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),+5/1./1*)21;,&+1,(/&;&,&')2+1'&.(1$,
-
 (/& 81,1808 /$'1E$,()2 *('&** < 5/1./ /)* (/& 2$5&*(
8);,1(0+& ),+ 1* (/0* 3,$5, )* (/& "!"+
 

#()##<),+5/1./1*)21;,&+)('1;/(-),;2&*($A#


7.$0'*&<2$.)2*('&**&*8)4%&8$+171&+%4(/&6'&*&,.&$77)02(*<$'%4(/&1,('0*1$,$7*)2(

+$8&*1,($*/)22$5&'7$'8)(1$,*#2*$<1,*$8&7$'8)(1$,*<(&,+&,.47$'(/&'$.3($.'&&6$'
--

,,('$+0.(1$,($
&)'-&22%$'& $.3&./),1.*-%4"# $%&'()'*+&,

 

72$5 $=&' ;&$2$;1.)2 (18& 6&'1$+* 91#&# *)2(< $' *$7( 80+'$.3*: .), '&*02( 1, (/& /$'1E$,()2
*('&**&* &?0121%')(1,; ($5)'+* (/& 8);,1(0+& $7 (/& $=&'%0'+&, *('&**< *0./ (/)( )22 (/&
*('&**&*%&.$8&&?0)2),+)'&1*$('$61.91#&#6'&**0'&:#


2*$<)*5122%&&>62)1,&+2)(&'<),4'&+0.(1$,$77201+6'&**0'&(/'$0;/$0()'&*&'=$1'.),2&)+

($ ./),;&* 1, (/& 8);,1(0+&* $7 (/& /$'1E$,()2   *('&**&* ).(1,; (/'$0;/ (/& '&*&'=$1'
'$.3#


;)1,< ),+ 8$*( 186$'(),(24< 1( */$02+ %& '&8&8%&'&+ (/)( *('&**&* ).(1,; 1, +177&'&,(

+1'&.(1$,* ).( 1,+&6&,+&,(24 91#&# (/&4 )'& (!#) ?0),(1(1&*:< ),+ )* *0./ (/&4 .), ,$( %&
)++&+($;&(/&'$''&*$2=&+($$%()1,)*1,;2&&?01=)2&,(=)20&91#&#)*$,&.),+$51(/=&.($'
?0),(1(1&*:#



' 

'' 
7

 $.3* *0./ )* *),+*($,&* )'& .$86$*&+ $7 *8)22

;')1,* $7 8)(&'1)2< (/&*& ;&,&')224 %&1,; ?0)'(E $'

$(/&' *),+ 1, (/& .)*& $7 *),+*($,&*# /&*& ;')1,*
)'& 1, .$,().( 51(/ $,& ),$(/&'< ),+ 8)4 %&
.&8&,(&+ ($;&(/&'# /& +&;'&& ),+ (46& $7
.&8&,(1,; ),+ (/& */)6& ),+ 1,(&'2$.31,; $7 (/&
;')1,* 1,720&,.&* ;'&)(24 (/& *('&,;(/ $7 (/& '$.3
8)(&'1)2# $$'24 .&8&,(&+ '$.3* )'& *$8&(18&*
'&7&''&+($)*%&1,;6$$'24.$,*$21+)(&+#

A$5&=&'< (/& *$21+ ;')1,* ),+ ),4 .&8&,(1,;

Boundary stresses

Sand grains

Pore
pressure

8)(&'1)2* 8)3& 06 $,24 6)'( $7 (/& %023 $7 (/& '$.3#
6).&*&>1*(1,%&(5&&,(/&;')1,**0./(/)((/&'$.3
1*6$'$0*#/&*)#"($7(/&'$.31*) 8&)*0'& $7
(/&($()2=$208&$7(/&*&*)#* #'&2)(1=&($(/&
=$208&$7(/&'$.3)*)5/$2&#


/&.$,,&.(1=1(4$7(/&*&6$'&*6).&*<$'(/&)%121(4$7)7201+91#&#;)*$'21?01+:($6)**(/'$0;/

(/&*&*6).&*<1*)8&)*0'&$7(/&*) "."($7(/&'$.3#


201+*<*0./)*5)(&'<$12),+;)*<.),&>1*(1,(/&6$'&*6).&*<51(/(/&2&**+&,*&7201+*91#&#

;)*: (&,+1,; ($ '1*& 065)'+* (/'$0;/ (/& 6$'& *6).&* ),+ (/& +&,*&' 21?01+* 91#&# 5)(&':
(&,+1,; ($ +')1, +$5,5)'+* 9)2(/$0;/ ) .&'()1, )8$0,( $7 5)(&'< $12 ),+ ;)* 8)4 '&8)1,
(')66&+(/'$0;/$0((/&'$.3+0&($.)6122)'4&77&.(*:#

/& 6$'& 7201+* 5122 %& 6'&**0'1*&+# /& $'1;1,* $7 (/1* *) *)##+) )'& ,08&'$0*< %0(

1,.20+&K


 *&27-5&1;/( $7 (/& 7201+* 1, (/& '$.3 91#&# )* 51(/ ) *()(1. 7201+ .$208,< 5/&'& 6'&**0'&
1,.'&)*&*51(/+&6(/:<


 .$86'&**1$, $7 (/& 6$'& *6).&* +0& ($ %0'1)2 $7 (/& '$.3 %&,&)(/ $(/&' *&+18&,(*< )*
$..0'*$=&';&$2$;1.)2(18&<


 &>6),*1$, $7 (/& '$.3 ),+ 1(* 6$'& *6).&* )* $=&'241,; '$.3* )'& &'$+&+ )5)4< )* )2*$
$..0'*$=&';&$2$;1.)2(18&<


 21%&')(1$, $7 7201+* ),+ ;)*&* 7'$8 (/& .$,*(1(0&,( 8)(&'1)2* +0& ($ ./&81.)2 ./),;&*
%'$0;/()%$0(%4%0'1)2)(/1;/*('&**&*),+(&86&')(0'&#

--

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&)'-&22%$'& $.3&./),1.*-%4"# $%&'()'*+&,

 


86$'(),(24<(/&6$'&6'&**0'&)(),46$1,().(*&?0)2241,)22+1'&.(1$,*<%0((/&6'&**0'&8)4

=)'47'$86$1,(-($-6$1,(#$'&>)862&<6'&**0'&;&,&')2241,.'&)*&*51(/+&6(/),+<1,(/&.)*&
$7)6'$+0.1,;$125&22<(/&6'&**0'&1,6'$>181(4($(/&5&2280*(%&2&**(/),(/)(1,(/&'$.3
'&8$(&7'$8(/&5&221,$'+&'(/)((/&$12.),72$5#/1*./),;&1,6$'&6'&**0'&$=&');1=&,
+1*(),.&'&*02(*1,)*)*)##+),) -"!(#

7(/&'$.31*)/4+'$.)'%$,-%&)'1,;'&*&'=$1'<(/&6$'&6'&**0'&'&8$(&7'$8(/&1,720&,.&$7)

6'$+0.1,; 5&22%$'& 1* 3,$5, )* (/& )#)4") *)##+) $' 2) ("! *)##+)# *
/4+'$.)'%$,* 9),+< 0,7$'(0,)(&24< *$8&(18&* 5)(&': )'& 6'$+0.&+ +0'1,; (/& 217& $7 (/&
'&*&'=$1'< (/1* '&*&'=$1' 6'&**0'& 5122 (&,+ ($ '&+0.&# /1* 1* (&'8&+ )#)4") -*.("!#
$8&(18&*< 1, $'+&' ($ 8)1,()1, $' &,/),.& 6'$+0.(1$,< (/& '&*&'=$1' 6'&**0'& .), %&
8)1,()1,&+$'1,.'&)*&+%41,@&.(1,;5)(&'<*6)'&;)*$'$(/&'7201+*+$5,1,@&.(1$,5&22*1,($
6)'(*$7(/&'&*&'=$1''&8$(&7'$8(/&6'$+0.1,;5&22*#

