of Enis biorefinery and the future
of the downstream. On Day 2, Bakheet
Al-Rashid, CEO and president of Kuwait
National Petroleum, will share his view
on the European refining industry and the
factors reshaping the region.
Forefront of the industry. The HPI is
a global industry; success hinges on companies and their staff finding accurate and
vital information in real time to make informed and profitable decisions. At IRPC
2014, HPI professionals will have the opportunity to network and brainstorm with
executive and leaders that are charting the
course of the global HPI.
Meeting place for the global HPI.
Companies involved in the following areas
will benefit from attending IRPC: refining, natural gas processing, technology
and equipment manufacturing, consult-
ing, construction and engineering, chemicals and petrochemicals, and oil and gas
services and supplies.
Enis Venice biorefinery tour. IRPC
2014 will begin with an exclusive tour of

Enis Venice biorefinery, the first refinery
in the world to convert from a conventional refining complex into a biofuel-production operation based on Enis patented
Ecofining technology.
Following the conversion, the Venice
biorefinery will be able to produce highgrade biofuels, including green diesel,
green naphtha, LPG and, potentially, jet
fuel, from biological raw materials to meet
the EU directive on renewable energy and
derive 10% of energy in conventional fuels from renewables by 2020. With the
startup of the green refinery, Eni will be
able to produce around 300,000 tpy of
green diesel in 2014. The feedstock will
initially be palm oil; in the second phase,
the green refinery will process animal fats,
used oil, oils from algae and other types of
biological waste.
For more information about the 2014
International Refining and Petrochemical
Conference, hosted by Gulf Publishing
Company and Hydrocarbon Processing,
please visit HPIRPC.com.
FIG. 1. A tour of Enis Venice biorefinery is a preconference event. This refinery is converting
from a conventional refining complex to biofuel production.
Assess your
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HPEditorial@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Industry Metrics
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
Feb 14
Jan 14
Dec 13
Nov 13
Oct 13
Sep 13
Aug 13
Jul 13
Jun 13
May 13
80
Mar 14
Jan 14
Dec 13
Nov 13
Oct 13
Sep 13
Mar 13
Aug 13
60
Production equals US marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.
Feb 14
US
EU 16
Japan
Singapore
70
Jul 13
1
0
Jun 13
90
May 13
F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F
2013
2014
2012
Apr 13
Monthly price (Henry Hub)

12-month price avg.
Production
100
Utilization rates, %
Global refining utilization rates, 20132014*

Gas prices, $/Mcf
Production, Bcfd
Apr 13
Mar 14
WTI, US Gulf
Dubai, Singapore
Arab Heavy, US Gulf
LLS, US Gulf
Brent, Rotterdam
Mar 13
US gas production (Bcfd) and prices ($/Mcf)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Global refining margins, 20132014*

Margins, US$/bbl
The OPEC Reference Basket for crudes fell $1.23 in March. Changes in
the crude oil markets are attributed to a slowdown in Chinas economy
and reduced crude oil demand by refineries. Non-OPEC supply growth is
expected to outpace global consumption growth and stabilize oil prices.
North America leads in new production stemming from shale oil in the
US and growth in the Canadian oil sands. Global product markets are
expected to receive support from increased diesel and gasoline demand
by OECD nations.
Selected world oil prices, $/bbl

135
US Gulf cracking spread vs. WTI, 20132014*
World liquids fuels supply and demand, MMbpd
01 Nov
08 Nov
15 Nov
22 Nov
29 Nov
06 Dec
13 Dec
20 Dec
27 Dec
03 Jan
10 Jan
17 Jan
24 Jan
31 Jan
07 Feb
14 Feb
21 Feb
28 Feb
07 Mar
14 Mar
21 Mar
28 Mar
04 Apr
Apr 14
Mar 14
Feb 14
Jan 14
Dec 13
Nov 13
Oct 13
Sep 13
Aug 13
Jul 13
Jun 13
Apr 14
Mar 14
Feb 14
Jan 14
Dec 13
Nov 13
Oct 13
Sep 13
Apr 14
Mar 14
Feb 14
Gasoil, 50 ppm S
Fuel oil, 180 CST, 2% S
Jan 14
Prem. gasoline unl. 92

Jet/kero
Dec 13
0
-2
Cracking spread, US$/bbl
-10
-20
Nov 13
10
Oct 13
Dubai
Urals
20
Sep 13
Light sweet/medium sour

crude spread, US$/bbl
Singapore cracking spread vs. Brent, 20132014*

30
Mar 13
Brent dated vs. sour crudes

(Urals and Dubai) spread, 20132014*
Aug 13
2015-Q1
Gasoil, 10 ppm S
Fuel oil, 1% S
Aug 13
2014-Q1
Jul 13
2013-Q1
Source: EIA Short-Term Energy Outlook, April 2014.
Jul 13
2012-Q1
Prem. gasoline unl., 50 ppm S

Jet/kero
Jun 13
2011-Q1
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
Jun 13
2010-Q1
Rotterdam cracking spread vs. Dubai, 20132014*
Mar 13
Forecast
Stock change and balance

World consumption
World production
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
Stock change and balance, MMbpd
Supply and demand, MMbpd
96
94
92
90
88
86
84
82
80
78
2009-Q1
May 13
A S O N D J F
2014
May 13
F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J
2012
2013
May 13
Source: DOE
Apr 13
45
Apr 13
W. Texas Inter.
Brent Blend
Dubai Fateh
Apr 13
90
60
Prem. gasoline unl. 93

Jet/kero
Gasoil/diesel, 0.05% S
Fuel oil, 1% S
Mar 13
Oil prices, $/bbl
105
75
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
120
* Material published permission of the OPEC Secretariat; copyright 2014;

all rights reserved; OPEC Monthly Oil Market Report, April 2014.
All paths
lead to
Lewis Pumps
Lewis pumps are the world standard for

pumps and valves in the sulphur chemicals
industry. Offering a family of steam-jacketed
sulphur pumps, outstanding reliability in hightemperature sulphuric acid, and new designs for
molten salt energy transfer, Lewis continues its
long tradition of superior products and services.
Standard replacement parts are always available.
Emergency service or parts to any major airport
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application, when you need a superior product
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Expertise where it counts.SM

Reliability
HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR

Heinz.Bloch@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Make equipment decisions with up-to-date

technical information
Answering lube practice-related questions is important.
These questions provide insight on the status of education and
technology, along with trends in understanding equipment reliability, safety and more. Hopefully, these trends are moving forward; however, they sometimes stagnate or even regress.
Several professionals dealing with machinery in petrochemical plants and oil refineries have mentioned that their meantime-between-failures (MTBF) on process pumps are no longer
as favorable as they were two decades ago. Interestingly, such
negative trends can be attributed to tightening specifications
without reviewing the end effects.
some ambient air space are located between the pumpage and
the bearings, as illustrated in FIG. 3. Therefore, most of the heat is
radiated to the surrounding air. Also, barrier seals often assist in
further heat removal.
Differences in heat removal. There is obviously a signifi-
cant heat loss along the shaft between the pumpage in the pump
casing and the lightly loaded and thinly oil-coated radial bearing in the bearing housings of API process pumps. Additional
heat will be lost while moving from the radial bearing to the
more highly loaded thrust bearing set. Long-term bearing housing temperatures on liquid oil-lubricated pump bearings have
Oil-mist and high-pumping temperatures. Recently, the man-
ager from a prominent oil-mist-system supplier made this point:

I have had numerous questions lately about hot services and
how we (the company) size oil-mist nozzles (or reclassifiers, as
shown in FIG. 1) for temperatures of the pumpage. We never really considered temperature before, and the limits imposed seem
to be getting lower. Two refineries, among the worlds six largest, set specifications limiting oil-mist temperatures to 450F.
At present, I even have one specification that indicates a 300F
limit. Many specifications call for heavy-service-factor reclassifiers on pumps in hot service. But what is the basis for such
restrictions? Was the pumping temperature ever a concern
with the highly successful oil-mist systems at your best-of-class
(BOC) employer 20 or 30 years ago?
Answer. The answers can be found in many texts; they are not
secrets. Since the 1960s and on numerous occasions, pure oil mist
has been applied with great success to all types of API pumps, as
shown in FIG. 2. These applications include dozens of pipe-stillbottoms pumps with fluid temperatures of 740F (393C) in
some of the worlds largest oil refineries.
As in a number of other services, oil-mist lubrication has been
outstandingly successful, and BOC oil refineries are pleased with
pure oil mist. Regrettably, below-average performers seem to be
held back by personnel with little ability to analyze why they
have problems and their competitors do not. For example, they
have no knowledge of optimum reclassifier location, effects of inadvertently bypassing the oil mist around certain bearings, lubricant type best suited for critically important hot-service pumps,
etc. Some would rather voice opinions than search for facts.
To assist people with older (outdated) information on pumps
and lubrication systems, a field trip to review later-model API610 style pumps is a viable solution. They could visit the pumps
either in the field or on one of the numerous pump manufacturers websites. With a first-hand view, the person with the question may realize that a high-temperature mechanical seal and
FIG. 1. Cut-away of an oil-mist reclassifier. Oil mist enters from the left;
as the bore diameter becomes smaller, its velocity increases. The small
oil-mist globules combine into heavier globules, which then coat
the bearings rolling elements.
FIG. 2. Oil-mist lubrication applied to a pump bearing housing in

accordance with API-610, 12th Ed. Note: Dual mist-injection points
and use of face-type bearing protector seals prevent the mist
from escaping to the atmosphere.2
Reliability
never exceeded 240F (116C) in pumps at major oil refineries. Operation at these temperatures would require installing a
FIG. 3. API-style pump with Flush Plan 53Cpressurized and cooled

barrier fluid circulation in the outboard seal of a dual-seal configuration.
A tapered pumping ring maintains circulation while running. The pressure
is maintained and fluctuations are compensated in the seal circuit by a
piston-type accumulator, upper right. Note the distance from pumpage
to bearing housing and the advanced-style bearing housing protector
seal. Source: AESSEAL Inc., Rotherham, UK, and Rockford, Tennessee.
personnel protection shield on bearing housings. In the 1970s,

ISO VG100 mineral oil-based lubricants were used in many of
the open-oil-mist systems. Pure oil-mist-lubricated pumps use
neither oil rings (slinger rings) nor constant level lubricators.
Today, one either uses a specially formulated, moderately
priced mineral oil/synthetic oil mixture or a more expensive,
pure synthetic ISO VG68 in pure oil-mist systems. These serve
pumps with fluid temperatures from 600F to 740F. With ISO
VG 68 diester-based synthetic lubes, bearing housing temperatures have yet to exceed 190F (88C), and, with pure oil-mist
bearing, cooling is no longer needed.1, 2
For the past 40 years, the reclassifier selection has never been
influenced by pumping temperatures in API-style pumps. This
temperature rating does not enter the picture, especially when
applying oil mist per modern API-610 standards. The oil mist
must flow from the space nearest the bearing housing protector seal to the center of the bearing housing, as shown in FIG. 2.
Through-flow mode, incidentally, was routinely done at BOC
plants after 1977.
As an aside, if occasional risk takers were to use a closecoupled non-API pump for a 740F hydrocarbon service, they
would be making a totally unacceptable choice. In that instance,
changing the system would become a priority task.
Consider changing the system. It has been said that one
cannot change the safety and reliability culture without first
changing the system. Of course, the system is the organization.
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Reliability
If we allow specifications to be written or amended by people
who are not informed on new developments and standards,
then the company or employer will soon lag behind others.
Without detailed lubrication knowledge, an employer will lose
more ground to the competition. Of course, a specification update will sometimes make sense and provide benefits for safety
and reliability. Yet, when an unduly tight specification is issued,
then the exact opposite may result.
Vision. When working or purchasing rotating equipment, consider the whole picture and always make informed choices. Not
allowing oil mist to be applied in pumping services over 300F
raises the question: What lube application method will these
user-specifiers choose for the 600F and 740F pumps? Other
than well-proven oil mist, only liquid oil sprayed directly into a
rolling element bearings cages is a suitable option for the reliability-focused engineer. Returning to wet sumps with tricky oil
rings and constant-level lubricators is very maintenance-intensive. An even worse choice is reverting to grease-filled singlepoint automatic lubricators for motors.1 Premium-grade motor
greases separate into soap and oil when pressurized. Lesserquality greases, while not separating as readily under pressure,
will not provide superior protection. Only plantwide oil mist
answers all of these concerns.
As of 2013, well over 130,000 process pumps are successfully lubricated by plantwide oil-mist systems. Also, 26,000
electric motors use oil mist on their bearings, and some of these
have been using oil mist for 35 years without ever replacing or
changing a bearing. Based on decades of successful installations,
applying pure oil-mist systems on electric motor drivers makes
sense and can yield rapid payback.
Nudging some user-specifiers to reliability-focused choices
should be a priority. Perhaps some could be persuaded to attend
a simple vendor-arranged update on plantwide oil-mist systems. Oil mist is highly successful for lubricating electric motors
in the 15 hp500 hp range. Of course, there is no diplomatic
way to remind an indifferent purchaser that making informed
choices is better than selecting equipment based on old anecdotes. By not including electric motor lubrication and standby/
storage protection in cost-justification studies, the uninformed
have locked entire plants into a cycle of avoidable expenditures.
Their BOC competitors have captured the lead by making wise
choices decades ago.
LITERATURE CITED
Bloch, H. P. and A. R. Budris, Pump Users Handbook: Life Extension, 4th Ed., 2013,
The Fairmont Press, Inc., Lilburn, Georgia, p. 296.
2
Bloch, H. P., Pump Wisdom: Problem Solving for Operators and Specialists, John
Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.
1
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides in Westminster, Colorado. His

professional career commenced in 1962 and included
long-term assignments as Exxon Chemicals regional
machinery specialist for the US. He has authored over
580 publications, among them 18 comprehensive
books on practical machinery management, failure
analysis, failure avoidance, compressors, steam
turbines, pumps, oil-mist lubrication and practical
lubrication for industry. Mr. Bloch holds BS and MS
degrees in mechanical engineering. He is an ASME Life
Fellow and maintains registration as a Professional
Engineer in New Jersey and Texas.
28
Automation
Strategies
DICK HILL
Vice President, ARC Advisory Group
The automation challenge requires new approaches

It might be human nature to feel that the professional challenges that we face every day are unique. However, while business and production objectives may vary greatly from company to company and from industrial sector to industrial sector,
nearly everyone needs to move projects from plans to startup
as quickly as possible. The task must be completed using as
few resources, especially as little capital, as possible. This task
must be accomplished without missteps that require rework
or cause delays. All industrial companies must manage their
production assets and associated automation assets effectively
over the entire asset lifecycle.
One session at the 2014 ARC Advisory Group Industry
Forum focused on the automation side of this equation. Senior automation specialists from the oil and gas (O&G) and
other industries shared their challenges, along with some
recommended solutions for automation suppliers and users,
with the session participants. While the production processes
were very different, the automation-related challenges were
amazingly similar.
New approaches needed. Automation technology suppli-
ers have come a long way over the last several decades. But
technology alone is not sufficient to address the multiple
challenges that todays industrial organizations face. These
challenges span both the project design/construction/commissioning phase for a new industrial facility, and the much
longer operations and maintenance phase, in which ongoing
improvements over the lifecycle of the facilities can play such
a critical part in the business success. In many industrial facilities, this lifecycle can span decades. While it may just represent a small fraction of the total project cost, automation plays
a key role in operations and maintenance.
During the capital project phase, the challenge for the
automation team is often simply to keep their needs off the
critical path, without compromising the end results at startup and commissioning.
During the much longer operations and maintenance
phase of the industrial assets lifecycle (which could be up
to 20 years or more), the automation team must be able to
modify, update and improve the automation assets on almost
a continuous basis, and, do so at minimum cost, with minimum production interruptions, often with shrinking internal
resources. This requires technology users and suppliers alike
to apply whole new approaches.
It (automation) just happens. In his Forum presentation,
Sandy Vassar, facilities I&E manager for ExxonMobil Development Co., used the phrase it just happens to indicate his
teams goal for the automation portion in each of the more
than 100 O&G projects now in various stages of planning and

execution at the company.
This is meant to convey the fact that it is too costly and difficult to manage complex automation projects using the same
approaches as in the past. Mr. Vasser called upon both his own
resources and those of his technology suppliers to step way
back and look at whole new ways of doing things. According
to Mr. Vasser, By default, projects are sequential in nature
and things are never ready at factory acceptance testing. He
believes the industry needs lean project execution that separates the physical system from the software. Toward this end,
the technology suppliers have to think differently and deliver
technology in a way that allows the team to eliminate, simplify
and/or automate steps in the overall execution of automation.
Mr. Vasser listed several challenges, with the top four being:
1. Eliminate, simplify and/or automate steps in the total
execution of automation
2. Minimize customer engineering and reduce the total
amount of engineering
3. Shift the custom engineering to the software and rely
on standard hardware components; progress hardware
fabrication independent of software and design
4. Virtualize the hardware and prove the software design
against the virtualized system.
As an example, Mr. Vasser highlighted how thinking about I/O
differently led to smart configurable I/O. This new technology allows the project team to continue the design and engineering well
past the traditional point where decisions get cast in concrete. He
also discussed using virtualization to reduce dependence on design and remove functional design deficiencies. By virtualizing
hardware, were also less susceptible to technology churn.
The challenge. Mr. Vasser threw out a challenge to the tech-
nology suppliers in the audience to partner with technology users to come up with new and innovative solutions to the technology challenge. At the end of the presentation, he stated, We
want our (automation) guys to become the unknown engineers,
because it just happens.
DICK HILL is vice president of ARC Advisory Group in
Dedham, Massachusetts, and is responsible for
developing the strategic direction for ARC products,
services and geographical expansion. He is responsible
for covering advanced software business worldwide.
Mr. Hill has over 30 years of experience in
manufacturing and automation. He has broad
international experience with The Foxboro Co. Mr. Hill
previously worked as a senior process control engineer
with BP Oil and as the US general manager of Walsh
Automation. He is a graduate of Lowell Technological
Institute, with a BS degree in chemical engineering.
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Project
Management
JOS CORRALES-PREZ
Project Director, Tecnicas Reunidas, Madrid, Spain
Better strategies avoid project delaysPart 2

How can project managers avoid project schedule overruns?
Part 1 discussed how to analyze the root causes for project delays.
In Part 2, strategies to overcome project delays will be explored.
Critical information management method. It is a methodology to overcome the fundamental causes for delays. It can reduce the project duration and avoid unexpected overruns. Critical information management (CIM) stresses the importance of
information flow, concentrating on the most critical items. Since
advice is quickly forgotten, this method focuses on changing
work procedures, because they have a long-term effect.
Redesigning the project scheduling process. To achieve
drastic improvements in project planning, it is necessary to involve
the project manager in the preparation of the initial schedule. The
scheduling specialists knowledge should not be ignored; however, combining this expertise with the experience and creativity
of the project manager and other key project members with the
scheduling specialist may yield a more robust project plan.
To engage project managers in the process, reengineering of
the scheduling process is needed because the present PERT network preparation can be intimidating. A simple and user-friendly
scheduling environment is necessary. It must enable overloaded
managers to easily understand the project activity network and
to effortlessly reflect on using their ideas and experience.
The first step is a lower-level breakdown to reduce the PERT
size to 100200 activities, but more action is needed, as the
charts produced by PERT software tools are not sufficiently user
friendly for this purpose. To develop a user-friendly planning
environment, discipline maps must be developed. As shown
in FIG. 1, a discipline map is a graphical network illustrating the
main activities for each discipline and the precedence relations
connecting them. The maps must be readable, including those
who are not familiar with PERT and easy to understand while
facilitating changes and improvements. As shown in FIG. 2, the
complete procedure is:
The scheduling specialist prepares a map for each of the
discipline or departments (construction, mechanical, civil,
piping, etc.)
Each discipline map is thoroughly analyzed with the disciple involved and key project members. The objective is
to visualize the potential problems and to propose practical and creative solutions.
After analyzing the individual discipline maps, it is necessary to concentrate on precedence relations linking activities from different disciplines. For instance, bypass sizes
cannot be shown on PIDs (a process or piping discipline) if
the control valves (an instrument discipline) have not been
sized. These relations need special attention from project
management, because their impact is not often sufficiently

understood by involved disciplines.
Once the map analysis is complete, the scheduling specialist can use the maps to produce the PERT schedule, with
whatever level of breakdown is necessary.
Construction-driven plans. If you ask any project manager if
the initial plan is construction driven, the answer will be yes,

but only because the project managers are skilled in politically
correct replies.
To be construction driven, the plan has to contemplate the
dates on which construction will need drawings, equipment and
materials. These dates cannot be established without a reliable
construction schedule. Therefore, experienced construction
staff must be involved in the preparation of the construction
map. Additionally, the construction strategy admits numerous
alternative solutions (one or several subcontractors, prefabrication vs. site construction, modular vs. stack construction, etc.)
and provides many opportunities for time and cost savings. Consequently, the construction map deserves more attention.
Project success begins with construction-driven planning of
engineering and procurement activities. Many construction failures are due to late arrivals of drawings and materials, especially
piping materials.
List of Single line and
consumers load balance
2m
2m
Equipment
list
Power
distribution dwgs
4m
Plot plan
MV and MCC
design and requ.
2m
Short circuit
2w
Transformer
requisition
Prelim.
cable list and sizing
2m
Tray layout
1.5 m
Tray levels
1.5 m
Trench layout
3m
Soil resistivity
Soil report
H. area classication
Cable
requisition
1.5 m
Grounding and
lightning
2m
Key
m = months
w = weeks
FIG. 1. Fragments of an electrical discipline map.
Best practice
discipline
maps
Review maps
with each
discipline
Review maps
with project
management
Review interdiscipline
precedence
relations
with project
management
Prepare
PERT
network
FIG. 2. Procedure for initial project schedule.

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Project Management
Activity duration and safety buffers. Eliyahu Goldratts
theory of constraints, published in his best seller The Goal: A
Process of Ongoing Improvement, has helped hundreds of factories around the world to achieve dramatic improvements
in delivery times. In his second book, Critical Chain, he extended the same theory to project planning and developed
a new method, which many believe to be the main contribution to project management since the introduction of PERT.
Goldratts method predicts total project duration better than
PERT when resources are limited.
The critical chain method arises from the fabrication environment. The main application has been in projects closely
related to fabrication. Process plant projects are different, and
thus this method needs some tuning. Goldratt says that planned
durations are extremely conservative, but they will not be met
due to the combined effect of the student syndrome and Parkinsons law, as mentioned in Part 1. He recommends to reduce all activity durations by 50% and to introduce, later in the
schedule, a safety time buffer. In the case of process plant projects, a 50% reduction is too much, at least for the first project.
However, a 25% reduction is possible for most engineering and
procurement activities. Construction activities should also be
compressed, but only by 10%.
Duration of equipment and material deliveries is usually estimated from previous projects; it should not be shortened because it is controlled by other factors. Piping deliveries deserve
special attention. Generally, they are part of the critical path and
have a very high impact on construction. The duration should

not be decided without a detailed analysis of recent projects and
present market conditions.
Part of the time gained by these cuts must be accumulated
into one or several safety-buffer activities. In the case of construction activities, the full-time cut must go directly into the
safety buffer. The simplest solution for safety buffers is to have
only one, located at the end of the project. But, in practice, the
location of buffer activities needs careful consideration, including contractual liabilities. For instance, if piping delivery to the
prefabrication yard is scheduled without any safety buffer, it
may later cause substantial prefabricator claims in case of delays.
Safety buffers are the only sensible way to cope with unexpected problems such as extreme weather, accidents or human
errors. During project development, the duration of buffer activities may be reduced to absorb delays in the critical path. The
remaining buffer durations must be carefully watched, because
they are an indication of the schedules health.
Management of critical vendor information. Several years
ago, everyone hoped that 3D CAD systems would reduce piping design and, therefore, total project duration. Many still
wonder why it did not happen. The main reason is that piping
design and vendor information are so intermingled, that cutting only one of them is not enough. Without vendor information, piping design cannot be completed, and isometrics cannot be issued for fabrication.
Project Management
Vendor information is an input for civil design and piping
design, sometimes for the procurement of other downstream
equipment. Therefore, it is crucial for both project duration and
design efficiency. The time required to obtain vendor information may be broken into two periods: placing the purchase order (PO) and waiting for the vendor to prepare the information.
Every project manager knows that early procurement is necessary for timely projects; it guarantees early arrival of vendor
information and timely delivery of long-lead equipment. A recurring problem that delays POs is the time taken to negotiate
price and delivery conditions with vendors. Too frequently,
award decisions are deferred waiting for small discounts; meanwhile, this delays the arrival of much needed information.
After the PO, the time required by the vendor to send approved drawings may take from one to five months for each
piece of equipment, and more for the total project. However,
this period can be reduced if the request is redefined.
Example: Ordering an overhung centrifugal pump. The
perfectionist will request a complete set of certified vendor
drawings. This step can easily require three months because
the fabricator may have to wait for the details of a junction
box supplied by another vendor. A complete set of drawings
is not required. The only details needed to proceed with the
design are:
Civil design requires the footprint with dimensions.
Piping design needs the exact location of inlet
and outlet flanges.
The perfectionist will say, Not enough. The civil designer

needs pump weight, the stress analyst needs allowable piping
loads on flanges, and the electrical engineer needs the exact
cable gland location. But this is just typical procrastination.
The weight is meaningless; API 610 specifies flange allowable
loads, and the electrical engineer can wait.
Instead of a complete set of certified vendor drawings, we
can ask the vendor to make first information delivery with exactly the minimum data needed, and to share the purpose and
criticality of the data. Result: The waiting times will be dramatically reduced. It is also necessary to consider the criticality of
vendor information when preparing the requisition for inquiry.
For instance, specifying unusual base plates or uncommon motor brands can increase the time in receiving vendor information.
Next monthPart 3. The author lists the key ways to improve
construction at the site.
Like musicians set the tone,

HOERBIGER sets standards for
compressors and gas engines.
We make Technology work.
www.hoerbiger.com
JOS CORRALES-PREZ has over 30 years of

experience as a project manager in the oil and gas and
chemical industries. He has worked for Brown & Root,
Foster Wheeler, Initec and other international EPC
contractors. At present, he is the project director with
Tecnicas Reunidas for a $3.5 billion refinery project in
Talara, Peru. Mr. Prez has authored over 20 technical
papers and two management books. He holds BS and
MS degrees in mechanical engineering, a BA degree
in economics, and an MBA degree.
Engineering & Design

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AVEVAs solution allows key disciplines to take part in the evolution
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or cross-organisation design collaboration. A unique Compare &
Update capability enables each discipline to review the evolving
information from the other disciplines and to make corresponding
changes in its own work in a exible, controlled and efcient
manner. All of this integration is out of the box, resulting in increased
productivity with exible collaborative working across projects of any
size or complexity.
AVEVAs Integrated Engineering & Design solution

