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Sam and Alex are travelling in the car ... but the
speedometer is broken.
Alex: "No, Sam! Not our average for the last minute, or even the last
second, I want to know our speed RIGHT NOW."
Sam: "OK, let us measure it up here ... at this road sign... NOW!"
"OK, we were AT the sign for zero seconds, and the distance
was ... zero meters!"
The speed is 0m / 0s = 0/0 = I Don't Know!
"I can't calculate it Sam! I need to know some distance
over some time, and you are saying the time should be zero? Can't be
done."
That is pretty amazing ... you'd think it is easy to work out the speed of a car at
any point in time, but it isn't.
Even the speedometer of a car (when it works!) just shows us an average of
how fast we were going for the last very short amount of time.
d = 5t2
d = 5t2 = 5 12 = 5 m
But how fast is that? Speed is distance over time:
distance
Speed =
time
So at 1 second:
5m
Speed =
= 5 m/s
1 second
"BUT", says Alex, "again that is an average speed, since you started the jump,
... I want to know the speed at exactly 1 second, so I can set up the camera
properly."
0m
=
11s
= ????
0s
= (1+t)(1+t)
= 1 + 2t + (t)2
And we get:
d
= 5 (1+2t+(t)2) m
= 5 + 10t + 5(t)2 m
= (5 + 10t + 5(t)2) 5 m
= 10t + 5(t)2 m
Speed
= 10t +5(t)2 mt s
= 10 + 5t m/s
So the speed is 10 + 5t m/s, and Sam thinks about that t value ... he
wants t to be so small it won't matter ... so he imagines it shrinking
towards zero and he gets:
Speed = 10 m/s
= 1 + 3x + 3(x)2 + (x)3 1
= 3x + 3(x)2 + (x)3
Slope =
3x + 3(x)2 + (x)3x
= 3 + 3x + (x)2
Slope = 3
Try It Yourself!
Go to the Slope of a Function page, put in the formula "x^3", then try to find
the slope at the point (1,1).
Zoom in closer and closer and see what value the slope is heading towards.
Conclusion
Calculus is about changes.
Differential calculus cuts something into small pieces to find how it changes.
Integral calculus joins (integrates) the small pieces together to find how much
there is.
Introduction to Derivatives
x to x+x
y changes from f(x) to f(x+x)
x changes from
f(x+x) = (x+x)2
f(x+x) = x2 + 2x x + (x)2
f(x+x) f(x)
The slope formula is:
x
2
x + 2x x + (x)2 x2
Put in f(x+x) and f(x):
x
2x x + (x)2
Simplify (x2 and x2 cancel):
=
x
= 2x + x
= 2x
x2 = 2x
What does
x2 = 2x mean?
It means that, for the function x2, the slope or "rate of change" at any
point is 2x.
So when x=2 the slope is 2x = 4, as shown here:
Note: sometimes
Example: What is
x3 ?
f(x+x) f(x)
The slope formula:
x
x3 + 3x2 x + 3x (x)2 + (x)3 x3
Put in f(x+x) and f(x):
x
3x2 x + 3x (x)2 + (x)3
Simplify (x3 and x3 cancel):
=
x
= 3x + 3x x + (x)2
x3 = 3x2
Derivatives as dy/dx
y = f(x)
1. Add x
When x increases by x, then y increases by y
y + y = f(x + x)
Subtract:
y + y = f(x + x)
y = f(x)
To Get:
Simplify:
y + y - y = f(x + x) - f(x)
y = f(x + x) - f(x)
3. Rate of Change
To work out how fast (called the rate of change) we divide by x:
4. Reduce x close to 0
We can't let x become 0 (because that would be dividing by 0), but we can
make it head towards zero and call it "dx":
dx
Try It On A Function
Let's try f(x) = x2
f(x) = x2
Expand (x+dx)2
Simplify (x2-x2=0)
Simplify fraction
dx goes towards 0
Derivative Rules
The Derivative tells us the slope of a function at any point.