7 (/& 6$'& 6'&**0'& )( ) +&6(/ 1* &?01=)2&,( ($ (/& 6'&**0'& )( (/& %)*& $7 ) .$208, $7 (/&

*)8& 6$'& 7201+* (/'$0;/ (/& '$.3< (/& '$.3 1* '&7&''&+ ($ )* %&1,; !) ..*)##+)9)2(/$0;/5/&,.)2.02)(1,;),$'8)26'&**0'&<)*()(1..$208,$75)(&'1*0*0)224)**08&+:#7
1(1*;'&)(&'<(/&'$.31**)1+($%&4)*)##+)-#





5


 
8

/&)6621.)(1$,$7%$0,+)'4*('&**&*$,)'$.35122 .)0*& 1( ($ 0,+&';$ +&7$'8)(1$,# 7 (/&*&

./),;&* 1, (/& *('&**&* )'& *8)22< (/& +&7$'8)(1$, 8)4 %& '&.$=&')%2& ),+ ,$ 6&'8),&,(
*(')1, 5122 $..0'# /1* 1* 3,$5, )* . #(" +&7$'8)(1$,# 2)*(1. +&7$'8)(1$, 1, ) '$.3 $..0'*
8)1,24)*).$,*&?0&,.&$7&2)*(1.*(')1,*),++&7$'8)(1$,*51(/1,1(*.$,*(1(0&,(;')1,*),+
.&8&,(1,;8)(&'1)2*#

7 (/& %$0,+)'4 *('&**&* )'& &>.&**1=&< (/& '$.3 8)4 0,+&';$ *$8& +&;'&& $7 7)120'& ),+

6&'8),&,(+&7$'8)(1$,5122'&*02(#/1*1*3,$5,)**. #("+&7$'8)(1$,<),+1($..0'*8)1,24
)* ) .$,*&?0&,.& $7 .'0*/1,; ),+ 7').(0'1,; )( ;')1, %$0,+)'1&* ),+ .$,().(*< ),+ 1, (/&
.&8&,(1,;8)(&'1)2*#/&'&*02(1,;+&7$'8)(1$,* ),+ *(')1,* )'& ;&,&')224 ;'&)(&' (/), (/$*&
)**$.1)(&+51(/'&.$=&')%2&&2)*(1.+&7$'8)(1$,#

A$5&=&'< (/& &77&.(* $7 (/& %$0,+)'4 *('&**&* )'& +181,1*/&+ %4 (/& 6'&*&,.& $7 (/& 6$'&

6'&**0'&# /1* 1* %&.)0*& (/& 6$'& 6'&**0'& ).(* 1, )22 +1'&.(1$,* 7'$8 51(/1, (/& '$.3< ),+
/&26*($*066$'($''&21&=&*$8&6)'(*$7(/&)6621&+%$0,+)'4*('&**&*5/1./5$02+$(/&'51*&
%& ('),*81((&+ (/'$0;/ (/& '$.3 =1) ;')1,-.$,().(* ),+ .&8&,(1,;# ( 1* (/$*& .$86$,&,(* $7
(/&%$0,+)'4*('&**&*5/1./)'&,$('&21&=&+%4(/&6$'&6'&**0'&(/)()'&'&*6$,*1%2&7$'(/&
+&7$'8)(1$, ),+ 7)120'& $7 (/& '$.3# /&*& .$86$,&,(* $7 *('&** )'& 3,$5, )* (/& 22("4
#()###9$'!(#()###:#

*).2$*&)66'$>18)(1$,<(/&'&21&76'$=1+&+($(/&'$.3%4(/&6$'&6'&**0'&1*$7(/&*)8&

8);,1(0+&)*(/&6$'&6'&**0'&91,'&)21(4<1(5122%& *21;/(24 2&** +0& ($ .$86'&**1%121(4 1, (/&

.$,*(1(0&,( ;')1,*:# /& 6$'& 6'&**0'& )2*$ ).(* 1, )22 +1'&.(1$,* ($ '&21&=& (/& +177&'&,(
%$0,+)'4*('&**&*%4(/&*)8&)8$0,(#A&,.&K


77&.(1=&*('&**9N$0,+)'4*('&**9$'(( .#()##:-6$'&6'&**0'&0

5/&'&5&0*&(/&(&'8($()2*('&**($8&),(/&*('&**).(1,;)((/&%$0,+)'4$7(/&&2&8&,($7

'$.3<)*);)1,*((/)(5/1./5$02+%&('),*81((&+(/'$0;/(/&;')1,*$7(/&'$.3#


/&'&7$'&< 5/&, .$,*1+&'1,; /$5 +&7$'8)(1$, $' 7)120'& 81;/( $..0' 1, ) '$.3 +0& ($ (/&

)6621.)(1$, $7 ),4 *()(& $7 *('&**< 5& 80*( .$,*1+&' ./),;&* ($ (/& &77&.(1=& *('&**&* ')(/&'

--

,,('$+0.(1$,($
&)'-&22%$'& $.3&./),1.*-%4"# $%&'()'*+&,

 

(/),@0*(./),;&*($(/&($()2$'%$0,+)'4*('&**&*#$'1,*(),.&<2$.)21*&+.'0*/1,;.),$..0'
)( (/& 6$1,(-($-6$1,( ;')1, .$,().(* $' 51(/1, (/& .&8&,(1,; 8)(&'1)2* 17 (/&'& 1* *0771.1&,(
1,.'&)*&1,(/&($()2*('&**&*),+G$'17(/&'&1**0771.1&,(+&.'&)*&1,(/&6$'&6'&**0'&#,*0./
)*1(0)(1$,<*).. *#5122$..0'#

A$5&=&'<17$,&$'8$'&$7(/&($()2*('&**&*%&.$8&**1;,171.),(242)';&$'17(/&6$'&6'&**0'&

1* *0./ (/)( (/& +177&'&,.& %&(5&&, (/& &77&.(1=& *('&** 1, $,& +1'&.(1$, 1* *0771.1&,(24 ;'&)(&'
(/),(/&&77&.(1=&*('&**).(1,;)('1;/(),;2&*($1(<(/&8)(&'1)20,+&';$&*)+177&'&,(8$+&$7
7)120'& (&'8&+ # ) 2 ".+)# /1* $..0'* 5/&, (/& */&)' *('&** ).(1,; 51(/ '&*6&.( ($ *$8&
918);1,)'4:62),&1,(/&8)(&'1)2&>.&&+*(/&# )#()!,($7(/&8)(&'1)29'&8&8%&'1,;<)*
5& /)=& *&&, %&7$'&< (/)( +177&'&,( */&)' *('&**&* $..0' $, +177&'&,( 62),&* +0& ($ (/&
)6621.)(1$,$7(/&%$0,+)'4*('&**&*:#

 &.),+&8$,*(')(&(/1*.$,.&6($7*/&)'7)120'&1,

-+18&,*1$,*%40*1,;$/'C*.1'.2&*$7*('&**),+<
7$' *18621.1(4< 5& 5122 )**08& (/)( (/&'& 1* ,$ 6$'&
6'&**0'& 1, (/& '$.3 9(/0* &77&.(1=& *('&** N ($()2
*('&**:# 7 6$'& 6'&**0'&* 5&'& 6'&*&,(< 5& 5$02+
*18624 +')5 (/& $/'C* .1'.2& 1, (&'8* $7 &77&.(1=&
*('&**#


 & 5122 )2*$ 1,('$+0.& *$8&(/1,; (&'8&+ ) 2 ".+)

!4.*<5/1./+&71,&*(/&8)>18082181($7*/&)'
*('&** 7$' ),4 ,$'8)2 *('&**# ,4 .$8%1,)(1$, $7
,$'8)2 *('&** ),+ */&)' *('&** 5/1./ 62$(* )%$=&
(/&7)120'&&,=&2$6&1*),186$**1%2&*()(&9*1,.&(/&
'$.3 %'&)3* ),+ .), ,$( *0*()1, *0./ ) *('&**
*()(&:#

8);1,& )66241,; ) .$,*(),( 2)(&')2 *('&** $'