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Construction vision.
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and design costs by offering complementary
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disciplines and across teams, simplifying the process
and improving project scheduling and quality.
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HAL FOSTER
Guest Columnist
Russian executives to build countrys

first waste oil refinery
Andrei Yermolaev, founding partner and general director of
the Kirishi-2 oil refinery in Russia, remembers watching a refinery rise 150 km southeast of St. Petersburg, Russia, when he
was a boy in the 1960s. He did not just watch it, however; he
experienced it, smelling the grime and dust on the clothes of his
construction-worker mother and his truck-driver father as they
helped build the Kirishi refinery.
Fifty years later, life has come full circle for Mr. Yermolaev,
a career oil man and former deputy of the Leningrad Regional
Assembly. He and Giorgi Ramzaitsev (FIG. 1), owner of CHEKSU.VK, Russias largest felloalloy and manganese ore processing
company, are spearheading an effort to build a second refinery
in Kirishi. It will be more ecologically efficient than the original
plant, and it will refine waste oil, along with crude oil.
The immediate task for the project is finding investors. The
4-million-tons-per-year (MMtpy) Kirishi-2 refinery is anticipated to cost $3.14 billion (B) to construct. Plans call for the refinery
to be expanded to a capacity of 12 MMtpy at a later date, at an
additional cost of $5 B$7 B. The owners are seeking partners
in both Russia and abroad. The Kirishi-2 refinery is expected to
increase the areas economic base and create 1,000 jobs.
Mr. Yermolaevs involvement in the Kirishi refinery project,
and more generally the Russian oil business, grew out of a series of
lucky breaks rooted in his practice of martial arts. While pursuing
a law degree at St. Petersburg State University, he served as a combat instructor for the police and the military. The center where Mr.
Yermolaev instructed military recruits was lacking in government
funding, so he asked Kirishis state-owned oil refinery for help.
Adolf Smirnov, general director of the refinerys distribution
arm, Kirishineftehimexport, was impressed with Mr. Yermolaevs determination and resourcefulness. Three years later, Mr.
Smirnov asked Mr. Yermolaev to join the Kirishi refinery business
as assistant to the general director.
In his new job, Mr. Yermolaev also met Mr. Ramzaitsev, who
would become his business partner. At the time, Mr. Ramzaitsev
was running the oil company Urals Moscow, which had a close
relationship with the Kirishi refinery. Upon Mr. Smirnovs recommendation, Mr. Yermolaev became the head of Urals Moscows
new representative office in Kirishi in 1993.
The early 1990s were a chaotic time in Russia as a market
economy took shape. Former state-owned corporations were
split into pieces, consolidated or bankrupted at a rapid pace. New
FIG. 1. Andrei Yermolaev (left) and Giorgi Ramzaitsev (right) have

formed a partnership to build the Kirishi-2 refinery, which will be the only
refinery in Russia to process waste oil into high-quality refined products.
Kirishi-2 refinery primary ecological advantages:

A dramatic reduction in emissions will result from the
combustion of petroleum products by the end user.
The refinery complex will showcase new, ecologically
efficient technologies and accrue greater attention for
the environment among oil production companies.
NOx emissions will largely decrease as a result of the
denitrification and decomposition of the raw ammonia
to obtain a final product with a low N2 content.
The reduction of NOx emissions at the refinery through
the use of clean fuels in furnaces with direct heating,
and burners with a reduced NOx level in all furnaces,
will contribute to significantly reducing emissions.
All refinery wastewater will be collected and cleaned

onsite.
Oily water will be gathered and sent to a pool corresponding with American Petroleum Institute standards to extract hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons obtained in this process will be returned and mixed with
crude oil. De-oiled wastewater will be sent for biological treatment.
The primary source of solid waste is the spent catalyst,
which is exchangeable at the end of its lifecycle. Many
catalysts can be returned to the manufacturer for regeneration or sent for metals extraction.
Global
businesses were formed. Many of those went bankrupt as well.
As was the pattern elsewhere in the regions, a handful of
companies came to dominate the business world in the Kirishi area. They included Urals Moscow; Kirishinefteorgsintez,
the company that ran the refinery; Kirishineftehimexport; and
Help-Moscow, a distribution firm. Surgutneftegas later bought
the Kirishi refinery.
However, even dominant companies ran into problems. Urals
Moscow began slipping in the late 1990s, and eventually was dissolved. Mr. Ramzaitsev formed Urals Energy Public Co. Ltd. in
the early 2000s to capitalize on some of Urals Moscows former
business, and Mr. Yermolaev quickly joined him.
The catalyst for the Kirishi-2 refinery was the Russian governments decree in the early 2000s that all oil companies, including Urals Energy Public, needed their own refineries. The
order was aimed at resolving a refinery shortage in the country.
Urals Energy Public began working on the refinery in 2006.
During the global economic downturn of 20082010, Mr.
Ramzaitsev was forced to sell Urals Energy Public. However, he
and Mr. Yermolaev remained committed to Kirishi-2, forming a
partnership to make it become a reality. The partnership has acquired most of the land that will be needed, along with a 13-km
rail spur from the refinery to a main rail line. The rail link, an
expensive but strategic purchase, will allow the refinery to transport its refined products to St. Petersburg for shipment overseas.
The refinery will also help satisfy domestic supply, which is
presently lacking in northern Russia. The Northwestern Federal
District is forced to import a substantial volume of crude oil and

oil products from other geographic areas of the country, due to a
lack of production in the region (TABLE 1).
The permitting process can take time in Russia, so it was not
until 2013 that the partnership obtained a green light from the
government for the refinery. The partnership is now ramping up
its effort to turn a dream into a reality, starting with financing. It
has signed an agreement with the Ufa Design Institute to design
the refinery, and it has received positive feedback from top oil
executives on the viability of the project.
One reason the project has already attracted investor interest
is that it will be breaking new ground in Russia. Kirishi-2 will be
the only complex to convert heavy heating oil and slag oil into
gasoline and other refined products. The industry considers
heavy heating oil and slag oil, which are byproducts of refining,
to be waste. However, the refinerys ability to convert them into
high-end refined products means that other refiners will be able
to dispose of their unwanted byproducts for refining at Kirishi-2.
Mr. Yermolaev touts the Kirishi-2 project as a model for new
refinery projects in Russia. It will also help his hometown of Kirishi, where he watched his parents pour their hearts into creating
opportunity for their fellow citizens more than 50 years ago.
TABLE 1. Oil product supply and demand balance
in the Northwestern Federal District, 2010
Gasoline,
thousand tons
per year (Mtpy)
Diesel,
Mtpy
Residual oil,
Mtpy
432.3
1,064.2
1,162.6
Kirishinefteorgsintez
2,387.8
5,129.2
7,159.4
Total
2,820.1
6,193.4
8,322
187
457
1,185
252.7
242.8
1.4
Production by company
Lukoil
Ukhtaneftepererabotka
Demand by region
Arkhangelsk
Vologda
Kaliningrad
175.5
231.6
122.2
Leningrad
1,900.9
1,841.3
2,089.5
Murmansk
151.9
234.8
1,268.5
Novgorod
117.2
152
11.3
170
246.8
15
106.4
119.4
256.8
Pskov
Republic of Karelia
Komi Republic
152.2
586
183
Total
3,213.8
4,111.7
5,132.7
Discrepancy between
production and
consumption volumes
393.7
2,081.7
3,189.3
Source: InfoTEK, 2011
HAL FOSTER is a journalist and journalism professor. He was a writer, editor and
manager at San Francisco Chronicle, Los Angeles Times, Omaha World-Herald,
Portland Oregonian and Seattle Post-Intelligencer. He was also a journalist in
Japan for nine years. After obtaining a PhD in journalism and mass communication
at the University of North Carolina in 1988, Dr. Foster taught at Sam Houston State
University in Texas; Auburn University in Alabama; the University of Alaska;
and the Kazakhstan Institute of Management, Economics and Strategic Research.
He was a Fulbright professor of journalism in Odessa and Lviv, Ukraine.
Additionally, Dr. Foster has taught seminars in media management, business
journalism and other topics in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, and he has done onsite
consulting for independent newspapers in Ukraine, Bosnia and Poland.
38
Petrochemicals
TISON KEEL JR.

Director, Ethylene Oxide and Derivatives, IHS Chemical
Ammonia production booms on cheap natural gas

Thanks to the availability of a steady supply of affordable
natural gas as a feedstock, the ammonia and fertilizer industries in North America are experiencing a renaissance that has
not been witnessed in decades. During the past five years, demand for ammonia grew at an annual average rate of almost
2.5% from 153 million metric tons (MMt) in 2009 to more
than 170 MMt in 2013.
Demand surges. This is welcome news for both the petro-
chemical and agricultural industries, since more than 80% of

ammonia is used in fertilizer and agricultural products essential to expanding food crop production. According to a new
report, the IHS Chemical Ammonia Value Chain Special Study,
growing incomes and improving diets in developing countries
such as Brazil, India and China, combined with significant
biofuels production in the US and Brazil, are driving global
demand growth for ammonia.
The abundant supply of low-cost natural gas feedstocks has
revitalized the US ammonia and nitrogen fertilizer industry.
Plant operating rates have risen, idle capacity has been restarted,
and there is a long list of potential greenfield/brownfield projects being announced. IHS expects completed, large-scale capacity additions by 2018, totaling 5 MMt or more.
The sharp rise in North American ammonia production will
cause a sizable shift in global trade. At present, the US is the
largest ammonia importing country by a wide margin. New,
world-scale capacity projects, plus restarts and debottlenecks
already underway, will sharply reduce US imports of ammonia
and other derivatives. The trends are expected to help farmers
reduce their costs for fertilizer. According to Stewart Ramsey,
an agricultural economist with the IHS Agricultural Forecasting Service, new ammonia capacity additions should help lower
per-bushel fertilizer costs by nearly 20% for wheat, and almost
30% for corn, by 2020.
To produce the 2013 corn and wheat crops, Ramsey said, US
farmers spent roughly $15 billion (B) and nearly $3 B, respectively, on fertilizer. Fertilizer costs should subside in the next
several years.
Supply shift. For ammonia, a shift is underway, and supply
considerations will dominate as new, low-cost capacity additions

accelerate, outpacing demand growth and altering global trade
patterns. Ammonia consumption will continue to grow at more
than 2%/yr through the end of the decade, followed by a more
modest growth as the high-growth markets reach maturity.
Ammonia is a global concern. The ability to help chart the
path of a product like ammonia is critical not only to major customers, but also to governments like China that must support
their growing economies and feed their expanding populations,

often with less arable land available for food crop production.
China is the worlds largest consumer and producer of ammonia, with 2013 production totaling an estimated 57 MMt.
This nation produces slightly more than one-third of total
global ammonia production. China is relatively poor in natural gas resources, but it possesses a very large fraction of the
worlds known, recoverable coal reserves.
China has embarked on a program to not only achieve selfsufficiency in fertilizer production and other key chemicals,
but to also simultaneously monetize their resources and create an industrial base proximate to the coal mines. The present
and future impacts of this effort will likely have huge implications for the entire global petrochemical value chain, and will
be tracked carefully.
TISON KEEL JR. is the director of ethylene oxide (EO)
and derivatives market service for IHS Chemical,
where he has worked for five years. He joined Chemical
Market Associates, Inc. (now IHS) in 2008, bringing
more than 30 years of in-depth industry experience
within the EO and glycols product family. As lead of the
IHS Chemical Global Ethylene Oxide & Glycol market
service, he updates and publishes the IHS Chemical
Ethylene Oxide & Glycols World Analysis.
Starting in 1975, he began a distinguished career
with Union Carbide Corp., then The Dow Chemical
Co., following the merger of those two companies
in 2001. His product background includes high-level functional experience in
product management, sales, marketing, supply chain and customer service.
Mr. Keel spent six years in Asia leading the formation and startup of two joint
ventures: OPTIMAL Malaysiaan integrated olefins and EO derivatives producer,
and Asian Acetyls VAM in Korea. He holds a BS degree in chemistry from
Vanderbilt University and an MBA degree in finance/international business from
the Stern Business School at New York University. Mr. Keel is lead author
of the IHS Chemical Ammonia Value Chain Special Study.
Chinas hydrocarbon shift to coal

IHS has recently published analyses on Chinas efforts to develop large-scale processes for the production
of coal-to-olefins, coal-to-methanol, and most recently,
coal-to-syngas. These efforts, once proven and able to
better address Chinas large-scale demand, will likely
change the competitive landscape, once again, for many
key chemicals and derivatives, and the various markets.
Competition between gas-derived chemicals and coalderived chemicals extends far beyond cost and even energy and economic security. The implications will likely
be debated for many years to come.
VERONA, ITALY | 2426 JUNE 2014
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Michael Silverman, Senior V.P. - Downstream technology & Chief Technology Ofcer, Ivanhoe Energy
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Gas Processing
ADRIENNE BLUME, MANAGING EDITOR

Adrienne.Blume@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Asian gas market seeks lower pricing,

infrastructure expansion: Part 1
The Gastech 2014 Conference and Exhibition, which was held in Seoul, South
Korea, from March 2427, brought together a number of panelists from the
buyer and seller sides to share their recommendations for securing Asias gas demand. The first panel session of the conference, held on the morning of Monday,
March 24, examined gas pricing, infrastructure requirements and market evolution, from a demand-side perspective.
Moderated by Nick Milne, first vice
president (VP) and LNG specialist at
Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, the panel
emphasized the need to restructure LNG
pricing mechanisms and enable destination flexibility for export contracts with
Asian buyers.
Mr. Milne then posed the question:
How do people position for growing
gas demand from Asia? The percentage
of Asian national oil companies (NOCs)
in global merger and acquisition (M&A)
activity is growing and is presently
pegged at approximately 20%. Three major themes with regard to meeting the
growth in Asian demand, according to
Mr. Milne and discussed by the panelists,
are the push for restructured gas pricing,
the competitiveness of gas versus other
fuels (i.e., coal and nuclear power), and
the roles of pipeline gas and LNG in longterm demand and pricing dynamics.
Securing cheaper gas for Asia.
Mr. Milne yielded the podium to Kwon
Young-Sik, the executive VP and COO
of KOGAS Resources Business Division (FIG. 1). Mr. Young-Sik spoke about
Asian gas buyers strategies for securing
cheaper gas. Nearly 70% of global LNG
imports are delivered to South Korea,
Japan, Taiwan and China; however, high
prices make import of the fuel very costly
for buyers. To secure cheaper LNG, Mr.
Young-Sik said, comprehensive strategies
must be built, including the establish-
ment of a gas portfolio approach, improving market efficiency and enhancing

cooperation among buyers and sellers.
A portfolio approach would require
the diversification of price formulas
and LNG sources, while market efficiency improvements could be secured
through linkage to Henry Hub gas
prices, increased buyer participation in
global LNG project development, and
the reduction of shipping costs through
destination-free LNG and swap arrangements. The LNG market is systematically
inefficient for Asian buyers due to oillinked formulas, which raises shipping
costs, Mr. Young-Sik noted.
The third strategy for securing cheaper gas is to boost cooperation among
buyers through joint purchases to secure
a competitive LNG price.
To these ends, KOGAS is actively participating in global LNG projects, such as
Shell Australias Prelude FLNG, the Mozambique Area 4 gas development and
LNG Canada. KOGAS was also the first
Korean company to secure gas exports
from Cheniere Energys Sabine Pass project in the US.
Diversification key to Asian expansion. The next panelist to speak was
Shigeru Muraki, executive VP and CEO

of Tokyo Gas Co. Ltd.s Energy Solution
Division. Mr. Muraki provided the audience with commentary on the new dynamics of the Asian gas market.
Diversification was the key word in
Mr. Murakis speech. New supplies from
the US, Canada, Mozambique and East
Siberia could provide Asia with alternative import sources, while new pricing
mechanisms such as oil-indexed gentle
slope, Henry Hub, S-curve, short-term
contracts and spot contracts could provide flexibility in terms of import costs.
Pipeline connectivity and infrastructure development are other major con-
FIG. 1. KOGAS Kwon Young-Sik advocated

improved market efficiency and enhanced
cooperation to secure cheaper gas for Asia.
cerns for Asian gas buyers. Mr. Muraki

cited the development of a north-to-east
Asia pipeline, cross-border pipelines
from Russia and Central Asia to China, a
pipeline from Russia to Japan and South
Korea, and interregional pipelines as
critical options for the development of
gas trade. Mr. Muraki also noted that the
development of regional shale gas and
methane hydrate reserves could spur increased interregional gas trade.
In Japan, LNG has provided a steady
source of gas in the wake of nuclear plant
shutdowns since 2011. Nuclear plant restarts will cause the high volume of LNG
imports to Japan to decrease to around 70
million tons (MMt) through 2020 from
the recent high level of approximately
87.5 MMt. However, nuclear capacity
will gradually decline again after 2020,
leading Japan to import as much as 100
MMt of gas by 2030, Mr. Muraki said.
Next month. Part 2 will share perspectives from corporate panelists in Japan
and Taiwan, as well as a view from The International Group of LNG Importers.
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Boxscore Construction
Analysis
LEE NICHOLS, DIRECTOR, DATA DIVISION

Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com
Qatars petrochemical sector surges

through new projects
Although it is the smallest Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) member nation, both in terms of area and
population, Qatar contains the third-largest proven reserves of
natural gas in the world. Natural gas is sourced primarily from
Qatars North field. With an estimated 900 trillion cubic feet
(Tcf) of recoverable gas reserves, the North field is the largest non-associated natural gas field in the world and represents
roughly 10% of the worlds known reserves. With gas production
reaching almost 6 Tcf in 2013, the country is the worlds fourthlargest producer of natural gas. This gas production has propelled
the country to be the worldwide leader in liquefied natural gas
(LNG) exports and gas-to-liquids (GTL) technologies. Continued large-scale natural gas production will play a key role in the
future growth of Qatars downstream hydrocarbon assets.
Qatar exports nearly 80 million tons per year (MMtpy) of
LNG, which accounts for one-third of global LNG trade. LNG
production is split between Qatargas Operating Co. Ltd. (Qatargas) and Ras Laffan Co. Ltd. (RasGas). Qatargas operates seven
LNG trains at Ras Laffan with a total production capacity of
nearly 42 MMtpy. RasGas also operates seven trains (FIG. 1), but
with a total LNG processing capacity of 36 MMtpy (TABLE 1).
In January 2011, Qatar Petroleum (QP) and ExxonMobil
signed an agreement to develop the Barzan Gas Project. The
$10.4-billion (B) project will be managed by RasGas and consists of both onshore and offshore facilities. Onshore facilities
will include a gas processing unit, a sulfur recovery unit and a
natural gas liquids (NGL) recovery unit to produce butane,
methane, propane, condensate and ethane to be used as feedstock for Qatars petrochemical industry.
The Barzan Project will be located in Ras Laffan Industrial
City. It will process gas from Qatars North field to supply sales
gas to power stations, desalination plants and other domestic industrial industries. The project will be developed in two phases
and have a total of six trains. Phase one will consist of two trains
that are scheduled to be fully operational in 2015. Once completed, RasGas-operated facilities will reach around 11 Bcfd,
making RasGas the largest gas producer in Qatar.
Qatar has also become a dominant force in GTL production
with the Oryx and Pearl GTL projects. These projects convert
natural gas into high-quality, low-sulfur transportation fuels.
Located in Ras Laffan Industrial City, the $19-B Pearl GTL
project is the worlds largest source of GTL products. The complex, which was completed in 2012, can produce 140 thousand
barrels per day (Mbpd) of GTL products, as well as 120 Mbpd
of NGL and ethane.
In turn, the billion-dollar Oryx GTL joint venture (JV) project between Qatar Petroleum and South African Sasol produces
30 Mbpd of GTL products. With operations beginning in 2009,

the facility uses about 330 MMcfd of natural gas feedstock from
the Al Khaleej field. Both the Oryx and Pearl GTL facilities are
among the largest commercial GTL complexes in the world.
Qatar, the global leader in LNG export capacity and GTL production, is also investing billions in its refining and petrochemical
sectors. Qatar has two refineries in operation, Ras Laffan 1 and
Umm Said, representing a total domestic refining capacity of almost 300 Mbpd. Ras Laffan is presently undergoing a $1.5 B expansion project. The Ras Laffan 2 project will be located adjacent
to Ras Laffan 1. Upon completion of the 146-Mbpd refinery, Ras
Laffan 1 and 2 will have a total combined refining capacity of 292
Mbpd, increasing total domestic production to nearly 430 Mbpd.
According to the US Energy Information Administration,
Qatars total petroleum product consumption reached only 189
TABLE 1. Qatar LNG production overview
Name
No. of
LNG trains
Total capacity,
MMtpy
Qatargas 1
10 (each train =
3.2 MMtpy)
Japan, Spain
Qatargas 2
15.6 (each train =

7.8 MMtpy)
Asia, Europe, UK
Qatargas 3
7.8
Asia, Europe
Qatargas 4
7.8
Asia, Europe
RasGas 12
6.6
Asia
RasGas 35
14.1 (each train =

4.7 MMtpy)
Asia, Europe
RasGas 67
15.6 (each train =

7.8 MMtpy)
North and South

America, Asia, Europe
Main markets
FIG. 1. RasGas LNG trains 1 through 7.

Boxscore Construction Analysis

Mbpd in 2012 (FIG. 2). Domestic refining capacity is more than
adequate to meet domestic demand. The surplus allows Qatar
to export more than half of its refined products through its major export terminals at Halul Island, Ras Laffan and Umm Said.
With the potential of depressing global gas prices and a
significant number of LNG projects in the works in Australia,
Canada, East Africa, Russia and the US, Qatar is diversifying its
products portfolio. Qatar is investing heavily in its petrochemical industry, and two major petrochemical project developments are underway. The Al-Karaana and Al-Sejeel petrochemical complexes represent almost $12 B of investments and will
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accomplish major goals outlined in the Economic Development

Pillar of the Qatar National Vision 2030 plan. These complexes
will play a major role in more than doubling the size of Qatars
petrochemical output from 9 MMtpy to 23 MMtpy by 2020.
Al-Karaana. The complex, located at Ras Laffan Industrial
City, will be a large-scale olefins and derivatives plant. The joint

project is being developed by Qatar Petroleum (QP), which
holds an 80% share, and Shell, which owns the remaining 20%.
In December 2010, QP and Shell signed a memorandum of
understanding to jointly study the development of the billiondollar petrochemical venture. A year
later, the two entities signed a heads of
agreement to develop the project.
The $6.4 B project will consist of
constructing and installing a world-scale
steam cracker (1 MMtpy or more), a
monoethylene glycol (MEG) plant utilizing Shells proprietary OMEGA technology, a linear alpha olefin (LAO) unit
using the proprietary Shell Higher Olefins Process (SHOP), and an OXO alcohols unit utilizing Mitsubishi Chemical
Corp.s OXO T-Process technology. The
complex will be able to produce:
1.1 MMtpy of ethylene
170 Mtpy of propylene
1.5 MMtpy of MEG
300 Mtpy of LAO
250 Mtpy of OXO.
Major contracts have been awarded
to Fluor and Foster Wheeler. The latter
company was awarded the basic engineering package for the MEG production unit. The 1.5-MMtpy MEG unit
is central to the olefin production train
to produce polyethylene terephthalate
(PET). PET is commonly used in plastic
bottles, food packaging, polyester fibers,
automotive engine coolants, industrial
solvents and other products. The unit
will consist of two trains, each with a
processing capacity of 750 Mtpy. Foster
Wheeler previously completed frontend engineering and design (FEED) and
engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) work on Shells OMEGAbased MEG plant in Jurong Island, Singapore in 2009. In early 2013, Fluor was
awarded the FEED contract for work on
the cracker and petrochemical plant.
The products from Al-Karaana will
primarily target growing Asian markets.
The project is expected to be fully operational in 2018.
Al-Sejeel. The $5.5-B mega-petrochemical complex is being developed
by a joint venture between QP, which
46
Boxscore Construction Analysis

owns an 80% share, and Qatar Petrochemical Co. (QAPCO),
which owns the remaining 20% share. QAPCO is a JV between
Qatar and Total Petrochemicals. In February 2012, the JV
signed a Heads of Agreement contract to jointly develop the
Qatar petroleum product consumption, 20032012, Mbpd
200
No product-level data
Other petroleum products
Liqueed petroleum gas
Residual fuel oil
Distillate fuel oil
Kerosine
Jet fuel
Motor gasoline
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics
2010
FIG. 2. Qatar petroleum product consumption, 20032012.
2011
2012
project in Ras Laffan Industrial City. The complex will process

several feed types simultaneously, namely ethane, butane and
naphtha. This feedstock will be sourced from Qatars North
Field. The complex will consist of a world-scale, mixed-feed
steam cracker, and will produce:
1.4 MMtpy of ethylene
850 Mtpy of high-density polyethylene
430 Mtpy of linear low-density polyethylene
760 Mtpy of polypropylene (PP)
83 Mtpy of butadiene.
The project is unique in that it will feature Qatars first
mixed-steam cracker and be the first to produce PP. Major contracts awarded up to the time of this publication are:
TecnimontFEED
Bechtelproject management services
Union Carbidea wholly owned subsidiary of Dow
Chemical Co., Union Carbide will license its UNIPOL
PP process technology for the PP unit
Univation Technologielicensing technology for the
polyethylene unit.
QP and QAPCO started to receive the first technical offers
for the multi-billion-dollar EPC contracts in mid-February. EPC
contracts are expected to be awarded in early 2015. The Al-Sejeel complex is scheduled to be operational in 2018.
Detailed and up-to-date information for active construction projects in the refining,
gas processing, and petrochemical industries across the globe|ConstructionBoxscore.com
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JON D. STROUP
Viewpoint
Senior consultant, HSB Solomon Associates LLC, Dallas, Texas
What characteristics define the worlds best refineries?

sity, maintenance efficiency and net cash
margins (NCMs). For the purposes of the
2012 review, the worlds best refineries
are categorized into mid- and large-sizedcapacity groups. TABLE 1 summarizes the
average configuration, age and basic feed
properties of these refineries by group.
JON STROUP is a senior consultant at HSB

