Journal of the Transportation Research Board

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD

NO.

1733

Transportation
Network Planning
Planning and Administration
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CONTENTS
Foreword

Genetic Algorithm for a Pickup and Delivery Problem with Time Windows
Soojung Jung and Ali Haghani

Optimal Fare Structure for Transit Networks with Elastic Demand

William H. K. Lam and Jing Zhou

Competition and Equilibria of Private Toll Roads in a Traffic Network

Hai Yang and Ka Kin Woo

Optimization Model for Large-Scale Bus Transit Scheduling Problems

Mohamadreza Banihashemi and Ali Haghani

Car Ownership Dynamics Seen Through the Follow-Up of Cohorts: Comparison of

France and the United Kingdom
Joyce M. Dargay, Jean-Loup Madre, and Akli Berri

Dynamic Traffic Assignment in Design and Evaluation of High-Occupancy Toll Lanes

Ahmed F. Abdelghany, Khaled F. Abdelghany, Hani S. Mahmassani, and Pamela M. Murray

Mixed Global and Local Assignment Algorithms for Quasi-Dynamic Local Truckload Trucking
Operations with Strict Time Windows
Amelia C. Regan, Sreeram Jagannathan, and Xiubin Wang

Calibration and Validation of a Dynamic Traffic Assignment Model

Rachel R. He and Bin Ran

Effect of Route Choice Models on Estimating Network Capacity Reliability

Anthony Chen, Maya Tatineni, Der-Horng Lee, and Hai Yang

Local Optimization Approaches to Solve Dynamic Commercial Fleet Management Problems

Hani S. Mahmassani, Yongjin Kim, and Patrick Jaillet

Congestion, Stochastic, and Similarity Effects in Stochastic User-Equilibrium Models

Joseph N. Prashker and Shlomo Bekhor

Probit-Based Sensitivity Analysis for General Traffic Networks

Stephen D. Clark and David P. Watling

Introducing Platoon Dispersion into an Analytical Dynamic Assignment Process

Michael S. Shin, Bin Ran, Rachel R. He, and Keechoo Choi

Simulating a Regularly Sampled Bus Location System

Sarosh I. Khan and Brian Hoeschen

Developing a Dynamic Traffic Management Modeling Framework for Hurricane Evacuation

Bridget Barrett, Bin Ran, and Rekha Pillai

Transportation Research Record 1733

ISSN 0361-1981
ISBN 0-309-06736-7
Subscriber Category
IA planning and administration
Printed in the United States of America
Sponsorship of Transportation Research Record 1733
GROUP 1TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
Michael S. Bronzini, George Mason University (Chairman)
Transportation Forecasting, Data, and Economics Section
Gordon A. Shunk, Texas Transportation Institute (Chairman)
Committee on Transportation Network Modeling
Bruce N. Janson, University of Colorado-Denver (Chairman), Michael G. H. Bell, David Bernstein, David E. Boyce,
Ennio Cascetta, Michael J. Cassidy, Ismail Chabini, Teodor Gabriel Crainic, Robert B. Dial, Michel Gendreau, Ali Haghani,
Mark D. Hickman, James E. Hicks, R. Jayakrishnan, Haris N. Koutsopoulos, Wei Hua Lin, Hong K. Lo, Hani S.
Mahmassani, Chryssi Malandraki, Mark R. McCord, Elise Miller-Hooks, Srinivas Peeta, Bin Ran, Yorgos J. Stephanedes,
Hsiao-Shen Jacob Tsao, Thanasis Ziliaskopoulos
Transportation Research Board Staff
James A. Scott, Transportation Planner
Freda R. Morgan, Administrative Assistant
The organizational units, officers, and members are as of December 31, 1999.

FOREWORD
The papers contained in this volume were among those presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board in January 2000. Nearly 1,600 papers were submitted by authors; more than 1,000 were presented at the meeting; and
approximately 600 were accepted for publication in the 2000 Transportation Research Record series. The published papers will
also be issued on CD-ROM, which will be available for purchase in late 2000. It should be noted that the preprint CD-ROM
distributed at the 2000 meeting contains unedited, draft versions of presented papers, whereas the papers published in the
2000 Records include author revisions made in response to review comments.
Starting with the 1999 volumes, the title of the Record series has included Journal of the Transportation Research Board to
reflect more accurately the nature of this publication series and the peer-review process conducted in the acceptance of papers
for publication. Each paper published in this volume was peer reviewed by members of the sponsoring committee listed on
page ii. Additional information about the Transportation Research Record series and the peer-review process can be found on
the inside front cover. The Transportation Research Board appreciates the interest shown by authors in offering their papers and
looks forward to future submissions.

