The Precambrian Period

During the Precambrian Period, from 4.6 billion to 540 million years ago, the Earths atmosphere
was much different it was mostly carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
A new life form evolved, called cyanobacteria.
Cyanobacteria have the ability to perform photosynthesis, absorbing carbon dioxide and
releasing oxygen.
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that surrounds the earth.
The bottom layer, the troposphere, contains the air we breathe and every aspect of what we call
weather.
Some of the infrared energy from the sun penetrates the atmosphere, warming the Earths surface.
The infrared energy is then re-radiated off the Earths surface, back towards space.
Some of that energy is kept at the surface by the troposphere.
Greenhouse Effect
The trapping of some of the infrared radiation within the atmosphere keeps the Earths daily
temperature fluctuations within a small, habitable range.
This is called the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse gases responsible for this effect include:
Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs)
Nitrous oxide
Methane
Carbon dioxide
Mars, a sister planet to the Earth, has a much thinner atmosphere and no significant greenhouse
effect.
A Martian summer daytime high near the equator may approach 70F.
At night, the same location would experience a low of -100F.
Cyanobacteria photosynthesisabsorbed a lot of carbon dioxide.
Oxygen released during the Precambrian period had the added effect of decreasing the
concentration of methane.
This event, called the oxygen catastrophe, led to one of the greatest and longest ice ages.
Ice Ages
An ice age is a period of time where the Earths overall surface temperature is lowered enough that
glaciers form at the poles and in mountainous areas.
The Earth has experienced at least 5 major ice ages.
Weather and Climate
Weather is whats happening now or over some short time periodthis hour, today, this weekin the atmosphere
near the ground: its temperature, pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, winds.
Proxies
Temperature data prior to the 19th century is the result of proxies, or indirect measurements.
Ice cores are drilled
into the glaciers in
Antarctica and
Greenland.
Dissolved bubbles
of atmosphere in
each layer are
analyzed.
The last glacial period on Earth ended about 10,000 years ago.
This coincides with the beginnings of plant and animal agriculture.

Climate is the average weather and usually refers to average weather conditions over long periods, at least seasons,
but more often years or decades. When we say its hot and humid in New York today or raining in Seattle, we are
speaking of weather. When we say Los Angeles has cool, wet winters and warm, dry
Since climates are characteristic of certain latitudes (and other factors that we will discuss later), they are classified
mainly by
latitudetropical, subtropical,
midlatitudinal (continental),
sub-Arctic (continental),
and Arctic
but also by
wetness/dryness, such as humid continental,
Mediterranean, monsoon, desert,
and tropical wetdry
Weather?
Weather is what is going on in the atmosphere at a particular place at a particular time.
Weather may be cold or hot, or wet or dry, and it changes rapidly. A warm sunny day may rapidly turn into
a cold and stormy one, making you wish you had brought your jacket.
Factors that affect weather and climate
1. temperature,
2. the wind,
3. the air moisture,
4. the cloudiness and rain
5. and the atmospheric pressure.

CHAOTIC THEORY is a field of study in mathematics, with applications in several disciplines

including meteorology, physics, engineering,economics, biology, and philosophy. Chaos theory studies
the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditionsan effect which is
popularly referred to as the butterfly effect.
classified as chaotic, it must have the following properties: [9]
1

it must be sensitive to initial conditions;

it must be topologically mixing; and

its periodic orbits must be dense.

Does

Does

Not Mean:
Cloned Dinosaurs will run amok
Systems do not follow physical laws
Systems behave with wild unpredictability
Systems do not have limits
Phenomena cannot be predicted
Mean:
Small differences compound over time
There are limits to how accurately phenomena can be predicted

Examples:
Weather
The Planets
Traffic

Climate Change began CHANGING UP AND DOWN around 550 million years ago. Relatively ice-free periods
(interglacial periods) over much of the planet; times of low temperature involve glacial events.
Milankovitch cycles that may affect long-term climate conditions: (a) changes in the eccentricity of the earths
orbit, (b) shifting tilt of the axis, and (c) wobble of the earth.
Anthropogenic (human-caused) global climate change to be the most important environmental issue of our times.
The possibility that humans might alter world climate is not a new idea. In 1859 John Tyndall measured the infrared
absorption of various gases and described the greenhouse effect. In 1895, Svante Arrhenius, who subsequently
received a Nobel Prize for his work in chemistry, predicted that CO2 The first evidence that human activities are
increasing atmospheric CO2came from an observatory on top of the Mauna Loa volcano in Hawaii. The observatory
was established in 1957 as part of an International Geophysical Year, and was intended to provide data on air
chemistry in a remote, pristine environment. Surprisingly, measurements showed CO2 levels increasing about 0.5
percent per year. Levels have risen from 315 ppm in 1958 to 388 ppm in 2009 ( fig. 9.11 ). Note that this increase is
shown in the graph as a jagged line. The line fluctuates because a majority of the worlds land and vegetation are in
the Northern Hemisphere. Every May a surge of plant growth extracts CO2 from the atmosphere. Then, during the
northern winter, levels rise again as respiration releases CO2. released by coal burning could cause global warming.