Failure envelope

Im possible
state

Shear
stress

Possible
states

!2"!"!,#()##$<),+1,.'&)*1,;$0')>1)2*('&**
2
f

 0,(12 7)120'& 1* 1,1(1)(&+ 1, (/& '$.3# /1* $..0'*
5/&, (/& *('&**
 '&)./&* *$8& 8)>1808 =)20&
N orm al
3
f

97: 5/1./< 17 &>.&&+&+< 5$02+ .)0*& 6)'( $7 (/&
1(f) stress
$/'C* .1'.2& ($ &>(&,+ )%$=& (/& 7)120'& &,=&2$6&
91#&#(/&+1)8&(&'$7(/&$/'C*.1'.2&%&.$8&*($$2)';&:#/1*8)>1808*('&**
97: 1*3,$5,
)*(/&* #()!,($7(/&'$.3<),++177&'&,(6&)3*('&,;(/*.$''&*6$,+*($+177&'&,(=)20&*
$7.$,71,&8&,(#/&+177&'&,.&%&(5&&,
),+91#&#(/&+1)8&(&'$7(/&$/'C*.1'.2&:1*
3,$5,)*(/&-4" ()"#()###

,& *6&.1)2 .)*& $7 (/1* 2$)+1,; 1* 5/&, (/&'& 1* ,$

.$,71,1,;*('&**).(1,;$,(/&'$.3#0./).$,+1(1$,1*
(&'8&++!" 1" . *)##"!<),+1,(/1* .)*& (/& 6&)3
*('&,;(/1*3,$5,)*(/&+!" 1" .*)##"4#()!,(
$' (/& +!!2"!- *)##"4 #()!,(
# , ) +18&,*1$,)2 '&6'&*&,()(1$, $7 (/1* 0*1,; ) $/'C* .1'.2&<
5& .), *&& (/)( (/& 0,1)>1)2 .$86'&**1=& *('&,;(/ 1* (/&
+1)8&(&'$7(/& 2)';&*( 6$**1%2& $/'C* .1'.2& 7$' 5/&,
1*E&'$#

Failure envelope
Shear
stress

UCS

N orm al
stress


A$5&=&'<),+=&'4186$'(),(24)*5&5122*&&2)(&'5/&,.$,*1+&'1,;5&22%$'&6'&**0'&*<*/&)'

7)120'&.),%&1,+0.&+,$($,24%4/)=1,;),&>.&**1=&8)@$'*('&**
<%0()2*$%4/)=1,;($$
*8)22).$,71,1,;*('&**$'%4),4.$8%1,)(1$,$7./),;&*($),+
5/1./5122'&*02(1,
6)'($7(/&$/'C*.1'.2&($0./1,;$'7)221,;)%$=&(/&7)120'&&,=&2$6&#


--

,,('$+0.(1$,($
&)'-&22%$'& $.3&./),1.*-%4"# $%&'()'*+&,

 

( )./1&=1,; (/& 8)>1808 *('&**
97:< 5/&(/&' (/& *)862& 1*

.$,71,&+$'1*1,0,1)>1)2.$86'&**1$,<*/&)'7)120'&51221,1(1)(&
)2$,; *$8& 62),& 1, (/& 8)(&'1)2 )( 5/1./ (/& */&)' *('&**
'&)./&*1(**/&)'*('&,;(/7#'$8(/&$/'C*.1'.2&*<5&.),
*&& (/)( (/1* 62),& 5122 %& 1,.21,&+ )( ), ),;2& O ($ (/)( $,
5/1./
).(*#/&),;2&O(&,+*($'&+0.&)*(/&.$,71,&8&,(
$,(/&*)862&1,.'&)*&*#

C onjugate
shear
surfaces


,7).(<*/&)'7)120'&.), 1,1(1)(& $, ),4 62),& $'1&,(&+ )( (/1*

),;2& O< ),+ (/&'&7$'& +1*.'&(& .$,@0;)(& */&)' 7)120'&* ),+

81.'$.').3*.),$..0')(8),4+177&'&,(*.)2&*),+)(+177&'&,(
*6).1,;*(/'$0;/$0((/&'$.3#A$5(/&'$.302(18)(&247)12*),+
+&7$'8*5122+&6&,+=&'480./$,(/&,)(0'&$7(/&'$.3),+
1(*.&8&,(1,;#$'1,*(),.&<)(2$5.$,71,1,;*('&**&*1,5&22
.&8&,(&+ '$.3*< (/&*& .').3* ),+ 7)120'& *0'7).&* 81;/(
.$)2&*.&($7$'8)*1,;2&*/&)'*0'7).&#$7(&''$.3*<$'&=&,
5&22.&8&,(&+8)(&'1)2*)(/1;/=)20&*$7<81;/(7)12%4(/&
;&,&')(1$,$78),4*8)22&'+1*.'&(&.').3**0./(/)((/&'$.3
1*+')8)(1.)224)2(&'&+),+1(%02;&*$0(5)'+*#

Lateral
strain


,&1(/&'.)*&<*/&)'7)120'&02(18)(&24$..0'*,$($,24%&.)0*&(/&'$.3/)*%&&,*0%@&.(&+($

),&>.&**1=&*('&**1,$,&+1'&.(1$,<%0()2*$%&.)0*&1(1*)%2&($+&7$'8),+&>6),+$0(5)'+*
1, (/& $(/&' +1'&.(1$,*# /1* 1* ) =&'4 186$'(),( .$,*1+&')(1$,< *1,.& (/& )6621.)(1$, $7
.$,71,&8&,( ($ ) '$.3 8&),* (/)( */&)' 7)120'& .), %& 1,/1%1(&+ $' 6'&=&,(&+# /&'& )'& (5$
5)4*(/)((/1*)++1(1$,)2.$,71,&8&,(81;/(%&)./1&=&+K


 1'*(24< .$,71,1,; *('&**  81;/( %& 1,.'&)*&+ +&21%&')(&24# * 5& 5122 *&& 2)(&'< *0./ ),
1,.'&)*&.),%&6'$=1+&+($'$.3*0''$0,+1,;)5&22%$'&%41,.'&)*1,;(/&6'&**0'&$'(/&
80+5&1;/(1,(/&5&22%$'&#






7(/&.$,71,&8&,().(1,;$,(/&'$.31,.'&)*&*<5&
.), *&& (/)( (/& 2&7(-/),+ 2181( $7 (/& $/'C* .1'.2&
5$02+8$=&($(/&'1;/(#7
'&8)1,*0,./),;&+<(/&
+1)8&(&' $7 (/& $/'C* .1'.2& %&.$8&* *8)22&' *0./
(/)( 1( 8$=&* 70'(/&' %&2$5 (/& 7)120'& &,=&2$6& ),+
/&,.&*/&)'7)120'&1,(/&'$.31*)=$1+&+#

Shear
stress

Low
3

Failure envelope

H igh

1(f)

N orm al
1(f) stress

1812)'24<%4*0%@&.(1,;(/&'$.3($/1;/&'.$,71,&8&,(
3
5& .), ,$5 )6624 ) 80./ ;'&)(&' *('&**
 %&7$'&
*/&)' 7)120'& 5$02+ %& 1,1(1)(&+# , 7).(< %4 /)=1,; ) ;'&)(&' .$,71,&8&,(  (/& '$.3 .),
*0*()1,)+1*6'$6$'(1$,)(&24;'&)(&'*('&**
$'+&=1)($'1.*('&**%&7$'&1(7)12*1,*/&)'91#&#
(/& +1)8&(&'* $7 (/& 8)>1808 6$**1%2& $/'C* .1'.2&* ;&( 2)';&' )*  %&.$8&* ;'&)(&':#
/1* +&8$,*(')(&* ) ./)').(&'1*(1. 5/1./ 1* 6&.021)' ($ 8),4 6$'$0* '$.3*< 1, (/)( (/&4
&77&.(1=&24%&.$8&*('$,;&'(/&8$'&(/&4)'&.$,71,&+#A$5&=&'<*$8&=&'4*$7('$.3*91#&#
)28$*()31,($.2)4*:),+*$8&&>.&6(1$,)224*('$,;),+(1;/(1;,&$0*'$.3*91#&#%)*)2(*),+
64'1(&*: +$ ,$( %&/)=& 213& (/1*< ),+ (/&1' .$''&*6$,+1,; 7)120'& &,=&2$6&* )66&)' ,&)'/$'1E$,()2#

