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Contents
1 Differential Calculus
1.1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Domain and range from the graph . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Even and odd functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Composition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6 Finding inverses, natural domains and ranges . .
1.1.7 Graphical representation of inverse functions . .
1.1.8 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Limits and Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Fundamental Rules for Differentiation . . . . . .
1.2.2 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Generalised Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5 Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.6 Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.7 What does the derivative mean? . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Rates of change (again) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Stationary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Finding Stationary Points and Inflexions . . . . .
1.3.4 Local vs. Global . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Graphs . . . . . .
1.3.7 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.8 More on stationary points and points of inflexion
1.3.9 Graph Sketching Summary . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.10 Tangents and Normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2 Vectors
2.1 Describing Vectors . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Coordinates vs. Vectors
2.1.2 Position Vectors . . . .
2.1.3 Zero Vectors . . . . . .
2.1.4 The Standard Basis . .
2.1.5 Magnitude . . . . . . .
2.2 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Scalar Multiplication . .
2.2.2 Vector Addition . . . .
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2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3 Integration
3.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus .
3.2 Properties of Integration . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Integrating over symmetric domains . .
3.4 Area between a curve and the x-axis . .
3.4.1 The area between two curves . .
3.5 Integrating Certain Rational Functions .
3.6 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1 Unusual Examples . . . . . . . .
3.7 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . .
3.7.1 Trigonometric Substitutions . . .
3.8 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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39
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55
Chapter 1
Differential Calculus
1.1
1.1.1
Functions
Domain and Range
A function is a well defined way of assigning to each number (called the input), exactly one number (called
the output). The set of inputs is called the domain of the function. We often describe a function in terms of
what how it affects an arbitrary input x, but we must always be clear what is the domain of our function.
The range of a function consists of all real numbers that are an output for at least one input of the function.
x+2
x2 1 , . . .
1.1.2
The domain and range of a function can be seen from its graph. The domain is set set of real numbers on
the horizontal axis (which is usually labelled the x-axis) through which a vertical line hits the graph. The
range is the set of real numbers on the vertical axis through which a horizontal line hits the graph.
1.1.3
If f (x) = f (x) for all x then f is even. The graph of any even function has the y-axis as a line of symmetry.
Example 1.1.3. f (x) = x2 is even since f (x) = (x2 ) = x2 = f (x).
Example 1.1.4. f (x) = cos(x) is even.
If f (x) = f (x) for all x then f is odd. The graph of any odd function has degree 2 rotational symmetry
about the origin.
Example 1.1.5. f (x) = x3 x is odd, since f (x) = (x3 ) (x) = x3 + x = (x3 x) = f (x).
Example 1.1.6. f (x) = sin(x) is odd.
graph
Most functions you encounter will not satisfy either of these conditions.
Example 1.1.7. The following functions are neither even nor odd.
f (x) = x3 + 1
f (x) = x10 x9
f (x) = sin(x) + cos(x).
The following examples shows that there is only one function that is both even and odd.
Example 1.1.8. If f is a function that is both even and odd, then f (x) = f (x). The only number
that is the negative of itself is zero, so the only function that is both even and odd is
f (x) = 0.
1.1.4
Composition of functions
1.1.5
Inverse Functions
A given function f (x) has an inverse provided we can find some f 1 (x) such that
f (f 1 (x)) = f 1 (f (x)) = x
for all possible x. Be careful with domains and ranges.
Example 1.1.9. Let f (x) = x2 be defined on the set of real numbers. Then f has no inverse since. Consider,
for example, f (2) = f (2) = 4. So if f 1 did exist, would we choose f 1 = 2 or f 1 = 2? We cant
resolve this because according to the definition of a function we may only have one output, and this output
must be well defined. So we conclude that f (x) = x2 has no inverse when the domain is the whole set of
real numbers.
Example 1.1.10. This time let f (x) = x2 , but restrict the domain to the non-negative real numbers:
{x R : x 0} = [0, ).
Now we avoid the trap since no two elements in the domain have the same output. We therefore have an
inverse
f 1 = x.
A geometric interpretation of the inverse is the reflection of the graph of the function in the line y = x.
Note that the inverse of f 1 is f . Also, the domain of f 1 is the range of f , and vice-versa.
1.1.6
The largest domain we may take for a function is called the natural domain of the function, and it excludes
any and all real numbers that might cause us a problem (e.g. division by zero, square root of a negative etc).
In some cases, particularly for rational functions, a shortcut for finding the range of a function is by finding
the domain of its inverse. The following example demonstrates a standard recipe for finding the inverse of
a given function.
It is often useful to use the following.
y = f (x) f 1 (y) = x.
Example 1.1.11. Let
f (x) =
x1
.
x2
The natural domain of this function is (, 2) (2, ). But what is its range? In other words, if we were
to sketch the graph of y = f (x), are there any values of y that this function misses, or does it hit every
possible real number? To rephrase again; is there always a solution to y = f (x) for any given value of y, or
do some values leave us with an equation that is impossible to solve? Since we know that the range of f
is the natural domain of f 1 , we first calculate the inverse. the recipe is as follows, using the recipe stated
above.
x1
y
=
x2
y(x 2) = x 1
xy 2y = x 1
xy x
= 2y 1
(y 1)x = 2y 1
2y 1
x
=
.
y1
2y 1
, which is defined for y 6= 1. It does not matter what the variable is called, so we can
y1
2x 1
. The natural domain of f 1 (x) is (, 1) (1, ), so this is the range of f (x). Lets
write f 1 (x) =
x1
check that f (x) = 1 is impossible. We try to solve
So f 1 (y) =
x2
x1
x2
x1
1.
(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)
1.1.7
The graph of the inverse function f 1 is obtained from the graph of f by reflecting it in the line y = x.
For example, for the function f (x) = x, the inverse function satisfies f 1 (x) = x for all x because
y = f (x) = x f 1 (y) = x = y.
So the graphs of both f and f 1 coincide with the line
y = x, and the reflection changes nothing.
If f (x) = x2 , with domain [0, ), then f 1 (x) = x also with domain [0, ). The graphs of f and f 1
intersect at two points (0, 0) and (1, 1), which are both on the line y = x
1.1.8
Limits
If f (x) gets arbitrarily close to ` as x gets arbitrarily close to a, we say that the limit of f (x) is `, as x tends
to a.
This is written as
lim f (x) = `.
xa
For example
lim x = 1,
x1
lim x2 = 1,
x1
lim (1 + x2 ) = 2,
x1
1
1
=
x
2
For most functions that we come across, if f (a) can be defined, then limxa f (x) = f (a), but this is not
always true. It is true for the examples above, where we have
lim
x2
x2 = 1 if x = 1
1 + x2 = 1 if x = 1,
1
1
= if x = 2
x
2
1
However, there are exceptions. This can happen if f (a) is not defined. For example limx0 does not exist
x
1
not surprisingly because is not defined.
0
|x| =
So
x
, where |x| is the modulus of x, that is
|x|
if
x 0,
if x 0.
x
x
x
1
=
1
|x|
So limx0
if
if
x>0
x < 0.
x
does nor exist
|x|
Example 1.1.12. This is a very famous example in limit theory. It can be shown that
sin(x)
= 1.
x0
x
lim
We will not cover any methods to show this in this module, but you can convince yourself by evaluating the
function with x = 0.9999999 . . . on your calculator. A convincing picture is given by comparing the length
of an arc of a circle of radius 1 subtended by angle x, and the length of the opposite side of the right-angled
triangle with hypotemuse of length 1 and angle x. The length of the circle arc is, of course, x, and the length
of the opposite side of the right-angled triangle is sin x.