The derivatives of many functions are well known. Here are some useful rules to
help you work out the derivatives of more complicated functions (with examples
below). Note: the little mark means "Derivative of".
Common Functions
Function
Derivative
Square
x2
2x
Square Root
()x-
Exponential
ex
ex
Constant
ax
ax(ln a)
ln(x)
1/x
loga(x)
1 / (x ln(a))
sin(x)
cos(x)
cos(x)
sin(x)
tan(x)
sec2(x)
sin-1(x)
1/(1x2)
cos-1(x)
1/(1x2)
tan-1(x)
1/(1+x2)
Function
Derivative
Multiplication by constant
cf
cf
Power Rule
xn
nxn1
Sum Rule
f+g
f + g
Difference Rule
f-g
f g
Product Rule
fg
f g + f g
Quotient Rule
f/g
(f g g f )/g2
Reciprocal Rule
1/f
f/f2
Chain Rule
(as "Composition of Functions")
fg
(f g) g
f(g(x))
f(g(x))g(x)
Logarithms
Trigonometry (x is in radians)
Inverse Trigonometry
Rules
dydx = dydududx
Examples
Example: what is the derivative of sin(x) ?
From the table above it is listed as being cos(x)
It can be written as:
sin(x) = cos(x)
Or:
sin(x) = cos(x)
Power Rule
Example: What is
x3 ?
xn = nxn1
x3 = 3x31 = 3x2
Example: What is
(1/x) ?
xn = nxn1
x1 = 1x11 = x2
Multiplication by constant
Example: What is
5x3 ?
the derivative of cf = cf
the derivative of 5f = 5f
x3 = 3x31 = 3x2
So:
5x3 = 5
x3 = 5 3x2 = 15x2
Sum Rule
Example: What is the derivative of x2+x3 ?
The Sum Rule says:
the derivative of f + g = f + g
So we can work out each derivative separately and then add them.
Using the Power Rule:
x2 = 2x
x3 = 3x2
And so:
Difference Rule
It doesn't have to be x, we can differentiate with respect to, for example, v:
Example: What is
(v3v4) ?
the derivative of f g = f g
So we can work out each derivative separately and then subtract them.
Using the Power Rule:
v3 = 3v2
v4 = 4v3
And so:
z2 = 2z
z3 = 3z2
(5z2 + z3 7z4) ?
z4 = 4z3
And so:
Product Rule
Example: What is the derivative of cos(x)sin(x) ?
The Product Rule says:
the derivative of fg = f g + f g
In our case:
f = cos
g = sin
cos(x) = sin(x)
sin(x) = cos(x)
So:
Reciprocal Rule
Example: What is
(1/x) ?
Chain Rule
Example: What is ddxsin(x2) ?
sin(x2) is made up of sin() and x2:
f(g) = sin(g)
g(x) = x2
So:
f'(g) = cos(g)
g'(x) = 2x
= 2x cos(x2)
Another way of writing the Chain Rule is: dydx = dydududx
Let's do the previous example again using that formula:
Differentiate each:
ddx sin(x2) = cos(u) (2x)
Example: What is
(1/sin(x)) ?
f(g) = 1/g
g(x) = sin(x)
f'(g) = 1/(g2)
g'(x) = cos(x)
So:
Example: What is
(5x2)3 ?
f(g) = g3
g(x) = 5x2
g'(x) = 5
So:
Approaching ...
Sometimes we can't work something out directly ... but we can see what it
should be as we get closer and closer!
Example:
(x2 1)(x 1)
Let's work it out for x=1:
(12 1)(1 1) = (1 1)(1 1) = 00
Now 0/0 is a difficulty! We don't really know the value of 0/0 (it is
"indeterminate"), so we need another way of answering this.