Solomon Associates with 23 years of experience
in the refining and petrochemical industries.
His areas of expertise include operations,
maintenance, process and project management,
as well as engineering design and support
functions. He is experienced in process control
and advanced process control.
A number of significant forces are

reshaping the global refining industry.
However, what characteristics define the
worlds best refineries? HSB Solomon Associates LLCs recent Fuels Refinery Performance Analysis (Fuels Study) investigated 2012 refining data from participating
global refineries. Solomon Associates has
been collecting detailed data from refineries worldwide for over 30 years. Using the
companys proprietary methodologies,
this information is calculated as benchmarks for individual refinery performance.
Worlds best refineries. To be included
on the worlds best refineries list, a refinery must show excellent performance
across a broad range of metrics and perform them consistently. To be in this elite
group, the refinery must achieve strong
performance over a minimum of three
consecutive studies (six years) in metrics
such as return on investment, energy inten-
Global commodity business. With a

few isolated exceptions, the fuels refining
industry is a global commodities business.
The low-cost supplier ultimately prevails.
Approximately 67% of the global refinery fuel production is directed to making
transportation fuelsgasoline, distillate
fuels and jet fuel.
When averaging the cost of transportation fuels (CTF) for a group of refineries that have either closed or announced
closure since 2010, the results showed
that these refineries were among the highest-cost producers in the world (FIG. 1).
The average of the two worlds best
groups CTF is plotted in FIG. 1; the results
are roughly at the break between the first
and second quartiles.
The front end of this curve (the lowcost suppliers) primarily comprises North
American refineries that have been able
to take advantage of the distressed crude

supply in the mid-continent. Low-cost
raw materials for these refineries have
created unique opportunities that even
exceed those for the worlds best refiners.
This pricing anomaly is expected to be resolved, and the cost curve should flatten
back to previous cycle conditions.
Achieving and sustaining worlds
best performance. A common thread
with all of the best performers is that

their refineries are consistently available.
High availability translates to reliable operation that can take advantage of market
opportunities.
A very strong correlation exists between
high availability and low total maintenance
costs. If process equipment is reliable, then
less time and money are spent to maintain
it. However, availability is not a switch that
a refiner can turn on and off. It is a culture
and a way of doing business that must permeate the entire organization.
A detailed look into the hundreds of
refineries indicates that facilities with high
availability provide time and opportunity
for their staffs to be proactive: time to study,
to plan, and to make positive changes that
TABLE 1. Worlds best reneries in 2012

Mid-sized average
capacities, thousand bpd
Large-sized average
capacities, thousand bpd
Crude
186
Crude
447
Vacuum
63
Vacuum
169
Coker
11
Coker
48
Hydrocracker
28
Hydrocracker
34
Reformer
35
Reformer
67
FCC
40
FCC
114
Diesel HT
68
Diesel HT
128
Sulfur, ltpd
154
Sulfur, ltpd
626
Complexity
11
Complexity
14
Average age, yr
27
Average age, yr
21
Crude sulfur
1.2
Crude sulfur
1.7
Crude gravity
34
Crude gravity
32
Viewpoint
145
135
Cost, $/bbl
125
2012
LG
115
95
2010
85
75
Large-sized
Return on investment
Net cash margin
Process utilization
Energy
Maintenance
Non-maintenance personnel
Efficiency indicators
Operational availability
MD
105
Mid-sized
Competitiveness
Dated Brent price

2010US$79/bbl
2012US$111/bbl
1
Source: HSB Solomon Associates
Quartile
Source: HSB Solomon Associates
FIG. 1. Transportation fuel production costs by survey respondents

in 2010 and 2012.
continuously advance the performance of

the facilities. Refineries with low availability typically have staffs that are in firefighting mode. They move from one crisis to
the next and have no time to do proactive
work that moves the facility forward.
A review of long-term trend data
clearly indicates that the only sustainable
means of achieving low maintenance cost
is to first drive availability to higher levels.
Maintenance and operating procedures,
equipment modifications and monitoring
systems must first be put in place. After a
facility is able to achieve sustained reliable
operation, then maintenance cost reductions will follow.
Another key factor in achieving high
availability is an organizations ability
to minimize the amount of annualized
turnaround downtime. By definition, annualized downtime is the total number
of days a unit is out of service (duration)
divided by the number of years between
turnarounds (interval). Directionally, annualized turnaround duration is reduced
by increasing the interval between turnarounds, assuming a fixed duration. However, the aggregate from the 2012 Fuels
Study data suggest that there is a point
of diminishing returns as the interval extends far beyond industry averages. The
best performers typically have short-duration turnarounds at slightly higher than
industry-average intervals.
The worlds best refineries minimize
both the duration and the cost during a
turnaround by rigorously challenging all
of the work done and how that work is executed. By challenging paradigms and using state-of-the-art techniques for inspection and repair, they are able to achieve
performance that significantly outpaces
the rest of the world.
FIG. 2. Ranking of key index quartiles for worlds best refineries,

mid- and large-sized refineries.
Other key costEnergy. The largest
single component of operating cost is

energy. The worlds best refineries not
only have excellent energy performance,
but they also continue to find ways to
improve. These refineries incorporate
energy improvement into revamps and
replacement projects.
The worlds best refineries do not ignore mass loss. At US$100/bbl of raw
material, fractions of percent material
losses will have a significant impact on
refinery NCM. Having monitoring systems in place, and the discipline to use
them, is an essential part of doing business for these leading refineries.
nance performance. Both are key to

long-term success. Refineries must actively implement ways to improve reliability while driving down annualized
turnaround duration. Both actions will
result in lower maintenance costs while
providing the opportunity to fully utilize
the capital investments to take advantage
of market opportunities.
Improve energy efficiency. One of
the cornerstones of a world-class operation is energy efficiency. Refineries must
be more creative and aggressive in finding new ways to lower energy usage and
costs, especially in an environment in
which the justifications are not particularly enticing.
Myths and misconceptions. A huge
misconception is that the worlds best refineries are new and very complex sites.
Results from the study proved that many
of the top-performing refineries are not
the most complex. New does not guarantee lead performance; most of the topperforming refineries are in the middle
of the pack with respect to age.
The last misconception is the belief
that the best performers are in the first
quartile in every major category. This is
not the case, as shown in FIG. 2. It is essential for an organization to have sufficient resources to operate and maintain
its refinery, along with the resources necessary to seek out and implement continuous improvement. From the 2012
study, the worlds best performers are
not in the first quartile when it comes to
non-maintenance personnel.
To-do list. How can you get your refinery
on the worlds best refineries list? Here
are some recommended action items:
Improve operational and mainte-
Keys to long-term success. Although

new construction may improve a facilitys total performance, operational and
maintenance excellence are factors to
attain and sustain long-term success.
Operational availability is a key marker
for a facilitys drive to become one of the
worlds best refineries.
Like any commodities business, the
high-cost suppliers of transportation
fuels are likely to become extinct. The
best will continue to get better. Those
organizations with the plans and vision
to improve do so, leaving those who are
static to decline in performance relative
to their peers. New low-cost suppliers
are coming online as well, particularly in
the Middle East and Asia-Pacific. They
will put additional pressure on the highcost producers in the now fully global
refining markets.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This is an updated version of a presentation at the
2014 AFPM Annual Meeting, March 2325, 2014 in
Orlando, Florida.
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| Special Report
MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY
Scheduled maintenance and turnarounds are opportunities to increase plant safety
and environmental performance. By enhancing the mechanical integrity of HPI
facilities, operating companies can achieve and maintain higher uptime and equipment
availability; all are factors that contribute to higher profitability. Best-of-class
companies hold the mindset that reliability programs provide great benefits. Investing
in new monitoring and conditioning systems, along with preventive maintenance and
inspection programs, can optimize unit and total facility performance.
Photo courtesy of Bilfinger SE.
Special Report
Maintenance and Reliability

H. P. BLOCH, Reliability/Equipment Editor
Reliability tips for centrifugal process pumps

Without pumps, there would be no hydrocarbon processing
industry.1 Pumps are simple machines that lift, transfer, or otherwise move fluid from one place to another. Process pumps
are usually configured to use the rotational (kinetic) energy
from an impeller to impart motion to a fluid. The impeller is
located on a shaft; together, shaft and impeller(s) make up the
rotor. This rotor is surrounded by a casing. Located in this casing (or pump case) are one or more stationary passageways
that direct the fluid to a discharge nozzle. Impeller and casing
are the main components of the hydraulic assembly; the region
or envelope containing bearings and seals is called the mechanical assembly, or power end (FIG. 1).2
However, many process pumps are designed and constructed to facilitate field repair. On these so-called back pullout
pumps (FIG. 2),3 shop maintenance can be performed while
the casing and its associated suction and discharge piping are
left undisturbed. Although operating in the hydraulic end, the
impeller remains with the power end during removal from the
field. The rotating impeller (FIG. 3)4 is usually constructed with
swept-back vanes, and the fluid is accelerated from the rotating
impeller to stationary passages in the surrounding casing.
two y axes) of FIG. 4; it is expressed in feet or meters. Hydraulic

efficiency is often plotted on another vertical scale, the right of
the two vertical scales; i.e., the y axis in this generalized plot.
Head is related to the difference between discharge pressure
and suction pressure at the respective pump nozzles. Head is a
simple concept, but this is where consideration of the impeller
tip speed is important. The higher the shaft rotations per minute (rpm) and the larger the impeller diameter, the higher the
impeller tip speed will bei.e., its peripheral velocity.
The concept of head can be visualized by thinking of a vertical pipe bolted to the outlet (the discharge nozzle) of a pump. In
this imaginary pipe, a column of fluid would rise to a height H.
If the vertical pipe would be attached to the discharge nozzle of
a pump with higher impeller tip speed, the fluid would rise to a
Mechanical assembly
Shaft seal
Labyrinth
Mechanical
Packing
Shaft
Bearings
Housing/frame
Drive coupling/sheave
Hydraulic assembly
Impeller/propeller
Suction inlet
Seal rings
Reliability tip: Greater spacer lengths reduce angles

of misalignment in case of the unavoidable differential
temperature-related parallel offset between the centerlines of
pump and driver. Greater-length spacers may cost a bit more,
but, by reducing bearing loads and vibration severity, they
beneficially affect the likely cost of future maintenance.
In this manner, kinetic energy is converted to potential

energy, and the fluid (often called pumpage) moves from the
suction (lower) pressure side to the discharge (higher) pressure side of a pumping system. As the fluid leaves the impeller through the pump discharge, more fluid is drawn into the
pump suction, where, except for the region immediately adjacent, the pressure is lowest.4
FIG. 1. Principal components of an elementary process pump.
Reliability tip: Pipe elbows located too close to the pump
inlet nozzle may save money initially, but they often create flow
disturbances, which tend to reduce pump life.
Pump performance expressed as head and flow. Pump
performance is always described in terms of head, H, produced
at a given flow capability, Q , and hydraulic efficiency, , attained at any particular intersection of H and Q. Head is usually plotted on the vertical scale or vertical axis (the left of the
FIG. 2. Typical process pump with suction flow entering horizontally,

and vertically oriented discharge pipe leaving the casing tangentially.

greater height (H+). Note: The height of a column of liquid, H
or H+, is a function of only the impeller tip speed. The specific
gravity of the liquid affects power demand, but it does not influence either H or H+. However, the resulting discharge pressure
does depend on the liquid density (specific gravity). For water
(with a specific gravity of 1), an H of 2.31 ft equals 1 psi, while,
for alcohol, which might have a specific gravity of 0.5, a column
height or head H of 4.62 ft will equal 1 psi. Therefore, if a certain fluid has a specific gravity of 1.28, a column height (head
H) of 2.31/1.28 = 1.8 ft will equal a pressure of 1 psi.
For reasons of material strength and reasonably priced metallurgy, the head per stage is usually limited to about 700 ft.
This is an important rule-of-thumb limit to remember; however, when too many similar rule-of-thumb limits combine,
pump reliability cannot be expected to be at its highest. As an
example, a particular impeller-to-shaft fit is required to have
a 0.0002-in. to 0.0015-in. clearance on average-sized impeller
hubs. With a clearance fit of 0.0015 in., a somewhat greater failure risk can be anticipated if this upper limit is found on an
impeller operating with maximum allowable diameter.
Reliability tip: The higher the peripheral impeller velocity,

the greater the rate of erosion in solids-containing pumps.
High-tip velocity pumps manage with fewer impellers than
would be needed for equivalent-head low-tip velocity pumps,
but beware: lowest installed cost today usually equates with
higher maintenance outlays tomorrow.
In FIG. 4, the point of zero flow (where the curve intersects the y axis) is called the shutoff point. The point at which
operating efficiency is at a peak is called the best efficiency
point (BEP). Head rise from BEP to shutoff is often chosen
around 10%15% of differential head. This choice makes it
easy to modulate pump flow by adjusting control valve open
area based on monitoring pressure. Pumps operate on their
curves, and knowledge of what pressure relates to what flow
allows technicians to program control loops.
Reliability tip: Operation at locations too far from BEP
comes at a price. Inefficient operation increases power

consumption, or maintenance frequency, or both.
The generalized depictions in FIG. 4 also contain a curve
labeled NPSHr, which represents net positive suction head
required. This is the head of liquid that must exist at the
edge of the inlet vanes of an impeller to allow liquid transport
without causing undue vaporization. NPSHr is a function of
impeller geometry and size; it is determined by factory testing. The NPSHr of an impeller can range from a few feet to a
three-digit number. At all times, the head of liquid available at
the impeller inlet (NPSHa) must exceed the required head of
liquid (NPSHr).
Reliability tip: Some non-hydrocarbon process fluids have
properties that make it advisable to provide an available

NPSH well in excess of the published required NPSHr.
Investigation of the applicable process experience is advised.
HQ
NPSH r
NPSHr
FIG. 3. A semi-open impeller with five vanes. As shown, the impeller

is configured for counter-clockwise rotation about the centerline A.
90
80
Effi
c
50
Efficiency, %
60
ien
cy,
%
Head
70
40
30
Power
GR. 1.O
Power SP.
20
10
0
Flowrate, BEP
FIG. 4. Typical H-Q performance curves are sloped as shown. The BEP
is marked with a small triangle; power and other parameters are often
displayed on the same plot.
Operation at zero flow. The rate of flow through a pump, in

gallons per minute (gpm), is labeled Q , and is plotted on the
x axis. Note: For a given speed and for every value of head H
read from the y axis, there is a corresponding value Q on the
x axis. This plotted relationship is expressed as the pump is
running on its curve. Pump H-Q curves are plotted to commence at zero flow and highest head. Process pumps need
a continually rising curve inclination; a curve with a hump
somewhere along its inclined line will not serve the reliabilityfocused user.
Reliability tip: Operation at zero flow is not allowed and, if
over a minutes duration, could cause temperature rise and
internal recirculation effects that might destroy many pumps.
A published pump curve is valid only for this particular impeller pattern, geometry, size and operation at the speed indicated by the manufacturer or entity that produced the curve.
Curve steepness or inclination has to do with the number of
vanes in that impeller. Curve steepness is also affected by the
angle each vane makes relative to the impeller hub.

In general, curve shape is verified by physical testing at
the manufacturers facility. Once the entire pump is installed
in the field, it can be retested periodically by the owner-purchaser for degradation and wear progression. Power draw may
have been affected by seals and couplings that differ from the
ones used on the manufacturers test stand.
10
20
40
Specic speed, Ns
60
500
1,000
2,000
3,000
Radial-vane
Francis-vane
120
200
300
6,000
10,000
15,000
SI
US
Axial ow
FIG. 5. General flow classifications of process pump impellers.
H
1,500
1,000
Pivot line
Q
500
10,000
10,000
Ns
10,000
5,000
4,000
5,000
4,000
5,000
4,000
200
3,000
3,000
3,000
150
2,000
2,000
2,000
1,500
1,500
100
1,000
1,000
1,000
800
500
400
300
500
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
15
10
1,500
rpm
300
Flowrate, gpm
Head/stage, ft
400
150
100
80
30
20
15
600
500
400
300
200
200
60
50
40
10
100
1 With Q and N,
determine pivot point
2 With pivot point and H,
determine Ns
N Q
Ns = ____
H
5
FIG. 6. A pump-specific speed nomogram allows for quick estimations.
to in the manufacturers literature when bearing, seal and

coupling losses are not included in the vendors test reports.
Make sure to install a large-enough motor.
Impellers and rotors. Regardless of flow classification,
Mixed ow
800
700
600
Reliability tip: Occasionally, high efficiencies are alluded
centrifugal pumps range in size from tiny to very big pumps.

The tiny ones might be used in medical or laboratory applications; the extremely large pumps may move many thousands
of liters or even gallons per second from flooded lowlands to
the open sea.
All six of the impellers in FIG. 5 are shown with a hub fastening the impeller to the shaft, and each of the first five impellers is shown as a hub-and-disc version with an impeller cover.
The cover (or shroud) identifies the first five as closed impellers; recall that FIG. 3 had depicted a semi-open impeller.
Semi-open impellers are designed and fabricated without the
cover. Finally, open impellers come with freestanding vanes
welded to, or integrally cast into, the hub. Since the latter incorporate neither disc nor cover, they are often used in viscous or fibrous paper stock applications.
To properly function, a semi-open impeller must operate
in close proximity to a casing internal surface, which is why
axial adjustment features are needed with semi-open impellers. Axial location is a bit less critical with closed impellers.
Except on axial flow pumps, fluid exits the impeller in the radial direction. Radial-flow and mixed-flow pumps are either
single-suction or double-suction (double-flow) designs.
Once the impellers are fastened to a shaft, the resulting assembly is called a rotor.
In radial- and mixed-flow pumps, the number of impellers
following each other, typically called stages, can range from
one to as many as will make such multistage pumps practical and economical to manufacture. Horizontal shaft pumps
with up to 12 stages are not uncommon; using more than 12
stages on a horizontal shaft risks causing the rotor to resonate
or vibrate at a critical speed. Vertical shaft pumps have been
designed with 48 or more stages. In vertical pumps, shaft support bushings are relatively lightly loaded; they are spaced so
as to minimize vibration risk.
The meaning of specific speed. Pump impeller flow classifications and the general meaning of specific speed deserve
further discussion. Moving from left to right in FIG. 5, the various impeller geometries reflect selections that start with high
differential pressure capabilities and end with progressively
lower differential pressure capabilities. Differential pressure is
simply discharge pressure minus suction pressure.
Specific speed calculations are a function of several impeller
parameters; the mathematical expression includes exponents
and is found later, in FIG. 6. Staying with FIG. 5 and again moving
from left to right, we can reason that larger throughputs (flows)
are more likely achieved by the configurations to the right of
the illustration, whereas larger pressure ratios (discharge pressure divided by suction pressure) are usually achieved by the
impeller geometries closer to the left.
Impellers toward the right are more efficient than those
near the left, and pump designers use the parameter-specific
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speed, Ns, to bracket pump hydraulic efficiency attainment
and other anticipated attributes of a particular impeller configuration and size. A similar-sounding parameter, pump suction-specific speed, Nss or Nsss, should not be confused with
specific speed, Ns.
As an example, observe the customary use where, with N
and Q as the typical given parameters that define centrifugal
process pumps, a pivot point can be determined. Next, with
pivot point and head H, Ns can be easily determined. In FIG. 5,
Ns is somewhere between 500 and 15,000 on the US scale. In
this range, a pump is known to exist, and the general impeller
shape can even be anticipated from FIG. 5.
Remember that thousands of impeller combinations and
geometries exist. Impellers with covers are the most prominent in hydrocarbon processes, and uneven numbers of impeller vanes are favored over even numbers of vanes, for reasons
of vibration suppression.
Reliability tip: Pump manufacturers often use modular casing
construction. A given casing size may, however, accommodate
several different impeller sizes or geometries. Once an existing
plant has determined actual operating flows and heads, it
may be cost-effective to purchase custom-built, optimized
upgrade impellers from knowledgeable manufacturers.
FIG. 7. Double-flow impellers are used for higher flows and relatively
equalized (balanced) axial thrust.
FIG. 8. A six-stage centrifugal process pump.
Pump-specific speed (FIG. 6) might be of primary interest

to pump designers, but average users will also find specific
speed helpful. On the lower right of FIG. 6 is shown the equation for Ns; it is easy to see how Ns is related to the shaft speed,
N (rpm), flow, Q (gpm), and head, H (ft).
As an example, consider a particular flowrate Q and what
could happen at some other speed. A straight line is drawn to
establish the pivot point. Then, drawing a line from H through
the pivot point and to Ns, those pumps with Ns outside of the
rule-of-thumb range (500 to 15,000) can be identified; these
pumps should not be used.
In another example, after establishing the pivot point, an
impeller with a maximum head capability of 700 ft can be selected by drawing a line through the pivot point. If the resulting Ns is too low, a higher-speed N can be attempted.
While there are always fringe applications in terms of size
and flowrate, this article considers centrifugal pumps in process plants. These pumps are related to the generic illustrations in FIGS. 1 and 2, and others in this article. All of these
pumps would typicallybut by no means exclusivelyrange
from 3 hp to perhaps 300 hp (2 kW to 225 kW).
Process pump types. The elementary process pumps illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 likely incorporate one of the radial vane
impellers, as shown in FIG. 5. If a certain differential pressure is
to be achieved combined with higher flows, such a pump is often designed with a double-flow impeller (FIG. 7).5 One of the
side benefits of double-flow impellers is very good axial thrust
equalization (axial balance). A small thrust bearing will often
suffice; it is shown in the left bearing housing in FIG. 7. Note
that the two radial bearings are plain, or sleeve-type. Certain
sleeve bearings have relatively high speed capability.
If elevated pressures are needed, several impellers can be
lined up in series on the same pump rotor. Of course, this
would then turn the pump into a multistage model, as shown
in FIG. 8.
Process pump response to flow changes. Finally, it is
useful to examine changes in flowrate and how these changes can affect the mechanical response of centrifugal process
pumps. After the pumpage leaves at the impeller tip, it must be
channeled into a stationary passageway that merges into the
discharge nozzle. Many different types of passageway designs
(single or multiple volutes, vaned diffusers, etc.) are available.
Their respective geometry interacts with the flow and creates
radial force action of different magnitude around the periph-
FIG. 9. Direction and magnitude of fluid forces change at different flows.

ery of an impeller (FIG. 9).6 These forces tend to deflect the
pump shaft; they are greater at partial flow than at full flow.
A so-called recirculation phenomenon often aggravates the
problem at low flows. Recirculation is a flow reversal near either the inlet or the discharge of a centrifugal pump. This flow
reversal can produce cavitation-erosion damage that starts
on the high-pressure side of an impeller vane and proceeds
through the metal to the low-pressure side.6
Reliability tip: Operation outside the design range will
have some repercussions. There are no exceptions to this

immutable rule.
Pump internal recirculation can cause surging and cavitation, even when the NPSHa exceeds the manufacturers published NPSHr by considerable margins.79 Also, extensive damage to the pressure side of the impeller vanes has been observed
in pumps operating at reduced flowrates. These are the obvious results of recirculation; however, more subtle symptoms
and operational difficulties have been identified in pumps operating in the recirculation zone for extended periods.
The pumps behavior can be likened to that of a manual
transmission in an automobile. While a car can be driven 80
mph in first gear, it would be a mistake to do this for an hour
or so. Machines are built for operation within a finite design
range. As a final analogy, a small Piper Cub aircraft can be
flown 50 mph for as long as it has fuel; however, that speed
is not possible with a superbly designed Boeing 787at least

not at cruising altitudes.
LITERATURE CITED
This article is synthesized, with permission, from: Bloch, H. P., Pump Wisdom:
Problem Solving for Operators and Specialists, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, New
Jersey, 2011.
2
SKF USA Inc., Bearings in centrifugal pumps, Version 4, Kulpsville, Pennsylvania,
2008. Excerpted or adapted by permission of the copyright holder.
3
Emile Egger & Cie., Salt Lake City, Utah, and Cressier, Switzerland.
4
ITT/Goulds Pump Corp., Installation and Maintenance Manual for Model 3196
ANSI Pump, Seneca Falls, New York, 1990.
5
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., Publication HD30-04060, Tokyo, Japan, and
New York, New York.
6
World Pumps, February 2010, p. 19.
7
Fraser, W. H., Avoiding recirculation in centrifugal pumps, Machine Design, June
10, 1982.
8
Ingram, J. H., Pump reliabilityWhere do you start? ASME Petroleum
Mechanical Engineering Workshop and Conference, September 1981, Dallas,
Texas.
9
Bloch, H. P. and A. Budris, Pump Users Handbook, 3rd Ed., Fairmont Press,
Lilburn, Georgia, 2010.
1
HEINZ P. BLOCH is HPs reliability/equipment editor.

A practicing consulting engineer with 52 years of applicable
experience, he advises process plants worldwide on failure
analysis, reliability improvement and maintenance cost
avoidance. He has authored or co-authored 18 textbooks on
machinery reliability improvement and over 550 papers or
articles dealing with related subjects. More up-front reviews
of process compressors can be found in the most recent Bloch-Geitner book,
Compressors: How to achieve high reliability and availability, McGraw-Hill,
New York, New York, 2012.
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Special Report

A. STECKMEYER, B. FOURNIER, H. CHASSELIN and
C. MOUGEL, Manoir Industries, Pitres, France
Micro-alloyed steel: New standard

for reformer tubes
Reformer furnace tubes are designed to operate under
high temperature and pressure. Historically, these tubes exhibit improved creep resistance at higher temperatures. The
improvements in creep resistance are directly attributed to
micro-alloying elements that combine with the carbon in the
tube metallurgy to form carbides. These carbides strengthen
the tube metallurgy and limit creep deformation. Present and
future developments in heat-resistant alloys are discussed in
this article.
Background. In the production of syngas, methanol, ammo-
nia or hydrogen, the steam-reformer furnace is the heart of

the process. The furnace reformer tubes are designed with a
minimum service life of 100,000 hours at 950C, and under 30
bars of pressure. Under such operating conditions and thermal
cycles, reformer tubes are vulnerable to creep.
Creep-property improvements have been achieved by using
alloy elements (macro or micro) and combining them with the
carbon present in the tube metallurgy. Carbides are formed that
act as strengtheners, thus limiting creep deformation.1 However, creep deformation, although very low, will inevitably occur
and cause creep voids that are dispersed within the tube material, as shown in Step 1 of FIG. 1. These creep cavities will become progressively more numerous and grow in size, as shown
in Step 2 of FIG. 1. Eventually, the creep cavities will coalesce
to form microcracks, and then create macrocracks, which will
result in a tube failure, as illustrated in Steps 3 to 5 of FIG. 1.
Microcracks evolve into macrocracks, thus tube failures are
inevitable; however, this process can be both delayed and possibly predicted. The delay of creep rupture can be addressed
by working on the microstructure of the tube metallurgy and
using mechanical properties of the heat-resistant alloys. Prediction of creep failure is possible if proper nondestructive
techniques (NDTs) are used to evaluate tube damage on a very
reliable basis and to establish optimal revamp/replacement
schedule. Part of this mitigation process is to avoid, or delay,
the coalescence of carbides that occurs after long exposure to
high temperatures.
The starting point was using austenitic stainless steels (SS).