1.2
=
=
f (x + h) f (x)
(x + h) x
f (x + h) f (x)
.
h
Even though the smaller the value of h the better the estimate, we cant simply evaluate since expression
when h = 0 since it is not in the natural domain as it makes the denominator zero. However, we can take
the limit as h tends to zero. This is the formal definition of the derivative. We have
dy
f (x + h) f (x)
= f 0 (x) = lim
.
h0
dx
h
Example 1.2.13. y = mx + c.
dy
dx
=
=
=
=
m(x + h) + c (mx + c)
h
mx + mh + c mx c
lim
h0
h
mh
lim
h0 h
m.
lim
h0
This was to be expected as this is the result we already knew and generalised.
Example 1.2.14. y = f (x) = x2 .
dy
dx
(x + h)2 x2
h0
h
x2 + 2hx + h2 x2
lim
h0
h
2hx + h2
lim
h0
h
lim 2x + h
2x.
=
=
=
lim
h0
=
=
=
=
=
since
sin(x + h) sin(x)
h0
h
sin(x) cos(h) sin(h) cos(x) sin(x)
lim
h0
h
cos(h) 1
sin(h)
+ sin(x) lim
cos(x) lim
h0
h0
h
h
sin(h)
2 sin2 (h/2)
cos(x) lim
+ sin(x) lim
h0
h0
h
h
cos(x),
lim
sin h
= 1.
h
1.2.1
1.2.2
Chain Rule
Let y = y(x) (i.e. let y be a function that depends on the variable x). If we cant immediately calculate
it may be that we have to use the chain rule. We try to write
dy
dx ,
y = y(u), u = u(x),
dy
so that y is a composite function of x, and in such a way that we can more simply evaluate du
and du
dx . Then
it follows that
dy
dy du
=
.
dx
du dx
When you get familiar with this method, you are not required to write down u each time. On the other
hand, you are never punished for specifying u, so please do so whenever it helps.
Example 1.2.16. Let y = (1 + x1 )3 . To demonstrate the efficiency of the chain rule, we will first see what
happens when we just multiply out and differentiate. After some work, we get
y
(1 + x1 )3
= x3 + 3x2 + 3x1 + 1
dy
dx
= u3
=
3u2
3(1 + x1 )2
u = 1 + x1
du
= x2 ,
dx
giving
dy
dy du
=
= 3x2 (1 + x1 )2 ,
dx
du dx
which is exactly the same as the previous answer with the added bonus that it is now factorised. This may
look harder in this specific case, but it is easier in other cases.
Example 1.2.17. For y = e3x we set u = 3x. Then y = eu , giving
dy
= eu = e3x ,
du
and
du
= 3,
dx
giving ultimately
dy
dy du
=
= 3e3x .
dx
du dx
Example 1.2.18. Now let y = ln(4x). This time, u = 4x gives y = ln u, and so
dy
1
1
= =
.
du
u
4x
Next,
du
= 4.
dx
Finally,
dy
dy du
4
1
=
=
= .
dx
du dx
4x
x
1.2.3
Chain rules can occur within other chain rules. We will only demonstrate this with an example
Example 1.2.19. Let y = cos(sin(x2 )). Let u = x2 , so that du
dx = 2x and y = cos(sin(u)). This only helps
dv
us a little, so we must continue by setting v = sin(u), so that du
= cos(u) and y = cos(v). We can now
differentiate y to get
dy
= sin(v) = sin(sin(u)) = sin(sin(x2 )).
dv
We conclude by multiplying to get
dy
dy dv du
=
2x sin(sin(x2 )) cos(x2 ).
dx
dv du dx
10
1.2.4
Rates of Change
If y = f (x) then
dy
dx
Example 1.2.20. If y grows 3 times faster than u, and u grows 5 times faster than x, then y grows 15 times
faster than x. In other words,
dy
dy du
=
dx
du dx
1.2.5
Product Rule
=
=
=
=
=
=
= u
=
Example 1.2.21. Let y = (ln x)ex . Set u = ln x, v = ex . Then applying the rule gives
dy
dx
1
(ln x)ex + ex
x
1
x
= e ln x +
.
x
=
Example 1.2.22. Let y = x10 sin(3x). With u = x10 , v = sin(3x) (and remembering the chain rule) we get
dy
dx
11
Example 1.2.23. If y = xx , we can use logarithms to write this in a more workable form: y = xx = ex ln x .
We apply first the chain rule, then the product rule to calculate:
dy
dx
1.2.6
(x ln x)0 ex ln x = xx (x ln x)0
xx (1 + ln x).
Quotient Rule
Even though this is usually listed as a separate rule, it may be directly derived from the chain and product
rules. Let
u(x)
y(x) =
.
v(x)
Then
v(x)u0 (x) u(x)v 0 (x)
,
y 0 (x) =
(v(x))2
since
u
y =
v
= uv 1
dy
= u(v 1 )0 + v 1 u0
dx
= u(v 2 )v 0 + v 1 u0
vu0 uv 0
=
v2
Example 1.2.24. Let
y=
ln x
.
x2
Choose u = ln x, v = x2 . Then
dy
dx
=
=
=
vu0 uv 0
v2
x2
x 2x ln x
x4
1 2 ln x
.
x3
set u = sin x, v =
sin x
y=
x
x = x1/2 . Then
dy
dx
=
=
vu0 uv 0
v2
12
1.2.7
One use of the derivative is to check whether a function is increasing or decreasing on a given interval or
neither.
f is an increasing function if f (x1 ) f (x2 ) whenever x1 x2 , for all x1 , x2 in the domain of f .
f is strictly increasing if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 , x1 x2 , for all x1 , x2 in the domain of f .
f is a decreasing function if f (x1 ) f (x2 ) whenever x1 x2 , for all x1 , x2 in the domain of f .
f is a strictly decreasing function if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 , for all x1 , x2 in the domain of f .
We also talk about (strictly) increasing/decreasing functions on intervals (a, b) or [a, b].
For example, f is increasing on [a, b] if f (x1 ) f (x2 ) whenever a x1 < x2 b (assuming that [a, b] is
in the domain of f ) and similarly for the other definitions.
Now we connect this with the derivative. Suppose that f 0 > 0 on (a, b), that is f 0 (x) exists and is > 0 for
all a < x < b. Then, for each x with a < x < b, if h 6= 0 is sufficiently small so that a < x + h < b, we have
f (x + h) f (x)
> 0.
h
This means that f (x + h) > f (x) if h > 0 and f (x + h) < f (x) if h < 0.
So f is strictly increasing on (a, b). Similarly, if f 0 (x) < 0 for a < x < b then f is strictly decreasing on
(a, b).
1.3
Graph Sketching
The section is about graph sketching and not about graph plotting.
Graph Plotting: Put values of x into y = f (x) and draw an accurate picture of a small part of the
graph by connecting the dots.
Graph Sketching: Draw a less accurate picture that contains information about all interesting features
of the entire graph.
In practice, graph sketching is much more useful that graph plotting.
1.3.1
dy
Example 1.3.26. We demonstrate this with y = mx. We know that dx
= m, but what this tells us is that
dy
is constant, the
whenever x moves 1 unit, y moves m units. This happens for every value of x, and since dx
graph of f is a straight line.
Example 1.3.27. Let consider functions on the domain 0 x 1. Well look at the functions
y1
x2
y2
2x x2 .
2x
2 2x,
which have only non-negative on the given domain. Moreover, both graphs include the points (0, 0) and
(1, 1) and are increasing on this domain. To understand why the graphs look different, we must look at the
second derivative,
d2 y
d dy
=
.
dx2
dx dx
13
We have
d2 y1
dx2
d2 y2
dx2
dy
If dx
is the rate of change of y, then
y = x2 . We have
d2 y
dx2
+2
2.
y = x2
y = x2
dy
dx .
dy
d2 y
= 2 > 0.
= 2x,
dx
dx2
graph
dy
d2 y
= 2 < 0.