Genetic Algorithm for a Pickup and

Delivery Problem with Time Windows
Soojung Jung and Ali Haghani
Department of Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-3021.

FULL
TEXT

A mathematical model for a multivehicle pickup and delivery problem with time windows is presented,
and a genetic algorithm (GA) for solving it is proposed. The mathematical model is formulated as a
mixed-integer linear programming problem. The objective of the proposed model is to minimize
the total cost, which consists of the fixed cost for the vehicles, the routing cost, and the customer
inconvenience cost, which is modeled as a penalty cost for violation of the time windows of each
customer. Like other combinatorial problems, solving this pickup and delivery problem is timeconsuming, and sometimes it is impossible to find an exact solution. The problem is solved exactly for
up to six demands (12 nodes), and GA is used for larger problems with more than six demands. The
proposed GA can solve a pickup and delivery problem in an extremely short time compared with the
exact solution procedure. It also produces excellent results for small problems. A GA used to solve a
30-demands problem (60 nodes) with 10 vehicles is illustrated.

Optimal Fare Structure for Transit

Networks with Elastic Demand
William H. K. Lam and Jing Zhou
W. H. K. Lam, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon,
Hong Kong, Peoples Republic of China. J. Zhou, School of Economics and Management, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096,
Peoples Republic of China.

FULL
TEXT

A bilevel model is presented to optimize the fare structure for transit networks with elastic demand
under the assumption of fixed transit service frequency. It is known that the transit fare structure has
significant effects on passengers demand and route choice behavior. The transit operator therefore
should predict passengers response to changing fare charges. A bilevel programming method is
developed to determine the optimal fare structure for the transit operator while taking passengers
response into account. The upper-level problem seeks to maximize the operators revenue, whereas the
lower-level problem is a stochastic user equilibrium transit assignment model with capacity constraints.
A heuristic solution algorithm based on sensitivity analysis is proposed. Finally, a numerical example is
given together with some useful discussion.

Competition and Equilibria of Private

Toll Roads in a Traffic Network
Hai Yang and Ka Kin Woo
Department of Civil Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong, China.

FULL
TEXT

The equilibria based on a situation in which two or more profit-maximizing private firms operate
multiple toll roads in a road network are examined. The profits are interrelated because of demand
interdependence in the network. A competitive game model is developed to analyze the strategic
interactions between the private toll road operators in determining their supply (road capacity) and
price (toll level) over the network. A simple but representative case of two competitive firms, each
providing a single toll road (corresponding to a single link) on the network, is considered in which the
two toll roads are either substitutable or complementary in terms of their demand interdependence.
A quasi-Newton method in conjunction with a sensitivity analysis method of equilibrium network flow
is used to determine the competitive game solutions subject to network equilibrium constraints.

Optimization Model for Large-Scale

Bus Transit Scheduling Problems
Mohamadreza Banihashemi and Ali Haghani
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742.

FULL
TEXT

A procedure is presented for solving real-world large-scale multiple depot vehicle scheduling (MDVS)
problems considering the route time constraints (RTCs). The procedure is applied to some test problems
and then to a real-world problem. The real-world problem is the transit bus scheduling problem of the
mass transit administration (MTA) in Baltimore, Maryland. The RTCs are added to the MDVS problem
to account for real-world operational restrictions such as fuel consumption. Formulation of the MDVS
problem, the set of constraints for considering the time restriction, and a heuristic procedure for solving
the MDVS problems with RTCs are discussed. Application of the proposed procedures in solving bus
scheduling problems in large cities requires a reduction in size of those problems in terms of number of
variables and constraints. Two techniques are proposed to decrease the size of the real-world problems.
Combining these techniques results in a strategy to reduce the MTA problem size into a manageable and
solvable size. The solutions to the reduced size problems are further improved by solving a series of single
depot vehicle scheduling problems for each of the MTA depots. The final results from the proposed model
are compared with the MTAs January 1998 schedule. The comparison indicates that the proposed model
improves on the MTA schedules in all aspects. The improvements are 7.90 percent in the number of
vehicles, 4.66 percent in the operational time, and 5.77 percent in the total cost.