In fact, austenitic steels, with their face-centered cubic crystallographic structure, are well known for maintaining better
creep properties at higher temperatures than ferritic steels,
which have a base-centered cubic structure. Furthermore, austenitic steels are not subject to phase transformation during
temperature changes.
These two points largely explain why all heat-resistant steels
used in steam reformers and steam crackers (another high-temperature application requiring cast-spun tubes) are austenitic
SS. However, creep properties are not only ruled by crystallographic structure, but also by carbide size, spatial distribution
and thermal stability.
In creep-resistant steels, the role of carbides is to inhibit deformation mechanisms by preventing both the sliding of grain
boundaries and the gliding of dislocations. FIG. 2 shows how
dislocation glide is stopped on carbides and grain boundaries
in heat-resistant steel. The finer and more homogeneously distributed the carbides are, better the creep properties. Therefore, part of the continuous evolution of heat-resistant steels
has been to achieve more efficient carbides precipitation. To
have optimum properties, the carbide population must form
adequately and maintain itself during its service life. As shown
in FIG. 3, the growth and coalescence of carbides, due to temperature exposure, must be avoided.
Origin of creep resistance. One of the specific goals from
the continuous evolution of heat-resistant steels is to achieve

the highest creep properties at high service temperatures. A
deep understanding of the relationships between microstructure and mechanical properties is required.
FIG. 1. Failure of a reformer tube by coalescence of creep voids.


Primary carbideslarger interdendritic carbides. They
are formed during the rapid solidification of the alloy (by
centrifugal casting), as shown in FIG. 4a.3
Secondary carbides precipitate during the thermal aging
of the alloy. They form a finer and denser distribution of
obstacles to the dislocation glide, as shown in FIG. 4b.3
In the 1960s, the Cr to Ni ratio was optimized to enhance
creep properties, as well as to limit sensitivity to aging embrittlement and to improve carburization resistance. HK40 was progressively replaced by HP alloy, with still 25% Cr but 35% Ni.
FIG. 5 illustrates the disappearing of one brittle phase (sigma)
between HK40 and HP.
HP alloy is the mother alloy of the 25Cr/35Ni family. Since
then, the evolution of 25/35 steels has never stopped. Another
element, niobium (Nb) was introduced as an alloying element
and yielded HP-Nb alloys. The basic idea was to increase the operating temperature of HP alloys by improving the resistance of
carbides to coarsening and coalescence. Addition of Nb enables
forming new carbidesMC type, where M is mainly Nb, as well
as the modified structure of M7C3 and M23C6 carbides. The carbides have a higher stability at high temperatures, and, therefore,
have a better resistance to coarsening and coalescence.
The subsequent micro-additions of other carbide formers (Ti,
Zr, W) led to the HP-Nb-MA or micro-alloyed steels. Various alloys in these categories have been introduced to the market; 2535 Nb-MA is one of the most advanced micro-alloy steels. The
role of these micro-additions is to form even finer primary and
secondary carbides, with a higher resistance to coarsening.3
FIG. 2. Dislocation pinned on carbides and grain boundaries
For decades, the industry improved the creep properties of
in heat-resistant steel.
proprietary alloys. Over time, 25-35-Nb-MA has progressively
replaced 25-35-Nb. Even, 25-35-Nb-MA
has been continuously optimized via:
Adding common micro-additions
(Ti, Zr, W)
Improving the aging properties
by Mn- and Si-content adjustments
Introducing other elements such
as carbide formers (V and Ta),
rare earth (Y and Ce) or other
beneficial elements (Hf and B).
Micro-additions of rare earths are
known for obtaining a higher adherence
FIG. 3. Microstructure of HK40 in as-cast state (a) and after service (b). In aged state, primary
of oxide layers, which is very important
eutectic carbides have coalesced: their shape has become rounded and the lamellar eutectic
structure is no longer visible. Some creep voids and secondary carbides are also observed
for steam crackers.4, 5 They also help to
after service.2
improve high-temperature mechanical
properties by inhibiting the deleterious effects of sulfur segregation to grain
boundaries.6
Recently introduced carbide formers
will also form secondary carbides, even
smaller than the usual carbide formers
with sizes as small as 10 nm. FIG. 8 illustrates smaller carbides that form on the
existing defects of the crystalline structure (dislocations and stacking faults).
Also, they will act both as dislocation
barriers and nucleation sites for Cr carbides (FIG. 8). A more dispersed distribuFIG. 4. Microstructure of HP-Nb alloy: a) as-cast; b) after aging for 1,000 hr at 900C.3
tion of complex-Cr carbides is obtained.
Microstructural evolution of heat-resistant alloys. As
early as the 1950s, the first widely used alloy for reformer tube
application was HK40, which was basically an Fe-based alloy
composed of: 25% Cr to ensure creep and oxidation resistance,
20% Ni to maintain an austenitic structure, and 0.4% C. The
high carbon content, as compared to similar wrought alloy,
coupled with high-quantity Cr, leads to the formation of Cr
carbides. Two main categories of carbides coexisting in heatresistant austenitic SS are:

Adding new elements demands specific melting procedures
to protect the elements that are most likely to be oxidized. Melt
protection, as well as the use of sacrificial elements, is required.
The various evolutions have resulted in an advanced 25/35
Nb-MA alloy that is specifically designed for its high-creep resistance and tailored for reformers.a
mal stability of carbides but also to prevent the formation of undesirable phases such as sigma phase, G-phase, etc. The solid-solution strengthening is also a key to ensure good creep properties,
and it can only be achieved by a precise balance of all elements.
Such a statement implies that very wide ranges of chemical
compositions (e.g., a 6% range for Ni content as observed in
some published data) are clearly unrealistic to ensure specific
creep properties with reasonable ranges between minimum
(95% confidence interval) and average strengths. The wide
ranges are published to protect the know-how, which is arguable.
Equally unrealistic are specifications or suppliers claiming
to control undesirable elements, e.g., Bi to 5 ppm. Standard
production control apparatus for chemical composition can-
Increase in mechanical properties.

For example, FIGS. 10 and 11 represent the
100,000 hr of creep strength for several
heat-resistant alloys with respect to temperature. It shows the continuous increase
of properties from HK40 up to advanced
alloy of 25-35 Nb-Ma materials. This continuous improvement trend was driven by
optimizing chemical compositions, more
specifically, the carbide-forming elements
and their balance. Simply adding carbide
formers is not enough. Fine-tuning of the
general composition is necessary to ensure
the homogeneous distribution and ther-
BP,
BP,
Stability of carbides. Resistance of carbides can be observed

at two scales, which are concomitant in service: time scale and
temperature scale. As much as possible, carbides size should not
be modified by long-term exposures to high temperature.
Temperature effects can be deduced from infinitely long aging
treatments at different temperatures. They can also be deduced
from thermodynamic calculations, simu1.0
1.0
lating the equilibrium state reached after an
0.9
0.9
infinitely long time at a given temperature.
Austenite
Austenite
0.8
0.8
FIG. 9 shows the thermodynamic calculaLiquid
Liquid
0.7
0.7
Sigma
Sigma
tions using commercially available soft0.6
0.6
Cr23C6
Cr23C6
ware. The results illustrate that the stability
Cr7C3
Cr7C3
0.5
0.5
domain of M23C6-type carbides has been
0.4
0.4
extended with grade evolution from HP
0.3
0.3
to HP-Nb and then to advanced alloy of
0.2
0.2
25-35 Nb-Ma. It also shows that MC-type
0.1
0.1 bcc
0.0
0.0
carbides have an even higher temperature
500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300
500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300
limit, as shown in FIG. 6. If the operating
Temperature, C
Temperature, C
temperature is higher than the maximum
(left) and HP (right) indicating the disappearance
temperature for the given carbide, it will FIG. 5. Thermodynamic calculations of HK40
of sigma phase precipitation in HP alloy.b
eventually dissolve within the matrix.
Below the higher temperature limit,
carbides are stable on a thermodynamic
basis. However, their size and distribution
will evolve over time. At the very beginning of aging, the carbides will precipitate
and grow. This precipitation rate is commonly proportional to the square root
of time. Then, the carbides will start to
coalesce; larger carbides will grow at the
expense of the smaller ones that eventually disappear. This growth increases as
the carbides become larger in size.7 Thus,
the smaller initial carbides have a higher
resistance to coalescence. As shown in FIG. FIG. 6. SEM observation and corresponding EDX spectrums of both Cr and Nb carbides in aged
8, rare earths form very small carbides and HP-Nb alloy.
are more resistant to coalescence.
FIG. 7. Ti carbides observed in a heat-resistant alloy containing 0.02 wt% Ti.


not simply ensure such very low levels. If the deleterious effect
of various elements (Pb, Bi, Sn, etc.) is definitely proven and
admitted by the industry, the actual acceptable boundaries are
generally on the order of 20 ppm, 50 ppm or 100 ppm.
The control of micro additions is much easier since the
quantities involved are greater than 0.01%. The key points are
related to the elaboration process during fusion/melting and

the balance between all of the elements. Present alloys take their
creep resistance from a combination of several micro-alloying
elements such as Ti, Zr, Ta, W, etc. As Ti is now widely known,
recognized and used, then simply having a lot of it is definitely
not enough, and it may even be a negative. If correctly introduced, dispersed, combined and balanced with other carbide
builders, even a Ti content as low as 0.02% can be enough to
ensure the desired creep strength.
How to assess creep resistance. To plot a creep curve, actu-
al creep tests are conducted. Design conditions require predicted lifetimes of at least 100,000 hr, and, more often, 200,000 hr
or 300,000 hr of testing is preferred. Knowing that 100,000 hr
represents more than 11 years of reformer tube service, the
usual extrapolation practices (e.g., according to Dutch Stoomwezen code) allow a factor of 3 between the actual data and
extrapolated creep curves.
Accordingly, these curves need to be based on some testing
of at least 33,000 hr in addition to the usual short-term (100 hr)
creep tests. Of course, such very long-term properties at very
high temperatures are the most difficult to verify. Due to this
reason, third-party testing by independent laboratories for at
least mid-term (> 1,000 hr) durations is so important to assess
the relevance and seriousness of a creep curve.
The Larson Miller curves enable gathering within a given
range of temperatures the various stress/lifetime obtained by
testing. A Larson Miller curve that is more like a line rather
FIG. 8. TEM and SEM observations of multiple shape carbides.

A complex structure of Cr carbides growing on tantalum carbides
can be observed in b).
1,350
TABLE 1. Possible ways to utilize the advanced 25-35 Nb Ma

alloy in reformer furnaces
Maximum temperature, C
1,300
25-35 Nb MA
1,250
Base case
Same
Decreased
25-35 Nb-MA dimensions
OD
1,200
1,150
1,100
1,050
M23C6 in HP M23C6 in HP-Nb M23C6 in XM
MC in HP
MC in HP-Nb
MC in XM
FIG. 9. Maximum temperature of various carbides determined

by thermodynamic calculations.
Increased
ID
OD
144.6
144.6
142.2
144.6
ID
121
121
121
122.6
Thickness
11
11
9.8
10.2
Weight
606
606
547
573
Length
13,500
13,500
13,500
13,500
Catalyst volume
100
100
100
103%
Calculated life, hr
100,000
210,300
100,000
100,000
50
50
HP Micro minimum
25/35 Nb-Ma-R minimum
HP mod minimum
HK-40 minimum
870
890
910
930
950
970
Temperature, C
990
1,010
1,030
Stress, MPa
Stress, MPa
HP Micro
25/35 Nb-Ma-R
HP mod
HK-40
HP-40
5
850
Advanced alloy of 25-35 Nb MA
1,050
FIG. 10. Average 100,000-hr creep strength of refractory alloys used

for catalyst tubes, from HK40 to an advanced alloy of 25/35 Nb-MA.a
5
850
870
890
910
930
950
970
Temperature, C
990
1,010
1,030
1,050
FIG. 11. Minimum 100,000-hr creep strength of refractory alloys used

for catalyst tubes, from HK40 to advanced alloy of 25/35 Nb-MA.a

than a curve and is very straight over a large temperature
range is often an indication that this curve is probably vastly
extrapolated.
The Larson Miller parameter (LMP) creep curve for the
advanced alloy of 25-35 Nb-Ma is based on internal creep data
obtained from a random sampling of data sets and manufacturer data on different tube thicknesses and conducted by independent laboratories (TNO-NL) within two separate studies for durations from 200 hr to much more than 1,000 hr, as
shown in FIG. 12. This curve is conservative and pessimistic on
its right side (where collecting data is long and expensive) and
shows a drop for high LMP values.
Consequences of improved creep strength. The con-
tinuous improvement of creep properties from HK40 to an

advanced alloy of 25-35 Nb-Ma can be used in several ways to
optimize furnace design, as summarized in TABLE 1. If the tube
dimensions are unchanged, then the furnace lifetime will simply be extended by up to twice the original service life. The
payback will be in several years. Furthermore, using extra service life is also a way for the tube to be more robust and able to
sustain unpredicted overheating, thus increasing the reliability
of the furnace during excursions from design operating conditions. The unexpected overheating does occur, and often.
50
in the high LMP range is limited and safety margins are continuously reduced due to cost optimization, a conservative
approach is needed. No matter how detailed and severe the
quality controls can be (e.g., eddy current, x-rays, mechanical
testing, etc.), no NDT is perfect. In an industry where a clear
trend to larger and more concentrated plants exists, a single
failure can have severe consequences.
Therefore, optimizing the equipment to the ultimate design by making first-hand savings may be a very short-sighted
approach. It is actually safer to stick to actual and proven data
and to avoid obvious extrapolations. Reliability of key components is necessary for long-term investments and should not
be only driven by price.
Stress, MPa
Designing the equipment. As the number of data points
25/35 Nb-Ma-R minimum

HP Micro average
First independent tests, 4 heats
Second independent tests, 1 heat, thick tube
31
32
33
34
35
36
LMP = T(K)(22.96 + log(Tf)/1,000 with Tf in hours
37
38
FIG. 12. Comparison of independent creep tests with manufacturers

creep curves for five different heats.
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Considering the very long run lengths for furnaces, the initial design conditions may be underestimated as compared to
Microalloys have become an industry

standard in the supply of reformer tubes.
The selection of those alloying elements
is vital in mitigating creep resistance.
New alloy materials for reformer tubes
are gaining momentum.
the yield and production rates needed after 5, 10 or 15 years
after design. Result: Having a slight over-thickness at the beginning of the furnace service life may be a flexibility advantage over the long term.
To take advantage of these improved creep properties, a
smaller tube wall thickness can lower the initial equipment
cost and/or increase the available catalyst volumes and thus
raising plant yield. In addition, to these obvious economic advantages, reducing the tube thickness will significantly reduce
the sensitivity to thermal shocks that may arise under abnormal operating conditions. A very detailed study demonstrated
that the wall thickness reduction allowed by changing HK40
to 25-35 Nb-MA type led to thermal stress gradients (between
inner and outer diameters) reduced from more than 50 MPa

to less than 10 MPa.8 Further improvement is provided by
advanced new alloy of 25-35 Nb-MA, which adds
reliability and robustness to the furnace. Continuously improving creep properties can offer several
options to furnace designers and users, enabling a
compromise between investment savings, and improving production and furnace robustness.
Bi
B
C
Ce
Cr
Hf
Fe
Pb
Mn
Ni
NOMENCLATURE
Bismuth
Nb
Boron
Si
Carbon
Ta
Cerium
Sn
Chromium
Ti
Hafnium
W
Iron
V
Lead
Y
Manganese
Zr
Nickle
Niobium
Silicon
Tantalum
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Vanadium
Yttrium
Zirconium
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank H. Van Wortel and H. Van de Veer from TNO for their fruitful discussions.
NOTES
25/35 Nb-MA R (Manaurite XMR grade), specifically designed for its high
creep resistance and therefore dedicated to steam-reformer applications by
Manoir Industries.
b
Thermodynamic calculations were done using ThermoCalc software.
c
Manoirs creep curves were done on five different heats.
a
LITERATURE CITED
Sourmail, T., Precipitation in creep resistant austenitic steels, Materials Science
and Technology, No. 17, pp. 114, 2001.
2
Kaya, A. A., Microstructure of HK40 alloy after high-temperature service in
oxidizing/carburizing environment, II Carburization and carbides transformation, Materials Characterization, No. 49 pp. 2334, 2002.
3
Almeida, L. H., et al., Microstructural characterization of modified 25Cr-35Ni
centrifugally cast steel furnace tubes, Materials Characterization, No. 49, pp.
219229, 2003.
4
Cueff, et al., Influence of yttrium-alloying addition on the oxidation of alumina
formers at 1173K, Oxidation of Metals, pp. 439455, 2002.
5
Shao, et al., Effect of cerium addition on oxidation behaviour of 25Cr20Ni
alloy under low oxygen partial pressure, Journal of Rare Earths, no. 30, pp.164
169, 2012.
6
Chen, et al., Effect of rare earth element yttrium addition on microstructures
and properties of 21Cr-11Ni austenitic stainless steel, Materials and Design, no.
32, pp. 22062212, 2011.
7
Lifshitz, et al., The kinetics of precipitation from supersaturated solid solutions, Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids, No. 19, pp. 3550, 1961.
8
Mohri, T., et al., Application of advanced material for catalyst tubes for steam
reformers, AIChE Ammonia Symposium, October 1992.
1
ANTONIN STECKMEYER is a metallurgical engineer in the R&D department of

Manoir Petrochemical and Nuclear division. He is in charge of the development of
new alloys, both for enhanced creep and anticoking performances. Dr. Steckmeyer
is also in charge of casting and solidification simulations. Before joining Manoir in
2012, he worked previously on nanostructured steels designed for nuclear reactors
cladding, for which he obtained a PhD from Ecole des Mines Paris.
HUGUES CHASSELIN is the vice president for technical sales and support for
Manoir. He has been involved in high-temperature materials. Graduating from
the French Foundry Engineering School, he joined Manoir Industries 23 years ago
to run the US production at that time. Now back in France, he has spent the last
20 years in manufacturing, sales and technical interface with customers, visiting
ethylene and reforming furnaces around the world. As VP for technical support
and services, he works with customers to understand their needs and market
Manoirs latest products, technologies and manufacturing plants. He also oversees
a team of project managers.
66
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AGENDA DAY 2: Wednesday, 25 June 2014

8:309:15 a.m.
CONTINENTAL BREAKFAST
9:159:30 a.m.
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KEYNOTE ADDRESS: Biorenery and simplex renery: An innovative approach for the future of downstream - Giacamo Rispoli, Executive Vice President, Research
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10:1510:45 a.m.
COFFEE BREAK
TRACK 1: REFINING
TRACK 3: CLEAN FUELS/BIOFUELS
Session 2: Process Technology/ Process Optimization

Session Chair: Giacomo Fossataro*, General Manager,
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Session 3: Biofuels
Session Chair: Ajit Sapre*, Group President, Research
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11:0511:25 a.m.
12:0512:25 p.m.
12:251:25 p.m.
LUNCH
TRACK 1: REFINING
1:251:45 p.m.
2014 IRPC SPEAKERS INCLUDE:
TRACK 2: PETROCHEMICALS
Session 1: Process Technology/Process Optimization

Session Chair: Syamal Poddar*, President,
Poddar and Associates
Session 4: Heavy Oil

Session Chair: TBD
Session 5: Renery/Petrochem Integration

Session Chair: Eric Benazzi*, Marketing Director, Axens
Session 6: Clean Fuels

Session Chair: TBD
The move to higher value transportation fuels from

residual fuel oil - Ronald L. Dickenson, President,
SFA Pacific
The value of naptha in steam cracking - Duncan Seddon,

Director, Duncan Seddon & Associates Pty. Ltd.,
New solutions for clean fuels production, PRIS

technology - Oleg Parputc, R&D Director, RRT Global, Inc.
MICHAEL SILVERMAN
Senior V.P., Downstream Technology
& Chief Technology Officer
Ivanhoe Energy
RAMANA MURTHY
Specialist, Process
Kuwait National Petroleum Company
C.H. RAMA KRUSHNA CHARY

Environment Engineer
Kuwait Oil Company
CARLO ZAFFARONI
Ph.D. P.E., Industrial Water
& Process Director, Europe
CH2MHILL S.r.l.
FIORENZO GUITINI
Downstream Service
Engineering Manager
GE Oil & Gas
SUDHAKARA BABU MARPUDI

Sohar Renery
Oman Reneries and Petroleum
Industries Company
BRUCE R. BEADLE
Engineering Specialist
Saudi Aramco
VERONIQUE REICH
Principal Process Engineer
Technip E&C Ltd
JUANA FRONTELA DELGADO

Rening R&D Controller
CEPSA - Compaa Espaola
de Petrleos`
VISHWANTH DASARI
Inspection Engineer
Indian Oil Corporation
Limited (IOCL)
AGENDA DAY 2: Wednesday, 25 June 2014 (Continued)

1:452:05 p.m.
Road map for designing a heavy crude refinery: A case

study - Ahmad al Majed, Team Leader - Process and
Ramana Murthy, Specialist - Process, Kuwait National
Petroleum Company
TRACK 1: REFINING
Refinery / ethylene plant integration through refinery offGas (ROG) - Nick Rogers, Ethylene Technology Consultant,
and Veronique Reich, Principal Process Engineer,
Technip E&C Ltd
Assessment of cost and emissions as a function of

abatement options in maritime emission control areas Dr. Haakon Lindstad, Ph. D, MARINTEK, Norwegian Marine
technology Research Institute
2:052:25 p.m.
The competitiveness of western Canadian oil sands in

North American and international markets: opportunities
and challenges - Duke Du Plessis, Senior Advisor &
Research Manager, Alberta Innovates-Energy and
Environment Solutions
Value addition through refinery and petrochemical

integration- Vineet Bakshi, Senior Process EngineerStrategy & Business Development and Vinay Gupta, Deputy
Process Manager- Strategy & Business Development,
Engineers India Limited
Biocrude production from microalgae and

characterization of TBP distillates of algal biocrude
blend, Dr. A. Meenakshisundaram, Chennai Petroleum
Corporation Ltd.
2:252:45 p.m.
The future of heavy oil - Michael Silverman, Senior V.P.Downstream Technology & Chief Technology Officer,
Ivanhoe Energy
Latest advances and applications of high performance

trays in the mass transfer technology for the refining and
petrochemical industry - Francesco Pezzotti, Technical Sales
Area Manager, Baretti Mefe
Benets of a FEL based planning on renery expansion

project - Juan Manuel Anzaldo Trejo, Process Engineer,
Instituto Mexicano del Petrleo
2:453:05 p.m.
Reactivity and stability of vacuum residual oils in

their thermal conversion - Dicho Stratiev, Chief Process
Engineer, Lukoil Neftohim Burgas
Petrochemicals: An opportunity for refiners Stefano Zerinder, Senior Consultant Global Refining
& Petrochemical Feedstocks, ICIS Consulting
3:053:35 p.m.
A cloud based tool blend optimizer management

and real-time monitoring of the production of
bio-fuels - Chebre Meriam, Senior APC Engineer,
Total Refining Chemicals
COFFEE BREAK
TRACK 1: REFINING
TRACK 3: WATER MANAGEMENT
Session 7: Revamp/Upgrading/Emerging Technology

Session Chair: TBD
Session 8: Process Technology

Session Chair: Stephany Romanow*, Editor,
Hydrocarbon Processing
Session 9: Water Management

Session Chair: TBD
3:353:55 p.m.
Revamping your crude distillation unit for maximal energy

efficiency & uptime - Eva Andersson, Refinery Market
Manager, Alfa Laval
Replace heavy reformate clay treaters with a selective

hydrogenation unit - Bruce R. Beadle, Engineering
Specialist, Saudi Aramco
Treatment and management of wastewater in refineries

for a sustainable environment a QP refinery approach
- Nadim Shakir, Senior Products Engineer, Qatar Petroleum
3:554:15 p.m.
Optimizing operational parameters around coke drums,

based on inputs from health monitoring system - A.S.
Sahney, Chief Technical Services Manager, and N.
Venkatesh, Indian Oil Corporation, Ltd., Gujarat Refinery
Case Study: Reduction of shutdowns from every 6 months

to 4 years through installation of SAF2707 in the overhead
condensers - Eduardo Perea, Global Technical MarketingTube, Sandvik Materials Technology
Zero liquid discharge best practicable environmental

option? - Carol Butcher, Principal Consultant Environment
and Sustainability, Foster Wheeler UK
MericatTM J: A new kerosene treating technology to meet jet

fuel specifications - Karl Bussey, Senior Technical Services
Engineer, Merichem Company
Operational excellence opportunities - plant optimization

and decision support systems - Vikas Deshmukh, Senior
Technical Advisor, KBR Technology
State of the art waste water treatment plant with innovative

solutions for BAPCO refinery in Bahrain - Carlo Zaffaroni,
Ph.D. P.E., Industrial Water & Process Director Europe,
CH2MHILL S.r.l.
Using membranes to recover valuable hydrocarbons - new

applications in refinery processing - Nick Wynn, Chief
Operating Officer, Membrane Technology & Research Inc.
SDs integrated ethanol to EO/ EG process - Sanjeev Goyal,

Project Manager, Scientific Design Company, Inc.
Shaping the future of the water industry breakthrough

technology in water desalination and waste water
treatment - Dr. Emad Aljuraifani, General Manager,
Future Resources Co. Ltd
Innovative advancements in delay coking equipment David Anderson, Refinery Market Manager, DeltaValve,
a Curtiss-Wright Company
Role assessment of major process parameters impacting

PDH economics - Salahudheen Ottayil, Senior Optimization
Engineer, National Petrochemical Industrial Company
Water recovery and recycle in the PVC production: a novel

approach using membrane technology - Frank Lipnizki,
Business Manager, Alfa Laval-Business Centre Membranes
4:154:35 p.m.
4:354:55 p.m.
4:555:15 p.m.
5:15 p.m.
CLOSING REMARKS
2014 IRPC EXHIBITORS INCLUDE:
AGENDA DAY 3: Thursday, 26 June 2014

8:309:15 a.m.
CONTINENTAL BREAKFAST
9:159:30 a.m.
OPENING REMARKS: Stephany Romanow, Editor, Hydrocarbon Processing
9:3010:15 a.m.
KEYNOTE ADDRESS: Reshaping of rening landscape in Europe - Bakheet Al-Rashidi, CEO and President, Kuwait Petroleum International
10:1510:45 a.m.
Eni Green Renery project in Venice - Claudia Prati, eni S.p.A.
10:4511 a.m.
COFFEE BREAK
TRACK 1: REFINING
Session 10: Optimization/Efficiency

Session Chair: Andrea Amoroso*, Vice President, Process Technology, eni S.p.A
Session 11: Maintenance/Reliability/Corrosion