 &.$,+24< 17 ) '$.3 1* 6'&=&,(&+ 7'$8 +12)(1,; $0(5)'+* )* 1( )((&86(* ($ 0,+&';$ */&)'
7)120'& 91#&# %4 (/& 6'&*&,.& $7 ,&1;/%$0'1,; 8)(&'1)2:< )++1(1$,)2 .$,71,1,; *('&**&* )'&
;&,&')(&+#/1*1*80./(/&*)8&)*(/&$1**$,&77&.(5&+1*.0**&+&)'21&'<5/&'&2)(&')2
*6'&)+1,;$7),&2&8&,($7'$.3.),%&1,/1%1(&+%4(/&6'&*&,.&$7,&1;/%$0'1,;&2&8&,(*#
/&$,24+177&'&,.&1*(/)((/&$1**$,&77&.('&2)(&*($&2)*(1.*(')1,<5/&'&)*5&)'&,$5
.$,*1+&'1,;+12)(1$,$7(/&'$.3+0&($7)120'&),+62)*(1.*(')1,#,&1(/&'.)*&<(/&&77&.($7
$,& &2&8&,( $7 '$.3 60*/1,; );)1,*( 1(* ,&1;/%$0'* 1* (/& ;&,&')(1$, $7 *$8& )++1(1$,)2
.$,71,1,;*('&**#
--

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$' 1,*(),.&< 17 ) 2)%$')($'4 *)862& $7 '$.3 1* *0%@&.(&+ ($ ), 1,.'&)*1,; *('&** 1, $,&
+1'&.(1$, %0( 1* 6'&=&,(&+ 7'$8 &>6),+1,; 2)(&')224 91#&# 17 1( 1* *0%@&.(&+ ($ ($()2 2)(&')2
'&*(')1,(: %4 .$,(1,0$0*24 1,.'&)*1,; (/& .$,71,&8&,( 1, (/& $(/&' +1'&.(1$,*< 1( 5122 ,$(
&>6&'1&,.&*/&)'7)120'&#,*(&)+1(8)40,+&';$7)120'&%4.$22)6*&$71(*6$'&*6).&*),+
'&+0.(1$,$71(*6$'$*1(4#
2&)'24< /$5&=&'< (/1* 2)((&' (46& $7 '&*(')1,( ),+ )++1(1$,)2 .$,71,&8&,( .), ,$( $..0'
)+@).&,(($)7'&&7).&*0./)*(/&5)22$')%$'&/$2&$')(0,,&2<),+1(.),$,24&>1*()*
$,&8$=&*1,($(/&'$.3),+)5)47'$8(/&7'&&-7).&#


/1*&77&.($7./),;1,;.$,71,&8&,()2*$2&)+*0*($.$,*1+&'(/&186$'(),(1,720&,.&$76$'&

6'&**0'&$,(/&&77&.(1=&*('&**&*<'&8&8%&'1,;(/)(1(1*(/&&77&.(1=&*('&**&*5/1./.$,('$2
(/& %&/)=1$0' $7 (/& '$.3 ')(/&' (/), (/& ($()2 *('&**&*# $' 1,*(),.&< ) '$.3 )( 2$5 6$'&
6'&**0'& 8)4 %& *()%2& 0,+&' ) ;1=&, *&( $7 ($()2
*('&**&*).(1,;)(1(*%$0,+)'4#A$5&=&'<17(/&6$'&
Failure envelope
6'&**0'&1,.'&)*&*9),+)**081,;(/&($()2*('&**&* Shear
'&8)1, 0,./),;&+:< (/& &77&.(1=& *('&**&* +&.'&)*& stress
9'&8&8%&'1,; (/)( 6$'& 6'&**0'& ).(* 1, )22
+1'&.(1$,*),+(/0*(&,+*($'&21&=&(/&($()2*('&**&*
1, (/& +177&'&,( +1'&.(1$,* %4 (/& *)8& )8$0,(:#
/&'&7$'&< 5& *&& (/)( (/& $/'C* .1'.2& */17(*
N orm al
2&7(5)'+* ($5)'+* ) 8$'& 0,*()%2& .$,+1(1$,< 0,(12
stress
*0./)(18&(/)(*/&)'7)120'&5122%&1,1(1)(&+#
Increasing pore pressure

1.&=&'*)<%4'&+0.1,;6$'&6'&**0'&5&.),)2*$*()%121*&(/&'$.3);)1,*(*/&)'7)120'&<%0(

$,2417(/&+&=1)($'1.*('&**91#&#(/&+1)8&(&'$7(/&$/'C*.1'.2&:'&8)1,*0,./),;&+$'+$&*
,$(1,.'&)*&#A$5&=&'<5&80*('&8&8%&'(/)('&+0.1,;(/&6$'&6'&**0'&5&)'&1,.'&)*1,;
(/&*('&**&*('),*81((&+(/'$0;/(/&'$.3%4(/&;')1,($;')1,.$,().(*),+%4(/&.&8&,(1,;
8)(&'1)2* (/0* %4 '&+0.1,; 6$'& 6'&**0'& 1, 6$$'24 .&8&,(&+ 8)(&'1)2* %4 ($$ 80./ 5& .),
1,+0.&7)120'&%4.'0*/1,;)(;')1,.$,().(*),+/&,.&1,+0.&6$'&.$22)6*&#

,.& */&)' 7)120'& /)* %&&, 1,1(1)(&+ 1, ) '$.3< ),+ )**081,; (/)( *0771.1&,( *('&** 1*

8)1,()1,&+< (/& '$.3 5122 .$,(1,0& ($ 0,+&';$ 1''&.$=&')%2& 91#&# 62)*(1.: *(')1, ),+ 5122 &>/1%1(
$,&$7(/'&&%&/)=1$0'*K



 )"((.$'#() "!#2(!"!,%&/)=1$0'<1,5/1./(/&'$.30,+&';$&*(/&70'(/&'+12)(1$,),+
7)120'&)**$.1)(&+51(/(/&+&=&2$68&,($781.'$.').31,;9),+(/0*2$*&*1(*)%121(4($*0*()1,
+&=1)($'1.2$)+:<0,(121(&=&,(0)224)./1&=&**$8&*()(&$7
1
&?0121%'1089)(5/1./(/&'$.38)4$'8)4,$(/)=&%&&,
($()224 .$881,0(&+ ),+ '&+0.&+ ($ 1(* 1,+1=1+0)2 ;')1,*:#
/1* (46& $7 %&/)=1$0' 1* 0*0)224 &>/1%1(&+ %4 .&8&,(&+ D eviatoric
3
stress
*),+*($,&*<218&*($,&*),+'$.3**0./)*;'),1(&*#
1 - 3

 ')2(. *. #("%&/)=1$0'<1,5/1./(/&'$.3&**&,(1)224
72$5*51(/$0(),4./),;&1,1(*2$)+%&)'1,;.)6).1(4<),+
(/0*1('&8)1,*)*).$,(1,008#/1*(46&$7%&/)=1$0'1*
&>/1%1(&+ %4 *$8& *$7( */)2&*< ),+ %4 *$8& *$7(< .2)4&4
./)23*),+.)'%$,)(&*#

Shear failure
initiated

Strain
hardening
Perfectly plastic

 () "! )-!"!,%&/)=1$0'<5/&'&62)*(1.*(')1,*(&,+($

'&*02(1,)31,+$75$'3/)'+&,1,;$7.$,*(1(0&,(;')1,*),+
.'4*()2*#/1*.),$..0'1,*)2(#

A$5&=&'<1,(/&.)*&$78),4'$.3*<1,.'&)*1,;.$,71,&8&,(

--

Elastic
behaviour

Brittle or
strain softening

Strain in direction of 1

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5/1./.),$..0'%&7$'&($()27').(0'&),++1*1,(&;')(1$,$..0'*:1,)8),,&')31,($),,&)21,;#
/0*<$,&'$.35/1./&>/1%1(*%'1((2&%&/)=1$0')(2$5.$,71,&8&,(81;/((&,+($5)'+*6&'7&.(24
62)*(1.%&/)=1$0')(80.//1;/&'.$,71,&8&,(#