= 2x,
dx
dx2
graph
We have:
d2 y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
1.3.2
Stationary Points
dy
Sometimes for a function y = f (x) there are values of x such that dx
= f 0 (x) = 0. Such values of x are
called stationary points of the function. We classify them into several types.
dy
If dx
= 0 and
y = x2 .
d2 y
dx2
> 0, we have a local minimum. At this point, the graph looks like the origin of
dy
If dx
= 0 and
y = x2 .
d2 y
dx2
< 0, we have a local maximum. At this point, the graph looks like the origin of
graphs
When
d2 y
dx2
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
rate of change of
Irrespective of whether or not
= 0, if
= 0 and
an inflexion point. An inflexion point may or may not be a stationary point.
1.3.3
dy d3 y
dx , dx3
is the
A question may ask you to find and classify all stationary points and inflexions of a function y = f (x).
To find stationary points, solve f 0 (x) = 0. One by one, input all of the solutions into f 00 (x).
If f 00 (x) > 0, the stationary point in a local minimum.
If f 00 (x) < 0, the stationary point in a local maximum
If f 00 (x) = 0,
If f 000 (x) 6= 0, the stationary point is an inflexion.
If f 000 (x) = 0, the stationary point is something else, i.e. too complicated for this module.
14
To find all inflexions, solve f 00 (x) = 0. If f 000 (x) 6= 0, this is an inflexion point. Note: you have have
already found all of these when you found the stationary points.
So when asked this type of question, it is a good idea to write down the first three derivatives at once.
Example 1.3.28. Let y = x3 x2 . The derivatives are:
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2
d3 y
dx3
Solving
dy
dx
3x2 2x
6x 2
6.
d2 y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
Example 1.3.29. Now let y = x3 + x2 . Notice that this factorises to give y = x2 (x + 1). This means there
is a double root at x = 0 and a single root at x = 1.
Example 1.3.30. For y = x4 x3 ,
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2
d3 y
dx3
Solving
dy
dx
12x2 6x = 6x(2x 1)
24x 6.
1.3.4
d2 y
dx2
= 0 but
d3 y
dx3
d3 y
dx3
d2 y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
> 0, so this
6= 0.
Consider the graph of some function y = f (x) defined on the domain 0 x 100, where the domain
dy
represents some physical constraint. We find that dx
= 0 at the top of every hill and the bottom of every
valley. But we only call these local maximum and minimum points because there are points of the graph
that are higher or lower than them. These are not stationary points, but are called the global maximum
and minimum points of the function. A function in general may have many local maximum and minimum
points, but it may only have one global maximum value and one global minimum value.
Example 1.3.31. The function
y=
2x + cos(2x)
dy
= 2 2 sin(2x).
dx
15
2
.
2
sin(2x) =
1.3.5
Asymptotes
Asymptotes of the graph of a function f are straight lines that are approached by the graph as x tends to
a for some real number a, or as x tends to + or . A vertical asymptote is a line x = a (which is of
course a vertical line) such that f (x) tends to + or as x tends to a on at least one side of a. Most
of the asymptotes that we shall consider will be either horizontal or vertical lines. A horizontal asymptote
y = b can occur as x tends to , when limx +f (x) = b, that is, f (x) gets arbitrarily close to b as
x is arbitrarily large and positive (or limx f (x) = b, that is, f (x) gets arbitrarily close to b as x is
arbitrarily large and negative).
The classic example to demonstrate asymptotes is
y=
1
.
x
We want to know what the graph looks like, and this is complicated by the fact that x = 0 is a forbidden
value; that is, the function is not defined at this point. So we (informally, using our calculators) take limits
to discover what happens as x 0, x , x . Let x be very small. Then x1 is very large, and has
the same sign as x. There is therefore an asymptote at x = 0. As x gets very large, x1 gets very small and
has the same sign as x. The inverse function of x1 is x1 itself, so there is also a horizontal asymptote y = 0.
This answers the question about asymptotes, but to sketch the graph as a whole we need to go through
our other steps. The first two derivatives are:
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2
=
=
16
1
x2
2
.
x3
Since
dy
dx
< 0 for all values of x (recall that x = 0 is undefined), the graph is decreasing everywhere. Since
2
d y
d y
the sign of dx
2 is negative when x < 0, the graph is concave in this region. Since dx2 is positive when x > 0,
the graph is convex in this region. As x gets larger and larger (both in the positive and negative directions)
the graph gets closer and closer to the horizontal asymptote y = 0, without ever actually touching it.
2(x 1)
.
x(x 2)
In principle we should check stationary points etc, but since the purpose of this section is to discuss asymptotes we will concentrate only on these. We may write this function in partial fractions (recap coming
later):
1
1
y= +
,
x x2
and add the graphs of the two terms to get the graph of the function. There are vertical asymptotes at
x = 0 and x = 2 and horizontal asymptote y = 0 as x . Note also that f (1) = 0. The moral of this
example is that asymptotes tell us only about what happens for large value of x, but they are not impossible
values of the function. This graph crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = 1.
1.3.6
The exponential function y = ex has the full set of real numbers as its domain, and positive real numbers
as its range. The natural logarithm function y = ln x has the opposite as it is inverse to the exponential
function. That is,
eln x = x = ln(ex ).
Example 1.3.33. We will sketch
ex
.
x
x
Since exponentials grow faster than polynomials, e is the dominant part of this function. We have
y=
ex
x x
ex
lim
x x
lim
=
=
0.
There is an asymptote at x = 0, and a jump in the graph. Since ex > 0 for all values of x, the sign of ex /x
is the same as the sign of x.
This demonstrates a general rule that, for large values of x, exponentials beat polynomials. A similar rule is
that polynomials beat logarithms.
Be careful: A zero denominator does not always mean there is an asymptote. We have already seen that
sin(x)
= 1.
x0
x
lim
ex 1
.
x
17
= ,
=
0.
However,
ex 1
= 1.
x0
x
You can convince yourself of this using your calculator and evaluating for very small positive and negative
values of x. So, even though the function is undefined when x = 0, the graph looks like it should take the
value 1 here. There is an impossibly small gap between the two branches of the graph.
lim
1.3.7
Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic trigonometric functions cosh and sinh are similar to the usual elliptical trigonometric functions in that the usual trig functions define a point on a circle, while the hyperbolic trig functions define a
point on a rectangular hyperbola. The functions are defined as follows.
cosh(x) =
ex ex
ex + ex
, sinh(x) =
.
2
2
d
sinh(x) = cosh(x) 1,
dx
sinh(x) is an increasing function with no stationary points. Since
d2
sinh(x) = sinh(x),
dx2
there is exactly one inflexion point at x = 0. Then since
d
cosh(x) = sinh(x),
dx
18
x2
.
cosh(x)
Note first that since the denominator is never zero, this function is defined everywhere and has no asymptotes.
We look for intercepts. When x = 0, y = 2. When y = 0, x = 2. These are the only intercepts. Lets find
the first derivative using the quotient rule with u = x 2, v = cosh(x). Then
dy
cosh(x) (x 2) sinh(x)
.
=
dx
cosh2 (x)
At a stationary point we have
cosh(x) = (x 2) sinh(x).
By trial and error, we can approximate them as x = 0.4, x = 3.0. Lets find the second derivative by
setting U = cosh(x) (x 2) sinh(x), V = cosh2 (x). Then
d2 y
2(x 2) sinh2 (x) 2 sinh(x) cosh(x) (x 2) cosh2 (x)
=
dx2
cosh3 (x)
At x = 0.4, y 00 = 2.3 > 0, so (0.4, 2.2) is a local minimum. At x = 3.0, y 00 = 0.1 < 0, so (3.0, 0.1) is a
local maximum. Since
x2
lim
= 0,
x cosh x
(exponentials beat polynomials), the line y = 0 is an asymptote as x
1.3.8
Recall that inflexions need not necessarily be stationary points. A point of inflexion is a point such that
d3 y
d2 y
=
0,
6= 0.
dx2
dx3
An equivalent definition is: an inflexion is a point at which curvature changes. I.e., where we pass from
concave to convex or vice-versa.