Car Ownership Dynamics Seen

Through the Follow-Up of Cohorts
Comparison of France and the United Kingdom
Joyce M. Dargay, Jean-Loup Madre, and Akli Berri
J. M. Dargay, Economic and Social Research Council Transport Studies Unit, University College London, Gower Street, London
WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom. J.-L. Madre and A. Berri, Institut National de Rcherche sur les Transports et Leur Scurit,
Dpartement conomie et Sociologie des Transports, 2 Avenue du Gnral Malleret-Joinville, 94114 Arcueil Cedex, France.

FULL
TEXT

The dynamics of car ownership based on age-cohort data constructed from repeated cross-section
surveys is investigated for France and the United Kingdom, both nationally and for different
geographic areas. Two different modeling strategies are used: a demographic approach and a dynamic
econometric approach. The demographic approach is primarily oriented toward long-term forecasting.
It takes into account changes in car ownership over the life cycle for each generation, differences
between generations, and period effects explained by income and prices. The dynamic econometric
approach is mainly concerned with estimating the elasticity of car ownership with respect to income and
prices in the short and long run. It is based on a dynamic model in which household car ownership is
specified as a function of income, prices, sociodemographic factors, and previous car ownership. The
results using the two approaches are quite similar. The income elasticity is significantly higher in the
United Kingdom than in France, is higher in rural than in urban areas, and decreases over time as car
ownership increases. Generation gaps, which have been important between older generations, are not
significant for households whose head was born after the 1940s, which implies that the diffusion of car
ownership over generations is nearing completion. In addition, a declining income elasticity confirms a
progressive evolution toward saturation. Finally, car ownership is considerably more sensitive to car
purchase prices than to gasoline prices and both appear to be more significant in densely populated
zones than in rural areas.

Dynamic Traffic Assignment in Design and

Evaluation of High-Occupancy Toll Lanes
Ahmed F. Abdelghany, Khaled F. Abdelghany, Hani S. Mahmassani, and
Pamela M. Murray
Department of Civil Engineering, ECJ 6.2, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712.

FULL
TEXT

Application of a dynamic traffic assignment-simulation methodology to the analysis and evaluation of

network performance under various schemes for the design and operation of high-occupancy toll (HOT)
lanes is described. The DYNASMART traffic simulation-assignment model, which combines the ability
to simulate traffic flow and to represent dynamic route choice behavior, is used to model the problem.
Different dimensions for the design and operation of HOT lanes are considered in this study, including
(a) lane utilization in terms of adding a new lane or using an existing lane of the facility as a HOT lane;
(b) physical separation of the HOT lane in terms of access point frequency; (c) access restriction based
on vehicle occupancy; (d) HOT lane pricing structure, which may be fixed or congestion dependent;
and (e) different demand levels with different percentages of high-occupancy vehicles (HOV). A set of
experiments was designed to compare the performance of the HOT lanes and the total network under
these different operating characteristics. A network in Texas that represents the south central part of the
Fort Worth area is used in these experiments. The results were analyzed under each of these different
operating characteristics, yielding useful insights for the design and evaluation of HOT lanes.

Mixed Global and Local Assignment

Algorithms for Quasi-Dynamic Local
Truckload Trucking Operations with
Strict Time Windows
Amelia C. Regan, Sreeram Jagannathan, and Xiubin Wang
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Institute for Transportation Studies, University of California,
Irvine, CA 92697.

FULL
TEXT

Examined are the trade-offs associated with local and global, but myopic, assignment heuristics for local
truckload trucking operations such as those associated with drayage operations near intermodal
facilities. These operations involve a combination of loads that are known at the beginning of the day
and those that arrive dynamically throughout the day. Some of the dynamically arriving loads are
revenue-generating moves, and others are trailer, chassis, or container repositioning moves. Because a
significant fraction of the days loads are known a priori, dispatchers would like to be able to construct
schedules for the day and then to make minor changes to these schedules as the day progresses. The
efficiency of an operation in which new loads are added to or appended to schedules constructed at the
start of the day versus one in which the whole system is reoptimized several times during the day is
examined. The reoptimization method does not seek to preserve current schedules, but the local
optimization techniques do. Solutions were examined with a geographic information systembased
simulation model developed for this purpose.