$ 7)' 5& /)=& .$,*1+&'&+ ) *1862171&+ -+18&,*1$,)2 6'$%2&8 ),+ /)=& &,21*(&+ (/& 0*& $7

$/'C*.1'.2&*($)**1*(1,$0'0,+&'*(),+1,;*/&)'7)120'&1,'$.3#

, 7).( (/& 21,&)' 7)120'& &,=&2$6& 5& /)=& %&&,

.$,*1+&'1,; .$''&*6$,+* ($ ) */&)' 7)120'& .'1(&'1$,

.)22&+ (/& ."! ) )
+. .'1(&'1$,< 5/1./ 1*
'&6'&*&,(&+%4(/&&?0)(1$,N P,),

/1* 1* $,& $7 (/& *1862&*( .'1(&'1) 5& 0*& 1, '$.3

8&./),1.* ($ +&*.'1%& 7)120'& 1, '$.3*< ),+ 5& .),

*&&(/&&?0)(1$,($%&<&**&,(1)224<(/&&?0)(1$,$7)
*(')1;/(21,&91#&#4N8>P.:#

Linear M ohr-C oulom b

failure envelope

Shear
stress

N orm al
stress

1(f)

/&=)20&$7 91#&#(/&1,(&'.&6($,(/&*/&)'*('&**)>1*:1*3,$5,)*(/&#"!$7(/&

'$.3< ),+ (/& ),;2&  1* (&'8&+ (/& ),;2& $7 1,(&',)2 2)"("! $7 (/& '$.3# /& &?0)(1$,
+&*.'1%&*/$5.$/&*1$,'&8)1,*.$,*(),()(+177&'&,(2&=&2*$7,$'8)2*('&**<%0((/)((/&&77&.(
$77'1.(1$,51(/1,(/&'$.31,.'&)*&*51(/1,.'&)*1,;,$'8)2*('&**),+.$,71,&8&,(#/1*1*5/4
;'),02)''$.3*<*0./)**),+*($,&*5/1./+&'1=&);'&)(&'6)'($7(/&1'*('&,;(/7'$81,(&',)2
7'1.(1$,< %&.$8& *('$,;&' (/& 8$'& (/&4 )'& .$,71,&+# , .$,(')*(< .2)4* &>/1%1( )28$*( ,$
1,(&',)27'1.(1$,<%0(+&'1=&(/&1'*('&,;(/)28$*(&,(1'&247'$8.$/&*1$,%&(5&&,;')1,*9/&,.&
(/&1'$/'- $02$8%7)120'&&,=&2$6&*)66&)')*,&)'-/$'1E$,()221,&*:#

$ +&(&'81,& =)20&* $7 .$/&*1$,  ),+ 7'1.(1$, ),;2& < ),+ /&,.& +&(&'81,& (/& 7)120'&

&,=&2$6&7$')'$.3<5&.),()3&)*&'1&*$71+&,(1.)2'$.3*)862&*91#&#.$'&*:),+1,2)%$')($'4
(&*(* 93,$5, )* ()" 1" . (#(#: *0%@&.( &)./ ($ ) +177&'&,(
C urved
.$,71,1,; *('&**  ),+ +&(&'81,1,; 1(* 6&)3 *('&,;(/*# &
failure envelope
.),(/&,71($0'2)%$')($'4+&'1=&++)()91#&#$,&$/'C*.1'.2& Shear
7$' &)./ *)862&: ($ 5/)(&=&' 7)120'& .'1(&'1$, 5& %&21&=& 1* stress
8$*()66'$6'1)(&#$'&>)862&<5&71,+1,'&)21(4(/)((/&'&)2
7)120'& &,=&2$6&* 7$' 8),4 '$.3* 95/&, 62$((&+ 1, ) */&)'
*('&**=&'*0*,$'8)2*('&**,*6).&: )'& ,$( '&)224 21,&)'
%0()'&*$8&5/)(.0'=&+#

/&'&7$'&< ')(/&' (/), .$,*1+&'1,; $0' +)() ),+

*()(&* $7 &77&.(1=& *('&** 0*1,; )  =&'*0* , *6).&<

5&81;/(./$$*&($0*&)
C=&'*0*C*6).&9(/&B
%&1,; 0*&+ ($ 1,+1.)(& (/)( 5& )'& .$,*1+&'1,;
&77&.(1=&*('&**&*')(/&'(/),($()2*('&**&*:#

N orm alstress

M ajor
effective
stress 1

Im possible state

Possible states


, *0./ ) .)*&< ) 21,&)' $/'- $02$8% 7)120'&

&,=&2$6& 5$02+ *(122 )66&)' )* ) *(')1;/( 21,&#

/&'&7$'&<5&81;/(./$$*&)8$'&)66'$6'1)(&,$,21,&)' .'1(&'1$, *0./ )* (/& ):! .'1(&'1$,<
5/1./+&*.'1%&*).0'=&+7)120'&&,=&2$6&#


2(/$0;/ 5& )'& ,$( '&6'&*&,(1,; */&)' *('&**&*

&>621.1(24 51(/1, (/&
C =&'*0* C *6).&< (/& A$&3'$5,7)120'&&,=&2$6&),+1(*8)(/&8)(1.)2&?0)(1$,

*(122+&*.'1%&)2181(1,;.$,+1(1$,)(5/1./*/&)'7)120'&
5122 1,1(1)(& 1, ) '$.3 +0& ($ (/& */&)' *('&**&* $,
*$8&62),&&>.&&+1,;1(**/&)'*('&,;(/#

-
F-

Individual
test data
Uniaxialcom pressive
strength U CS
M inor effective stress 3
Tensile strength

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N:<5&
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'$.37)120'&($)8$'&'&6'&*&,()(1=&-+18&,*1$,)2*()(&$7*('&**#$'1,*(),.&<$,&7$'8$7),
1(!--5!"##.'1(&'1$,&>6'&**&**/&)'7)120'&1,)'$.31,(&'8*$7(/&&?0)(1$,"MN
M
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C )'&,$5
.$862&>8)(/&8)(1.)270,.(1$,*$7(/&=)'1$0**/&)'*('&**&*),+,$'8)2*('&**&*1,(/&'$.3#
;)1,<(/&=)20&*$7),+.),%&+&(&'81,&+7'$8),)24*1*$7*('&,;(/+)()7'$82)%$')($'4
(&*(*#


7,$.$'&*)'&)=)12)%2&7$'(&*(1,;<1(8)4%&6$**1%2&($+&71,&)7)120'&&,=&2$6&7$''$.3%4

%).3-.)2.02)(1,;'$.3*('&,;(/*0*1,;&>1*(1,;3,$52&+;&)%$0(6'&=1$0*&,;1,&&'1,;6'$@&.(*#
$'1,*(),.&<175&/)=&),&>1*(1,;&>.)=)(1$,$'%$'&/$2&)'$0,+5/1./5&%&21&=&(/&'$.3
/)*,$(0,+&';$,&*/&)'7)120'&<),+175&.),&*(18)(&(/&*()(&*$7*('&**1,(/&'$.3)'$0,+
(/1* $6&,1,;< 5& .), 8)3& ) @0+;&8&,( (/)( (/& '$.3 80*( /)=& )( 2&)*( ) .&'()1, *('&,;(/
.'1(&'1$, $(/&'51*& 1( 5$02+ /)=& 7)12&+# A$5&=&'< 0,213& +&71,1,; (/& *('&,;(/ %&/)=1$0' $7 )
'$.30*1,;+)()7'$8.$,('$22&+2)%$')($'4(&*(*<%).3-.)2.02)(1$,1*,$()*(')1;/(-7$'5)'+()*3
),+ 1( .), $,24 6'$=1+& ), &*(18)(& $7 (/& '$.3 *('&,;(/*# /1* 1* %&.)0*& 5& )'& 0,213&24 ($
3,$5(/&('0&*()(&$7*('&**)'$0,+(/&&>1*(1,;$6&,1,;#&.),&*(18)(&$'.)2.02)(&(/&8<
%0( 1, +$1,; *$ 5& 80*( 8)3& ) 5/$2& %0,./ $7 )**086(1$,* '&2)(1,; ($ (/& =1';1, *()(& $7
*('&**1,(/&'$.36'1$'($+'1221,;),+'&2)(1,;($(/&+&7$'8)(1$,%&/)=1$0'$7(/&'$.3)7(&'(/&
&>.)=)(1$,1*8)+&#2*$<5&81;/(,$()25)4*%&)%2&($+&(&.((/)(*/&)'7)120'&/)*1,7).(
,$($..0''&+)'$0,+(/&&)'21&'&>.)=)(1$,*$'5&22*#