Example 1.3.36. Take a function and calculate its derivatives:
y
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2
d3 y
dx3
= x3 + x
=
3x2 + 1
6x
6.
dy
The only intercept is at (0, 0), and there are no stationary points since dx
1. However, there is an inflexion
at x = 0. We can see this by considering the curvature at values either side but very close to x = 0. At
x = 0.1, y 00 = 0.6, so the graph is concave. At x = +0.1, y 00 = +0.6, so the graph is convex here.
19
1.3.9
x2 cos(x) + 2x sin(x)
If we rearrange
dy
dx
x
= tan(x).
2
tan(x) +
-1.19
-0.27
-0.11
0.03
0.53
x
2
So to one decimal place, we have x = 2.3. By symmetry, the full set of stationary points is:
2.3, 0, 2.3.
Now
d2 y
dx2
(2 x2 ) sin(x) + 4x cos(x).
d y
For x = 2.3, dx
2 = 8.6, so x = 2.3 is a local maximum, x = 2.3 is a local minimum. At x = 0,
so we dont know what type point it is without calculating the third derivative. We have
d2 y
dx2
=0
d3 y
= (6 x2 ) cos(x) 6x sin(x).
dx3
When x = 0,
1.3.10
d3 y
dx3
We started by approximating the tangent to a curve in order to calculate its derivative. But now that we
have powerful tools to calculate derivatives, we can go the other way and calculate tangents to curves at
given points. The tangent line to a curve y = f (x) at the point x = x0 is the straight line through (x0 , f (x0 ))
with the same gradient as the curve at that point. The normal is the line through the point that is at at
right angle to the tangent. If the tangent has gradient m, the normal has gradient 1/m. Reminder: if a
line through the point (x0 , y0 ) with gradient m has equation
y y0 = m(x x0 ).
Example 1.3.40. For
y = x3 x
we will find the equations for the tangent and normal lines at x = 1. For simplicity, we write
y = x(x + 1)(x 1),
so we know the intercepts and can easily make a quick sketch of the graph. We calculate
dy
= 3x2 1.
dx
At x = 1, we have
dy
dx
22
Chapter 2
Vectors
A vector is a directed line segment. I.e., it is part of a line (a line segment) which has an arrow on one end
(it is directed). It is defined by two properties:
its direction,
its magnitude (size/length).
Example 2.0.1. The speed of an object is not a vector, however the velocity of an object is a vector. The
direction of the velocity is the direction of motion, and the magnitude is the speed in that direction.
Two vectors are equal iff they have the same direction and the same magnitude.
A vector has no fixed position. If two vectors have the same direction and the same magnitude, then
they are always equal even if they are based in different positions.
2.1
Describing Vectors
(x2 x1 , y2 y1 )
(v1 , v2 ).
23
3-D: Vectors work exactly the same way, but points have an extra coordinate and vectors have an extra
component. If
P (x1 , y1 , z1 )
Q(x2 , y2 , z2 )
then P~Q = v where
v
(x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 )
(v1 , v2 , v3 ).
pic
4-D, 5-D, 6-D,. . . : Everything1 generalises to higher dimensions. However, we can only work in one
dimension at a time.
2.1.1
It is important not to get confused between coordinates of a point and coordinates of a vector since the
notation are very similar. What does the notation (p1 , p2 ) mean?
If we write P (p1 , p2 ), we mean the point with coordinates (p1 , p2 ).
Position 3
Direction 7
Magnitude 7
If we write p = (p1 , p2 ), we mean the vector with components (p1 , p2 ).
Position 7
Direction 3
Magnitude 3
2.1.2
Position Vectors
This is an attempt to overcome the ambiguity in the previous section. Fix an origin O, and fix coordinate
~ = (p1 , p2 ). We will often describe the
axes. Then, relative to O, the point P (p1 , p2 ) has position vector OP
location of a point by using a position vector rather than coordinates.
2.1.3
Zero Vectors
We use the notation 0 to denote the vectors with 0 magnitude. It is the position vector of the origin. It is
not to be confused with the number 0. In 2D it is
0 = (0, 0),
and in 3D it is
0 = (0, 0, 0).
Note that 0 magnitude also implies no direction.
1 3-D
24
2.1.4
In 2D,
i
(1, 0)
(0, 1).
(1, 0, 0)
j =
(0, 1, 0)
(0, 0, 1),
and
v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = v1 i + v2 j + v2 k.
2.1.5
Magnitude
One of the conditions for two vectors to be equal for their magnitudes to be equal. The magnitude |a| of a
vector a may be calculated using Pythagoras Theorem. In 2D, let a = (a1 , a2 ). Then
q
|a| = a21 + a22 .
In 3D, let a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ). Then
|a| =
According to this formula, the only vector with 0 magnitude is the zero vector.
2.2
Vector Algebra
Many of the tools we have for manipulating real numbers extend to vectors. There are also a few more.
2.2.1
Scalar Multiplication
Let k be a real number, and let a be a vector. Then ka scales the vector a.
If |k| > 1, then |ka| > |a|. If |k| < 1, then |ka| < |a|.
If k > 0 then ka has the same direction as a. If k < 0 then ka has the opposite direction as a.
We have ka = a iff k = 1.
We have ka = 0 iff k = 0 or a = 0.
Vectors a and b have the same direction iff a = kb for some k > 0.
In 2D, if a = (a1 , a2 ) then ka = (ka1 , ka2 ). In 3D, if a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) then ka = (ka1 , ka2 , ka3 ).
2.2.2
Vector Addition
2.2.3
Vector Subtraction
2.2.4
Some Properties
Scalar multiplication and vector addition satisfy many of the same properties as regular numbers. For vectors
a, b, c and scalars k and `, these include:
a+b=b+b
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
a+0=0+a=a
a + (a) = (a) + a = 0
a + (b) = a b
k(a + b) = ka + kb
(k + `)a = ka + `a
k(`a) = (k`)a
1a = a, -1a=-a
2.2.5
Unit Vectors
32 + 02 + 42 =
3
4
=
a
, 0,
.
5
5
We can check
2.3
9 + 16 =
25 = 5. So
s
2 r
2
3
4
9 + 16
|
a| =
+ 02 +
=
=1
5
5
25
Components of a Vector
We describe vectors by using their components with respect to some orthonormal basis (i.e. the standard
x, y, z directions). But these standard directions may not be the most useful in practical applications. Let
be non-zero, non-colinear2 unit vectors.Consider a
in the plane they span.The length is called
, b
and b
a
in the direction of a
, and is denoted a
b.
the component of b
2a
26
=b
a
b
.
By symmetry (of the picture of the algebra), a
= cos().
b
By trigonometry, a
= a/|a|. We may use this to generalise to the case where we dont require unit vectors and we
Recall that a
define the scalar product of two arbitrary vectors:
a b = |a||b| cos().
However, to find components in a direction, the direction vector must be of unit length.I.e., the component
b.
of b in the direction of a is equal to a
2.4
(a1 , a2 ),
b =
(b1 , b2 ),
the angle between a and the positive x-axis is a , the angle between b and the positive x-axes is b .
pic
We may write
a
= |a||b| cos(b a )
= |a||b|(cos(a ) cos(b ) + sin(a ) sin(b ))
= |a| cos(a )|b| cos(b ) + |a| sin(a )|b| sin(b )
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 .
We wont derive it, but in 3D if a = (a1, a2, a3), b = (b1, b2, b3) then
a b = a 1 b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b3 .
This also generalises to higher dimensions.
Example 2.4.3. Let a = (1, 2), b = (1, 4). Then a b = 1 + 8 = 9.
Example 2.4.4. Let a = (2, 1), b = (1, 2). Then a b = 2 + 2 = 0.
Example 2.4.5. Let a = (1, 1, 0), b = (0, 1, 1), c = (1, 0, 1). Then a b = b c = c a = 1.
