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Photon
Detectors

Introduction

There are 2 types of optical detectors: Thermal and Photon

Photondetectorscount photons oflight by interaction of light with

detector material and converts optical signal into electrical signal

They have a surface that absorbs photons and produces current or

voltage proportional to the number of photons absorbed.

Depend on wavelength of light. When the wavelength is longer than

the cutoff wavelength, the photon energy is too small to be detected.

There are 3 types of photon detectors

Photovoltaic

Photo emissive

Photoconductive

1. Photovoltaic detector

Photovoltaic Detectors

This is a PN junction in between 2 metallic electrodes

Exposed electrode is thin enough to be transparent.

When exposed to light, photons are absorbed by the

semiconductor, forming electrons and holes proportional
to the number of photons absorbed.

Electrons pushed to N side and holes to P side by

electric field at the junction.

Amount of photons absorbed can be measured in 2 ways

Measuring open circuit voltage between 2 electrodes

Measuring current by short circuiting the 2 electrodes

Operation of photovoltaic detector

Equivalent circuit of the

photovoltaic detector

Output Current

IE - current produced by photovoltaic detector

ID - current that circulates within the detector due to its diode nature

Shunt Resistance (Rsh) - Resistance of the zero-biased photodiode junction. This is

considered to be very large (10 M) than load resistance and is ignored.

Series Resistance (Rs) Resistance of the semiconductor material, and contact. This
low resistance can generally be ignored.

Vo - Voltage drop across R L which is measured

It is also assumed : There are no leakage currents and noise added

Advantages and
Disadvantages of photovoltaic
detectors
Advantages
Disadvantages

Does not require external power

supply

Generates its own voltage

Load resistor not needed

Produced voltage is small

Require amplification circuit for

proper measurement

Non linearity as output depend

on shunt resistance

Amplification circuit

An op-amp with negative feedback is used to counter the non-linearity

Amplification by op-amp counters the decreased voltage drop resulting from

the low value of the load resistor.

Load resistance has a value much less than the shunt resistance of the
photodiode.

Amplifier circuit

Photodiodes

Features of photodiodes

A photodiode is simply a PN junction.

The photodiode detector is operated in the lower left

quadrant of this figure.

Current drawn through an external load resistor

increases with increasing light level.

Voltage drop across resistor is taken as measurement.

Types of photodiodes

PN

PIN

Avalanche

Industrial Photodiodes

PN Photodiode

Avalanche Photodiode

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PIN Photodiode

PIN photodiode

A thick intrinsic semiconductor is placed between

a thin P type and a thick N type semiconductors
which are heavily doped.

A large reverse bias voltage is applied so that the

depletion layer which creates a large electric field

Light that is absorbed in the intrinsic region

produces free electron-hole pairs, provided that
the photon energy is high enough.

These carriers are swept across the region with

high velocity and are collected in the heavily
doped regions.

These have high frequency response than PN

junctions

Used in microwave frequency applications,

modulation and attenuation

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PIN Photodiode

PN diode vs PIN Photodiode

Avalanche Photodiode

Has higher amplification in initial stage

Electron-hole pairs are created by photons, in

in intrinsic region

Due to high reverse bias, electrons accelerate

faster to PN side and collide with neutral
atoms

Due to high velocity, create electron-hole

pairs during collision.

This process continues till electron hole pairs

increase exponentially.

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Modes of operation

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Photovoltaic mode: the illuminated photodiode generates a voltage

which can be measured like a solar cell.

Photoconductive mode: A reverse voltage is applied to the diode and

resulting photocurrent is measured

Modes of operation

Photodiode characteristic curve

Features of photodiode

Excellent linearity with respect to incident light

Low noise

Wide spectral response

Mechanically rugged

Compact and lightweight

Long life

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Applications of photodiodes

Photo diodes are used as photo detectors.

Photo diodes are used in cameras as photo sensors, Slotted

optical switch, in scintillators etc.

Photo diodes are used in consumer electronics.

Used in industrial grade sensors

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Advantages &
Disadvantages

Advantages:

Low noise

Low dark current

Disadvantages:

Normal PN junction photo diodes have very high response times.

It has very low sensitivity

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2. Photo emissive
detectors

Operation

These detectors use the photoelectric effect,

where incident photons releases electrons from
the surface of the detector material.

Cathode is coated with a material which has a low

work function (Wf = hfo) such as sodium and
potassium.

Work function is the minimum energy needed to

just remove an electron from the surface of a
material

Cathode material release electrons when photons

of frequency higher than f0 falls on it.

Electrons are accelerated towards anode in the

vacuum tube (phototube) due the electric field
created by voltage source

This creates a continuous current in the closed

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Energy vs Frequency graph

Phototube

Advantages and Disadvantages

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Advantages

Most sensitive out of all 3 types

The usefulness of these devices ranges from the ultraviolet to the near infrared

Disadvantages

After 1000 nm photoemissivity is not observed in materials

Relatively cumbersome

Relatively expensive

Phototubes were originally used as light detectors but now smaller and
cheaper electronic components like LDRs are now more widely used as lightdetectors instead.

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Photomultiplier

Features of a photomultiplier

This works on the principle of photo

emissive detector

A photomultiplier tube combines a

photocathode and series of dynodes
which generate secondary electrons.

The high voltage (500-3000V) is divided

between the dynodes.

Each dynode needs 100-300V for electron

acceleration

Have a current gain of about 100,0001,000,000

Can detect even 1 photon

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Gain vs Voltage of Photomultiplier

Process of current production

in a photomultiplier

When a photon falls on the

cathode an electron is produced

This hits the nearest dynode and

produces 1-8 other electrons

Each dynode produces more

electrons and finally a large
amplified current pulse is
produced.

Finally output current is

measured at the anode or at the
last dynode

Photomultiplier process

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Advantages, Disadvantages

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Advantages:
High

gain, low noise, high frequency response, and large area

of collection

Disadvantages:
Requires
It

large voltages

must be shielded from ambient light to prevent destruction

through over excitation

Applications of
Photomultiplier
Air-pollution
Photon
Star

monitoring

counting

tracking

Photometry
Radiometry.

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3. Photo conductive
detectors

Properties of photoconductive
detector

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Semiconductor material that has low conductivity in the dark and an high
conductivity in light.

Absorption of light increases electrons and holes concentration in the pn junction

Used in series in the detection circuit which changes current as light intensity
changes

Many different materials are used as infrared photoconductive detectors.

Circuit where photoconductor is used

Photoconductive Mode of
Photodiode

A reverse voltage is applied to the diode and the

resulting photocurrent is measured.

The dependence of the photocurrent on the light

power can be very linear

Linear operation is maintained so long as the

photodiode is not saturated

Bias voltage is higher than the product of the load

resistance and the current

Photodiode exhibits higher responsivity, faster

response time, and greater linearity when operated
in the reverse-biased mode.

A drawback is the presence of a small dark current.

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Circuit used to make a

photodiode work in
Photoconductive mode

Applications

Widely used in the infrared spectrum

at wavelengths where photo emissive detectors are not available

wavelengths are beyond the cutoffs of the best photodiodes (silicon and
germanium).

Light detectors in such things as automated washroom taps

LDR

Intruder alarms

Smoke alarms

Carbon monoxide detectors

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Thank you

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