,&)++1(1$,)2)*6&.($7'$.3*('&,;(/5/1./5&80*(.$,*1+&'91#&#70'(/&'($(/&6$'&.$22)6*&

),+*/&)'7)120'&5&/)=&+1*.0**&+*$7)':1*(/)()**$.1)(&+51(/(!#".2 ".+)#/1*$..0'*
17 '$.3 1* *0%@&.(&+ ($ &>.&**1=& (&,*12& *('&**&*< ),+ 8$*( '$.3* )'& &>.&6(1$,)224 5&)3 1,
(&,*1$,#22)'&7)'5&)3&'1,(&,*1$,(/),(/&4)'&1,.$86'&**1$,91#&#*1812)'($.$,.'&(&1,
%012+1,;*<5/1./80*(%&'&1,7$'.&+51(/*(&&2%)'*171(1*($.)''4),4(&,*12&2$)+*:#

&,*12& 7)120'& $..0'* ,$( %&.)0*& */&)' *('&**&* )'& 1,+0.&+ ),+ *21+1,; $..0'* %&(5&&,

,&1;/%$0'1,;&2&8&,(*<%0(%&.)0*&,&1;/%$0'1,;&2&8&,(*$7'$.3)'&*18624&>6),+&+),+
6022&+ )6)'(# * ), &>)862&< *0./ 7)120'& 5122 $..0' 1, '$.3 )'$0,+ ) 5&22%$'& %&.)0*& )
5&22%$'&6'&**0'&$'80+5&1;/(1*&>.&**1=&),+(/&5&22%$'&5)22&>6),+*0,(121(%0'*(*91#&#
)*$..0'*51(/%0'*(1,;616&:#

A$5&=&'<(&,*12&7)120'&.),)2*$$..0'17$,&$7(/&&77&.(1=&*('&**&*%&.$8&*,&;)(1=&91#&#

(&,*12&:#/1*/)66&,*17(/&6$'&6'&**0'&1,(/&'$.3%&.$8&*;'&)(&'(/),(/&81,$'*('&**
 ),+ &>.&&+* 1( %4 ), )8$0,( &?0)2 ($ (/& (!#". #()!,( $7 (/& '$.3# /&, (/& '$.3 1*
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).$,(1,0$0*7').(0'&$',&(5$'3$71,(&'.$,,&.(1,;7').(0'&*51227$'81,62),&*)('1;/(),;2&*
($(/&81,$'*('&**#/1*1*%&.)0*&1(1*&)*1&'7$'(/&7').(0'&($$6&,06),+60*/);)1,*(
(/& )+@).&,( '$.3 1, (/& +1'&.(1$, $7 (/& 81,1808 *('&** ')(/&' (/), 1, (/& +1'&.(1$, $7 *$8&
;'&)(&'*('&**#2*$<$,.&)7').(0'&/)*7$'8&+<(/&6$'&6'&**0'&.),*$8&(18&*&*.)6&),+
+181,1*/)2$,;(/&7').(0'&),+(/0*(/&(&,*12&7)120'&+$&*,$(6'$;'&**70'(/&'$'6'$6);)(&
(/'$0;/$0((/&&,(1'&'$.3#




  
 

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%$'&/$2&<(/)(&?0121%'1081*+1*(0'%&+),+(/$*&6)'(*$7*('&**5/1./5&'&$'1;1,)224.)''1&+%4
(/&&>.)=)(&+'$.380*(%&('),*7&''&+($),+%$',&%4(/&'&8)1,1,;8)(&'1)2#

-

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/1*=)'1)(1$,1*/1;/24.$862&><),+1(+&6&,+*$,K


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 (/& +&7$'8)(1$, %&/)=1$0' $7 (/& '$.3 91#&# 5/&(/&' 1( '&8)1,* &2)*(1.< 5/&(/&' 1( &>/1%1(*
*$8&62)*(1.*(')1,*<$'5/&(/&'1(72$5*:<


 (/&;&$8&('4$7(/&$6&,1,;91#&#).1'.2&1,(/&.)*&$7)5&22%$'&<0,2&**(/&*1+&*$7(/&
%$'&/$2&%'&)3)5)4),+(/&%$'&/$2&;$&*$0(-$7-;)0;&:<


 (/&+1*(),.&7'$8(/&5&22%$'&#


$'(461.)2$6&,5&22%$'&*1,(/&),+
$'(/&)5/1./)'&

*0%@&.(&+($(/&'&;1$,)2*()(&$7 *('&**K

Longitudinalstress z
= interm ediate stress 2

 (/&.1'.087&'&,(1)2*('&**1,6'$>181(4($(/&%$'&/$2&1*
;&,&')224(/&8)@$'6'1,.16)2*('&**
<


 (/& 2$,;1(0+1,)2 *('&** E 1, 6'$>181(4 ($ (/& %$'&/$2& 1*

;&,&')224(/&1,(&'8&+1)(&6'1,.16)2*('&**<


 (/&')+1)2*('&**'1,6'$>181(4($(/&%$'&/$2&1*;&,&')224
(/&81,$'6'1,.16)2*('&**<),+)((/&5&22%$'&5)225122%&
(/&5&226'&**0'&<

W ellpressure
= radialstress r at w all
= m inor stress 3


)2(/$0;/7$'*$8&*/)22$5=&'(1.)25&22*9*)4)()'$0,+FFF7(

:(/&2$,;1(0+1,)2*('&**,&)'($(/&5&22%$'&81;/(%&(/&
81,$'6'1,.16)2*('&**#


Pore
pressure
u

-
-

C ircum ferential
or hoop stress
= m ajor stress 1

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&)'-&22%$'& $.3&./),1.*-%4"# $%&'()'*+&,

 




/&'&7$'&< (/& ),)2$;4 5& /)=& 1, 6'$>181(4 ($ ) (461.)2

Pore
pressure
u

W ellpressure
= r = 3
Circum ferential
stress = 1
Longitudinal
stress z = 2

5&2295/&(/&'1(%&=&'(1.)2<1,.21,&+$'/$'1E$,()2:1*(/)($7
) '$.3 .$'& *0%@&.(&+ ($ ) /1;/ )>1)2 *('&**< 51(/ *$8&
.$,71,&8&,(%&1,;6'$=1+&+%4(/&2$,;1(0+1,)2*('&**),+
*21;/(24 2&** .$,71,&8&,( %&1,; 6'$=1+&+ %4 (/& 5&22
6'&**0'&#

 2&)'24< )* $,& 8$=&* )5)4 7'$8 (/& 1,720&,.& $7 (/&

5&22%$'&<(/&*('&**&*1,(/&'$.3'&=&'(%).3($(/& 
*()(&$7*('&**)*5$02+&>1*(1,(/&0,+1*(0'%&+;'$0,+#7
.$0'*&< )* 5& /)=& 8&,(1$,&+ %&7$'&< (/& &77&.(* $7 )22
(/&*&1,+0.&+*('&**&*),+1,*1(0*('&**&*$,(/&'$.3)'&
+181,1*/&+%4(/&6'&*&,.&$7),46$'&6'&**0'&0#



/&'&7$'&< ) (461.)2 *('&** .$,.&,(')(1$, )'$0,+ (/&

5&22%$'&< )**081,; (/& '$.3 ($ &>/1%1( 6&'7&.(24 21,&)'&2)*(1.1(4),+,$(($0,+&';$),462)*(1.+&7$'8)(1$,<5122%&