Session Chair: David Bridgeman*, Global Licensing Manager, GTC Technology US, LLC
1111:20 a.m.
Integrating assay knowledge management with process simulation to create a

competitive advantage and increase profitability - Joseph McMullen, Simsci Prooduct
Marketing, Invensys
Quality team as a support function for maintenance in plant turn-around - Tuomas Ouni,
Expert, Phenol and Hydrocarbon Technologies, Borealis Polymers Oy
11:2011:40 a.m.
Increasing of the gasoline productivity at Azzawia refinery using pyrolysis gasoline Jamal B. Rashed and Ezeddine Muftah, Researcher, Libyan Petroleum Institute (LPI)
Understanding corrosion under insulation (CUI) coatings, reliable and simple, but choose
correctly - Miles Buckhurst, Global Concept Director HPI, Jotun AS.
11:40 a.m.12
p.m.
Optimizing refinery assets by integrating characterization, optimization and simulation

technologies in a common platform shared by planning and scheduling tools - Aurelio
Ferrucci, Executive V.P., PROMETHEUS S.r.l.
Causes and prevention of corrosion on the interior surface of metal jacketing used on
mechanical insulation - Jim Young, Technical Director, ITW Insulation Systems
1212:20 p.m.
Refineries need to adapt: imbalances between crude oil quality and refinery configuration
offer opportunities to improve refinery profitability - W. Paul Ruwe, Group Manager, and Peter
Bartlett, Group Manager, Jacobs Consultancy, Inc.
Stress corrosion cracking in SS 316 steam coil - Vishwanth Dasari and Bijay K. Muduli,
Inspection Manager, Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL)
Improved turnaround Management - a sure shot formula for profitability Sudhakara Babu Marpudi, Sohar Refinery, Oman Refineries and Petroleum
Industries Company
FCC special valves: best practices to increase performance, reliability and service
life - Mauro Natalini, Deputy Manager- Valve Engineering, Remosa Valves
12:2012:40 p.m.
12:401 p.m.
Maximize power efficiency and protability through medium voltage electric

heating technology - Christopher Molnar, Vice President of Industrial Heaters
& Systems, Chromalox, Inc.
Energy benchmarking to increase energy efficiency - Mark Eggleston,

Phillip Townsend Associates
12 p.m.
LUNCH
TRACK 1: REFINING
Session 12: Catalysts

Session Chair: Doug Kelly*, Vice President, Rening, KBR Technology
Session 13: Equipment/Instrumentation/Management

Session Chair: TBD
Increasing profitability via hydroprocessing flexibility and know-how Robert Wade, Staff Engineer, Advanced Refining Technologies
Steam turbines and centrifugal compressors efficiency and reliability improvements in

ethylene plant upgrade - Fiorenzo Guitini, Downstream Service Engineering Manager,
GE Oil & Gas
Commercial experience of operating FCC unit with low catalyst-to-feed ratio and the
reduced REO content in the catalysts - M.I. Levinbuk, Chief Researcher, Topchiev Institute
of Petrochemical Synthesis, RAS
Wireless monitoring of rotating equipment using intelligent sensors with mobile

capability - Dale Winterhoff, Principal Engineer and Rick Lawson, Director of Product
Management, Flowserve Corporation
2:403 p.m.
Symphony, the next generation family of higher performance reforming catalysts Xavier Decoodt, Head of Reforming Hydrogenation Catalysts and Absorbents, Axens
Condition monitoring of complex petrochemical system through acoustic emission

evaluation - Alberto Monici, Electronics Engineer, ETS Sistemi industriali Srl
33:20 p.m.
Filtrex s.r.l. ACR filtration technology ensures longer catalyst life and cycle lengths of key
refinery process units - Riolo Nicola, Business Director, FILTREX S.r.l.
An overview of energy management system (ISO 50001) with its implementation plan C.H. Rama Krushna Chary, Environment Engineer, Kuwait Oil Company
22:20 p.m.
2:202:40 p.m.
3:203:50 p.m.
COFFEE BREAK
TRACK 1: REFINING
3:504:10 p.m.
4:104:30 p.m.
Session 14: Maintenance/Reliability

Session Chair: Faisal M. Faqeer*, RT Renery Engineering Manager, Saudi Aramco
Session 15: Feedstocks

Session Chair: TBD
Upgrading a CDU main fractionator with innovative mass transfer components Guiseppe Mosca, Refinery Global Application Manager, Sulzer Chemtech
Go Light: The impact of feedslate shifts on fouling in steam crackers

Jessica M. Hancock, Industry Development Manager-Europe, Russia, Africa,
Nalco Champion, an Ecolab Company
Using handheld x-ray uorescence to predict and prevent suldation corrosion

failures - Mark Lessard, Thermo Fisher Scientific
Petrochemicals from non-conventional feedstock regarding North American shale

gas - Bernhard Kneissel, Global Head- Industrial Chemistry, Stratley AG
4:30 p.m.
CLOSING REMARKS
*2014 Advisory Board Member
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Special Report

J. THARAKAN and M. ANISUZZAMAN,
Suncor Energy Inc., Calgary, Canada
Evaluate piping for displacement-controlled loading

In a Canadian case study, new piping under construction
suffered some settlement in the underground portion, as evidenced by soil movement and slight deflection of the aboveground section of the piping. One of the flange joints on the
line was broken to assess the amount of strain in the joint. The
joint sprung open with a wide gap that was far in excess of acceptable flange alignment tolerances. This situation warranted
an engineering assessment to evaluate the risk. The piping design details are as follows:
Design code: Canadian Standards Association
(CSA) Z662
Design pressure: 500 psig
Design temperature: 140F
Original minimum design metal temperature
(MDMT): 49F
Material specification for the pipe: API X52 pipe
(yield stress: 52,000 psi)
Pipe size: 16-inch (in.) outside diameter (OD)
0.375-in. thickness
No post-weld heat treatment.
Piping and flange integrity concerns. The aboveground
piping with the opened flange joint is shown in FIG. 1. Measured vs. allowable alignment tolerance at this flange is presented in TABLE 1.
Bolting misaligned flanges together introduces residual
loads and moments into the piping system. In this case study,
flange leakage was recognized as a great risk, and so the engineering assessment was limited to aboveground piping with
flange joints. Hydrotesting was considered an adequate check
for the underground piping.
To evaluate the stresses in the piping and to assess the forces
at the flange, the piping was modeled using proprietary stressanalysis software. If the aboveground piping is treated as two
sections, A and B, then the total flange gap of 2.1 in. should be
the sum of the deflections at the end flanges of A and B.
The deflections will be inversely proportional to the stiffness of the pipe sections A and B:
(DA + DB ) = 2.1 in., and (DA DB ) = (KB KA )
Several load cases were analyzed using stress-analysis software:

1. WNC + D1: Installation case (weight with no contents
and with displacement)
2. W + D1 + T1 + P1: Maximum operating temperature
case with displacement
3. W + D1 + T3 + P1: Minimum operating temperature case
with displacement (for brittle fracture calculation)
4. W + D1 + T4 + P1: Minimum operating temperature
case with displacement (for brittle fracture calculation)
5. Expansion case: (W + D1 + T1 + P1) (W+ P1).
In these load cases, T1 = 140F, T3 = 49F and T4 = 40F.
An installation temperature of 14F was used for the assessment.
The additional stresses introduced in the piping by externally applied forces, used in aligning the flanges, are secondary
stresses. CSA Z662 uses Eq. 2 for estimating operating stress:
= [PD (4t) + MA Z + i MC Z]
(2)
where:
P = Pressure
i
= Stress intensification factor (SIF)
MA = Moments due to primary loads (sustained loads)
TABLE 1. Measured vs. allowable alignment tolerance at
opened ange joint in aboveground piping
Item
ASME PCC-1
tolerance, in.
Measured
tolerance, in.
Gap, max./min.
0.03125
0.85
Max. lateral offset at ange OD
0.0625
0.96
Spacing between the anges
0.25
2.1 (max. gap used)
(1)
where DA and DB are the displacements, and KA and KB represent the stiffness measurements.
DA and DB were computed using Eq. 1, and the displacement stress at both A and B were evaluated. Section B, shown
in FIG. 2, was found to have maximum stresses. For this reason,
detailed analysis was restricted to this section.
FIG. 1. Underground/aboveground transition section.


MC = Moments due to secondary loads (displacementcontrolled loading)
D = Pipe outside diameter
t
= Pipe thickness
Z = Section modulus.
When SIF is equated to unity, the peak stress component
will be removed, and the resulting stresses are primary and secondary stresses.
If resulting compressive strains due to primary and secondary

stresses are less than the compressive strain capacity of the
pipes, then there is no risk of buckling.
Among the loading scenarios, the installation case produces
the highest compressive stress of 37,085 psi (bending stress
at node 70 with SIF = 1). Compressive strain = compressive
stress modulus of elasticity, and is shown in Eq. 3:
Failure analysis. There are several possible reasons for piping
The ultimate compressive strain (Eq. C-13 in CSA Z662) is:
failure, and a failure analysis must be performed for each case.

Plastic collapse. The aboveground piping did not reveal
any visible deformation after the flange assembly. However,
there could be residual stresses in the line resulting from displacement-controlled loading. These stresses are secondary
stresses. Due to their self-limiting nature, secondary stresses
cannot cause a plastic collapse.
Pipe buckling. Bending causes tensile stresses at the outer
curvature, and compressive stresses at the inner curvature.
Only compressive stresses have a tendency to cause buckling.
FIG. 2. Piping section B.
Failure assessment diagram (FAD): DPHI = 90
1.3
(0.16, 1.05)
Toughness ratio, Kr
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
The allowable compressive strain is ec c (Eq. C-12 in

CSA Z662), where ec is the resistance factor for compressive
strain and is equal to 0.8. The allowable compressive strain is
ec c, or 0.8 0.0092 = 0.0074 = 0.74%. The calculated
compressive strain of 0.13% is less than the allowable compressive strain of 0.74%. Therefore, buckling is unlikely.
Fatigue failure. Only cyclic loads contribute to fatigue.
The displacement applied to align the flange is not cyclic in
nature; therefore, no specific fatigue evaluation is required.
The code expansion case is primarily used as a check against
fatigue failure:
Expansion stress SE = 22,400 psi
Code allowable stress SA = 37,489 psi
Since SE < SA, it passes the design.
Brittle fracture. This evaluation is carried out using proprietary engineering assessment software, as per API 579-1/
ASME FFS-1.2 Brittle fracture assessment requires an estimation of the stress intensity factor driving the crack. The primary and secondary stresses have different impacts on the stress
intensity factor. For this reason, these components should be
individually estimated.
The operating stress is calculated in Eq. 5:
(5)
Therefore, the operating stress at 49F = 49,941 psi. [PD

(4t) + M A Z] is sustained stress, which is the primary stress.
The primary stress equals 8,060 psi.
The secondary stress component is obtained by subtracting the primary stress from the operating stress; i.e., 49,941
8,060 = 41,881 psi. The residual stress at the weld is also a secondary stress, which is separately estimated by the engineering
assessment software using rules in API 579-1, Appendix E.
Since the pipe welds are not heat treated, weld residual stresses
are as high as yield strength.
The fracture toughness required for the assessment is estimated from Charpy impact test results and the yield strength
of the material. At 49F, the material met a minimum Charpy
V-notch number of 15 ft-lb, and the minimum specified yield
strength y = 52,000 psi.
Lower-bound fracture toughness was calculated using the
Welding Research Council 265 correlation:
1.1
0.0
0.0
(3)
c = 0.5 (t D) 0.0025 + 3,000 [(Pi Pe) D 2tE)]2

= 0.5 (0.375 16) 0.0025 + 0 = 0.0092
(4)
= [PD (4t) + MA Z + MC Z], when SIF = 1
1.2
1.0
cf = E = 37,085 28,000,000 = 0.0013 = 0.13%
0.6 0.7
Load ratio, Lr
0.8
0.9
1.0
FIG. 3. Failure assessment diagram with (Lr, Kr) at 49F.
1.1
1.2
1.3
Klc = (2 y) (CVN y 0.01) = 2

52 (15 52 0.01) = 45 ksi in.
where Klc = fracture toughness.
(6)

A crack-like flaw was assumed, as per the rules in ASME
Section 8, Division 2/API 579-1 for MDMT determination
using a fracture mechanics approach. The crack location, orientation and size are as follows:
Location: A surface-breaking flaw originating
from the OD surface
Orientation: Parallel to the circumferential weld
Flaw depth: 0.09375 in. (flaw depth is 25% of
the thickness)
Flaw length 2C: 0.5625 in. (six times the depth).
Brittle fracture assessment requires a failure assessment
diagram (FAD), which depicts the interaction between two
failure modes, namely plastic collapse (represented by Lr) and
brittle fracture (represented by Kr). If (Lr, Kr) falls below the
FAD, it passes assessment.
Running engineering-assessment software for an assessment
temperature of 49F yielded a (Lr, Kr) that fell above the FAD
(FIG. 3). A value of Kr > 1 clearly indicated a risk of brittle fracture.
The exercise was repeated with an assessment temperature
of 40F, with primary and secondary stresses of 8,060 psi and
41,261 psi, respectively. The fracture toughness at 40F was
calculated using Eqs. 710:
Klc = 33.2 + 2.806 exp [0.02 (T Tref + 100)]
Tref = 28.7F when solved using Klc =
45 ksi in. for T = 49F
T = 40F and Tref = 28.7F
(7)
(8)
(9)
Klc = 49.7 ksiin.
(10)
The fracture mechanics assessment resulted in (Lr, Kr) =

(0.16, 0.88), which fell below the FAD. Therefore, 40F is acceptable as the MDMT.
Local failure. When tensile strain exceeds allowable limits,
and it manifests as a rupture, local failure occurs. CSA Z662
establishes strain limits per principles of fracture mechanics,
which is a rigorous procedure. Instead of utilizing the limits
outlined in CSA Z662, local failure was ruled out using alternative reasoning. CSA Z662 allows an installation strain of 2.5%
(primary and secondary strains). The primary and secondary
tensile stresses are the highest for the operating case at 40F,
which is 49,321 psi. This translates to a strain of just 0.18%.
Flange leakage. Several methods exist for calculating the risk
of flange leakage.
Equivalent pressure method. The axial force and moment
at the flange at operating conditions are converted to an equivalent pressure in this method. Stress-analysis software performs
this calculation, and its computation is shown in Eq. 11:
Equivalent pressure Pe = (16M 3.14G 3) +
(4Fa 3.14G 2) + P
(11)
where M is the resultant moment in in.-lb, Fa is the axial force

in lb, P is the internal pressure and G is the effective gasket diameter. Therefore:
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Pe = 16 173,674 12 (3.14 17.443) + 4
23,463 (3.14 17.442) + 500 = 2,600 psi
(12)
There are several possible reasons

for piping failure, and a failure analysis
must be performed for each case.
This result is higher than the 716 psig allowed at the design
temperature of 140F for a Class 300 flange. Therefore, the
equivalent pressure method indicates a risk of flange leakage.
ASME B31.8 flange leakage calculation. In this calculation, the allowable moment for flange leakage is ML = (C 4)
(SbAb PAp). The Class 300, 16-in. flange has 20 bolts of size
1 in. The tensile area of the bolt is 1 in. In this calculation:
Ab = Total area of flange bolts, in.2 = 20 1 in.2 = 20 in.2
Ap = Area to outside of gasket contact = 4 (18.25)2
= 261.5 in.2
C = Bolt circle, in. = 21.25 in.
P = Internal pressure = 500 psi
Bolt stress Sb = 50,000 0.7 = 35,000 psi, where
50,000 psi is the initial bolt stress, and the factor 0.7
is used to account for a joint relaxation of 30%.
Therefore, ML = (21.25 4) (35,000 20 500 261.5)
= 3,024,140 in.-lb = 252,012 ft-lb.
The maximum bending moment in the flange from the
stress-analysis softwares operating case is 173,674 ft-lb. This is
less than the allowable flange moment of 252,012 ft-lb. Therefore, this method predicts that flange leakage is unlikely.
Modified flange leakage calculation. Since two common
methods for flange leakage predicted contradicting results, an
attempt was made to develop an alternate flange leakage calculation. This calculation is a modification of the ASME B31.8 leakage equation integrating principles from ASME PCC-1. When
the external moment is less than ML, the gasket seating stress
will be adequate. The modified equation is shown in Eq. 13:
The bending moment in the flange equals 173,674 ft-lb,

which is 3% larger than calculated ML , indicating a slight risk
of flange leakage. The leakage risk can be minimized
by retorquing the flanges to a bolt stress of 50,000 psi.
Bolt and flange stress limits. External alignment
devices, such as come-alongs, will be used to align the
flanges. When the alignment devices are removed after tightening the nuts, some changes in the bolt loads
may occur, although they will not be substantial.3, 4
Based on finite-element analysis results,4 it is
known that external moments have maximum influence on the longitudinal hub stress. The gap between mating
flanges was measured after releasing the come-alongs to rule out
flange rotation that might result from hub stress, if excessive.
Results. The analyses showed that plastic collapse, buckling,
local failure and fatigue failure of the piping are unlikely. A
brittle fracture assessment at an MDMT of 49F failed, but
it passed for 40F. The line must be rerated for an MDMT
of 40F. Also, the modified flange leakage calculation is accepted as the final criteria for flange integrity. The flange leakage can be addressed by retorquing the flanges to a bolt stress
of 50,000 psi.
If flange alignment tolerance exceeds limits, it should be
corrected. When a deviation is accepted, an engineering analysis should be performed to identify the possible risks and mitigations. In this example, joint integrity was established by retorquing. This was proven by a hydrotest.
Prior to the assessment, flange integrity was treated as the
only major concern. However, the assessment revealed that brittle fracture is an equally important concern. Like flange integrity, brittle fracture is influenced by residual tensile stress that
results from forces and moments applied in aligning the flanges.
The modified flange leakage appears to reasonably predict
joint integrity for this case study. The calculations may be useful for assessments of other flange joints in the presence of externally applied forces and moments.
LITERATURE CITED
Canadian Standards Association, Z662-11, Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems, 6th Ed.,
2011.
2
American Petroleum Institute 579-1/ASME FFS-1, Fitness-for-Service, 2nd Ed.,
June 2007.
3
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Standards and Certification, PCC-12010: Guidelines for pressure boundary bolted flange joint assembly, 2010.
4
Tagaki, Y., H. Torii, T. Sawa and Y. Omiya, Effect of external bending moment on
sealing performance of pipe flange connection, ASME 2010 Pressure Vessels and
Piping Division/K-PVP Conference, Bellevue, Washington, July 2010.
1
ML = (C 4) (SbAb Fa Hp A G PG )
(13)
where:
Gasket area = A G = 0.785 (Do2 Di 2) = 0.785 (18.252
16.632) = 44.36 in.2
Total bolting force = Sb Ab = 35,000 psi 20 = 35,000
20 = 700,000 lb
Hydrostatic force = Hp = 0.785 G 2 P = 0.785 17.442 500
= 119,380 lb
Axial force in the flange = Fa = 23,463 lb (from operating case)
PG = 4,000 psi, or the minimum recommended operating gasket seating stress for a spiral-wound gasket. (Note: This
stress is larger than the gasket factor multiplied by the
design pressure, which is used for the flange design.)
Gasket reaction = A G PG = 44.36 4,000 = 177,440 lb.
Therefore:
ML = (21.25 4) (700,000 23,463 119,380
177,440) 12 = 168,104 in.-lb
(14)
JOHN THARAKAN is a static equipment specialist at Suncor

Energy Inc.s Maintenance and Reliability group in Canada.
He has an MS degree in mechanical engineering design and
more than 30 years of experience in the oil industry.
Mr. Tharakan develops best practices for reliability
improvement and performs failure analyses and fitnessfor-service evaluations on in-service equipment.
MUHAMMAD ANISUZZAMAN is a mechanical engineer at
Suncor Energy Services Inc. in Canada. He holds an MS
degree in mechanical engineering from McGill University
in Montreal, Canada. Mr. Anisuzzamans research interests
include fracture mechanics and static and dynamic stress
analyses of piping and mechanical systems.
Process Design
J. RENFRO, Honeywell Process Solutions,
Houston, Texas; G. STEPHENSON, Honeywell
Process Solutions, London, Ontario, Canada;
E. MARQUES-RIQUELME and C. VANDU,
Shell Global Solutions International BV,
The Hague, The Netherlands
Use dynamic models when designing

high-pressure vessels
By definition, a pressure vessel is a closed container that is
designed to hold gases and/or liquids at pressures substantially
different from ambient conditions. They are used in many applications such as oil and gas production, crude oil refineries and
petrochemical plants. Pressure vessels are also used as part of the
process or as storage vessels for gases such as ammonia, chlorine,
propane, butane and liquefied petroleum gas. More importantly,
pressure vessels must operate safely within a set of process conditions as defined by the design pressure and design temperature. A pressure vessel that is inadequately designed to handle a
high pressure constitutes a significant safety hazard.
Accidents and failures. Disturbances, accidents and malfunctions can cause deviations in operating conditions for a pressure
vessel that are different from the safe operating window. For example, high pressures and temperatures can result from exposure
to a fire. Since their invention during the industrial revolution,
many fatal accidents have been attributed to pressure vessels.
Consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture and operation
are regulated by engineering authorities and backed by legislation.
PROTECTION SYSTEMS
A common method of protecting process equipment against
excessively high pressure or temperature is the emergency depressurization (also known as a blowdown) by means of relief
devices such as relief valves and orifices, rupture disks and safety
valves. Other depressurization equipment include separation
vessels, heat exchangers, distillation columns and compressors.
Emergency depressuring removes the potentially dangerous contents of the process equipment and transfers them to a safe and
lower-pressure location. It also decreases the force exerted by the
fluid on the walls of equipment by reducing the pressure quickly
and diminishes the risk of event escalation due to a fire or a leak
of an explosive or toxic gas.
During depressurization in a typical two-phase separator, the
vessels inlets and outlets (both gas and liquid) are closed by using isolation valves. The depressurization valve is opened, and
the gas is disposed of via a restriction orifice or fixed choke into
the flare (or vent) system. Instead of using a restriction orifice
to fix the flowrate, some installations use depressurization valves

with a known flow coefficient.
However, the blowdown process is a hazardous operation
due to the very low temperatures generated by the fluid within
the vessel during rapid depressurization. Heat transfer by the
fluid within the vessel reduces the temperature of the vessel wall.
If the temperature of the vessel wall falls below the ductile-brittle
transition temperature of the construction material, brittle fracture of the vessel wall can occur.1 The shock experienced by a
thick-walled vessel due to the combined stresses from rapid temperature and pressure changes arises from non-uniform temperature distribution in the vessel wall, which results in differential
expansion and contraction. Such pressurized thermal shocks can
lead to embrittlement of the metal wall and, in turn, result in fatigue failure of the vessel.2
A depressurization utility, built around a detailed model of
a pressure vessel, can be used to simulate emergency plant depressurization. The simulation can predict the depressurization
behavior of process equipment with enough accuracy to make
better design decisions such as:
At what rate must gas be released from each equipment
item to meet the required depressurization times?
What is the required total flare capacity?
What is the lowest metal temperature experienced
in each equipment item and in the flare system?
Which low-temperature materials are required?
What size restriction orifice or other flowrate-controlling
device and flare connections are required
for depressurization in each section of the plant?
Models and results. There are many versatile and user-
friendly depressuring utilities available. However, their predictions are conservative due to simplifications made in the
mathematic models. The business impact from conservative
predictions is that new plants are over designed with stainless
steel (SS), and existing plants must be modified against high
costs and deferred production. If SS is selected where carbon
steel (CS) would have been adequate, equipment costs could
be twice as high or more.3
Process Design
Accurate dynamic depressurization calculations are required to ensure the selection of the most cost-effective materials for safe and reliable operating services. For existing facilities, reassessment of the temperature during depressuring can
lead to changes in operating conditions or changes in process
equipment to ensure safe operation.
There are many process safety requirements that must be
considered when designing new process equipment and units
or assessing the operation of existing assets. One of these requirements is avoiding brittle fracture of the metallic materials used in process equipment. Having reliable and consistent
predictions of fluid and minimum wall temperatures during
depressurization is fundamental to demonstrating compliance
with this requirement. This article discusses the use of a rigorous non-equilibrium vessel model containing detailed heat
conduction calculations for the vessel wall and insulation to

give accurate time-dependent trajectories of vessel fluid and
wall conditions during a dynamic depressurization operation.
NON-EQUILIBRIUM VESSEL MODEL

A discussion of a non-equilibrium vessel model is available in
the literature, but it lacks specific mathematical detail.1 A newer
model uses this approach as a foundation, but it is enhanced by
rigorously handling three-phase (gas, liquid and water) systems
to provide a wide variety of thermodynamic models. It incorporates better correlations for heat-transfer coefficients and rigorous formulas for volumes, surfaces and interfacial areas.
Example: A vessel. The unit operation model for the vessel
applies three equilibrium zones roughly corresponding to the
vapor, liquid and aqueous holdups. This approach enables the
model to represent non-equilibrium behavior that is common
during depressuring. FIG. 1 illustrates a vessel with two zones.
Droplets forming in the vapor zone move dynamically to the
liquid and aqueous zones. Likewise, bubbles forming in the
liquid and aqueous zones move dynamically to the vapor zone.
Each zone incorporates heat transfer with the vessel wall,
adjacent zones and the environment through heat conduction
in the vessel wall and encasing insulation. The heat-transfer coefficient correlations take into account the phases and conditions of the fluids.4, 5 To ensure that the volumes, surface areas
and interfacial areas used in the unit operation simulation are
accurate, the model incorporates rigorous formulas for these
quantities for vertically and horizontally oriented cylindrical
vessels having any torispherical (dished) head style.
Vessel geometry calculations. These calculations are incorporated into the model to address all styles of torispherical
heads. For, example, torispherical heads are characterized by
two dimensionless parameters: the dish radius and knuckle radius factors, which are defined as:
fd = Rd D 0.5
fk = Rk D 0.5
FIG. 1. Unit operation model of a vessel with two zones.
Where D is the inside diameter of the cylinder of the vessel;

