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System
g(t,x.r)
y(t)
The systems are naturally nonlinear, g(t,x.r) and modelled by a finite number of coupled first order
ordinary differential equations;
(1)
x(t ) g (t , x, r ), x R n
and the output is
y(t ) h(t , x, r ), x R m
(2)
If the system depends on the state variable, x(t), only then
x (t ) g ( x)
(3)
For the simplicity the systems are generally linearized for a selected point. The mathematical model
of the system at the selected point and its nearby can be represented by the linear differential
equation, the state model;
x (t ) Ax(t ) Br (t )
A R nn , B R nr
(4)
y(t ) Cx(t ) Dr (t ) C R mn , D R mr
or by the transfer function.
Transfer Function: The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output (response function) L[y(t)]=Y(s) to the Laplace transform of the input
(driving function) L[r(t)]=R(s) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero, x(0) = 0,
Figure 2.
Y (s)
Lg ( x) G(s )
(5)
x(0)=0
R( s) x ( 0 ) 0
U(s)
System
G(s)
Y(s)
Exp.02:1
Input-Output characteristic: The characteristic of a system is the mathematical relationship between two
variables that are related. Generally the relationship between the input r(t) and output of a system y(t) is
needed and called Input-Output characteristic. The input-output characteristic is related to the transfer
function if the input has a small signal and applied at the selected point, origin.
However the characteristic of the mathematical operation used in control systems given in Figure 3
may be linear or nonlinear.
r(t)
Mathematical
operation
y(t)
e = yr - yb
yr
D=A+B+C
(a)
yb
(b)
on
+
_
Comparator
+M
Vi
V0
Vi
V0
-M
(a)
(b)
Integrator: An integrator operation is given in Figure 6. The output signal Vo of the integrator block
is equal to the input signal Vin multiplied by the factor, 1/ Ti;
Vo (t )
1
Vin (t )dt
Ti
(6)
where Ti is time constant of the integrator. The transfer function of integrator action is
Vin ( s)
1
Vo ( s) Ti s
(7)
The output signal Vo contains incremental addition until reach a constant value known Wind-up. The
supply voltage of the operational amplifier that used in the integrator is proportional to the wind-up.
In order to discharge, the integrator usually has reset button. The time constant of an integrator
usually equals to the 1/4 or 1/5 of the time to reaches the steady sate value of the wind-up.
Reset button
Vin
1
Ti s
Integrator
Vo
Wind-up
(a)
(b)
Figure 7: A simple differentiator with RC circuits.
The waveforms of Figure 7 (a) plotted in Figure 7 (b) shows initially the capacitor is uncharged and
there is no voltage across the resistor. When the input voltage suddenly rises to a positive value the
capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously so the full applied voltage appears across the
resistor. Current flows the capacitor charges. As the voltage rises across the capacitor it must fall
across the resistor, until the capacitor is fully charged. The time taken for this will depend on the
Exp.02:3
size of the resistor (controlling the charging current) and the size of the capacitor (how much charge
is needed to raise the capacitor voltage).
One time constant, Td = RC, is the time it would take for the capacitor to fully charge to the applied
voltage if the initial current could be maintained. Obviously the current must reduce as the voltage
across the resistor reduces, so the rate of charge falls away. In theory it never reaches full charge.
However, for all practical purposes full charge is reached after 4 or 5 time constants.
The output of a derivative action is;
1 Vin (t )
Vo (t )
(8)
Td t
The transfer function of integrator action is
Vin (s )
1
(9)
Vo ( s) Ti s
The output of a derivative action with respect to a square input signal is depicted in Figure 8.
Vin
Vin
10
15
20
t (sec)
Vo
Td s
Vo
Differentiator
0
10
15
20
t (sec)
Vo
Vi* (s)
Vi (s)
T
(1 e Ts )
Gzoh (s)
s
V0 (s)
Vi input
Vi
Vo
Vo output
T
0
t (sec)
R=2
ei
i
i=x2
L=1
C=2
ec=x1
System Output
System Input
Problem 3. Consider circuit in Figure 11 where ei and ec are input and output respectively. Assume
ec(0)=-2 Volts and i(0)=1 Amperes obtain the transfer function of the circuit?
Figure: 11
Problem 4. Consider circuit in Figure 11 and assume ec(0)=-2 Volts and i(0)=1 Amperes obtain the
state space model of the circuit?
Problem 5. Consider circuit in Figure 11 where ei and ec are input and output respectively. Assume
ec(0)=-2 Volts and i(0)=1.
Write an M-Function to model and M-Function solve the state space model obtained for Problem 4.
and Plot x(t) for the time frame 0 t 5 sec.
Exp.02:5
Table 1:
A
+1
+2
-3
+3
-3.5
+5
Input
B
+1
+1
+4
+5
+2.7
+6
C
+1
+3
+2
+4
-1.4
+1
Output
D
Output
VA- VB
Two differential amplifier circuits are provided DIGIAG1750 unit, the second being labelled
"Instrumentation Amplifier". This has the same characteristic as the differential amplifier, but has an
improved common mode gain and it presents the same input impedance at each input.
Exp.02:6
Output
Saturation
Voltage
VB=0V
VA
VB= +4V
VA
Table 4:
With
Hysteresis
Output
Saturation
Voltage
VB=0V
VA
VB= +4V
VA
VA rising
(VR)
VA falling
(VF)
Set the HYSTERESIS switch in the ON position and repeat the procedure for voltage settings at the B
input of 0V and +4V to complete Table 4.