)* */$5, $, (/& '1;/(# , 7).(< (/1* )**086(1$, $7 6&'7&.(
21,&)'-&2)*(1.1(4(&,+*($ $=&'&*(18)(& (/& 8);,1(0+& $7 (/&
.1'.087&'&,(1)2*('&**)+@).&,(($(/&%$'&/$2&#,'&)21(4<
*1,.& (/& '$.3C* *(177,&** 8)4 1,.'&)*& 51(/ .$,71,&8&,(
),+9)*5&5122*&&2)(&':*$8&2$.)21*&+7)120'&8)4$..0'<
(/& 8)>1808 =)20& $7  8)4 $..0' @0*( %&/1,+ (/&
%$'&/$2&5)22#

Stress
W ellbore
w all

Longitudinal
stress z


,.$,(')*(<(/&6$'&6'&**0'&6'$712&5122+&6&,+$,5/&(/&'

Radialstress r

$' ,$( (/&'& 1* ),4 72$5 1,($ $' $0( $7 (/& 5&22%$'&# $'
1,*(),.&< )**081,; (/)( (/& 6&'8&)%121(4 $7 (/& '$.3
'&8)1,*.$,*(),((/'$0;/$0(K


D istance from
w ellbore centreline
W ellpressure

Pore
pressure
W ellbore
w all

Flow outw ards

from w ell

M ud cake

Reservoir
pressure

N o flow
Flow into w ellbore

 7 (/& 5&22%$'&

6'&**0'& 1* (/& *)8& )* (/& '&*&'=$1' 6'&**0'&
9*0./)*81;/($..0'5/&,)5&22/)*%&&,*/0(-1,
7$' *$8& (18& ),+ (/& 5&22 6'&**0'& /)*
&?0121%')(&+ ($ (/& '&*&'=$1' 6'&**0'&:< (/&'& 5122
%&,$72$5),+,$6$'&6'&**0'&;')+1&,(#


 7 (/& 5&22%$'& 6'&**0'& 1* 2&** (/), (/& '&*&'=$1'

6'&**0'&<(/&'&5122%&72$51,($(/&5&22),+)6$'&
6'&**0'& ;')+1&,( 5122 '&*02( 51(/ (/& 6'&**0'&
'&+0.1,; 1, .2$*&' 6'$>181(4 ($ (/& 5&22# 2&)'24<
(/1* .$,+1(1$, 1* &**&,(1)2 17 ) 5&22 1* ($ 6'$+0.&
),4/4+'$.)'%$,*#


 7 (/& 5&22%$'& 6'&**0'& 1* ;'&)(&' (/), (/&

'&*&'=$1' 6'&**0'&< (/&'& 5122 %& 72$5 $0(5)'+*
Thickness of
7'$8 (/& 5&22 ),+ ) 6$'& 6'&**0'& ;')+1&,( 5122
m ud cake
'&*02( 51(/ (/& 6'&**0'& (&,+1,; ($ '&+0.& )5)4
7'$8(/&5&22#0./)*1(0)(1$,5122)'1*&175)(&'$'*6)'&;)*)'&%&1,;1,@&.(&+1,($)5&22($
&,)%2&6'&**0'&8)1,(&,),.&$7(/&'&*&'=$1'#
D istance from
w ellbore centreline

Circum ferential
stress

-
-

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&)'-&22%$'& $.3&./),1.*-%4"# $%&'()'*+&,

 


 0'1,; +'1221,;< (/& 5&22%$'& 6'&**0'& 5122 0*0)224 %& 8)1,()1,&+ *21;/(24 ;'&)(&' (/), (/& 6$'&
6'&**0'&91#&#*$8&$=&'%)2),.&:1,$'+&'($&,*0'&5&22.$,('$2#*)+- $'2".() 
+&=&2$6Q* 1, 6&'8&)%2& '$.3*< (/& 6'&*&,.& $7 ), $=&'-%)2),.& .)0*&* (/& 6$'& 6'&**0'&
;')+1&,(($/)=&*$8&*(&61,1(5/1./5122.$''&*6$,+($(/&(/1.3,&**$7(/&80+.)3&#

 2&)'24< 17 (/& +177&'&,.& 9-': %&(5&&, (/&

.1'.087&'&,(1)2 *('&** ),+ (/& ')+1)2 *('&** 91, $(/&'

5$'+*(/&+&=1)($'1.*('&**
-:1,*$8&&2&8&,($7
'$.3 *0''$0,+1,; (/& 5&22%$'& 1* &>.&**1=& (/&,< )*
5& /)=& *&&, &)'21&'< */&)' 7)120'& 5122 %& 1,+0.&+#
/1* &77&.( 1* 3,$5, )* ). .. *#< ),+ (/&
5&22%$'&6'&**0'&$'80+5&1;/()(5/1./(/1*$..0'*
1* 3,$5, )* (/& ). .. *# *)##+)# /&
E$,& )'$0,+ (/& 5&22%$'& 5/1./ /)* 0,+&';$,& (/1*
*/&)' 7)120'& 1* 3,$5, )* (/& *. #(" 6! $' ".6!#

/&'&7$'& 1, %'1((2& '$.3*< 5/1./ 2$*& *$8& $7 (/&1'

2$)+ %&)'1,; .)6).1(4 )* (/&4 0,+&';$ */&)' 7)120'&<

(/&'&80*(%&*$8&'&+0.(1$,),+8$+171.)(1$,($(/&
*('&**&* 51(/1, (/& 62)*(1. E$,&# 7 5& .$,*1+&' (/&
*1(0)(1$, 51(/ ,$ 72$5< 5/&'& (/& 5&22%$'& 6'&**0'&
&?0)2* (/& '&*&'=$1' 6'&**0'&< (/& *('&** +1*('1%0(1$,
51222$$3*$8&(/1,;213&(/)(*/$5,$,(/&'1;/(#

Stress
W ellbore
w all
Plastic
zone

Elastic

W ellpressure

W ellbore

Plastic
zone

D istance from
w ellbore centreline

Lim it of
failed m aterial

Elastic


 &.)0*&(/&*('&**&*)(=)'1$0*6$1,(*)%$0(
(/&5&228)4+177&'<(/&62)*(1.E$,&,&&+,$(
%&.1'.02)'%0(8)47$'8),&2216*&<$'8)4%&
2181(&+($*8)22B+$;&)'*C($&)./*1+&$7(/&
5&22#


0./ *('&** =)'1)(1$,* )( +177&'&,( 6$1,(* )'$0,+ ) 5&22< ),+ (/& 7).( (/)( +177&'&,( *('&**

.$,.&,(')(1$,* 5122 &>1*( )'$0,+ 5&22* +'122&+ 1, +177&'&,( +1'&.(1$,* 51(/ '&*6&.( ($ (/&  
*('&**&*< .), %& 1220*(')(&+ 51(/ (/& )1+ $7 *$8&(/1,; .)22&+ (/& ")# <+ ("!## /&*&
+&*.'1%& (/& *('&** .$,.&,(')(1$, 5/1./ $..0' 51(/1, ) 62),& .$,()1,1,; ) .1'.02)' $6&,1,;
(/'$0;/ ) 6&'7&.(24 21,&)'-&2)*(1. 8)(&'1)2< 5/&'& (/& 8)(&'1)2 1* *0%@&.(&+ ($ 7)'-71&2+
.$86'&**1$, $' (&,*1$,# 2(/$0;/ (/& &?0)(1$,* &,)%2& $,24 ) =&'4 *1862171&+ ),)24*1* $7 ),
1+&)2 *1(0)(1$,< (/&4 +$ )22$5 0* ($ +&8$,*(')(& +177&'&,( *('&** .$,.&,(')(1$,* 5/1./ 81;/(
$..0')'$0,+5&22*+'122&+1,+177&'&,(+1'&.(1$,*#