27
Example 2.4.6. Let a = (1, 3, 0), b = (3, 1, 0), c = (1, 0, 2). Then
2.4.1
ab
= 3 + 3 + 0 = 0
bc
= 3 + 0 + 0 = 3
ca
1 + 0 + 0 = 1.
Since i, j, k are unit vectors, everything to do with magnitude of vectors etc. is preserved when we write our
vectors in terms of these standard vectors. They provide only a different notation for vectors, and it doesnt
matter which notation we use. It is often useful to remember the algebraic rules for the scalar product, as
well as the fact that they are unit vectors which are pairwise perpendicular. That is,
2.4.2
ii=jj=kk
ij=jk=ki
0.
2.4.3
Let a and b have fixed magnitudes, but varying directions. Recall that the scalar product depends on the
cosine of the angle between the vectors:
a b = |a||b| cos().
= 0, a b = |a||b|. Vectors are parallel and in the same direction.
0 < < /2, 0 < a b < |a||b|. The angle between the vectors is acute.
= /2, a b = 0. The vectors are at a right angle to each other.
/2 < < , |a||b| < a b < 0. The angle between the vectors is obtuse.
= , a b = |a||b|. Vectors are parallel and in opposite directions.
> . This is the reflex angle between the two vectors, which is not want were looking for. However,
since cos() = cos(2 ), we dont need to worry about this case.
28
If we know the components of two vectors, we can use this method to calculator the scalar product of the
vectors and then find the angle between them.
cos() =
ab
.
|a||b|
12 + 22 =
5, |b| =
12 + 42 =
17,
(1 0) + (3 2) + (4 1)
0+64
2
p
12 + 32 + 42
=
26
p
|b| =
02 + 21 + 12
=
5.
|a| =
Since a b > 0, the vector meet at an acute angle. We find this angle
cos()
=
=
ab
|a||b|
2
,
26 5
so 1.39 radians.
Example 2.4.10. Let a = (2, 1), b = (1, 2), c = (1, 2). Then
ab =
ac =
bc =
5 = |b||c|.
So both b and c are perpendicular to a. In 2D, there are only ever two vectors perpendicular to any given
vector.
Example 2.4.11. Let a = (0, 1, 1), b = (1, 1, 1), c = (3, 2, 2). Then
ab
ac
bc
= 1.
29
2.5
We may write any vector b as the sum of a vector parallel to a and the sum of a vector perpendicular to a.
The vector parallel to a is called the projection of b in the direction of a, and is denoted
proja b.
We know that the magnitude is given by
b=
|proja b| = a
ab
.
|a|
Since the direction is a, we multiply this by the unit vector in the direction of a. We end up with the square
of the magnitude on the bottom, and |a|2 = a a, so that
proja b =
(a b)
a.
(a a)
Now, since b is the sum of a vector parallel to a and a vector perpendicular to a, and we have calculated
the component parallel to a, the component perpendicular must be
b proja b.
2.6
2.6.1
Vector Span
k1 (1, 1) + k2 (0, 1)
(k1 , k1 ) + (0, k2 )
(k1 , k1 + k2 ).
This is all 2D vectors since for any x and y we find that the system of equations x = k1 , y = k1 + k2 has a
unique solution k1 = x, k2 = y x.
Example 2.6.13. This time, let a1 = (1, 2), a2 = (3, 6). then
k1 a1 + k2 a2
= k1 (1, 2) + k2 (3, 6)
=
In this case the span the span of a1 and a2 is the same as the span of a1 .
In 2D, one vector always spans a line. Two vectors span either a line or a plane. Two vectors a1 and a2
span a line whenever a1 = ka2 (as seen in the previous example).
30
In 3D, one vector always spans a line. Two vectors span either a line or a plane. Three vectors span
either a line, a plane or the whole of three dimensional space.
Example 2.6.14. Find the span of
a1
(1, 0, 2)
a2
(2, 1, 0)
a3
(0, 1, 4)
These span more than a line since they are all multiples of a single vector, so they either span a plane or the
whole of three dimensional space. An alternative way to find out is as follows. Try to solve
k1 a1 + k2 a2 + k3 a3 = 0.
If the only possible solution is k1 = k2 = k3 = 0, then the vectors span the whole of three dimensional space.
If there is another solution, this means one vector may be written as a linear combination of the others and
they therefore span a plane.We solve
0
= k1 a1 + k2 a2 + k3 a3
= k1 (1, 0, 2) + k2 (2, 1, 0) + k3 (0, 1, 4)
=
I.e.,
k1 + 2k2
k2 + k3
2k1 + k3
If we can find any k1 , k2 , k3 (not all zero) satisfying the above system of equations then the vectors span a
plane. A solution is
k1
k2
k3
= 1,
2.7
2.7.1
Working in 2D or 3D, recall that the span of a vector is a line. Given any vector a, there are many parallel
vectors.
pic
The definition of a vector is a directed line segment, i.e. a small portion of a line. If we multiply a by a
scalar, this stretches or shrinks a in both directions, but a is always parallel to a. So if a is a vector that
a is the span of a, i.e. it is a line. However, vectors have no fixed position. Let b be the position vector of
any point on the line. Then
vb + a
is called the parametric equation of the line: as varies over the real numbers, it gives the position vector
of each point on the line.
pic
31
Example 2.7.15. Find a parametric equation for the line parallel to a = (1, 3) through the point with
position vector b = (0, 1).
Solution 1: Applying the formula,
v = (0, 1) + (1, 3)
= (, 1 + 3).
Solution 2: Since we can start with any point on the line, and ( 3, 2) is a point on the line,
u = ( 3, 2) + (1, 3)
= ( 3 + , 2 + 3)
gives the same line.
pic
Since we are in two dimensions, we can also find the Cartesian equation of the line. Treat the first and
second component of v as the x and y coordinate (since it is a position vector). Then
x
= 1 +
so that
y = 1 +
3,
3x
is the Cartesian equation of the line. Eliminating from u would give the same solution.
x1
7
y+1
So
x1
y+1
=
7
5
is the equation of the line, and can be rearranged into the usual form.
Example 2.7.17. A line in 3D contains the point with position vector (1, 9, 2), and is the in the direction
(1, 0, 1). Its parametric equation is
v = (1, 9, 2) + (1, 0, 1)
= (1 , 9, 2 ).
This example has been carefully chosen so that we may calculate its Cartesian equation as well. Since the
second component is 9, this line is contained in the plane y = 9. Then setting
x
gives
z =x+
2 1,
which is itself a plane. So the line is the intersection of the two planes. This example was specifically chosen
so that this would be doable, but in general it is must harder to find these planes given a line. We will revisit
this later in the module.
32
2.7.2
Planes
The parametric equations work exactly like those for lines. Suppose a and b are linearly independent vectors,
and p is the position vector of a point on the plane. Then a general point on the plane, r, has position vector
r = p + a + b.
However, it is often more useful to know the Cartesian equation of a plane. Fortunately, there is a recipe for
calculating this.
Let a and b be vectors spanning a plane. Then there are infinitely many normal vectors to a and infinitely
many normal vectors to b. The normals to a span a plane, the normals to b also span a plane, and the
intersection of two planes in general positions is a line. Since vectors parallel to this line are normal to a
and are normal to b, they are also normal to any linear combination of a and b, for let n be such a normal,
then
n (a + b) = n a + n b = 0.
We say any such n is normal to the plane.
We use r = (x, y, z) to denote a general position vector belonging to the plane we are considering,
p = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to denote a known point on the plane, and n = (a, b, c) to denote a normal to the plane. By
varying r, any vector on the plane may be written as r p.
pic
Since all of these vector are normal to n, we have n (r p = 0, which implies that
n r = n p.
Since n and p are both known, n p is just a constant. The equation of the plane therefore has equation
ax + by + cz = C,
where C is a constant that may be found by substituting in the coordinates of any point known to be on the
plane.
Example 2.7.18. A plane has normal n = (3, 5, 6), and contains the point (1, 0, 1). The equation of the
plane is
3x + 5y + 6z = C.