So instead of trying to work it out for x=1 let's try approaching it closer and
closer:
Example Continued:
x
(x2 1)(x 1)
0.5
1.50000
0.9
1.90000
0.99
1.99000
0.999
1.99900
0.9999
1.99990
0.99999
1.99999
...
...
We want to give the answer "2" but can't, so instead mathematicians say
exactly what is going on by using the special word "limit"
So it is a special way of saying, "ignoring what happens when we get there, but
as we get closer and closer the answer gets closer and closer to 2"
Example Continued
So, let's try from the other side:
(x2 1)(x 1)
1.5
2.50000
1.1
2.10000
1.01
2.01000
1.001
2.00100
1.0001
2.00010
1.00001
2.00001
...
...
But we can use the special "" or "+" signs (as shown) to define one sided
limits:
Example:
We know perfectly well that 10/2 = 5, but limits can still be used (if we want!)
Approaching Infinity
Infinity is a very special idea. We know we can't reach it,
but we can still try to work out the value of functions
that have infinity in them.
1x
1.00000
0.50000
0.25000
10
0.10000
100
0.01000
1,000
0.00100
10,000
0.00010
We want to give the answer "0" but can't, so instead mathematicians say
exactly what is going on by using the special word "limit"
In other words:
It is a mathematical way of saying "we are not talking about when x=, but we
know as x gets bigger, the answer gets closer and closer to 0"..
Solving!
We have been a little lazy so far, and just said that a limit equals some value
because it looked like it was going to.
That is not really good enough!
Limits to Infinity
Infinity is a very special idea. We know we can't reach it,
but we can still try to work out the value of functions
that have infinity in them.
1x
1.00000
0.50000
0.25000
10
0.10000
100
0.01000
1,000
0.00100
10,000
0.00010
We want to give the answer "0" but can't, so instead mathematicians say
exactly what is going on by using the special word "limit"
In other words:
It is a mathematical way of saying "we are not talking about when x=, but we
know as x gets bigger, the answer gets closer and closer to 0".
Summary
So, sometimes Infinity cannot be used directly, but we can use a limit.
What happens at
is undefined ...
1x
y = 2x
Obviously as "x" gets larger, so does "2x":
x
y=2x
10
20
100
200
...
...
So as "x" approaches infinity, then "2x" also approaches infinity. We write this:
In fact, when we look at the Degree of the function (the highest exponent in the
function) we can tell what is going to happen:
When the Degree of the function is:
But if the Degree is 0 or unknown then we need to work a bit harder to find a
limit.
Rational Functions
A Rational Function is one that is the ratio of two polynomials:
Following on from our idea of the Degree of the Equation, the first step to find
the limit is to ...
But this will head for negative infinity, because 2/5 is negative.
(1+ 1/n)n
At Infinity:
So instead of trying to work it out for infinity (because we can't get a sensible
answer), let's try larger and larger values of n:
(1 + 1/n)n
1
2.00000
2.25000
2.48832
10
2.59374
100
2.70481
1,000
2.71692
10,000
2.71815
100,000
2.71827
It is a mathematical way of saying "we are not talking about when n=, but we
know as n gets bigger, the answer gets closer and closer to the value of e".
Evaluating Limits
I have taken a gentle approach to limits so far, and shown tables and graphs to
illustrate the points.
But to "evaluate" (in other words calculate) the value of a limit can take a bit
more effort. Find out more at Evaluating Limits.
Limits (Evaluating)
You should read Limits (An Introduction) first
Example:
(x2 1)(x 1)
Let's work it out for x=1:
(12 1)(1 1) = (1 1)(1 1) = 00
Now 0/0 is a difficulty! We don't really know the value of 0/0 (it is
"indeterminate"), so we need another way of answering this.
So instead of trying to work it out for x=1 let's try approaching it closer and
closer:
Example Continued:
x
(x2 1)(x 1)
0.5
1.50000
0.9
1.90000
0.99
1.99000
0.999
1.99900
0.9999
1.99990
0.99999
1.99999
...
