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2, MAY 2000
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AbstractA new electrical sector regulation is being implemented in different countries all over the world. The new
regulation stresses the role of competitive markets for the procurement and remuneration of ancillary services. Among these
services stand the ones associated with reactive power supply and
transmission network voltage control in order to maintain the
required system security levels.
The object of this paper is twofold. On one hand, reactive power
supply and voltage control services, which today are bundled, are
decomposed in two types: (i) voltage profile management and reactive dispatch and (ii) voltage regulation. A theoretical approach
based on marginal pricing is proposed in order to clarify the principles to remunerate the suppliers and to charge the consumers of
these services. On the other hand, a practical organization of reactive supply and voltage service markets is presented to be implemented in a competitive environment.
Index TermsAncillary services, voltage control, reactive power
pricing, spot pricing, competitive markets.
NOMENCLATURE
Active and reactive power at bus
Voltage at bus
Reactive spot price, and losses and security components, at bus
Cost function of device
System marginal active power price
Security component of the reactive spot price associated to constraint
Constraint
, and its level
I. INTRODUCTION
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485
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(4)
The security component can rise to high values, specially if
the reactive power constraints impose the dispatching of higher
cost generating units that those which would be needed otherwise.
AND
(8)
CAPACITY
Note that this formula can be used to establish a capacity payment in each bus of the system. For instance, during a given
period, six months or one year, the expected security component associated with reactive reserves in each system area of the
reactive power prices are computed, and capacity payments are
finally calculated as:
(10)
The amount of the remuneration is set by the losses reactive spot prices ($/MVAr-h) times the injected reactive
power. The spot prices are computed by using the internal losses curves declared by the reactive sources in
their long-term bids and the marginal price of the active
energy hourly market.
b) Remuneration for the regulating reactive power capacity,
which is paid to generators and other voltage control
equipment. The amount of the remuneration is associated
with the available reactive capacity (in MVAR), and the
control (time constant, integration in a secondary voltage
control, etc.). Local or regional capacity payments
should be calculated. To receive this capacity payment
a long-term obligation to provide the regulating service
should be agreed upon the supplier agents and the System
Operator.
c) The payments made by large customers and distribution
utilities shall be associated with their reactive energy
consumption times the corresponding losses reactive
spot prices. Additionally, bounds on the coso could be
established in order to charge an extra-payment associated to the security spot price if the power factor bounds
are not met. The customer agent could sign interruption
contracts with the System Operator in order to avoid
those extra-payments. Usually distribution utilities can
influence the required level of service by making contracts with embedded generators, by capacitor banks
switching, etc.
d) The difference between the total remuneration (a and b)
and the reactive energy payments made by large customers and distribution utilities (c) is the bundled part of
the service. This part could be dealt as a charge to all pool
participants proportional to the sold or bought active energy amount, or included as an uplift in the pool market
price.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
Two practical proposals have been made to organize the procurement, remuneration and charging of reactive and voltage
control services.
The first proposal deals with the organization of a reactive
energy market based on long-term bids associated with internal
losses of reactive control equipment for producing or absorbing
reactive energy. The system operator will perform periodically
optimal reactive dispatches minimizing operational costs related
to reactive generation bids plus network losses costs. Control
elements that produce or absorb reactive energy will be remunerated at the losses component of the reactive spot price in
their corresponding connection buses and reactive loads will be
charged at the losses component of the reactive spot price at their
connection buses. This settlement procedure will be performed
every hour according to the value of the energy market price as
a reference cost for losses.
The second proposal deals with the remuneration of voltage
regulation services concerning system security. A remuneration
based on a capacity payment which takes into account the available total regulating capacity in MVAr, its system allocation,
487
This quantity is equal, when taking into account the linearization round-off errors, to the one shown in Fig. 3. Note that the
488
TABLE I
APPENDIX B
total payments to the generators ($213.16) are less than the total
payment by the load ($285.3). This is related to the problem
of revenue adequacy (general issue in spot price remuneration
mechanisms), which is addressed in point of the proposed remuneration scheme.
To study the effects of the constraints, it is considered the case
when the reactive limit of generator 1 is precisely 104.99 MVAr,
that is the reactive power generation in the base case. The OPF
output is shown in Fig. 4. Note that, although the operating point
does not change, the bus 1 reactive spot price is increased to
2.033 $/MVAr-h. This is because generator 1 is not longer able
to supply any reactive power demand in bus 1. The increment of
the spot prices from those of Fig. 2 is the spot price component
related to the system constraints. So:
The purpose of this appendix is to discuss the cost of generating reactive power. This cost is mainly due to the active losses
in the generator and in the step up transformer caused by the
reactive power. These losses can be divided in Joule eddy, hysteresis and stray losses, and the losses of the excitation system
[12].
From the transmission network point of view the injected active and reactive power and the voltage in the high voltage bus
characterize the generation plant. The generator operator tries
to minimize the generation plant total losses while keeping the
above constraints. The net result is that, for a given injected active power, high side voltage and transformer tap, the generation
unit losses depends almost quadratically of the injected reactive power, with minimum losses for a slightly capacitive power
factor.
The Fig. 5 shows the losses curves for a typical generator
whose data are provided the Table I, for different values of the
injected reactive power, when the high voltage bus is assumed
to be constant at 400 kV.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help from Miss Laura
Gonzalez Ruiz de Valbuena and Mr. David Soler.
REFERENCES
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spot prices for transmission pricing. presented at Power Systems Computation Conference
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[11] M. Rivier, J. I. Prez-Arriaga, P. Snchez, A. Ramos, and T. Gmez.
An improved version of the model JUANAC: Applications to network
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Julin Barqun Gil received the Ingeniero Industrial Degree and the Doctor
Ingeniero Industrial Degree from the Universidad Pontificia Comillas, Madrid,
in 1988 and 1993 respectively; and the Licenciado en Ciencias Fsicas Degree
in 1994. He belongs to the research staff at the Instituto de Investigacin Tecnolgica. His present interests include control, operation and planning of power
systems.
Toms Gmez San Romn obtained the Degree of Doctor Ingeniero Industrial
from the Universidad Politcnica, Madrid, in 1989, and the Degree of Ingeniero
Industrial in Electrical Engineering from the Universidad Pontificia Comillas,
Madrid, in 1982. He is a research fellow and since 1994 Director of the Instituto
de Investigacin Tecnolgica. He has been involved in more than thirty research
projects with Spanish and European utilities. His areas of interest are planning
and operation of transmission and distribution systems, power quality and regulatory issues.
Juan Jos Alba Ros obtained the Degree of Doctor Ingeniero Industrial and
the Degree of Ingeniero Industrial from the Universidad Pontificia Comillas,
Madrid, in 1996 and 1986, respectively. He has been Researcher of the Instituto
de Investigacin Tecnolgica until September 1997. His areas of interest are
artificial intelligence, knowledge engineering, machine learning, planning and
search problems, applications to power system operation and other industrial
problems.
Pedro Snchez Martn obtained the Degree of Ingeniero Industrial from the
Universidad Pontificia Comillas in 1993. He is Research Assistant at the Instituto de Investigacin Tecnolgica. His areas of interest include the operation
and planning of power systems.