Calibration and Validation of a

Dynamic Traffic Assignment Model
Rachel R. He and Bin Ran
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin at Madison, 2256 Engineering Hall,
1415 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706.

FULL
TEXT

A new approach is proposed to calibrate and validate the most critical components of a dynamic traffic
assignment (DTA) model: dynamic route choice and flow propagation. By presenting approximate joint
probability distribution functions of the temporal link traffic flows on a network, it is possible to derive
the likelihood functions for estimating dynamic route choice and actual flow propagation. This approach
also enables statistical tests to be performed for validation of DTA models. Both procedures are presented
with a small numerical example and a larger network. These examples also indicate that it is possible to
calibrate and validate a DTA model with detection errors and incomplete data, especially when real-time
traffic counts are available on only a few links in the network.

Effect of Route Choice Models on

Estimating Network Capacity Reliability
Anthony Chen, Maya Tatineni, Der-Horng Lee, and Hai Yang
A. Chen, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4110.
M. Tatineni, TranSmart Technologies, 948 West Bailey Road, Naperville, IL 60565. D.-H. Lee, Department of Civil
Engineering, National University of Singapore, BLK E1A 07-16, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576.
H. Yang, Department of Civil Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong,
Peoples Republic of China.

FULL
TEXT

The issue of planning for adequate capacity in transportation systems to accommodate growing traffic
demand is becoming a serious problem. Recent research has introduced capacity reliability as a new
network performance index. Capacity reliability is defined as the probability that a network can
accommodate a certain volume of traffic demand at a required service level given variable arc
capacities, while accounting for drivers route choice behavior. Previous papers on this topic provide a
comprehensive methodology for assessing capacity reliability along with extensive simulation results.
However, an important issue that remains is what type of route choice model should be used to model
driver behavior in estimating network capacity reliability. Three different route choice models
(one deterministic and two stochastic models) are compared, and the effect of using each of these
models on estimating network capacity reliability is examined.

Local Optimization Approaches to

Solve Dynamic Commercial Fleet
Management Problems
Hani S. Mahmassani, Yongjin Kim, and Patrick Jaillet
Department of Civil Engineering and Department of Management Science and Information Systems, The University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, TX 78712.

FULL
TEXT

Strategies are presented that a dispatcher may use to take advantage of real-time information to
manage a fleet of trucks to provide truckload pickup-and-delivery service under time windows for
service and computing time constraints. These strategies are hybrid in that they combine very efficient
dynamic local heuristic rules for quick initial assignment, with formal optimization-based procedures
for subsequent load reassignment decisions within the time requirements of the dynamic problem.
Simulation experiments were performed to test these strategies under alternative specifications and
parameter values. In the first stage, the acceptance decision and initial schedule of trucks were
determined so as to respond rapidly to incoming customer requests for service. Then, some time is
allowed to improve the schedule of trucks by swapping the assigned loads using local optimization at the
reassignment stage. Two strategies are described to control the computation time of the reassignment
optimization problem by controlling the problem size. The simulation results confirm the significant
potential for reassignment strategies under real-time information to improve system performance and
suggest that considerable improvement is attainable even under restricted problem formulations.

Congestion, Stochastic, and

Similarity Effects in Stochastic
User-Equilibrium Models
Joseph N. Prashker and Shlomo Bekhor
J. N. Prashker, Transportation Research Institute, TechnionIsrael Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.
S. Bekhor, Department of Civil Engineering, TechnionIsrael Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.

FULL
TEXT

Different effects in stochastic user-equilibrium formulations are compared. The starting point is the
logit assignment formulation for the stochastic user-equilibrium model. Recently, extended logit-based
models were developed as solutions of equivalent stochastic user-equilibrium problems. These extended
logit models are theoretically superior to the simple logit model, because they take into account the
similarity among routes. The similarity indexes were defined based on physical parameters of the
network, such as link lengths, and therefore did not depend on congestion. The assumption that
similarity coefficients are independent of congestion means that the similarity effect and the congestion
effect are treated separately. However, both similarity and congestion effects are taken into account in
the equilibrium formulations. Simple network examples are presented to illustrate the sensitivity of the
link flow pattern (and path flow pattern) to the three different effects in stochastic assignment models:
the congestion effect, the stochastic effect, and the similarity effect. The relative influence of those effects
on the flow patterns is discussed.