...
We want to give the answer "2" but can't, so instead mathematicians say
exactly what is going on by using the special word "limit"
So it is a special way of saying, "ignoring what happens when we get there, but
as we get closer and closer the answer gets closer and closer to 2"
Evaluating Limits
"Evaluating" means to find the value of (think e-"value"-ating)
In the example above we said the limit was 2 because it looked like it was
going to be. But that is not really good enough!
In fact there are many ways to get an accurate answer. Let's look at some:
Example
Substitute Value
Works?
(11)/(11) = 0/0
10/2 = 5
It didn't work with the first one (we knew that!), but the second example gave
us a quick and easy answer.
2. Factors
We can try factoring.
Example:
By factoring (x21) into (x1)(x+1) we get:
3. Conjugate
When it's a fraction, multiplying top and bottom by a conjugate might help.
The conjugate is where we change
the sign in the middle of 2 terms like this:
Done!
5. Formal Method
The formal method sets about proving that we can get as close as we want to
the answer by making "x" close to "a".
Approaching ...
Sometimes we can't work something out directly ... but we can see what it
should be as we get closer and closer!
Example:
(x2 1)(x 1)
Let's work it out for x=1:
(12 1)(1 1) = (1 1)(1 1) = 00
Now 0/0 is a difficulty! We don't really know the value of 0/0 (it is
"indeterminate"), so we need another way of answering this.
So instead of trying to work it out for x=1 let's try approaching it closer and
closer:
Example Continued:
x
(x2 1)(x 1)
0.5
1.50000
0.9
1.90000
0.99
1.99000
0.999
1.99900
0.9999
1.99990
0.99999
1.99999
...
...
We want to give the answer "2" but can't, so instead mathematicians say
exactly what is going on by using the special word "limit"
So it is a special way of saying, "ignoring what happens when we get there, but
as we get closer and closer the answer gets closer and closer to 2"
More Formal
But instead of saying a limit equals some value because it looked like it was
going to, we can have a more formal definition.
So let's start with the general idea.
When we call the Limit "L", and the value that x gets close to "a" we can say
Calculating "Close"
Now, what is a mathematical way of saying "close" ... could we subtract one
value from the other?
Example 1: 4.01 4 = 0.01
Example 2: 3.8 4 = 0.2
Hmmm ... negatively close? That doesn't work ... we really need to say "I
don't care about positive or negative, I just want to know how far" which is
the absolute value.
f(x) = (x21)(x1)
2015 MathsIsFun.com v0.77
"|f(x)L|<
when |xa|<
"
That actually says it! So if you understand that you understand limits ...
... but to be absolutely precise we need to add these conditions:
1)
2)
3)
x not equal to a means 0<|
xa|
exists, and is
>0
"for any
>0, there is a
when 0<|
"
That is the formal definition. It actually looks pretty scary, doesn't it!
But in essence it still says something simple: when x gets close to a then f(x)
gets close to L.
To:
|f(x)L|<
0<|xa|<
This usually means finding a formula for
(in terms of
So we want to know:
) that works.
How do we go from:
to
0<|x3|<
|(2x+4)10|<
Step 1: Play around till you find a formula that might work
Start with:
|(2x+4)10|<
Simplify:
|2x6|<
Move 2 outside:
2|x3|<
Move 2 across:
So we can now guess that
|x3|<
/2
/2 might work
to |(2x+4)10|<
... ?
0<|x3|<
0<|x3|<
Move 2 across:
0<2|x3|<
Move 2 inside:
0<|2x6|<
/2
0<|(2x+4)10|<
to |(2x+4)10|<
by choosing
DONE!
We have seen then that given
we can find a
, so it is true that:
"for any
, there is a
so that |f(x)L|<
when 0<|xa|<
"
Conclusion
That was a fairly simple proof, but it hopefully explains the strange "there is
a ... " wording, and it does show you a good way of approaching these kind of
proofs.