Substituting in the known point gives C = 3 6 = 3, so the plane has equation
3x + 5y + 6z = 3.
2.7.3
There is a simple formula for the distance of a point P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) from a plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0,
which uses the scalar product. We know that the vector n = ai + bj + ck is normal to the plane. The shortest
distance from P to the plane is the perpendicular distance, that is, parallel to n. If (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is any point
in the plane then this distance is
|projn (r0 r1 )|
where
r0 = x0 i + y0 j + z0 k
33
and
r1 = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k.
Now
projn (r0 r1 ) =
(r0 r1 ) n
(r0 r1 ) n
n.
n=
nn
|n|2
So
|projn (r0 r1 )| =
|(r0 r1 ) n|
.
|n|
Now
|(r0 r1 ) n| = |(x0 x1 )a + (y0 y1 )b + (z0 z1 )c| = |ax0 + by0 + cz0 ax1 by1 cz1 | = |d + ax1 + by1 + cz1 |
Also
|n| =
a2 + b2 + c2
.
a2 + b2 + c2
Example 2.7.19. We consider the plane
3x + 5y + 6z = 3
and the point P = (1, 2, 1). The plane can be written in the form 3x + 5y + 6z + 3 = 0. So the distance of
(1, 2, 1) from this plane is
11 70
|3 1 + 5 2 + 6 1 + 3|
22
= =
.
35
70
32 + 5 2 + 6 2
2.8
The vector product is another way of combining two vectors. Even though it is often called the cross product,
we refer to it as the vector product as a reminder that its output is always a vector. We will present two
formulas for the vector product: one is easy to remember, but requires you to understand a little about
matrices (which are otherwise not on the syllabus, but you can find information in Section 3.8); the other
is harder to remember but doesnt require any advanced knowledge. Let v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ), w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ).
Then
i
j
k
v w = v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3
=
(v2 w3 v3 w2 , v1 w3 + v3 w1 , v1 w2 v2 w1 ).
We compute
v (v w) = v1 v2 w3 v1 v3 w2 v2 v1 w3 + v2 v3 w1 + v3 v1 w2 v3 v2 w1 = 0,
which demonstrates that v w is normal to v. We could similarly show that it is normal to w, so the cross
product of vectors v and w always gives a vector that is normal to both.
Example 2.8.20. Lets revisit
our problem
of calculating the Cartesian equation of a plane. Suppose a
plane is spanned by a = (1, 2, 2), b = ( 3, 1, 0). Then we may take as a normal
i
j j
2
2 = ( 2, 6, 1 6).
n = a b = 1
3 1
0
34
2.8.1
A vector is uniquely determined by two of its properties: magnitude and direction. The direction of a b
obeys the so-called right hand rule. With outstretched arms, if a is the direction of the right arm and b is
the direction of the left arm, then a b is in the direction of your head.
2.8.2
Volume of a parallelepiped
35
a2
b2
c2
a3
b3 .
c3
2.9
2.9.1
Suppose a force F moves an object along a vector d.Then the total work done by the force is equal to the
component of F in the direction of d multiplied by the distance travelled. In other words,
Work done = |d||F| cos(theta) = F d.
Example 2.9.21. Let d = (0, 0, 4), F = (2, 3, 5).
pic
Work done is
F d = 0 + 0 + (4 5) = 20.
2.9.2
Torque (Moments)
We have | | = 27.
36
So the force F is pulling the point directly away from the pivot, which means there is no twisting.
Example 2.9.26. Pythagoras Theorem. We have a right-triangular prism shaped fishbowl on a vertical
frictionless flagpole and fill it until the normal force is equal the length of each side. Newtons third law
of motion states that this object will remain in rest while there are no exterior forces acting on it. The
magnitude of the torque is equal to
a
b
c
a + b c = 0.
2
2
2
We can rearrange this to prove Pythagoras Theorem, a2 + b2 = c2 , using only physical properties.
2.9.3
b=
ab
aa
a+
ab
aa
a.
Example 2.9.27. Let a = (2, 1, 0), b = (1, 1, 0). We need to following ingredients to use the above formula:
ab
aa
= 4 + 1 = 5
i j k
= 2 1 0 = (0, 0, 1)
1 1 0
i j k
= 0 0 1 = (1, 2, 0).
2 1 0
ab
(a b) a
2+1=3
So
3
(2, 1, 0) +
5
and we note that (2, 1, 0) is in the same direction as
(2, 1, 0) (1, 2, 0) = 0.
b=
1
(1, 2, 0),
5
a and (1, 2, 0) is normal to this direction since
Example 2.9.28. Do the same for a = (1, 1, 1), b = (3, 0, 3). You should find that
(3, 0, 3) = (2, 2, 2) + (1, 2, 1).
37
2.9.4
Lagranges Identity
Recall that:
ab
= |a||b| cos()
|a||b| sin().
= n
ab
Taking the sum of the squares of the magnitudes of each of these, and using the fact that sin2 ()+cos2 () =
1, we get Lagranges identity:
|a b|2 + (a b)2 = |a|2 |b|2 = (a a)(b b).
This is useful because
|a b| =
p
|a|2 |a|2 (a b)2
(1, 3, 2)
( 2, 0, 2).
This is
|a b| =
=
=
=
=
i
j
k
1 3
2
2 0 2
|(3 2, 3 2, 3 2)|
392
54
3 6.
(14 4 2
=
=
54
3 6,
38
Chapter 3
Integration
There are essentially three ways to understand what integration is:
the measure of a region (i.e. area in 2D, volume in 3D),
the opposite of differentiation,
a way of finding a potential function.
We can approximate the area under the graph of y = f (x) between x = a and x = b by adding up the
areas Ai of n trapeziums, each of width x.
pic
Then the definite integral is defined to be
Z
f (x) dx = lim
n
X
Ai ,
i=1
where x dx as n .
If we know some F (x) with the property that F 0 (x) = f (x), then we can write the indefinite integral
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C,
where C is an arbitrary constant of integration (explained later), and we can use this to evaluate the definite
integral:
Z b
f (x) dx = [F (x)]ba = F (b) F (a).
a
You dont how to understand what this means or even apply it directly, but on some abstract level it tells
us that whatever the dimension were integrating over, we can integrate over one dimension less and get the
same result. The region S is the boundary of S, so has dimension one lower. In particular, it tell us that
we can integrate over a one dimensional region by evaluating a zero dimensional integral: a sum. A loosely
related example:
d 2
r = 2r.
dr
Differentiate the area of a circle (a 2D property) we get the circumference (a 1D property).
39
3.1
Suppose F (x) has the property F 0 (x) = f (x). But what if G(x) also has the property that G0 (x) = f (x)?
In this case,
d
d
d
(F (x) G(x)) =
F (x)
G(x) = f (x) f (x) = 0,
dx
dx
dx
and the only thing whose derivative is zero is a constant. So if a function F (x) satisfies F 0 (x) = f (x), then
all functions with that property are
F (x) + C,
where C is a constant. This is why we must include a constant when we write the indefinite integral:
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C,
and why we dont need to write a constant for definite integrals since
Z
Z
I(x) =
f (u) du,
a
where a is fixed and the upper limit x is allowed to vary. If we differentiate this function from first principles,
we get
!
Z x+h
Z x
d
1
I(x) = lim
f (u) du
f (u) du
h0 h
dx
a
a
Z
1 x+h
f (u) du.
= lim
h0 h x
It can be shown that
Z
x+h
we have
I 0 (x) = f (x).
Write F (x) = I(x) + C. Then
F (b) F (a)
= I(b) I(a)
Z b
Z
=
f (x) dx
a
a
b
Z
=
f (x) dx
a
40
f (x) dx
3.2
Properties of Integration
Z
Af (x) dx = A
f (x) dx
Z
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx
Z
For a < c < b,
Z
f (x) dx =
Z
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
c
Since Integration can be seen as the opposite of differentiation, many of our identities can simply be reversed.