R d is the inside radius of the dish; and Rk is the inside radius
of the knuckle.6 FIG. 2 shows a cross-section of a torispherical
head. The head is formed by rotating the cross-section about
its central axis.
Rd
Knuckle
Rk
Dish
FIG. 2. Cross-section of a torispherical head.
FIG. 3. Vessel orientations and nozzle locations.
Process Design
Values of the dish radius and knuckle radius factors are well
known for many standard torispherical head styles. However,
some standard head styles, such as the Standard F&D and Shallow F&D head styles, have a fixed knuckle radius. In this instance, the knuckle radius factor cannot be determined until the
diameter of the vessel is specified. Custom-head types can be
modeled as long as fd and fk can be calculated.
Vessel orientation and outlet calculations. The vessel
model allows the configuration of either a vertically or horizontally oriented vessel, as well as different locations of the depressurization outlet. The depressurization outlet is defined by a
nozzle, which is configured through specification of the nozzle
diameter and center height from the bottom of the vessel. FIG. 3
shows the different vessel orientations and depressurization
nozzle locations that are supported.
The depressurization nozzle can be at the top or bottom or
on the side of the vessel. The depressurization nozzle allows accurate modeling of fluid removal from the vessel. The overall
composition in the nozzle is determined by mixing outflows
from the zones in the vessel. The outflow for a zone is the fraction of the nozzle cross-sectional area covered by the fluid in the
zone times the total outflow, which is established by the restriction orifice connected to the depressuring nozzle.
Restriction orifice model. The restriction orifice model
provides a pressure-flow relationship that is valid for choked

and non-choked flow and fluids at the inlet that are single or
multiphase. The flow-pressure relationship is derived starting
from a steady-state momentum balance, resulting in a general
expression for the mass flux, G, given as:
G(P)=Cd g(v, Pi , Po , Pc )
where:
Pi = Inlet pressure
Po = Outlet pressure
Pc = Critical pressure
v = Molar volume
The critical pressure is the pressure associated with the
maximum mass flux. The computed discharge coefficient, Cd
is a function of the constant discharge coefficient and the inlet
phase fractions, I:
Cd = Cd0 h(I )
This form allows for an accurate representation of liquid,
vapor and multiphase flows.
Fire calculations. A vessel exposed to a fire can experience
overpressure due to the vapor generation from boiling of the
liquid contents or decomposition reactions. It can also cause
overheating of the vessel wall, thus reducing the wall material
strength. The heat transfer model incorporates a number of options to simulate depressurization when a vessel is exposed to an
open-pool fire. Two of these options are based on ANSI/API
Standard 521 (2007). The API 521 option is the method from
API 521 wherein the wetted area is a constant. The API 521 enhanced option dynamically calculates the wetted surface area
as the phase condition of the fluid within the vessel changes. A
more rigorous option is also provided for modeling heat transfer
73
Process Design
from a fire through radiation impingement on the outer surface
of the vessel and heat conduction through the vessel wall.
TABLE 1. Spadeadam experiment S12
Item
Value
CH4
66.5 mol%
C2H6
3.5 mol%
C3H8
30 mol%
Temperature
20C
Pressure
120 bar
Diameter
1.13 m
Tan-tan height
2.25 m
Orientation
Vertical
Head type
2:1 semi-elliptical
Wall thickness
50 mm
Orice diameter
10 mm
Back pressure
1.013 bar
External temperature
20C
Vessel initialization conditions. Initialization of the fluid in

the vessel is based on specifications provided for the initial temperature and pressure of the vessel and the total composition,
which can be handled in two ways. First, the overall composition can be flashed at a specified temperature and pressure. The
resulting phase compositions are used to initialize the compositions of the corresponding zones of the vessel. When the flash
predicts that liquid is present, then the initial holdup of liquid
must be independently specified. Second, the specified overall
composition of the vessel can be the initial composition of the
vessel. In this instance, the liquid holdup in the vessel is completely determined by the thermodynamic relationships and
cannot be independently specified.
The initial temperature profile through the vessel wall and
insulation can have a significant impact on the predictions
made by the dynamic model. Consider, for example, initializing the wall and insulation temperature profile to the initial
temperature of the fluid holdup in the vessel. When this temperature is greater than the environment temperature, the energy content in the vessel wall and insulation is overestimated.
Similarly, when this temperature is less than the environment
140
25
Blowdown utility prediction
Experimental values
120
5
Temperature, C
Pressure, bar
100
80
60
-5
-15
40
-25
20
0
-35
0
500
Time, sec
1,000
1,500
FIG. 4. Pressure profile for Spadeadam experiment S12.
500
Time, sec
1,000
1,500
20
Experimental values liquid zone

Blowdown utility prediction liquid zone
15
15
10
5
Temperature,C
5
Temperature, C
FIG. 6. Vapor-zone temperature profile for Spadeadam experiment S12.
25
-5
0
-5
-10
-15
-15
Blowdown utility prediction vapor zone
Experimental values liquid zone
Experimental values vapor zone
Blowdown utility prediction liquid zone
-20
-25
-35
Blowdown utility prediction vapor zone

Experimental values, low
Experimental values, high
15
-25
500
Time, sec
1,000
1,500
FIG. 5. Liquid-zone temperature profile for Spadeadam experiment S12.
-30
500
Time, sec
1,000
FIG. 7. Wall-temperature profiles for Spadeadam experiment S12.
1,500
Benet From
Our Expertise
Process Design
temperature, the energy content in the vessel wall and insulation is underestimated. In either case, the predictions of the
temperature profile in the vessel wall and insulation and conditions of the fluid holdup will be attenuated during depressuring. Although not strictly correct, a steady-state wall initialization method can provide the most realistic initialization of the
temperature profile. With this method, the initial temperature
profile in the vessel wall and insulation is calculated by solving
the steady-state heat conduction equation with the convective
boundary condition applied at the inner surface of the wall and
the outer surfaces of the insulation.
MODEL IMPLEMENTATION
The dynamic vessel model calculations described here are
incorporated into a new dynamic depressurization simulation
utility; it was developed to overcome serious deficiencies identified in earlier existing tools, such as:a
Numerical stability. Some tools can stall during calculations, especially for depressurization cases in which the
fluid is narrow boiling, the conditions within the vessel
are close to the critical conditions of the fluid, or abrupt
phase changes occur during depressurization.
Systems with a water phase. Although theoretically some
tools can model a water phase, in practice, the solution of
three-phase systems presents many numerical challenges.
Limited number and type of components
Limited selection of thermodynamic methods
Limited capability to set the style of the heads of the vessel
Calculation of the initial conditions is not rigorous.
The model was implemented using an equation oriented
(EO) simultaneous formulation solution to handle the complexity of interactions of the different model mechanisms. Using
an EO simultaneous solution formulation allows extension to
future optimal design problem formulations in an efficient way.
Series 3730 and 3731 Positioners

Convenient operation on site or by process
control system (HART, PROFIBUS-PA or
FOUNDATION eldbus)
Rugged mounting kits for linear
and rotary actuators
Suitable for use in safety-instrumented
systems (SIL 3 according to IEC 61508)
Integrated valve diagnostics for control
Model validation. The presented model was tested against a
and on/off valves (e.g. partial stroke testing)
large number of vessel depressurization experiments from the

Spadeadam tests.7 These experiments covered a wide range of
compositions, top and bottom blowdown, vessel orientations
and orifice sizes. TABLE 1 summarizes the input data for Spadeadam experiment S12.7
This experiment was configured and executed with the rigorous dynamic model.a The Spadeadam experiment S12 demonstrates retrograde condensation, in which condensate forms
even though the pressure is dropping due to depressurization.
The results are shown in FIGS. 47. As illustrated in FIG. 4, good
agreement is demonstrated between the experimental pressure
profile and the predicted pressure.
FIGS. 5 and 6 show the experimental data for the liquid and vapor temperature regions of the vessel compared with the model
predictions. The predicted temperature profiles match the experimental data, and they clearly show that the vessel conditions
are not at equilibrium. FIG. 7 shows the experimental wall temperatures in the vapor and liquid regions of the vessel compared
with the model predictions for the same locations. Again, the
model predictions agree quite well with the experimental data.
Global use thanks to national and international hazardous area certication

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Our proven positioners provide excellent
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A01147EN
Better design tools for pressurized vessels. A detailed

non-equilibrium vessel model was developed, incorporating
SAMSON AG MESS- UND REGELTECHNIK

Weismllerstrae 3
60314 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Phone: +49 69 4009-0 Fax: +49 69 4009-1507
E-mail: samson@samson.de www.samson.de
SAMSON GROUP www.samsongroup.net
Process Design
a dynamic depressuring as part of the simulator. This added
flexibility addresses the value in the selection of construction
materials for vessels as well as orifice sizing. It overcomes serious deficiencies identified in earlier commercially available
tools. The model can provide a high degree of solution accuracy
and is robust for three-phase systems. The model consistently
predicts liquid formation when it occurs experimentally and
demonstrates stable solution behavior in systems with many
components. The utility offers a large number of accurate thermodynamic models and can be used to model vessels with any
torispherical head style. It also performs rigorous calculation of
initial phase equilibrium and vessel conditions.
a
NOTES
The dynamic vessel model calculations described previously have been incorporated in a new dynamic depressurization utility of the UniSim Design process
simulator, named the Blowdown Utility.
LITERATURE CITED
Complete literature cited is available at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
JEFF RENFRO is an engineering fellow of Honeywells Automation and Control
Solutions business. At Honeywell, he has worked with advanced process control,
MES and simulation groups as a solution architect and consultant. Dr. Renfro is a
member of the UniSim Design development team. He has also worked for Shell
Development Co., Dynamic Matrix Control Corp., Dynamic Optimization Technology
and Products, and PAS. During his career, he has supported the OPERA, DMO and
NOVA optimization and modeling systems, and served as both a consultant and
implementer for their online applications. Dr. Renfro holds a BS degree in chemical
engineering from the University of Texas and a PhD in chemical engineering from the
University of Houston.
GRANT STEPHENSON is an engineering fellow of Honeywells Automation Control

Solutions business. In his current role, he serves as the global process simulation
architect for Honeywell Process Solutions. Based in London, Ontario, Canada, he
has worked in the field of process simulation for more than 35 years, with particular
interest in dynamic simulation, equation-oriented modeling and simultaneous
solution of flowsheet models, and the application of modeling and optimization to
plant operations. Mr. Stephenson is the originator of the dynamic simulation engine
of the Shadow Plant dynamic simulator and is a pioneer of the hybrid solution
architecture and its application to large-scale dynamic simulation. Mr. Stephenson
has held positions with DuPont Canada, Atomic Energy of Canada, the University
of Western Ontario (SACDA) and Honeywell. He holds an MSc degree in applied
mathematics from the University of Western Ontario.
ESTEBAN MARQUES-RIQUELME is a senior application developer for process
engineering applications in Shell Global Solutions International B.V. In his current
role, Dr. Marques-Riquelme provides technical consulting services to build steadystate and dynamic models with several commercial flowsheeters and leads software
development projects in process engineering. Throughout his career at Shell, he has
held several positions in the statistical modeling and distillation disciplines. Before
joining Shell, Dr. Marques-Riquelme worked as principal researcher for PEQUIVEN.
In this position, he was responsible for R&D projects aiming at the optimization of
polymer plants, the development of new products, and process modeling. He holds
a PhD in chemical engineering from the University of South Florida, and an
MA degree in applied mathematics from the University of Georgia.
CHIPPLA VANDU is a concept engineer with Shell Global Solutions International
B.V. At present, he works in front-end project development as a process integrator,
while also providing process engineering services. In the course of his career with
Shell, Dr. Vandu worked as a research technologist, developing simulation models
for gas-to-liquids plants and later as a process engineer involved in the design and
development of upstream facilities. He also served as a focal point for emergency
depressuring, consulting to various projects and operational facilities. Dr. Vandu
holds an MSc degree in chemical engineering from the University of Twente and a
PhD in chemical engineering from the University of Amsterdam.
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Heat Exchanger and Tray

Tower Specialist
Refining Developments
J. SEXTON, J. HIGHFIELD and N. LARSEN,
Marathon Petroleum Company, LP, Catlettsburg,
Kentucky; and S. ISMAIL and D. NEUMAN,
BASF Corp., Florham Park, New Jersey
Innovative catalyst solution mitigates

FCC operational issue
Marathon Petroleum Co.s (MPCs) Catlettsburg fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU) experienced a catalyst circulation
constraint due to partial blockage of an intra-regenerator standpipe. The unit was initially debottlenecked by introducing torch
oil, along with increased catalyst addition, to maintain unit activity. The refinery then introduced a high-activity co-catalyst
into the FCCU. 1 The co-catalyst solution allowed removing the
torch oil while maintaining catalyst activity, thus optimizing the
FCCUs profitability within the catalyst circulation limit. The
cost of the co-catalyst is minor, while the direct measured value
creation at the Catlettsburg refinery was over $1/bbl.
Background. The Catlettsburg FCCU was originally commis-
sioned in 1983 as the worlds first reduced crude conversion

(RCC) process unit.2 The process unit had a nominal capacity
of 43,000 bpd (43 Mbpd). The reactor/riser system operated at
low pressure to minimize the hydrocarbon partial pressures and
to promote full and rapid vaporization of the resid feedstock.
A unique feature of the design was a two-stage regenerator
with a common flue-gas header. The two-stage design operated in partial-burn mode, with a typical carbon dioxide (CO2 )/
carbon monoxide (CO) ratio of 4. The regenerator used two
catalyst coolers that generated 450-psig steam for heat-balance
management. The regenerator flue gas was processed by limestone fluidized bed CO boilers, followed by a pair of baghouses for particulate capture. The regenerator pressure was controlled through a pair of flue-gas slide valves.
The RCC unit was converted to an FCCU in 2003 as part
of an overall refinery re-positioning project. By feeding hydrotreated vacuum gasoil (VGO), the result was a nominal 95Mbpd FCC capacity. The unit pressure was increased, and the
two-stage regenerator was converted to full-burn operation.
The catalyst coolers were decommissioned with one converted
to an intra-regeneration standpipe to facilitate improved catalyst distribution. All of the existing equipment was reused with
the exception of a new main air blower.
FIG. 1 shows the present regenerator configuration. Catalyst
exiting the riser is directed via the catalyst stripper to the upper
section of the regenerator. In this section, the catalyst is burned
relatively clean, with over 90% reduction in catalytic coke,
which is deposited on the catalyst during the cracking process
in the riser. The remaining coke on the catalyst is burned in the

lower, hotter section of the regenerator. The catalyst is then
transferred from the upper regenerator to the lower regenerator
via two standpipes. The catalyst leaves the bottom of the lower
regenerator and is sent to the riser for the next cracking cycle.
Situation. Upon re-starting the unit, following an unplanned
refinery shutdown due to a power failure, the unit experienced

a catalyst flow restriction in one of the intra-regeneration standpipes. The reduced catalyst flow to the lower section compromised the heat balance, which was brought into an operable
range by injecting torch oil. The FCCU was allowed to resume
operations at the desired feedrate. The high localized temperature generated by the torch oil combustion was detrimental to
FIG. 1. A schematic of the two-stage regenerator; the standpipe

on the back end was partially blocked.
TABLE 1. Comparison of total catalyst and heating costs during the three cases
Case number
Low ROT steady state
Torch oil emergency
Co-catalyst under control
Combined feedrate, bpd
Base
Base
Base
API gravity, API
Base
Base
Base
Feed temperature, F
Base
Base
Base
Operational mode
Riser/reactor operation
Riser outlet temperature, F
Base
Base
Base
C/O ratio, wt/wt
Base
Base 2.10
Base 0.66
Base
Base + 91
Base + 22
Base (Fresh cat only)
2.3* Base (Fresh cat only)
1.5* Base (1:1 ratio)
Zero
High
Zero
Base
Base + $1.20
Base + $0.10
Activity, FACT%
Base
Base + 1.0
Base + 1.0
Nickel, ppmw
Base
Base 33
Base 21
Vanadium, ppmw
Base
Base 336
Base 210
Base
Base 1.40
Base + 0.35
Base
Base
Base
Regenerator conditions
Regen bed temperature, F
Fresh catalyst and torch oil
Fresh cat + co-catalyst makeup, tpd
Torch oil costs
Total cost of heating the unit, $/bbl
Equilibrium catalyst
Conversion
Standard fresh feed conversion, vol%
Cutpoint temperature, F
4/1/12
Co-catalyst. The co-catalyst selected provides high activ-
Co-catalyst converter
8/1/12
12/1/12
FCC repairs
Steady state
Controlled shutdown
Power failure
Conversion, vol%, converter marker, wt%
Steady state
Torch
oil
4/1/13
FIG. 2. Actual operating data at the Catlettsburg refinery during the

three cases.
catalyst activity. Consequently, catalyst addition was increased

to maintain catalytic activity.
Because the unit processes very clean feed, the metal deposition on the catalyst is low, and the activity of its equilibrium
catalyst (e-cat) is typically well maintained. Under normal
steady-state operations, this unit uses very low levels of fresh
catalyst. With the injection of torch oil, catalyst deactivation
accelerated, and the catalyst addition rate more than doubled
the typical usage to sustain activity at a desired level.
MPC worked with its catalyst supplier to identify possible
options to optimize the FCCUs profitability. A co-catalyst was
quickly identified as a viable solution for Catlettsburg.1
ity and porosity with a large total surface area at 410 m2/g. It
has a high Z/M ratio with maximum rare earth on the zeolite,
thus the catalyst is stable even at high regenerator temperatures. The matrix provides a tailored porosity to allow the
diffusion of heavy hydrocarbons into the particle, resulting
in selective cracking.
The co-catalyst is designed to fundamentally change unit
performance faster than what can be achieved via a base catalyst change-out and, to a greater extent, than conventional
operational changes. The flexibility provided by co-catalysts
allows refiners to quickly respond to changes in operational
issues, take advantage of changing economics, address feedstock changes, or simply improve the conversion of the existing base catalyst to maximize profitability.
The use of a co-catalyst as a torch-oil replacement strategy at Catlettsburg was the first application of its kind. MPC
understood that the co-catalysts high activity would provide
consistent additional coke, based on previous experiences.
A risk assessment determined that there was little downside
exposure by using the co-catalyst system.
Results. The FCCU at Catlettsburg has a large catalyst inventory compared to other units with similar feedrates. Therefore, the co-catalyst was used at the high end of the usage
rates. MPC chose to utilize the co-catalyst at a 1:1 ratio with
the existing fresh catalyst formulation. Notwithstanding the
high ratio of co-catalyst to fresh catalyst, the actual addition
of the co-catalyst to the unit reached 30% of the inventory just
before the planned shutdown to repair the unit. The co-cata-
TABLE 2. Comparison of operating conditions during the three cases
Case number
Torch oil emergency
Cocatalyst under control
Base
Base
Base
API gravity, API
Base
Base
Base
Feed temperature, F
Base
Base
Base
Operational mode
Base
Base
Base
C/O ratio, wt/wt
Base
Base 2.1
Base 0.66
Regenerator conditions
Regen pressure, psig
Base
Base
Base
Regen bed temperature, F
Base
Base + 91
Base + 22
Total air rate (dry), MSCFll
Base
Base + 423
Base + 28
Flue gas CO2, vol%
Base
Base + 0.2
Base + 0.1
Flue gas CO, vol%
Base
Base
Base
Flue gas O2, vol%
Base
Base + 0.01
Base
Fresh catalyst and torch oil

Surface area
Base
Base
Base + 19
2.3 * Base (Fresh cat only)
1.5 * Base (1:1 ratio)
Base
Base + $1.20
Base + $0.10
Activity, FACT%
Base
Base +1.0
Base + 1.0
Nickel, ppmw
Base
Base 33
Base 21
Vanadium, ppmw
Base
Base 336
Base 210
CRC, wt%
Base
Base
Base
ZSM-5 additive content, wt%
Base
Base
Base
Rare-earth oxides, wt%
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base 1.34
Base + 0.35
Base
Base 0.10
Base + 0.17

Conversion
Standard fresh feed conversion, vol%
+
C3 Liquid, vol%
lyst was introduced to the FCCU in the third week of August

2012, and, as shown in FIG. 2, conversion began to recover.
During the torch oil injection period, even at increased catalyst addition rates, the conversion dropped substantially by
about 3 vol%. Soon after the incident on the standpipes, the refinerys production plan changed due to market demands, and
the riser outlet temperature (ROT) was reduced to maximize
light cycle oil (LCO) production. This move further exacerbated the situation, as a lower ROT means lower catalytic-coke
generation and, therefore, lower regenerator temperature. During this time, the refinery experienced three economic burdens
placed on the FCCU:
The increased operating cost of expensive torch oil
The value creation loss through the conversion drop
The increased catalyst usage to maintain process activity.
The blockage in the interstage standpipe substantially reduced catalyst flow from the cooler section to the hotter section of the regenerator. This, in turn, compromised the catalyst
circulation from the regenerator to the reactor. To maintain the
regenerator temperature, a combination of high preheat, torch
oil and lower feedrate stabilized the FCCU operation but at a

lower catalyst-to-oil (C/O) ratio.
The FCC simulations, based on steady-state conditions,
are used to eliminate the effects of extraneous variables in the
evaluation.3 It is well known that catalytic conversion is the
most profitable conversion process, as it increases the total
liquid yield of high-valued products. This is also valid for the
co-catalyst, as it has the highest activity per unit of catalytic
coke make. As summarized in TABLE 1, the C/O ratio during
the torch oil campaign dropped 25%. As expected, there was a
corresponding decrease in conversion loss, as oil feed did not
see sufficient catalyst for cracking to occur.
When comparing the torch oil, Case 2, with the co-catalyst,
Case 3, it is apparent that the C/O ratio with co-catalyst increased 23% over the torch oil period. The increase in C/O
accompanied with co-catalysts higher activity made it possible
for the conversion to increase 1.75 vol% above the torch oil
(Case 2) or 0.35 vol% above the Base Case.
Co-catalyst not only increased volume conversion, but,
more importantly, the high activity of the product generated
TABLE 3. Comparison of yield slates during the three cases
Case number
Operational mode
Unit net prot, $/bbl
Torch oil emergency
Cocatalyst under control
Base
Base $0.83
Base $0.52
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base
C/O ratio, wt/wt
Base
Base 2.1
Base 0.66
2.3 * Base (Fresh cat only)
1.5 * Base (1:1 ratio)
Base
Base + $1.20
Base + $0.10
Fresh catalyst
Activity, FACT%
Base
Base +1.0
Base + 1.0
Nickel, ppmw
Base
Base 33
Base 21
Vanadium, ppmw
Base
Base 336
Base 210
CRC, wt%
Base
Base
Base
ZSM5 additive content, wt%
Base
Base
Base
Rare-earth oxides, wt%
Base
Base
Base
Dry gas (H2 + H2S + C1 + C2 + C2=), vol%
Base
Base + 0.52
Base + 0.03
Propane, vol%
Base
Base + 0.01
Base + 0.16
Propylene, vol%
Base
Base 0.26
Base + 0.03
nButane, vol%
Base
Base 0.07
Base 0.02
Isobutane, vol%
Base
Base 0.45
Base + 0.33
Total butenes, vol%
Base
Base 0.04
Base 0.11
Total C3 + C4, vol%
Base
Base 0.10
Base +0.61
C5+ gasoline (450F cutpoint), vol%
Base
Base 0.64
Base 0.09
LCO (450F to 680F), vol%
Base
Base + 1.00
Base 0.50
Decant (680F +), vol%
Base
Base + 0.34
Base + 0.15
Base
Base 0.10
Base + 0.17
Volume percent basis
C3 liquid, vol%
Operating data
Process check
Process analysis Optimizing operation
Final report
plier with operating data and economics

