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EG 245
Frequency Modulation
Generation and Detection
FM Generation
• Need Frequency Sources
– LC Oscillators
– Crystal Oscillators
1
LC Oscillator
f = ½.π.√LC
2
Variable Frequency
f = ½.π.√LC
HOW
Varactor Diode
Texture Notes
• A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier
frequency in accordance with the modulating signal.
• The carrier is generated by LC or crystal oscillator circuits.
• In LC oscillators, the carrier frequency can be changed by
varying either the inductance or capacitance.
• The idea is to find a circuit or component that converts a
modulating voltage to a corresponding change in capacitance
or inductance.
• In crystal oscillators, the frequency is fixed by the crystal.
• A varactor is a variable capacitance diode used to change
oscillator frequencies.
– Varactor Operation
• A reverse-biased diode acts like a small capacitor
• More reverse bias, less is the capacitance
3
Direct FM Generation
Notes
– The capacitance of varactor diode D1 and L1 form the
parallel tuned circuit of the oscillator.
– The value of C1 is made very large so its reactance is very
low.
– C1 connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator and blocks the
dc bias on the base of Q1 from being shorted to ground
through L1.
– The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier frequency.
– The modulating signal varies the effective voltage applied to
D1 and its capacitance varies, hence in turn the output
frequency vary
– No mod Vol, output is carrier.
– More Vol, Less C, Higher Frequency, and vice versa
4
Varactor with Crystal
– Most LC oscillators are not stable enough to
provide a carrier signal.
– The frequency of LC oscillators will vary with
temperature changes, variations in circuit voltage,
and other factors.
– As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to
set carrier frequency
Crystal Oscillators
Voltage
Equivalent circuit
5
FM With Crystal
No feedback
Transistor only as amp.
Series
Notes
– Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate carrier
frequencies and their stability is superior to LC
oscillators.
– The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be varied
by changing the value of capacitance in series or
parallel with the crystal.
– By making the series capacitance a varactor diode,
frequency modulation can be achieved.
– The modulating signal is applied to the varactor
diode which changes the oscillator frequency.
– Limitation: Limited frequency shift
6
Use of Multipliers
4 MHz 96 MHz
+75MHz
Broadcast FM
7
Phase Modulation
• Most modern FM transmitters use some form of
phase modulation (PM) to produce indirect FM
(Remember: FM can be extracted from PM).
• The output of the carrier oscillator is fed to a
phase modulator where the phase shift is made
to vary in accordance with the modulating
signal.
– A simple phase-shift circuit can be used as a phase
modulator if the resistance or capacitance can be
made to vary with the modulating signal.
– A varactor can be used to vary capacitance and
achieve phase shift modulation.
RC phase-shifter basics
Varactor is capacitive,
Transistor can be variable R,
we use RC circuit
8
Indirect FM
– Two main disadvantages.
1.The amount of phase shift they produce and the resulting
frequency deviation are relatively low.
2.All the phase-shift circuits produce amplitude variations
as well as phase changes
FM Demodulators
AND
fc
Digital:
Analog: Differential Amp
A quadrature FM detector
9
Phase Detector
Calibration
Shift = 90 deg; f2 = fc
No output
10
Quadrature Detector
– The quadrature detector is probably the single most widely
used FM demodulator.
– The quadrature detector is primarily used in TV
demodulation.
– Working
– Due to C1, A and B phase always stays at 90 deg quad
– C2 and L tuned always to fc;
– When no mod signal, A =fc;
• Shift is of 90 degrees, output calibrated to zero
– When input frequency decreases
• Phase shift between B and A increases, hence lower
output
– When input frequency decreases
• Phase shift reduces, thus higher output
PLL
• Used in Radios
• Available in chip form
– It is a frequency- or phase-sensitive feedback control circuit
used in frequency demodulation, frequency synthesizers,
and various filtering and signal-detection applications. PLLs
have three basic elements. They are:
• Phase detector
• Low-pass filter
• Voltage-controlled oscillator (instead of LC oscillator,
crystallized VCO, all in chip form)
11
PLL- FM Demodulator
Capacitor store
Voltage value
and continue to
give to vco
Working
RC
LPF
12