Z
1
xn+1 + C, n 6= 1
xn dx =
n+1
Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x
Z
ex dx = ex + C
Z
sin(x) dx = cos(x) + C
Z
cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C
Z
sinh(x) dx = cosh(x) + C
Z
cosh(x) dx = sinh(x) + C
The second of these tells us what to do when the first formula doesnt work (division by zero is not allowed).
We can understand why. Let y = ex . On the one hand, we can take the inverse function to write x = ln y.
On the other hand, we may differentiate to get
dy
= ex .
dx
But since y = ex , we have
dy
= y.
dx
Rearranging and evaluating gives
Z
1
dy
y
Z
=
dx
x+C
ln y + C,
x3 dx
=
=
x4
4
5
2
54 24
4
609
.
4
pic
Example 3.2.2. Next,
Z
sin(x) dx
[ cos(x)]0
( cos() + cos(0))
1+1
2.
pic
Example 3.2.3. Now,
Z
2
x2
x8
8
2 2
8
22
(2)8
(2)2
2
=
8
2
8
2
8
8
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
8
8
2
2
= 0.
(x7 x) dx
Example 3.2.4. This example looks much more challenging than it is:
3
Z
7
sin(sin(sin(x9 ))) dx.
3.3
A domain is called symmetric if it is in the form [a, a], where this denotes the set of real x such that
a x a. We sometimes have shortcuts when we integrate over symmetric domains. When we integrate
a function f over this domain we get
Z a
Z 0
Z a
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
a
a
a
0
a
f (x) dx
=
0
Z
=
f (x) dx
0
Z
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
0
42
Recall that if f is even, then f (x) = f (x) for all x. In this case,
Z a
Z a
f (x) dx = 2
f (x) dx.
a
Example 3.3.5. Since the integrand is odd and the domain is symmetric, we have
Z
sin(sin(sin(x9 ))) dx = 0.
7
Note that this is only guaranteed to work if the function is even or odd and the domain is symmetric. E.g.,
x3 is an odd function, but [2, 5] is not a symmetric domain. So
5
x3 dx =
whereas
Z
609
6= 0,
4
x3 dx = 0.
3.4
The integral
b
f (x) dx
a
gives the area below the graph of y = f (x). However, if the graph itself goes below the axis then this value
is negative,
pic
and if it is over in some places and under in others, the areas can even cancel each other out. So to calculate
the area between the graph of y = f (x) and the x-axis for a x b, for formula is
b
|f (x)| dx.
A=
a
However, this is generally not a function we can directly integrate (recall that the modulus function is not
differentiable), so we use the additive property of integration and split the integral into parts.
Example 3.4.6. Find the area between y = x3 and the x-axis for 1 x 1. Note that this is not
Z 1
x3 dx = 0.
1
|u| =
x,
x,
43
x 0;
x < 0.
x3 dx
0
4 1
x4
x
+
4 1
4 0
1
1
0
+
0
4
4
1 1
+
4 4
1
.
2
=
=
=
=
Example 3.4.7. Find the area between the line y = x and the x axis for 2 x 3. Again, we have
Z 2
Z 0
Z 3
|x| dx =
x dx +
x dx
2
=
2 0
x
2
+
= (0 2) +
=
x2
2
3
0
9
0
2
13
.
2
So our recipe to calculate the area between f (x) and the x-axis over a given domain is:
Find all the sub-domains where f (x) is positive and where f (x) is negative (i.e. by finding roots).
Integrate over each sub-domain separately, and add the results with appropriate signs.
Example 3.4.8. Find the total area bounded between the x-axis the graph
y = x3 2x2 x + 2.
This has factorisation y = (x + 1)(x 1)(x 2), so has x-intercepts at x = 1, x = 1, x = 2.
pic
We see from the graph that
Z 2
|x3 2x2 x + 2| dx =
(x3 2x2 x + 2) dx
=
(x3 2x2 x + 2) dx
2x3
x2
x4
+ 2x
4
3
2
..
.
=
37
.
12
44
1
x4
2x3
x2
+ 2x
4
3
2
1
2
1
3.4.1
Generalising the previous section, the area bounded by y = f (x) and y = g(x) on the domain a x b is
given by
Z b
|f (x) g(x)| dx.
a
To know when f (x) g(x) is positive or negative, we must start by solving f (x) = g(x) and finding all
crossing points. The recipe is then exactly the same as in the previous section, and note that when g(x) 0
we get exactly the same result as in the previous section.
Example 3.4.9. Calculate the area between y = x2 and y = x4 .
pics
We first need to find the bounded region. Solving x2 = x4 gives x = 0 or x = 1. Since x2 x4 when
0 x 1, we have
Z 1
A =
(x2 x4 ) dx
0
x5
x3
3
5
1 1
3 5
2
.
15
=
=
=
1
0
Example 3.4.10. Calculate the area between the graphs y = x and y = 1 x/2 for 0 x 1.
pic
These graphs only intersect when x = 2/3, and for 0 x 2/3, 1 x/2 x. Now
Z 1
x
A =
x dx
1
2
0
Z 2/3
Z 1
x
x
=
1
x dx
1
x dx
2
2
0
2/3
Z 2/3
Z 1
3x
3x
=
1
dx
1
dx
2
2
0
2/3
2/3
1
x4
x4
=
x
x
4 0
4 2/3
1
2/3
3x2
3x2
=
x
x
4 0
4 2/3
..
.
=
5
12
Example 3.4.11. Find the area bounded by y = sin(x) and y = 1/ 2 for 0 x /2.
pic
45
We have
/2
1
=
sin(x) 2 dx
0
Z /4
Z /2
1
1
sin(x)
=
sin(x)
dx +
dx
2
2
0
/4
/4
/2
x
x
= cos(x)
+ cos(x)
2 0
2 /4
..
.
=
2 1.
Z
3.5
1
dx = ln |x a| + C,
xa
1
(x a)1n
dx
=
+ C.
(x a)n
1n
See the Appendix on page 55 for a more detailed discussion of partial fractions.
Example 3.5.12. We have
Z
2x 1
dx
2
x x2
2
2
x 3x
Z
1
1
+
dx
x+1 x2
Z
Z
1
1
=
dx +
dx
x+1
x2
= ln |x + 1| + ln |x 2| + C
=
ln |x2 x 2| + C
Z
Z
2
1
2
1
dx +
dx
3
x
3
x3
2
2
= ln |x| + ln |x 3| + C
3
3
2
1
=
ln
+ ln |x 3| + C
3
|x|
2
|x 3|
=
ln
+C
3
|x|
46
x2 x + 1
dx
x1
Z
=
=
3.6
1
x+
x1
dx
1 2
x + ln |x 1| + C
2
Integration by Parts
dv
dx +
u
dx
Z
v
du
dx.
dx
u
a
dv
dx = [uv]ba
dx
v
a
du
dx.
dx
This formula can be used to solve integrals that are written as products. You should choose u and dv/dx.
In general, you choose u to be whichever differentiates to something nice.
Example 3.6.15. Lets evaluate
Z
x sin(x) dx.
The problem is simplified if we choose x as our thing to differentiate. So let us choose
u = x,
dv
= sin(x).
dx
This gives
du
= 1, v = cos(x).
dx
Therefore
Z
Z
x sin(x) dx
= x cos(x) +
cos(x) dx
= x cos(x) + sin(x) + C.
Check, for let
y = x cos(x) + sin(x).
Then
dy
= (x sin(x) + cos(x)) + cos(x) = x sin(x),
dx
as expected.
47
x2 ex dx
let
u = x2 ,
Then
dv
= ex .
dx
du
= 2x, v = ex .
dx
Z
Z
x2 ex dx = x2 ex + 2 xex dx.