of the Catlettsburg refinery. This partCatalyst company
Catalyst company
Catalyst company
Catalyst company
nership and sharing of data creates an
analysis
utilizes
state-of-art
checks for accuracy
publishes a quarterly
tools for comparison
opportunity for the catalyst company to
and consistency of data Ecat data
report
with
ndings
to
Renery provides
Fines analysis
and simulation
Mass balance closure
ensure operations
operating data
provide technical support reports that
Scrubber
water
FCC
simulation
models
Heat balance
and protability
samples
Comprehensive
detail an ongoing systematic evaluation of
H2 balance
targets are on track
Feed analysis
benchmarking
the FCCU. The reports are a framework
for conversations regarding the matching
FIG. 3. Information flow to support refinery operations to create maximum value.
of an optimal catalyst solution to meet the
changing needs of the refinery. FIG. 3 gives
a graphical summary of the work flow or activities involved in
sufficient catalytic coke that the refinery could reduce the torch
ensuring that quality discussions are possible.
oil injection rate. The transition from torch oil to co-catalyst
MPCs Catlettsburg refinery personnel worked with the catconverter was rapid. By the end of September, the torch oil inalyst company to evaluate the benefits of co-catalyst vs. torchjection was reduced to virtually zero. Additionally, total catalyst
oil injection. An FCC simulation using a commercially available
additions (base catalyst plus co-catalyst) were reduced by over
FCC model was done.4 Using the data from a period in which
30%. Finally, application of the co-catalyst provided operating
flexibility and allowed MPC to schedule a controlled shutdown.
the refinery was running well under steady-state conditions, a
Base Case model was constructed. It is well known that there
are many interacting variables affecting the performance of the
Post-audit results. As part of its relationship with its catalyst
FCCU. An analysis was undertaken to answer questions such as
supplier, MPC Catlettsburg regularly provided the catalyst sup80MAY 2014|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
to harvest a higher selectivity of desired products. Dry gas was
the impact of co-catalyst on the constant feed, ROT and other
significantly lower by 0.5 vol%, while propylene and butylene
operating conditions. All comparisons were done on the basis
yields matched or exceeded the Base Case. The gap created
of constant ROT and matched the actual operating conditions
in gasoline yield, between Cases 1 and 2, with torch oil, was
such as regenerator temperature, C/O ratio, and the yield slate.
closed when the co-catalyst replaced the torch oil in Case 3.
Case 1 or steady state is the Base Case, as shown in TABLE 2.
Decant oil (bottoms) was also reduced. However, LCO yield
Case 2, denoted by the torch-oil case, simulated the operatwas lower because of the high activity of the cracking of the
ing conditions when the refinery was experiencing the probprimary intermediates into gasoline and light olefin products.
lems when one of the interstage standpipes between the two
From TABLE 3, the unit net profit decrease with the cosections of the regenerator was partially blocked. In this case,
the sustained unit operation was achieved by injecting torch
catalyst was $0.31 better than the case with torch oil. Again,
oil and increasing catalyst addition. An empirical method was
the simulation model does not take into account the costs for
agreed upon to simulate the torch oil injection, and it was utilized to match the
actual catalyst-addition rates and refinery operating conditions. The empirical
Conv3
approach was a heuristic method to simulate lowering of catalyst activity by artiConv4
ficially increasing the sodium in the feed
to match the activity. As torch oil was not
a regular feature of the operation, it was
Conv5
not included in the economics calculaRemaining Wall Thickness
tion performed by the simulation model.
Conv6
Finally, the co-catalyst, or Case 3,
was a simulation where there was no
Conv7
torch oil in the unit and the FCCU was
running smoothly with the base catalyst
and co-catalyst alone.
Conv8
From the simulation output of TABLE
2, the major constraint is the heat balance management. Initially, this necessitated using torch oil to overcome
the constraint. But, the torch oil also
severely deactivated the FCC catalyst
and required increasing the catalyst-addition rate to maintain the equilibrium
Transfer the risk of unplanned downtime, loss of
activity of the circulating catalyst.
To maintain the equilibrium activity
production or a catastrophic failure in your red heaters.
at the desired level, the refinery initially
Quest Integritys Furnace Tube Inspection System (FTISTM) is the globally proven
used increased catalyst during the torchtechnology that delivers 100% coverage of your serpentine coils. Combined with
oil period. Then, when the co-catalyst
our LifeQuestTM Heater software to provide tness for-service and remaining life
was introduced, conditions changed.
compliant with the API-579 standard, Quest Integrity delivers a solution that helps
The volume of torch oil was reduced
transfer your integrity and maintenance risk into reliability.
initially and finally eliminated while still
s0ITTINGINTERIOROREXTERIOROFPIPE
maintaining the equilibrium activity.
The dense-bed regenerator in Case
s#ORROSIONINTERIOROREXTERIOROFPIPE
3 is about 70F lower than Case 2 as op s%ROSIONANDmOWASSISTEDWEAR
erations were optimized to increase the
s$ENTINGANDOVALITY
catalyst circulation rates closer to the
restricted limit. The unit ran smoothly at
s"ULGINGANDSWELLING
C/O that was approximately 25% higher
s#OKEANDSCALEBUILD UP
than Case 2. The end result during the
Get the information you need to condently
co-catalyst campaign was a liquid volume
make decisions on your critical assets.
increase of 0.3 vol% higher than Case 2.
To learn more, watch the FTIS animation
At the same time, liquid volume exat the link below.
pansion improved and the yield slate
improved as well. The activity of the
www.QuestIntegrity.com/FTIS
A TEAM Industrial Services Company
co-catalyst was able to generate sufficient catalytic coke to enable removing
the torch oil, and the refinery was able
Transfer more than heat.
81
torch oil into its economic valuation, which nonetheless, is
still a real cost and valued at over $1.20/bbl.
Lessons learned. As a result of the partial blockage of the
interstage standpipes, the FCC unit was seriously challenged
in circulating catalyst between the regenerator and the reactor.
While the partial plug could only be remedied by a shutdown,
the most economical option was to search for ways to keep the
FCCU in operation and to take a planned shutdown when it
best suited the refinerys schedule. Surveying the field of options, the best possible solution was boosting activity with a
highly selective co-catalyst capable of providing the heat to
sustain the regenerator, while at the same time providing excellent product selectivity.
The flexibility provided by the co-catalyst system allowed
MPC Catlettsburg refinery to quickly respond to changes in
operational issues. The reduction in operating cost and improved yields provided MPC well over $1/bbl in benefits. In
addition, the co-catalyst positively affected the yield slate, but
the greatest benefit to the refinery was that it allowed the refinery management to bring the unit under control and to take
a planned shutdown at a time of their own choosing.
NOTES
BASFs high-activity Converter.
2
The RCC process was jointly developed by UOP and Ashland.
3
The tables presented in this study are based on KBC Profimatics runs.
4
KBCs FCC-SIM simulation model was used.
1
JEFFREY SEXTON is the refining technology manager for Marathon Petroleum Co.,
located in Findlay, Ohio. He directs the efforts of 22 process-subject-matter experts to
provide technical and operational expertise and to support Marathons downstream
organization. He previously worked for UOP in a variety of FCC assignments and has
worked on over 40 different FCC units around the world. Mr. Sexton was previously
the cat-cracking subject-matter expert for Marathon responsible for FCC technical
and operating performance. He has authored over 25 technical papers, holds multiple
patents and made several presentations at the NPRA (now AFPM) and other industry
forums. Mr. Sexton is currently the chairman of the US EPA Consent Decree FCC
Technical Team and PSRI Technical Advisory Committee. He holds a BS degree in
chemical engineering from Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology.
NIKOLAS LARSEN is a cat-cracking subject-matter expert for Marathon Petroleum Co.,
located in Findlay, Ohio. As a corporate technologist, he provides technical/operational
expertise and support for Marathons eight FCC units. Mr. Larsen has also held a variety
of other technical and supervisory positions within Marathon at different locations.
He holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from the University of Notre Dame.
JOHNNY HIGHFIELD, JR. is the operations coordinator at Marathon Petroleum Co.s
(MPC) Catlettsburg, Kentucky refinery. In this position, he coordinates plantwide
operations activities including policies, procedures and training. Mr. Highfield serves
as the operations sulfur recovery advisory group leader for MPCs seven refineries.
He has 17 years of experience in a variety of technical and operations positions at the
Catlettsburg refinery and has one pending patent. Mr. Highfield holds a BS degree in
chemical engineering from the University of Kentucky.
SOLLY ISMAIL is the FCC modeling and additives technical service specialist for BASF
located in Iselin, New Jersey. Before joining BASF, he worked at major South African
refineries where he received numerous awards. Mr. Ismail holds an MS degree from
Lehigh University and an MBA from the University of South Africa.
DANIEL NEUMAN is a senior account manager for BASF located in Owings Mills,
Maryland. He has considerable experience in FCC technology and earned BS and MS
degrees in chemical engineering from Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts.
He is the holder of several patents, and has authored many papers for the refining
catalysts industry.
LIVE WEBCAST: Wednesday, May 28, 2014 | 10 a.m. CST

Achieving FCC Technical Service Excellence
The Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU) performance is an integral element of success
for reners. FCCU Operation needs to be optimized routinely while also being reliable.
Reners enjoy their greatest chance of meeting all targets when optimized, reliable
operation is practiced, meaning:
Safety and Environmental goals more likely to be met
Operating and maintenance budgets respected, and
Maximum rate of return for the renery achieved
Speaker:
Speaker:
ALEXIS SHACKLEFORD
CJ FARLEY
Technical Marketing Specialist

BASF, Rening Catalyst
FCC Technology Consultant,

Vice President of Technology
Astron International, Inc
Moderator:
STEPHANY ROMANOW
Editor
BASF has a robust technical service portfolio to help our customers achieve this optimized,
reliable state. Our service platform hinges upon a good working relationship with the
renery, unit data analysis, specialized BASF laboratory analyses, renery FCCU modeling,
FCCU benchmarking, and statistical analysis of FCCU operations. All of these are delivered
on a timely basis to the customer so that proper action can be considered and taken. One
of the most critical deliverables in this service platform is proper selection of catalysts and
feedstocks to give optimized, reliable operation.
In this webinar, Alexis Shackleford, Technical Marketing Specialist, and CJ Farley, FCC
Technology Consultant, will present several case studies illustrating the value robust
technical service partnerships bring to the renery.
Register at: HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Special Supplement to
TERMINALS
AND STORAGE
Use innovative solutions to return storage tanks back to service faster T85
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TERMINALS AND STORAGE
USE INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS TO RETURN

STORAGE TANKS BACK TO SERVICE FASTER
J. HAIR, The Sherwin-Williams Co., Cleveland, Ohio
High-solids epoxy linings for the petrochemical terminal

and pipeline market are gathering high interest as the need to
efficiently return storage tanks back to service becomes more
prevalent. Some coating manufacturers are now offering tanklining products that make it possible to return tanks to service
the same day or overnight. Result: Minimizing lost revenue
due to downtime for terminal companies.
Prior to specifying these materials, it is crucial to understand all of the considerations that affect the outcome of such
projects. Each partnerthe owner, painting contractor and
coating manufacturerhas decisions to make in planning for a
short-timeframe project. Any deviation from that plansuch
as a schedule-conflict, safety or equipment issuecan have an
immediate impact on the projects progress. Gaps can essen-
tially render a fast return-to-service (RTS) coating to nothing

more than a standard RTS coating.
Under present market conditions, terminal operators and
tank owners must balance issues with regard to contango crude
market conditions, congested operations schedules, capital
project schedules and unforeseen repairs. In certain parts of
the world, extremes in seasonal weather patterns are also factors in specifying the right tank lining for a project.
Schedules. Most manufacturers can supply linings with standard 5- to 7-day cure times that fit the need for a typical onschedule tank project. However, the window for curing, in
many situations, is becoming tighter. Fortunately, advances in
tank-lining chemistry have allowed manufacturers to produce
FIG. 1. Aboveground storage tanks must be serviced to maintain the reliability of the tank and inhibit corrosion; all efforts support minimizing leak
incidents. A 250,000-bbl floating-roof crude oil storage tank in Cushing, Oklahoma. Source: Sherwin-Williams Protective and Marine Coatings.
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING|MAY 2014|TERMINALS AND STORAGE
T85
TERMINALS AND STORAGE
materials that will cure to service in 8 to 24 hours depending on

temperature and humidity.
Newer tank-lining materials can also handle a broader spectrum of various cargos within the terminal and pipeline market segment. Commodities within this market segment include
ambient temperature crude oil, gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel,
kerosine and ethanol. Tank-lining materials that can handle immersion in most of these commodities are sometimes referred
to as universal or swing service tank linings, as defined by API
652Lining of Aboveground Petroleum Storage Bottoms.
Before fast-RTS linings are selected for a project, several considerations should be evaluated to ensure that the investment in
these materials will provide the expected results.
Owner considerations. Operations schedules are the predominant factor for owners when considering fast-RTS materials. Due
to shipping schedules and commitments, storage tanks may be
needed back in service immediately to meet client demands. In
addition, there can be economic implications, such as capitalizing
on contango crude market pricing, where higher profits accrue
if oil is sold later rather than sooner and available storage tanks
become high-priority assets.
Owners must understand how the tank design can impact
project costs in these situations, especially in cold temperatures. For example, a cone-roof tank without an internal floating
roof is more costly to heat in the winter. In such a case, when
outside temperatures are approaching freezing or below, provisions must be made for extensive high-performance heat and
dehumidification to complete projects. The risks without this
include formation of invisible ice on the tank substrate, and
difficulty maintaining properly operating abrasive blasting and
spray application equipment.
Due to the expense of heat and dehumidification, owners
are often receptive to the idea of fast-RTS tank-lining materials. When comparing costs, they will be far more concerned
with the cost of heating a tank than they are with the price of
the coating. There are high-solids products for crude oil and
ethanol storage that can be holiday tested in approximately four
hours and returned to immersion service in eight hours at 77F.
They can be applied at temperatures as low as 35F, and, in rehabilitation projects, in a single coat up to 50 mil of dry-film thickness (DFT). This is a game-changer option for owners used to
traditional standard cure linings that can take weeks to put tanks
back into service. This also has an impact on the cost of onsite
inspectors, who will be able to oversee repairs and final inspections in a much shorter timeframe.
Another thing to keep in mind is the condition of the tank
bottoms, i.e., whether the substrates are heavily pitted or new.
Heavily pitted substrates will require an additional level of detail when applying lining material, to properly fill all pitted areas
prior to applying the finish coat. This is where engaging knowledgeable contractors and coating manufacturers comes into play.
Painting contractor considerations. Contractors usually are
most concerned with the time of year when the project will be
carried out, and with the properties of the tank linings that will
work best under those conditions.
During hot weather, coatings with shorter pot life can present challenges. If the substrate is pitted, it will be necessary to
T86
TERMINALS AND STORAGE|MAY 2014|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
backroll or squeegee the material to properly fill all pitted areas.

The hotter the temperature, the shorter the pot life of the coating materials, and the less time available to work these materials
into pitted substrates.
Cold weather will require the heating of the tank and observing minimum temperature requirements throughout the
project. Such actions lead to additional equipment, man-hours
and safety precautions.
For pitted tank bottoms, some suitable materials are selfpriming. Most contractors prefer to use one product if possible.
This eliminates the need to clean out their plural-component
equipment rigs prior to applying an additional coat, as well as
reducing total project duration. Plural-component equipment
is becoming more common in contractor service offerings, but
it requires an onsite foreman and crew trained in the distinctive application techniques involved for each coating product.
When trained, contractor field employees often prefer to apply
these materials, if given the option.
Coating manufacturer considerations. Working directly with
a coating manufacturer to establish onsite technical support for

a project is always recommended, especially because having
immediate assistance with unforeseen equipment and application issues can prevent lengthy delays in work progress. The
coating technical advisors interest extends to these questions:
Are qualified contractors in place for plural-component
equipment applications?
What is the condition of the tank bottom
(pitted vs. non-pitted)?
Are the lining materials properly specified,
especially for expected weather conditions
and for the tank commodity?
For example, in hot weather (> 90F), the substantially
shorter pot life of fast-RTS materials can be a risk factor with
heavily pitted tank bottoms. Their use can result in pitted substrates/holes being bridged, resulting in a tank lining with extensive holidays.1 In this situation, some standard lining materials may be the better choice, as they will cure quickly enough
while also providing the necessary longer pot life and easier
workability for the pitted substrates.
Trends. Within the oil and gas market segment, it is vitally
important to stay up to speed on the latest trends in protective

coatings that can extend asset life as well as offer other attributes.
Terminal and pipeline owners should be aware that updating
their specifications with fast-RTS materials offers significant
economic benefits, provided that other considerations have
been weighed.
1
NOTES
An important evaluation of bottom linings after application to aboveground
storage tanks (AST) is to conduct discontinuity (holiday) testing per NACE
RPO188. Linings are principally applied to ASTs to prevent internal corrosion
that may be severe. Therefore, any holidays must be detected and repaired prior
to the newly lined tank being returned to service.
JUSTIN HAIR is an oil and gas business development manager with The SherwinWilliams Co. Prior to joining Sherwin-Williams in 2007, he held managerial
positions at HMT, Inc. and Specialized Industrial Service, Inc. Mr. Hair is NACE CIP
Level 3 and SSPC C-11 certified. He holds a BS degree in business administration
from Missouri Southern State University, and also achieved the Pipeline Integrity
Corrosion Assessment certification from the University of Oklahoma.
JUNE
2014
2014 KEYNOTE SPEAKER
ADAM STELTZNER
Lead Landing Engineer of NASAs Mars Science
Laboratory Curiosity Rover Project
As chief engineer and development
manager for the Mars Science Laboratory focused on the entry, descent
and landing phase, Adam Steltzners
job was to ensure that the NASA
Mars Curiosity rover landed safely.
His group spent nearly 10 years
designing, building, testing, and
tweaking the process that would
slow the intricately designed, 2,000-pound rover from a speed of
nearly 15,000 miles per hour and deliver it safely to the planets
surface. During his presentation, he will share his enthusiasm for
science and planetary exploration and discuss how audacious goals,
unbridled thinking and breakthrough innovation can make the
impossible possible. | Image Courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech
10 conference presentations
will be conducted in Spanish
Develop your technical expertise

in terminal operations by
attending focused presentations
and workshops.
CO NF ERENCE S ESS IO NS INCLUD E:
Arc Flash Hazard Prevention and Compliance with

the 2012 NFPA 70E Standards for Electrical Safety
Tools and Techniques for Minimizing Mistakes and
Improving Compliance in Terminal Operations
New Oil Distribution Patterns and Their Impact
on Terminals
Market Trends in Recent Terminal Sales and
Expansion Projects
Considerations for Implementing and Enforcing
Document Retention Policies
Emergency Planning, Response & Restoration:
What Every Terminal Should Know
INTERNATIONAL OPERATING CONFERENCE & TRADE SHOW
34TH ANNUAL
HOUSTON, TEXAS
HILTON A ME R IC AS- H O U STON GEORGE R. B ROWN CONV ENTI ON CENTER
info@ilta.org | +1-703-875-2011 | www.ilta.org

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Safety
M. SAWYER, Apex Safety Consultants,
Houston, Texas
Minimize false assurances in hazard analyses

Hazard analysis is a powerful and
highly effective tool for identifying and
evaluating potential hazards and control
measures (FIG. 1). Its versatility provides
an economical and insightful assessment
of potential hazards at multiple stages in
the lifespan of a project. When used correctly, it is also an effective method of
identifying potential job hazards involving maintenance and operational tasks.
Yet, caution should be exercised. It may
not provide the level of risk reduction or
control perceived or anticipated.
Aspects that are uncharacteristic to
most hazard analyses, such as uncertainty
assessments and inclusion of guide terms
outside of the normal process parameters,
should be considered for supplemental
purposes. Although atypical of hazard
analyses, these concepts can enhance the
quality of the analysis and increase confidence in the results.
There are several hazard analysis techniques that have been developed and
practiced over the past 30-plus years, and
each has its benefits as well as limitations.
The Center for Chemical Process Safety
(CCPS) acknowledged hazard analysis as
having a number of theoretical and practical limitations in its hazard evaluation
procedures.1
The issue of hazard analysis having
limitations is not a new concept, as noted
by CCPSs 1992 guide document. Trevor
Kletz often spoke of organizations having
no memory.2 To borrow from Dr. Kletzs
insight, it may also be said that hazard analyses have no memory: similar omissions,
misstatements, errors and oversights can
be found in most analyses, especially those
conducted within the same organization.
In 1992, the US Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) adopted a chemical process safety management standard as mandated by the Clean
Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990.
Along with other requirements, the standard included a provision for workplace
hazard analysis.
More specifically, Section 304 of the
CAAA requires employers to perform a
workplace hazard assessment, including,
as appropriate, identification of potential
sources of accidental releases, an identification of any previous release within the
facility, which had a likely potential for catastrophic consequences in the workplace,
estimation of workplace effects of a range
of releases, estimation of the health and
safety effects of such range on employees.3
The OSHA requirement for hazard
analysis is much more explicit; it says that
the process hazard analysis shall be appropriate to the complexity of the process
and shall identify, evaluate and control
hazards involved in the process.4
Although explicit, OSHAs hazard
analysis requirement encompasses an extensive effort in order to fully comply with
its intent.
Process consideration. First, the analy-
sis methodology must be appropriately

matched with the complexity of the process under study. This initial step is where
HAZOP study
What if/checklist
FMEA/FMECA
Fault-tree analysis
Combination, etc.
Determine appropriate
equivalent methodology
many analysis techniques and processes

are inappropriately matched and the quality of the analysis suffers. One example is
what-if/checklist type formats that are
used to analyze highly hazardous and complex processes. Processes that should require special consideration when selecting
an analysis methodology include:
Continuous vs. batch
Maintenance intensive
Highly congested units
Heavily task-oriented operations
Sparsely staffed units
Processes with unique siting issues.
When selecting the analysis methodology, remember that the use of multiple techniques may be beneficial in both the analysis time and quality of the study. It is highly
recommended that the final methodology
technique selection(s) be challenged. Then
a justification in the form of a detailed technical basis should be documented and approved by the corporate safety representative prior to study commencement. The
primary objective and a detailed scope outlining study limitations and assumptions
should also be included in the technical basis. This will be advantageous in assessing
the uncertainty associated with the analysis.
Detailed
technical
basis
Safety review
Identify
Evaluate
Analyze hazards
of the process
Control
Uncertainty
assessment
Hazard analysis
report
Disseminate
Results of hazard analysis
to all affected workers
(employees and contractors)
FIG. 1. Inductive hazard analysis.

Safety
Analysts typically associate uncertainty
with probabilistic risk assessments. An uncertainty evaluation should be included in
the hazard analysis report to provide an
effect estimation regarding data and technique variations on overall risk.
Identify and control. The second part of
the hazard analysis requirement is the most

challenging: identify, evaluate and control
hazards involved in the process. Even the
96
most seasoned hazard analysis facilitator

will admit that the selection of the appropriate technique is important, but that its
only the beginning of an arduous process.
Step 1 is to identify potential hazards
involved in the process, system or task
under study. Depending upon the analysis
methodology, most studies readily identify the basic process or workplace hazards.
For example, during a hazard and operability study (HAZOP), most basic pro-
cess parameter issues are identified, such

as no flow, high temperature or low pressure. This steps critical aspect is conducting a thorough identification of potential
hazards. Typically, hazard analysis studies
neglect to identify potential hazards like
deferred and/or repetitive maintenance;
faults detected during inspection and
testing; and deferred inspections. TABLE 1
provides a limited list of some potential
hazards that may be overlooked during the
hazard analysis. Hazard analysis teams can
use this list (TABLE 1) as a starting point to
initiate brainstorming of additional issues
that should be included in their analysis.
After a hazard is identified, the next
step is to evaluate the hazard. A pre-determined risk-ranking matrix with probability and severity definitions is typically
used to assess risk, both before and after
safeguards. Just as with the initial hazard
identification, errors and omissions at
this stage can also affect the studys quality. The most common error found with
predetermined risk-ranking matrixes is
that organizations neglect to update the
matrix definitions based on experienced
incidents and near misses. This allows the
matrix to quickly become stagnant and
not representative of the organizations actual operational risk.
Some of the more common deficiencies discovered during hazard analyses
evaluation are:
Incorrect scenarios such as
assuming that unit/equipment
is operational when it is out
of service
Failure to identify changed
operating parameters
Failure to identify re-rating of
vessels, equipment
Including out-of-service safety
devices/systems as safeguards
Over reliance on operator
intervention to mitigate
emergencies
Failure to thoroughly assess
maintenance-intensive tasks
Include inspections and tests
as safeguards when inspections/
tests had been deferred
Failure to assess issues surrounding
contractor/operational staff ratios
Under-estimation of hazard
occurrence (probability)
Under-estimation of hazard severity
Limited guide words/terms
Incomplete hazard scenarios
Safety
Confusion between hazard and
consequence
Confusion between safeguard and
safety instrumented system
Failure to understand the process/
system/tasks involved
The listed items may be attributed
to factors like facilitator inexperience,
conducting the analysis too fast and inappropriate skill and knowledge base of
team members.
The job safety analysis/job hazard
analysis ( JSA/JHA) is a widely used
variation of hazard analysis that is common for operational and maintenance
tasks. The most common and critical
mistake with JSA/JHA is its reliance on
a predetermined checklist of generalized
hazards, which impedes the typical hazard analysis brainstorming. This analysis
is extremely critical to ensuring personnel safety while conducting operational
and maintenance tasks. Yet, it is often
perceived as just a paperwork exercise
with little to no actual contemplation of
potential hazards relevant to the task or
maintenance activity to be undertaken.
Investigation into numerous incidents involving completed JSA/JHAs
revealed gaps such as the occurring hazard were known but not identified in the
analysis or the hazard control measure
was not appropriate. For example, in an
incident resulting in a fatality during a

tank-cleaning task, the JSA listed the
tank contents incorrectly. In another
incident, the JSA neglected to identify
a pipelines flammable residue prior to
conducting hot work. In another incident, the JSA neglected to identify
changes to the task scope.
After incidents where a JSA/JHA was
conducted and the affected workers were
interviewed, most acknowledged little to
no actual awareness or understanding of
the process hazards involved in the task.
This remained true for hazards identified on the JSA/JHA and for those not
identified. Investigations into work incidents often revealed that, while companies relied upon the JSA/JHA to provide
workers with an understanding of the
risk, most analyses equated to nothing
more than a predetermined checklist of
sparsely related work hazards.
Other considerations. There are sev-
eral other inductive hazard analysis variations not discussed in this article. All have
similar strengths and limitations. Incorporation of the issues noted above will
begin to bridge the gap and increase confidence in hazard analysis studies. However, there are also other measures that
can be implemented into a hazard analysis program to increase its effectiveness.
TABLE 1. Examples of potential hazards
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Ball Valves and Valves
Overdue or deferred process safety management (PSM) audit ndings and action items
Operating excursions (operations outside of safe upper and lower limits)
Plants and Pipes
Delays in completing management of change (MOC)

Systems operating without dened operating parameters
Deferred preventive maintenance activities
Compressors, Fans and

Blowers
Overdue/deferred inspections (vessels, relief valves, instrumentation)

Bypassed/out-of-service critical instruments, alarms
Membrane Technology
Blocked relief valves

Frequency of leaks
Frequency of rotating equipment failures
Overdue operating procedure reviews
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Incomplete or out-of-date process safety information

Isolation philosophy for emergencies
Out-of-service equipment
Incomplete or inadequate overpressure design basis
BORSIG GmbH
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Operating-envelope changes
Reduction of operational and/or maintenance staff
Egellsstrasse 21
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Increases in operational and/or maintenance tasks per shift

Equipment failures incorrectly documented as routine maintenance
Safety
Additional measures that have proven
successful in elevating hazard analysis results include:
1. Development of an experience-based
evergreen hazard database to supplement the study. One example is a hazard database of anhydrous ammonia
refrigeration system data gathered
from operational experience, maintenance work orders, refrigeration
suppliers and similar systems.5
2. In all hazard analyses, the skill and

composition of the team are critical
factors in a successful study. Team
members should be carefully selected based upon skill, experience level,
process/system under study and formal hazard analysis training.
3. The hazard analysis team usually
comprises 5 to 10 individuals representing different disciplines. The
team represents only a fraction of
Hazardgard
The Commercial Standard

in Hazardous Location Cooling
UL Listed for CLASS 1, DIV 2, GROUPS A, B, C, and D.
the workers at a facility. Unless the

facility develops and implements a
hazard analysis dissemination plan,
the hazard analysis information developed in the study will likely never
get to the workers who need the information. Without disseminating
the hazard information to all affected workers and ensuring their understanding of the hazards and the
appropriate safeguards, the effort
spent on the hazard analysis is futile.
Although hazard analysis is a powerful
analytical tool, there are numerous pathways to introduce errors and omissions
that can degrade the quality of the hazard
analysis. Hazard analysis is a critical part of
any safety management program and organizations should carefully consider how to
obtain the most benefit from the analysis.
A culture that considers hazard analysis
as a paperwork exercise necessary only to
avoid OSHA citations will fail to achieve
any real risk-reduction measures.
Be successful. No single study or meth-
IEC Certied Class 1, Zone 2

Groups IIA, IIB & IIC
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phone: 1-877-599-5665, ext. 504
MIKE SAWYER, PE, CSP, is a consulting engineer at

Apex Safety Consultants in Houston, Texas. He has
led and participated on various safety engineering
projects over the past 31 years. In addition, he has
facilitated numerous hazard and risk assessment
studies throughout the world.
www.friedrich.com
98
April ad_Hazardgard.indd 1
LITERATURE CITED
Center for Chemical Process Safety, Guidelines for
Hazard Evaluation Procedures, 2nd Edition, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1992.
2
Kletz, T., Lessons From Disaster, How Organizations
Have No Memory and Accidents Recur, Institute of
Chemical Engineers, Warwickshire, UK, 1993.
3
CAA Section 304, 42 U.S.C. 7604.
4
29 CFR 1910.119(e)(1).
5
Bruen, L. and M. Sawyer, Refrigeration System
exHAZOP, MKO Process Safety Center
Symposium, 2010.
1
Corrosion Protection on Coils
email: gperez@friedrich.com
odology is guaranteed to capture all potential hazards. However, the greatest

probability of success can be orchestrated
by using an adequately diversified and
multi-disciplined team; sufficient prestudy research of relevant process issues; a
pre-study walk-through of the unit(s); and
an experienced facilitator.
Conducting a hazard analysis should
be a company-wide undertaking with
continued emphasis on the quality of the
study to ensure that the analysis is appropriate to the complexity of the process;
that hazards are identified, evaluated and
controlled; and that all affected workers
have been informed about the hazards and
control measures relevant to their jobs.