Probit-Based Sensitivity Analysis for

General Traffic Networks
Stephen D. Clark and David P. Watling
Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom.

FULL
TEXT

The probit-based stochastic user-equilibrium (SUE) model is widely recognized as one of the most
intuitively robust traffic network assignment techniques. Its advantages include explicit consideration
of random perceptual differences in utility across the driver population and the ability to take proper
account of the correlations in these utilities between overlapping routes, which the simpler logit SUE
is unable to do. Its main drawback is the potentially heavy computational demands of the method,
but various efficient approximation methods have been observed to provide reasonable solutions.
This computational complexity was previously, however, thought to preclude a consideration of the
sensitivity analysis of probit-based SUE, whereby an approximation to changes in the equilibrium
solution is deduced as its input parameters are perturbed. An efficient computational method for
performing such an analysis in general networks is described. A simple network example is described in
detail to illustrate the method, and it is followed by a larger network example that further demonstrates
the practical nature of the method.

Introducing Platoon Dispersion into an

Analytical Dynamic Assignment Process
Michael S. Shin, Bin Ran, Rachel R. He, and Keechoo Choi
M. S. Shin, B. Ran, and R. R. He, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin at Madison,
2256 Engineering Hall, 1415 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706. K. Choi, Department of Transportation Engineering,
Ajou University, 5 Woncheon Dong, Paldal Ku, Suwon 442-749, Korea.

FULL
TEXT

The platoon dispersion factor is integrated into an analytical dynamic traffic assignment (DTA) model.
The objective of integrating platoon dispersion with DTA is to improve the representation of flow
propagation in the DTA model and enforce the first in, first out constraints. A set of new linear
formulations for flow propagation that include explicit constraints on the movement of traffic in a
transportation network is presented. Based on the numerical examples, it can be demonstrated that
platoon dispersion is realized in an analytical DTA model by using the existing solution algorithm.

Simulating a Regularly Sampled

Bus Location System
Sarosh I. Khan and Brian Hoeschen
Colorado TransLab, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Colorado, Campus Box 113, Post Office Box 173364,
Denver, CO 80217-3364.

FULL
TEXT

Between 1967 and 1997, transit agencies in 20 cities installed automatic vehicle location (AVL) systems
to improve safety, efficiency, and quality of service. The bus AVL system typically provides a means of
tracking individual buses for fleet management. More recently, the AVL data have also been used to
develop algorithms to predict bus arrival time, estimate link travel time, and detect incidents. Other
traffic management and control applications are also being explored. Therefore, the availability of
a simulation capable of mimicking a bus location system that reports vehicle location at regular,
prespecified intervals is becoming increasingly important. CORSIM, an integrated freeway and surface
street traffic simulation model, also simulates buses on prespecified routes and stations for given dwell
time distributions and frequency of service. However, very little has been reported about CORSIMs
bus simulation module. CORSIMs bus route simulation module and its drawbacks are examined, and
the results of an effort to compare data collected from the Denver Regional Transportation District bus
AVL system and the microsimulator for a test network are presented. Bus location data from the
field and the simulation were collected at regular intervals under both recurring congestion and
nonrecurring congestion conditions. Linear referencing in a geographic information system was used
to extract bus location data for the test network from the AVL system, and external programs were
written to collect the same data from the microsimulator. Based on the bus location data, space mean
speeds were estimated and compared to evaluate the performance of the model. The results are
encouraging. However, several obstacles remain and they are discussed in detail.

Developing a Dynamic Traffic Management

Modeling Framework for
Hurricane Evacuation
Bridget Barrett, Bin Ran, and Rekha Pillai
B. Barrett and B. Ran, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin at Madison,
2256 Engineering Hall, 1425 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706. R. Pillai, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Center for Transportation Analysis, Post Office Box 2008, 4500N, MS-6207, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6207.

FULL
TEXT

Evacuation is becoming increasingly difficult as the population of hurricane-prone regions continues to

grow dramatically. In addition, development in coastal communities in the United States is expected
to continue to greatly outpace new construction and improvements to the highway infrastructure.
Consequently, there is a great need for hurricane evacuation models, which allow emergency response
personnel to develop effective evacuation plans and management strategies. The development of a
dynamic hurricane evacuation modeling framework is described, which can be used for long-term
and short-term planning purposes as well as for real-time operational purposes.