So
dt
= ex .
dx
ds
= 1, t = ex ,
dx
giving
Z
2 x
x e
2 x
x e
dx =
+ 2 xe
Z
+
x2 ex 2xex 2ex + C
ex (x2 + 2x + 2) + C.
dx
ln(x)
dx,
x3
1
since it is easier to differentiate rather than integrate ln(x), we let
u = ln(x),
Then
dv
= x3 .
dx
1
1
du
= , v = x2 .
dx
x
2
Thus
Z
1
ln(x)
dx
x3
=
=
=
=
2
Z
ln(x)
1 2 1
+
dx
2x2 1 2 1 x3
2
ln 2 1 1
+
8
2 2x2 1
ln 2 1
1 1
+
+
8
2
8 2
ln 2
3
+
8
16
0.1.
48
3.6.1
Unusual Examples
Example 3.6.18. To integrate ln(x) we write ln(x) = 1 ln(x), and integrate by parts:
Z
Z
ln(x) dx = 1 ln(x) dx.
Since we are already unsure what is the integral of ln(x), we must set
u = ln(x),
dv
=1
dx
to give
du
1
= , v = x.
dx
x
Then,
Z
Z
ln(x) dx
= x ln(x)
dx
= x ln(x) x + C.
dv
= cos(x).
dx
This gives
so that
du
= cos(x), v = sin(x),
dx
Z
Z
sin(x) cos(x) dx = sin2 (x) sin(x) cos(x) dx + 2C.
Although it doesnt look like weve gotten anywhere, we can add the original integral to both sides then
divide by 2 to get
Z
1
sin(x) cos(x) dx = sin2 (x) + C.
2
We can check that for y =
1
2
49
dy
dx
= sin(x) cos(x).
[e
sin(x)]0
ex sin(x) dx
(3.1)
ex sin(x) dx
Z
= [ex cos(x)]0
ex cos(x) dx
0
Z
0
ex cos(x) dx
= (e cos() e cos(0))
0
Z
ex cos(x) dx
= e 1
(3.2)
(3.3)
(3.4)
(3.5)
ex cos(x) dx
= e 1
ex cos(x) dx
(3.6)
e 1
2
12.1.
(3.7)
(3.8)
3.7
Integration by Substitution
This is exactly the same idea as the chain rule for differentiation, and uses the fact that
dx dt
= 1.
dt dx
However, the exact method to use can be wildly different for different integrals. Some standard methods
exist, but the only way to get the necessary intuition to solve non-standard methods is by doing lots and
lots of practice.
Example 3.7.22. Lets calculate
Z
sin(2x) dx.
We we know how to integrate sin(t), we will let
t = 2x.
This gives
dt
= 2,
dx
i.e.
dx
1
= .
dt
2
50
Then
Z
Z
sin(2x) dx
sin(t) dx
dt
dt
dx
sin(t)
dt
dt
Z
1
sin(t) dt
=
2
1
= cos(t) + C
2
1
= cos(2x) + C.
2
=
The example above contained a few extra steps to explain what is really going on, but it practice it is
sufficient to write it a bit more concisely, as the next example shows.
Example 3.7.23. For
Z
e2x+3 dx
1
dt = dx.
2
=
=
=
Z
1
et dt
2
1 t
e +C
2
1 2x+3
e
+C
2
These examples describe a general approach that often works. If you are given
Z
f (ax + b) dx,
(3.9)
f 0 (x)
dx = ln(f (x)) + C.
f (x)
51
(3.10)
f 0 (x)
dx =
f (x)
1
d = ln(t) + C = ln(f (x)) + C.
t
ex
dx,
+1
notice that the top is the derivative of the bottom. So let t = ex + 1. Then
Z
ex
dt = ex dx,
giving
ex
dx
x
e +1
Z
=
1
dt
t
ln(t) + C
ln(ex + 1) + C.
Another general rule comes directly from the chain rule. Consider
Z
g 0 (x)f (g(x)) dx
(3.11)
g (x)f (g(x)) dx =
f (t) dt.
let
t = x2 + 3
so that
dt = 2x dx.
Then
Z
2x(x2 + 3)5 ) dx
Z
=
=
=
52
t5 dt
1 6
t +C
6
1 2
(x + 3)6 + C.
6
(3.12)
ex cos(ex ) dx,
let
t = ex
so that
dt = ex dx.
Then
Z
3.7.1
ex cos(ex ) dx =
Z
cos(t) dt
sin(t) + C
sin(ex ) + C.
Trigonometric Substitutions
Most of these are based on the standard trig identity and those that following from it:
sin2 () + cos2 () = 1
tan2 () + 1 = sec2 ()
1 + cot2 () = csc2 ()
Example 3.7.27. For
1
dx
4 x2
53
Appendix
3.8
Matrices
A 2 2 matrix
A=
a
c
b
d
2
0
3
.
1
Then
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
3
0
1
0
3
1
1
0
3
0
1
1
3
1
1
1
=
=
=
=
0
,
0
2
,
0
3
,
1
5
.
1
Think of the vectors as vertices of a square, and the matrix A skews the square.
pic
The original area was 1, the new area is 2.
known as the determinant of the matrix.
a
det A = |A| =
c
b
= ad bc.
d
The same can be done in 3D. The formula for the determinant is:
a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3 = a1 b2 b3 a2 b1 b3 + a3 b1
c2 c3
c1 c3
c1
c1 c2 c3
b2
c2
3.9
Partial Fractions
We start with a couple of definitions. If f (x) is a polynomial in x, its degree deg f is the highest power of x.
Polynomial
12
3x
4x3 + 7x2
Degree
0
1
3
If f (x) has degree at least 2, it is called irreducible if it has no real roots. Polynomials of degree 1 are also
called irreducible. Any polynomial can be factorised into a product of irreducible polynomials. E.g.
x4 1 = (x 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1)
x3 1 = (x 1)(x2 + x + 1)
A rational function is the quotient of one polynomial by another. I.e.
f (x) =
g(x)
,
h(x)
where g(x) and h(x) are polynomials. The rational function f (x) is called proper if deg h > deg g. A rational
function f (x) is said to be written in partial fractions if it is written as the sum of a polynomial and proper
rational functions, where each denominator is irreducible.
We first give a method to express a proper rational function in terms of partial fractions. Given
f (x) =
g(x)
,
h(x)
x2
The denominator factorises to give
x2 x 2 = (x + 1)(x 2).
Our function may therefore be written as
2x 1
A
B
=
+
.
x2 x 2
x+1 x2
By cross multiplication, we get
2x 1
A(x 2) + B(x + 1)
=
,
x2 x 2
x2 x 2
or simply
2x 1 = A(x 2) + B(x + 1).
55
There are essentially two methods to find A and B. We demonstrate the first in this example. When x = 1,
this equation becomes
3 = 3A,
so that A = 1. When x = 2, the equation becomes
3 = 3B,
so that B = 1. Therefore, we can write our original function in partial fractions as follows:
1
1
2x 1
=
+
.
x2
x+1 x2
x2
2
.
3x
A
B
2
= +
.
3x
x
x3
3A
2,
x(x2
Cross multiplying gives
56
1,
giving B = 1. So we get
1
1
x
= 2
.
x(x2 + 1)
x x +1
When we are a dealing with improper rational functions, i.e.
f (x) =
g(x)
h(x)
where deg g deg h, then it is still possible to write f (x) in partial fractions - but we must first find a
polynomial summand that makes the fraction proper. This is achieved by rearranging the numerator, and
is best explained by examples.
Example 3.9.32. Let
x2 x + 1
.
x2 1
The top and bottom here are the same degree so this fraction is improper. We try to write numerator as
the denominator plus a lower degree polynomial to get cancellation:
f (x) =
x2 x + 1
x2 1
=
=
=
=
(x2 1) + (x + 2)
x2 1
2
x 1
x2
x2 1 x2 1
x2
1 2
x 1
3
1
1+
.
2(x 1) 2(x + 1)
x2 x + 1
x1
x(x 1) + 1
x1
x(x 1)
1
=
+
x1
x1
1
= x+
.
x1
=
57