5.4 The Inputs-output Characteristic of Integrator Circuits:
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 15, with both voltmeters set to the 20V range. Set the Integrator time
constant switch to 1s. Switch ON the power supply and set the input voltage (voltmeter V1) to 1V.
Exp.02:7
Figure 16: Experiment set up for integrator to accurately determine the time taken to reach any
given voltage.
Exp.02:8
If this is set to 10V, then the Comparator will give a high output until the output of the Integrator
(which is connected to the inverting input of the Comparator) exceeds 10V, when the Comparator
output will go low.
While the Comparator output is high, the Timer is enabled and will count in hundredths of a second.
The moment the output of the Integrator goes above the Comparator reference voltage (in this case
10V) the Comparator output goes low and stops the Timer.
Switch ON the power supply and adjust the input voltage to 1V. Ignore the Timer function for the
moment. Press the Integrator RESET button and, using the second hand of a clock or watch, note the
time after releasing it that the Integrator output voltage reaches 10V as indicated on the Moving Coil
Meter.
This enables the circuit time constant to be determined. The input voltage is 1V. The output voltage
should reach 1V after one time constant and should reach 10V after 10 time constants. The time
constant can therefore be determined by dividing the time taken by 10. Record the results in row 1
of Table 5. Switch the Timer to TIME and FREE RUN. If necessary press RESET to zero the display.
Table 5:
Referenc
Calculated
Switched
Input
Number of
Time taken
e
time
time
Voltage
time constants
to reach ref.
voltage
constant
constant
(i)
(iii)
(iv)
(ii)
(v)
1
1s
1V
10 V
10
s
s
2
100 ms
1V
10 V
s
ms
3
100 ms
0.2 V
5V
s
ms
4
10 s
5V
2V
s
s
Press the Timer RESET to zero the display. Re-adjust the Integrator input voltage to 1V, set the time
constant to 100ms and VERY BRIEFLY press its RESET button. You must not hold the RESET
button down or the Timer will be counting too soon. Observe the effect on the Timer. This will
count up from zero until the output voltage of the Integrator exceeds the reference voltage applied to
the Comparator. The display will be in hundredths of a second. For example, a display of 487
represents 4.87 seconds.
Move the digital multimeter to terminal B of the 10k slide resistor and adjust the reference voltage
to 10V.
Press the Timer RESET to zero the display. Re-adjust the Integrator input voltage to 1V, set the time
constant to 100ms and VERY BRIEFLY press its RESET button. You must not hold the RESET
button down or the Timer will be counting too soon. Observe the effect on the Timer. This will
count up from zero until the output voltage of the Integrator exceeds the reference voltage applied to
the Comparator. The display will be in hundredths of a second. For example, a display of 487
represents 4.87 seconds.
Repeat the test a few times to become familiar with the action. Zero the Timer each time. Record the
result in row 2 of Table 5. Calculate the time constant as follows:
The number of time constants is the reference voltage divided by the applied voltage:
(iii) = (ii) (i) =
The calculated time constant is the time taken to reach the reference voltage divided by the number
of time constants:
(v) = (iv) / (iii) =
Exp.02:9
Add the calculated time constant to Table 5. With the Integrator time constant still at 100ms, change
the input voltage (10k 10-turn resistor) to 0.2V and the reference voltage (10k slide resistor) to
5V and repeat the test and calculation. Remember to zero the Timer each time. Record the results in
rows of Table 5.
Change the Integrator time constant to 10s, the reference voltage (10k slide resistor) to 2V and the
input voltage (10k 10-turn resistor) to 5V and repeat the test. Record the result in row 4 of Table
16.4. Calculate the time constant and add to Table 5.
Compare the computed result with the chosen time constant. What is the wind-up value for the
DIGIAG1750 unit? Notice the integrator output when the integrator input respectively are 1V and
0,5V for time constant 100s. Explain the reason of the difference in arrival time of integral output to
12V.
5.5 The Inputs-output Characteristic of Differentiator:
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 17, with both voltmeters set to the 20V range. Set the time
constant controls of the Integrator and Differentiator to 1s. The Moving Coil Meter is used to
monitor the change of voltage at the Integrator output.
Switch ON the power supply. Set the input voltage to the integrator (voltmeter V1) to 1V. Press and
release the RESET button on the Integrator, and note the output voltage from the Differentiator
(voltmeter V2).
The Integrator output voltage will be changing at 1V/s for approximately 11s and the output from
the Differentiator should remain constant during this time.
Note the output voltage =
V.
Exp.02:10
Figure 18: Experiment set up for differentiator when signal from function generator is applied.
Set the Differentiator time constant to 10ms and adjust the signal input (function generator
amplitude control and/or 10k slide resistor) to give an input signal (CH.1) of 1Vp-p.
Sketch the two waveforms on the graticule provided with the input at the top:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Exp.02:11
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
10
Output voltage
Volts
No
Task 2.1: Write a conclusion for each experiment to conclude and to discuss the results.
Task 2.2: Consider the results of each experiment and write input-output characteristic of the
mathematical operations in terms of transfer function if exists. If not explain the reason.
Task 2.1: Classify input-output characteristic of mathematical operations as linear and nonlinear.
7. Lab report
The report should log the results from the experiment with your own interpretations, observations
and conclusions. You should try to answer all questions in the manual. Answer the following
questions, and attach a copy of your lab notes to the back as an appendix. The report must be typewritten. Unless otherwise stated, no question should require more than a page to answer.
Exp.02:13