4/15/2014 4:17:17 PM
Environment
D. CONNAUGHTON, Parker Hannifin,
Haverhill, Massachusetts
What every refiner should know

about nitrogen generation and delivery
Nitrogen (N2 ) is often used in refineries to blanket tanks
and reduce the chance of fire or explosion. This gas is the second highest volume chemical produced in the world by pound,
just behind sulfuric acid and ahead of ethylene. Thus, N2 accounts for a considerable amount of energy used in the chemical/petrochemical industry. New low-energy, on-demand N2
production methods are becoming more common; all are in
an effort to reduce the industrys carbon footprint.
Most N2 is produced by the cryogenic fractional distillation
of liquefied air in large commercial air separation plants (FIG.
1). Cryogenic distillation accounts for about 70% of total N2
production. The commercial method for air separation can be
attributed to the German scientist Carl von Linde, who developed the process over 120 years ago.
The process. N2 production involves withdrawing air from
the atmosphere using a compressor. The compressed air is then
pretreated to remove oil vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water
(H2 O) vapor. The removal of CO2 and H2 O vapor is crucial,
as these compounds can freeze and plug the cryogenic equipment. The treated air is then compressed, passed through a heat
exchanger, expanded through a valve and returned to the compressor inlet.
On each compression expansion cycle, the temperature drops.
This process is called Joule-Thomson expansion. The liquefied
air is then separated into N2 , oxygen (O2 ) and argon by fractional
distillation. The purified N2 is pressurized and stored in bottles
as a gas or directly stored in dewars as a liquid. These vessels are
transported to and from the end users plant. Cryogenic plants
are also built on or near an end users site, with the N2 being delivered via pipeline. Although this method provides a low-cost
reliable supply for large industrial users, it is not appropriate for
smaller-volume users because of the high capital and power costs.
Generating N2 using the fractional distillation of air is energy-intensive because the process entails condensing ambient air
into liquid air by cyclic cooling and compression of the gas. Additionally, after N2 gas is separated from the air, more energy is
needed to further purify the gas and fill the appropriate container. Further, fractional distillation of air is normally performed
continuously on a large scale, resulting in hundreds or thousands
of tons of greenhouse gases (GHG) created per day.
N2 transport via delivery tankers from a fractional distillation facility to and from an end users plant consumes substantial energy and significantly contributes to the amount of CO2
in the atmosphere. Obviously, the amount of energy required to

transport the N2 depends on the distance between the facility
and the end user, but trucking N2 clearly has a negative environmental impact. For example, a tractor trailer traveling around
100,000 miles per year generates about 360,000 lbs of CO2 during that time.
On-demand generation. Recently, alternative methods for
on-demand N2 generation have been put into practice. They include pressure-swing adsorption (PSA) and membrane system
technologies. The choice of generator largely depends on the
purity of N2 needed. Typically, applications such as fire prevention require N2 at 95% to 98% purity and can use membrane
generators to meet this goal. Other applicationslike blanketing O-sensitive compounds, specialty chemicals and pharmaceutical processingneed a high-purity stream and require the
use of PSA generators.
PSA technology separates N2 from O2 based on the preferential adsorption and desorption of O2 and other contaminants
on a carbon molecular sieve (CMS). The system passes pressurized air through a vessel packed with CMS that adsorbs O2
and allows the N2 to pass through the vessel. Once the CMS is
saturated with O2 , the vessel pressure is lowered, which causes
contaminants such as O2 , CO2 and H2 O vapor to be released to
the atmosphere. CMS has a high degree of microporosity, making it highly suitable for O2 adsorption. To obtain a continuHeat exchanger-incoming air
cooled by product gases
Filter
Nitrogen
Cooling
Air
Other
gases
Compressor
Zeolite
molecule sieve
Expansion
turbine
Oxygen
Cleaning and cooling
Liquefying
Distillation
FIG. 1. Shown here as a single-stage process, the compression and

expansion that occur in fractional distillation are actually repeated
over and over again. Source: University of York, UK.
Environment
ous flow of N2 and maximize system utility, the system uses two
vessels connected in parallel. One vessel provides N2 while the
other vessel is being regenerated.
Generating N2 using a hollow-fiber membrane system involves using an air compressor that withdraws air from the atmosphere and passes it through a high-efficiency coalescing
filter to remove H2 O vapor and particulates. The clean, dry air
then passes through a carbon scrubber to remove any hydrocar-
bon vapors before entering the systems separation module. The

compressed air travels through the hollow fibers in the membrane (FIG. 2), separating out any remaining O2 and H2 O vapor.
The N2 -enriched gas stream passes through another filter to
ensure the delivery of pure, sterile N2 .
Energy usage. PSA and membrane systems require only
enough energy to power the compressor that supplies air to the
system and, in the case of PSA systems, power to operate a timer
and valving. By eliminating the need for an outside facility to
generate N2 , store it and truck it to a users site, the entire carbon
footprint required to create and supply N2 to a plant is reduced.
Gas industry sources indicate that an air-separation plant uses
1,976 kJ of electricity/kg of N2 at 99.9% purities. On-demand N2
generation helps reduce GHG generation. Compared to thirdparty supplied bulk N2 , generating 99.9% N2 in-house on-demand with a PSA system uses 28% less energy. At a purity of 98%,
the energy required for in-house N2 consumes 62% less energy,
and therefore, produces less GHG.
Sustainable and efficient. Generating N2 on-demand is a sus-
tainable and energy-efficient approach. It uses significantly less

energy than fractional distillation.
FIG. 2. Air passes through the hollow fibers inside the membrane
module to separate the O2 and any remaining H2O vapor from the
N2-enriched gas stream.
DAVID CONNAUGHTON is an expert in nitrogen generators. He holds a BS degree

in chemistry and an MS degree in chemical engineering from Tufts University.
Mr. Connaughtons 30-year career spans roles in product development, technical
support, product sales and marketing.
LIVE WEBCAST: JUNE 17, 2014 | 10 a.m. CST

Dos and Donts of Pressure
Design in Piping Codes
SPEAKER:
SPEAKER:
Josh Gilad
Stuart Watson
Mechanical Instructor/
Consultant
Discipline Manager,
Mechanical Engineering
Network
John M. Campbell |
PetroSkills
John M. Campbell |
PetroSkills
In this webinar we take multiple case scenarios to compare the mechanical

design for wall thickness across the industry major piping codes ASME
B31.3, B31.4 and B31.8. In this way we develop a stronger understanding of
allowable stresses, installation environment, corrosion allowances and where
manufacturing tolerances affect the minimum wall thickness.
Case studies are based on the same pressure, temperature and nominal
diameter, but considering conventional Grade B SMLS vs ERW and materials
to high yield materials.
Register at: HydrocarbonProcessing.com

MODERATOR:
Adrienne Blume
Managing Editor
HELEN MECHE, ASSOCIATE EDITOR

Helen.Meche@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Events
MAY
American Chemistry Council
(ACC) Responsible Care
Conference & Exhibition,
May 47, InterContinental Hotel
Miami, Miami, Fla.
P: +1 (202) 249-6121
online@americanchemistry.com
www.americanchemistry.com
International Society of
Automation (ISA)
59th Annual Analysis
Division Symposium, May 48,
Crown Plaza, Baton Rouge, La.
P: +1 (919) 549-8411
info@isa,org
www.isa.org
Offshore Technology
Conference (OTC), May 58,
Reliant Center, Houston, Texas
P. +1 (972) 952-9494
F. +1 (713) 779-4216
meetings@otcnet.org
www.otcnet.org/2014
Institution of Chemical
Engineers (IChemE),
Hazards 24, May 79,
Edinburgh International
Conference Centre, Edinburgh, UK
P: +44 (0) 1788 578214
conferences@icheme.org
www.icheme.org
Abu Dhabi International
Downstream Exhibition
& Conference 2014,
May 1113, Abu Dhabi, UAE
P: +971 4 435 6101
maxwell.thompson@
clarioneventsme.com
www.wraconferences.com
Institution of Mechanical
Engineers (iMechE),
11th International Conference
on Turbochargers and
Turbocharging, May 1314,
British Museum, London, UK
P: +44 020 7973 1297
eventenquiries@imeche.org
www.imeche.org
International School of
Hydrocarbon Measurement
(ISHM), 2014 School and
Exhibition, May 1315,
Cox Communications Center,
Oklahoma City, Okla.
P: +1 (405) 325-6034
lcrowley@ou.edu
www.ishm.info
AFPM National Occupational

and Process Safety
Conference and Exhibition,
May 1415, Grand Hyatt,
San Antonio, Texas
(See box for contact information)
10th World LNG Series:

Americas Summit, Jun. 25,
San Antonio, Texas
P: +44 20 7978 0061
LNGAmericas@thecwcgroup.com
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dmg events, 3rd Annual

Asia Pacific Small and Mid Scale
LNG Forum, May 1416,
Pan Pacific Hotel, Singapore,
P: + 44 (0) 203 6152 850
info@apaclng.com
www.apaclng.com
World Refining Association

(WRA) Global Petrochemicals
Conference, Jun. 35,
Berlin, Germany
P: +44 (0) 207 384 8000
F: +44 (0) 207 384 8007
marketing@theenergyexchange.
co.uk, www.wraconferences.com
ERTC Energy Efficiency

Conference, May 15,
Brussels, Belgium
P: +44 (0) 207 484 9700
conf@gtforum.com
events.gtforum.com/
energy-efficiency
American Petroleum
Institute (API) Spring Refining
and Equipment Standards
Meeting, May 1922, Buena Vista
Palace Hotel, Orlando, Fla.
P: 1+ (202) 682-8000
register@api.org
www.api.org
14th World XTL Summit,
May 1921, Royal Garden Hotel,
London, UK
P: +44 20 7978 0029
xtl@thecwcgroup.com
www.cwcxtl.com
AFPM Reliability and Maintenance
Conference and Exhibition,
May 2023, Convention Center,
San Antonio, Texas
JUNE
International Liquid Terminal
Associations (ILTAS)
34th Annual International
Operating Conference and
Trade Show, Jun. 24,
Hilton AmericasHouston and
George R. Brown Convention
Center, Houston, Texas
P: +1 (703)8752011
info@ilta.org, www.ilta.org
ACC Annual Meeting,
Jun. 24, The Broadmoor,
Colorado Springs, Colo.
P: +1 (202) 249-6121
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American Society of Mechanical

Engineers (ASME) Annual
Meeting, Jun. 611, Portland, Oreg.
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customercare@asme.org
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Engineers (ASSE) Safety 2014
Professional Development
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Convention Center,
West Building, Orlando, Fla.
P: + 1 847-699-2929
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Global Petroleum Show,
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Calgary, Alta., Canada
P: +1 (403) 209-3555
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dmg events, Global Energy
Career Expo Calgary, Jun. 1112,
Calgary Telus Convention Center,
Calgary, Alta., Canada
P: +1 (403) 209 3551
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globalenergycareerexpo.com
ASME Turbo Expo, Jun. 1620,
CCD Congress Center,
Dsseldorf, Germany
P: +1 (973) 882-1170
NRC/ASME Pump and Valve
Symposium, Jun. 2227,
Bethesda North Marriott
Hotel and Conference Center,
North Bethesda, Md.
P: +1 (973) 882-1170
Gulf Publishing Company Events,

Hydrocarbon Processings
International Refining and
Petrochemical Conference (IRPC),
Jun. 2426, Verona, Italy
www.HPIRPC.com
Gulf Publishing Company Events,

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CityCentre, Houston, Texas
www.GTLTechForum.com
AUGUST
AFPM Cat Cracker Seminar,
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Houston, Houston, Texas
National Association of
Corrosion Engineers (NACE),
Central Area Conference,
Aug. 2527, Renaissance
Tulsa Hotel and Convention
Center, Tulsa, Okla.
P: +1 281-228-6223, or
+1 800-797-6223
F: +1 281-228-6300
firstservice@nace.org
www.nace.org/events
China International
Petrochemical Technology
and Equipment Exhibition
(cippe), Aug. 2628,
Shanghai New International
Expo Center, Shanghai, China
P: +86-10-58236555/58236588
F: +86-10-58236567
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sh.cippe.com.cn/2014/en/
Hydrocarbon Processing/
Events
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MARKETPLACE / Gerry.Mayer@GulfPub.com / +1 (972) 816-3534
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ADVERTISER INDEX / HydrocarbonProcessing.com

The first number after the company name is the page on which an advertisement appears. The second number, appearing in parentheses, after the company
name, is the Reader Service Number. There are two ways readers can obtain product and service information:
1. Go to www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS. Follow the instructions on the screen, and your request will be forwarded for immediate action.
2. Go online to the advertiser's Website listed below.
Company
Page
RS#
Aerzen USA ..........................................................19
(155)
Website
www.info.hotims.com/50996-155
AFPM................................................................. 105
American Petroleum Institute .............................. 48
(164)
Ametek Process Instruments .................................33
(160)
Ariel Corporation..................................................18
(61)
Aveva AB .............................................................35
(72)
Axens ................................................................108
(53)
Baldor Electric Company .......................................36
(63)
Bete Fog Nozzle .................................................. 42
(73)
Bilfinger Water Technologies S.A.S. ....................... 13
(55)
Bluebeam Software Inc......................................... 15
(57)
Borsig GmbH .......................................................97
(174)
Brand Energy and Infrastructure Services ........... T-94
Company
Page
RS#
Environmental Gasket Company Ltd ......................73
(169)
NAES Corporation .................................................76
(171)
Fira De Barcelona (Expoquimia) ............................28
(158)
OHL .....................................................................26
(156)
Flexitallic LP ......................................................... 5
(93)
Friedrich Air Conditioning Co ................................ 98
(175)
Oiltanking GmbH ............................................. T-84
(60)
Pentair ............................................................... 46
(163)
Petro-Canada Lubricants ....................................... 2
(75)
Pittsburgh Corning Corporation..........................T-93
(176)
Prosernat ............................................................19
(154)
Quest Integrity Group LLC......................................81
(172)
Website
Company
Website
Page
RS#

Construction Boxscore Database .................... T-88
Events ........................................67, 4041, T-92
Circulation ................................................... T-89
HP Webcast ...............................................82, 100
Marketplace ............................................. 102-103
Heat Transfer Research Inc. .................................. 96
(173)
Hermetic Pumpen GmbH ......................................59
(165)
Hoerbiger ........................................................... 34
(161)
Roxul .................................................................. 51
(87)
Idrojet .................................................................38
(162)
Royal Purple, LLC..................................................55
(86)
(74)
ILTA ..................................................................T-87
Inpro / Seal Company ...........................................26
(157)
Samson GmbH .....................................................75
(170)
CB&I ................................................................ T-90
(65)
Intergraph Benelux ..............................................14
(152)
SO.CA.P. ...............................................................33
(159)
Clock Spring Company ......................................... 69
(168)
Jonell, Inc............................................................47
(78)
Spraying Systems Co .......................................... 107
(66)
Codeware ............................................................16
(58)
Linde Engineering NA .......................................... 20
(90)
Team Industrial Services .......................................32
(99)
Cudd Energy Services .......................................... 65
(166)
Linde Process Plants ............................................ 44
(82)
DeltaValve, a Curtiss Wright Company ................... 12
(151)
Trachte USA ........................................................ 66
(167)
Magnetrol International........................................22
(80)
Dresser-Rand.......................................................27
(59)
Maire Tecnimont SpA ............................................ 17
(153)
Turbomachinery Laboratory..................................57
Weir Minerals Lewis Pumps ...................................24
(94)
Elliott Group ......................................................... 8
(54)
Merichem Company............................................. 30
(84)
ZymeFlow Decon Technology ............................... 60
(92)
This Index and procedure for securing additional information is provided as a service to Hydrocarbon Processing advertisers and a convenience to our readers. Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.
SALES OFFICESEUROPE
Bret Ronk, Publisher

Phone/Fax: +1 (713) 520-4421
E-mail: Bret.Ronk@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com
SALES OFFICESNORTH AMERICA

IL, LA, MO, OK, TX
Josh Mayer
Phone: +1 (972) 816-6745, Fax: +1 (972) 767-4442
E-mail: Josh.Mayer@GulfPub.com
AK, AL, AR, AZ, CA, CO, FL, GA, HI, IA, ID, IN,
KS, KY, MI, MN, MS, MT, ND, NE, NM, NV, OR,
SD, TN, TX, UT, WA, WI, WY,
WESTERN CANADA
Nick McCorvy
Phone/Fax +1 (713) 520-4449
E-mail: Nick.McCorvy@GulfPub.com
CT, DC, DE, MA, MD, ME, NC, NH, NJ, NY, OH,
PA, RI, SC, VA, VT, WV,
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Merrie Lynch
Phone: +1 (617) 357-8190, Fax: +1 (617) 357-8194
Mobile: +1 (617) 594-4943
E-mail: Merrie.Lynch@GulfPub.com
CLASSIFIED SALES
Gerry Mayer
Phone: +1 (972) 816-3534, Fax: +1 (972) 767-4442
E-mail: Gerry.Mayer@GulfPub.com
DATA PRODUCTS
Lee Nichols
Phone/Fax: +1 (713) 525-4626
E-mail: Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com
FRANCE, GREECE, NORTH AFRICA, MIDDLE EAST,

SPAIN, PORTUGAL, SOUTHERN
BELGIUM, LUXEMBOURG, SWITZERLAND,
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Catherine Watkins
Tl.: +33 (0)1 30 47 92 51
Fax: +33 (0)1 30 47 92 40
E-mail: Watkins@GulfPub.com
ITALY, EASTERN EUROPE

Fabio Potest
Mediapoint & Communications SRL
Phone: +39 (010) 570-4948, Fax: +39 (010) 553-0088
E-mail: Fabio.Potesta@GulfPub.com
RUSSIA/FSU
Lilia Fedotova
Anik International & Co. Ltd.
Phone: +7 (495) 628-10-333
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UNITED KINGDOM/SCANDINAVIA,
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Michael Brown
Phone: +44 161 440 0854
Mobile: +44 79866 34646
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SALES OFFICESOTHER AREAS

AUSTRALIAPerth
Brian Arnold
Phone: +61 (8) 9332-9839, Fax: +61 (8) 9313-6442
E-mail: Australia@GulfPub.com
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Iris Yuen
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Phone: +852 69185500, (Hong Kong)
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Mobile: +91-98673 67374
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INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, SINGAPORE,

THAILAND
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Publicitas Singapore Pte Ltd
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E-mail: Singapore@GulfPub.com
JAPANTokyo
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Pacific Business Inc.
Phone: +81 (3) 3661-6138, Fax: +81 (3) 3661-6139
E-mail: Japan@GulfPub.com
KOREA
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JES Media, Inc.
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E-mail: Korea@GulfPub.com
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REPRINTS
Rhonda Brown, Foster Printing Service
Phone: +1 (866) 879-9144 ext. 194
E-mail: RhondaB@FosterPrinting.com
MEET OTHERS.
EXCHANGE IDEAS.
ATTEND 2014
AFPM MEETINGS.
BE A PART OF THESE IMPORTANT INDUSTRY EVENTS.
Register at www.afpm.org
National Occupational
& Process Safety
Conference
San Antonio, TX
May 14 15
Labor Relations/
Human Resources
Conference
San Antonio, TX
May 21 22
Reliability &
Maintenance
Conference and
Exhibition
San Antonio, TX
May 20 23
Cat Cracker
Seminar
Houston, TX
August 19 20
Board of Directors
Meeting
Rancho Palos Verdes, CA
September 7 9
Environmental
Conference
San Antonio, TX
October 19 21
Q&A and
Technology Forum
Denver, CO
October 6 8
International
Lubricants and
Waxes Conference
Houston, TX
November 13 14
BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR

Billy.Thinnes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
People
Wood Group Mustang

has promoted Tim
Griffin to vice president
of industrial operations,
leading the companys
North American industrial
division based in
Greenville, South Carolina.
The division serves the
automotive, aerospace,
industrial manufacturing,
pulp and paper and
engineered materials
industries with a strong
focus on providing highquality, fit-for-purpose
solutions for grassroots
projects, revamps,
facility expansions and
modernizations. Mr.
Griffin joined Wood
Group Mustang in 2011
and served most recently
as director of operations
for the industrial group
and formerly as director
of project controls and
estimating. He previously
was with Fluor, serving
their manufacturing and
life sciences business unit.
Griffin holds a BS degree
in construction science
and management from
Clemson University.
AXION International
Holdings has appointed
Claude Brown Jr. to the
role of chief operating and
technology officer for its
executive management
team. With over 22
years of experience
in the development,
commercialization
and manufacturing
of innovative building
materials, Mr. Brown
will be managing and
advancing the operations
for all of AXIONs
product lines.
BASF SE, Ludwigshafen,

has named Franois
Desn senior vice
president for global
water, oilfield and mining
solutions. He succeeds
Dr. Steffen Kudis, who
will assume responsibility
for BASFs performance
chemicals global strategic
management and new
business development
unit. Mr. Desn started his
professional career with
Rhodia. He joined BASF
in 2003 as a business
development manager in
the companys Mnster,
Germany, coatings
division. He later moved
on to hold management
positions in BASFs AsiaPacific coatings business.
Marathon Oil Corp. has

announced the retirement
of Howard J. Thill, vice
president for corporate,
government and investor
relations. Mr. Thill served
12 years in that role.
Coinciding with Mr. Thills
retirement, the investor
relations function will
move under the direction
and leadership of J.R.
Sult, Marathon Oils
executive vice president
and CFO. Chris Phillips,
currently director of
investor relations, will
continue in his present
role and will report to
Mr. Sult. In addition,
Marathon Oils corporate
and government
relations functions will
be consolidated into
a new organization
called corporate
communications, which
will be under the direction
of Sylvia J. Kerrigan.
John L. Keffer, a corporate

partner at King &
Spalding, has returned
to the firms Houston,
Texas, office after more
than 11 years in London,
where he was a founding
partner, managing partner
and former co-managing
partner of the firms
London office. Before
relocating to London
in 2002, Mr. Keffer
had been based in the
Houston office since 1998.
Mr. Keffer focuses his
practice on international
mergers and acquisitions,
joint ventures, projects
and corporate law, with
considerable experience
in matters related to the
energy industry, sports
and retail businesses. He
represents clients in the
US, Europe, the Middle
East, Africa and Latin
America. Mr. Keffer is
recognized in the Legal
500 UK, Chambers Global
and Latin Lawyer 250
guides. He received a JD
degree from Southern
Methodist University
and is a graduate of the
Foreign Service School of
Georgetown University.
Glen L. Kettering has

been named executive
vice president and group
CEO for NiSources
Columbia Pipeline Group
(CPG) business unit.
Mr. Kettering, currently
NiSources senior vice
president for corporate
affairs, had been serving as
interim CEO for CPG since
December 2013. He has
been responsible for the
companys corporate
communications functions.
William Boyle has joined

Kalenborn Abresist as
the new senior vice
president of operations.
Mr. Boyle graduated
from Washington State
University and has over
25 years of domestic and
international industrial
experience specializing
in ASME Code piping,
pressure vessels and
boilers. In his new role,
Mr. Boyle will have a broad
range of responsibilities
that will utilize his
strengths and knowledge
to grow and enhance the
processes and structure
at Kalenborn Abresist,
a custom manufacturer
of wear resistant linings
with abrasion and impact
resistance for a variety
of processing equipment.
Natural gas industry

veteran Ed Palombo has
joined the Pittsburgh
office of Bowman
Consulting as a senior vice
president. Mr. Palombo
will help lead Bowmans
continuing strategic
expansion of its natural
gas services platform.
Mr. Palombo brings over
30 years of engineering
and operations experience
in the natural gas industry,
having directed the
activities of engineering
staffs and field operations
in design, construction
and maintenance
for distribution,
transmission/storage
and gathering systems.
Natural gas has had
a major economic impact
on this region, and this
is just the beginning,
Mr. Palombo said.
BP has appointed Dr.

Angela Strank to the
position of chief scientist.
She succeeds Dr. Ellen
Williams, who has been
nominated as director of
the Advanced Research
Projects Agency within the
US Department of Energy.
As chief scientist, Dr.
Strank will be responsible
for developing strategic
options to ensure the
company can benefit from
developments in science
and technology worldwide.
She will also coordinate
BPs Technology Advisory
Council (TAC), which
advises BPs executive
management on the status
of science and technology
within the company. The
TAC is chaired by Professor
Dame Ann Dowling, a
non-executive director
of BP. Dr. Strank will be
based in London, UK. Since
joining BP as a geologist
in 1982, Dr. Strank has held
a wide variety of technical
and commercial leadership
roles in BPs upstream and
downstream businesses
and in its corporate center,
working in the UK, US,
Africa and Asia. For the
past two years, she has
worked directly for BP
Group Chief Executive
Bob Dudley, as joint head
of his executive office.
TV Rheinland has
appointed Palmer Dent
III as manager of codes
and standards for its
Authorized Inspection
Agency (AIA) business
unit. The AIA unit assists
clients in the application
of various ASME boiler and
pressure vessel codes.
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We didnt build the rst Boiler.

HydrocarbonProcessing.com | MAY 2014

Petro-Canada is a Suncor Energy business

Trademark of Suncor Energy Inc. Used under licence.

Better performance, less downtime, better profitability everyone approves of that.

MAY 2014|Volume 93 Number 5

Reliability tips for centrifugal process pumps

Micro-alloyed steel: New standard for reformer tubes

Evaluate piping for displacement-controlled loading

Use dynamic models when designing high-pressure vessels

Innovative catalyst solution mitigates FCC operational issue

back to service faster

J. Sexton, J. Highfield, N. Larsen, S. Ismail and D. Neuman

TERMINALS AND STORAGESUPPLEMENT

image? Mr. Popoff advised: First, companies will be judged by

FIG. 1. Former Dow Chemical Chairman Frank Popoff (left) is

BEING FLEXITALLIC SAFE IS THE RESULT OF USING NEW MATERIALS

Visit Flexitallic at the 2014 OTC

JULY 3031, 2014

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Panel Discussions Devoted to:

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Real-World Case Studies on:

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Thursday, July 31, 2014

The Economics of Monetizing North

Economics of Ammonia Production

Co-processing of Waste CO2 with

Autothermal Reforming a Preferred

Partial Oxidation Gas-Turbine Based

Session 4: Emerging Technology

Mixed Alcohols as an Oxygenate and

Case Study: Renery Integration

Panel Discussion: Future Uses of GTL

Effect of Addition of Zeolite to Iron-Based

The New CatFTTM Process

Session 2: The Future of Non-FT

CO2 and CO fermentation: A Route

A New Era in GTL: Cost-Effective

Session 3: Whats New in Small-Scale GTL

Microchannel Fischer-Tropsch Reactors:

Session 6: Modular Construction

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Panel Discussion: Modular GTLs

Renery, Louisiana, USA.

They turned to Elliott

The world turns to Elliott.

STEPHANY ROMANOW, EDITOR

What separates the best-of-class companies

equipment availability is an organizations

the facility. The worlds best downstream

tion of humans; it is inevitable, but it may

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

In this article, rigorous

BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR

While US total net crude oil imports

Saudi Arabia. Crude oil imports

Oil spill contained

in cooperation with the police and the