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 2*$<7$'*18621.1(4<5& 5122 .$,*1+&' (/& *1(0)(1$, $7
,$ 6$'& 6'&**0'& 1, (/& 8)(&'1)2 91#&# 1, $0' '$.3:
),+,$6'&**0'&1,(/&.1'.02)'/$2&91#&#,$5&22%$'&
6'&**0'&:#/0*5&71,+(/)((/&1'*./*$20(1$,*7$'
(/& .1'.087&'&,(1)2 *('&**&* )( (/& *0'7).& $7 (/&
$6&,1,; (),;&,(1)2 ($ (/& )>&* $7 (/& 6'1,.16)2
*('&**&* '&+0.& ($ &1(/&' N- $' N-
+&6&,+1,; $, 5/1./ 6)'(* $7 (/& 5&22%$'& 5)22 5&
)'& .$,*1+&' 91#&# &1(/&' 6$1,(*
 $'  )* */$5, $,
(/& +1);')8:#
$(& (/)( (/& *('&** +1*('1%0(1$,* )'&
)>1-*488&('1.<(/0*(/&*('&**.$,.&,(')(1$,*$7$,&
*1+& $7 (/& 5&22%$'& )'& (/& *)8& )* (/$*& $, (/&
$66$*1(& *1+& 91#&# %$(/ 6$1,(* 8)'3&+ )*
 )'&
*0%@&.(&+($(/&*)8&*('&**&*#:

7 (/& 7)' 71&2+ *('&**&* )'& +177&'&,(< ),+ 17  1*

;'&)(&'(/),<(/&,.2&)'24(/&*('&**N-
)( 6$1,(*
 80*( %& ;'&)(&' (/), N- )(
6$1,(*#/&'&7$'&<*/&)'7)120'&1*8$'&213&24($
$..0' ($ &1(/&' *1+&* $7 (/& 5&22%$'& )( 6$1,(*

91#&#1,(/&)>1*$7(/&2&)*(*('&**:#1812)'24<17
(/& 5&22%$'& 5&'& ($ %& 6'&**0'1*&+ 0,(12 1( %0'*(<
(&,*12& 7').(0'&* 5$02+ 6'$6);)(& $0(5)'+* 7'$8
6$1,(*  *1,.& 1( 1* )( (/&*& 2$.)(1$,* (/)( (/&
.1'.087&'&,(1)2 *('&**&*  )'& 2&)*( ),+ )'&
(/&'&7$'&8$*(&)*124$=&'.$8&#

>(&,+1,; (/1* (46& $7 ),)24*1* ($ =&'(1.)2 ),+

Far-field stress B

= 3

1
2 = 3

2
1

Far-field
stress A

Far-field stress B
Potentialzones
of shear failure

A > B
1

2
1

A lignm ent of
potential
fractures

Far-field
stress A

/$'1E$,()2 5&22* (/'$0;/ '$.3 *0%@&.(&+ ($ (/&

'&;1$,)2*()(&$7 *('&**5/1./&>1*(*7$'(/&

$'(/ &) 91#&# RAR/:< 5& 71,+ (/)( (/&

8)>18086$**1%2&=)20&$71*-/<),+(/)((/1*$..0'*($&)./*1+&$7)/$'1E$,()25&22
+'122&+1,(/&+1'&.(1$,$7A91#&#($5)'+*(/&
$':#/0*<1,(/&'&;1$,$7(/&
$'(/&)
(/&. #(2 4+) .:..() 0()"#7$'*()%121(4);)1,*(*/&)'7)120'&)'&($5)'+*(/&
$'
#/&#(2 4+) .() 0()"#)'&<+&6&,+1,;$,(/&*('&**+177&'&,.&*-A$'A-/<
&1(/&'=&'(1.)25&22*</$'1E$,()25&22*)21;,&+51(/(/&81,1808/$'1E$,()2*('&**91#&#
-:<
$'5&22*1,.21,&+($5)'+*(/&81,1808/$'1E$,()2*('&**91#&#($5)'+*
$':#


/&'&7$'&<%4+'1221,;)5&22)(+177&'&,(1,.21,)(1$,*),+)(+177&'&,(+1'&.(1$,*51(/'&*6&.(($(/&

 *('&**&*<+177&'&,(+&;'&&*$7*()%121(4.),%&)./1&=&+#2(&',)(1=&24<%4/)=1,;*0771.1&,(
80+5&1;/($'5&22%$'&6'&**0'&*$)*($'&+0.&(/&.1'.087&'&,(1)2*('&**&*),+1,.'&)*&(/&
')+1)2*('&**&*1,6'$>181(4($(/&5&22%$'&<),+G$'%4'&*(')1,1,;(/&'$.3%4.&8&,(1,;)21,&'
$'.)*1,;1,62).&<1(1*6$**1%2&($1,/1%1($'6'&=&,(*/&)'7)120'&1,(/&'$.3 *0''$0,+1,; (/&
%$'&/$2&),+(/0*)=$1+8)@$'1,*()%121(1&*#


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,(/&.)*&$7'$.3*&>/1%1(1,;%'1((2&%&/)=1$0'<%$'&/$2&
.$22)6*& 8),17&*(* 1(*&27 )* ) +( $' ).
!. ),!(< 5/&'& '$.3* %'&)3* )5)4 7'$8 (/&
5&22%$'&5)22&1(/&')*2)';&*2)%*$71,().('$.3<)**8)22
61&.&* $7 1,().( '$.3< $' )* 1,+1=1+0)2 ;')1,*# $' ),
$6&,/$2& 6'$+0.1,; 5&22 $' 7$' ) 6&'7$')(1$, .)=1(4< (/&
6'$+0.(1$, $7 (/1* %'$3&, '$.3 1, *8)22 61&.&* $'
1,+1=1+0)2;')1,*),+1(*('),*6$'(51(/(/&6'$+0.&+7201+*
)8$0,(*($#."-#*)-+("!91#&## !-"!,1,(/&.)*&
$7*),+*($,&*:#

H ole in-gauge

Breakout
or enlargem ent

Closure


, (/& .)*& $7 ) *$7( '$.3 &>/1%1(1,; 6&'7&.(24 62)*(1.

%&/)=1$0' 91#&# ) *$7( */)2&:< (/& 7)12&+ 8)(&'1)2 5122

'&8)1,).$,(1,008),+(/&%$'&/$2&5122&>6&'1&,.&&1(/&'6)'(1)2.#+)91#&#)(",(.:
$'<1,&>('&8&.)*&*<($()2.2$*0'&#


$( $,24 .), ) 62)*(1. E$,& +&=&2$6 )'$0,+ ),

$6&,/$2& 5&22%$'&< 1( .), )2*$ 7$'8 )'$0,+ )

*)2) ("!  4"( %&/1,+ ) .&8&,(&+ ),+
.)*&+G21,&+ 5&22# /1* 1* %&.)0*& (/&*& 6&'7$')(1$,
.)=1(1&* )'& @0*( 213& 81,1)(0'& (0,,&2* $' 5&22%$'&*
')+1)(1,; $0( 7'$8 (/& 8)1, 5&22%$'&< *$ (/& '$.3
8)(&'1)2 *0''$0,+1,; (/&8 )2*$ 0,+&';$&* *('&**
'&+1*('1%0(1$,* ),+ .$,.&,(')(1$,* )* +$&* (/)(
)'$0,+ (/& 8)1, 5&22%$'&# A$5&=&'< (/& *('&**
+1*('1%0(1$,* 5/1./ +&=&2$6 )'$0,+ ) 6&'7$')(1$,
.)=1(4)'&&=&,8$'&.$862&>(/),(/$*&5/1./81;/(
+&=&2$6 )'$0,+ ), $6&, 5&22%$'&< *1,.& (/&4 )'&
)++1(1$,)27).($'*($.$,*1+&'K


 (/&.$862&>*('&**+1*('1%0(1$,*5/1./)2'&)+4&>1*(
)'$0,+(/&5&22%$'&<

C asing or liner

C em ent

Perforations through
casing/liner and
cem ent, and into
the rock
C entre
line

 (/&2)(&')2'&*(')1,(6'$=1+&+%4(/&.&8&,(&+.)*1,;$'.&8&,(&+21,&'<5/1./6'&=&,(*(/&
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%&1,;71'&+1,($1(#


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