Climate change over the last 18,000 years, during the last major time of continental glaciations, has greatly
affected people.
Continental glaciation ended about 12,500 years ago with a rapid warming (100 years duration process)
This was followed by a global cooling about 11,00013,000 years ago known as the Younger Diyas that
occurred suddenly as Earth was warming
Followed Medieval Warm Period, and then by the Little Ice Age
A warming trend began around 1850 and lasted until the 1940s.
1950-1960 temperature drops.
1880 to 2012 Past 10 Decades global warming is constant (0.83oC or 1.53 OF)
Past 3 decades (30 years 1983-20012 warmest)
1.1 to 2.9 21st century (January 1, 2001, and will end on December 31, 2100 Anno Domini or Common Era)

Tracking Global Climate Change

In 1958, measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were directly sampled at an observatory in
Mauna Loa, Hawaii.
Hawaii was chosen
to avoid the
influences of large
forests or cities.
Carbon dioxide levels fluctuate within each year, depending on the season of the Northern Hemisphere.
Slightly higher CO2 in the winter.
Slightly lower CO2 in the summer.
Overall trend shows a steady increase.

 Both land and ocean surface temperatures have increased since the industrial revolution.
0.76C increase in air temperature since 1850.
Current rate of 0.13C per decade.
Sea ice is frozen seawater that floats on the oceans surface.
The Arctic reaches its minimum sea ice extent each September, at the end of summer.
September Arctic sea ice extent is declining at a rate of 11.5% per decade.
Land ice includes glaciers,
ice sheets, ice caps, and permafrost.
Currently losing 24 cubic
miles of ice per year in
Antarctica.
Sea level worldwide is increasing, primarily due to two factors.
Inflow of water from melting land ice.
Thermal expansion, or the increase in volume of water as it warms.
Impacts of Climate Change
The increase in surface temperature has altered growing seasons.
In 2012, the USDA released a new plant hardiness zone map with significant differences from the
1990 version.
Warmer temperatures have increased the range of many pest insects.
Mosquitoes that spread diseases like malaria and West Nile Virus have expanded ranges.
Pine bark beetles
have begun infesting
boreal forests east of
the Rocky Mountains.
Historically, these
forests would have
been too cold and
out of their range.
Hurricanes
No significant link has been found between global warming and hurricane frequency.
It is likely that hurricanes will increase in intensity by 2-11% by the end of the 21st century.
Great Ocean Conveyor
The Great Ocean Conveyor Belt is an underwater current fueled by the mixing of warm and cold salt water.
An influx of cold freshwater from melting land ice could disrupt this flow.
The Arctic
According to the IPCC 2013 report,
Warming in the Arctic, as indicated by daily maximum and minimum temperatures, has been as great as in any
other part of the world.
In 2007, the September minimum extent of sea ice was low enough to open up the Northwest Passage.
The Arctic will likely experience an ice-free summer sometime this century.

 One of the reasons why the Arctic is heating so much faster is the difference in albedo between
snow and ocean water.
Albedo is a measurement of how reflective a surface is.
Ocean water has a much lower albedo,so more heat is absorbed as the ice melts.
Temperate Glaciers
Only about 1% of the worlds land ice is located in temperate, or non-polar regions.
Mostly within mountain ranges.

These glaciers serve as runoff water sources for many of the worlds largest rivers
Effects on the Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle describes the movement of water through evaporation, precipitation, runoff, and
infiltration.
More heat in the atmosphere leads to
A higher rate of evaporation (from land and sea both).
A greater capacity of the atmosphere for holding moisture.
The combination of increased evaporation and atmospheric moisture content has the paradoxical
effect of increasing the rate of both drought and flooding events.
Sea Level Rise
As the ocean level rises, it will impact coastal cities.
Half of the surrounding area of Miami, for example, is only 5 feet above sea level.
The Origin of the Global Warming Issue
That burning fossil fuels might enhance the levels of greenhouse gases.
1

Greenhouse Effect Greenhouse effect is the process in which the atmosphere of the Earth trap some of the
heat coming from the sun, making the Earth warm but due to burning fuels, cutting trees, the concentration
of heat on Earth is increased to abnormal levels making greenhouse effect as one of the major causes of
global warming. Carbon Dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide.

Air Pollution The harmful gases emitted from the vehicles and factories and the greenhouse gases cause
pollution in the air and these gases get captured in the atmosphere. The smoke, gather up in the atmosphere
forming clouds full of harmful gases which later on fall as acid rain which destroys the buildings and also
lead to many dangerous diseases like cancer, skin burns and the death of plants.

Depletion of Ozone Layer The ozone layer is the layer outside atmosphere which protects the surface of
the Earth from the harmful Ultra-violet and infrared radiations causing dangerous diseases like skin cancer.
Ozone layer depletion is also one of the causes of global warming; entering of harmful gases which helps in
heating up the Earth but the other greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, that helps in heating up
and also tears up the ozone layer making an Ozone Hole. Mostly the CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) damages
the ozone layer.

Volcanic Eruptions Volcanic eruptions is also one of the major reason of global warming. These eruptions
contain dust particles and gases like sulphur dioxide which stay in the atmosphere for years and block the
sunlight from reaching the surface of the Earth making it cool.

Melting of the Glaciers Melting of the glaciers is a natural phenomena. Large mountains of ice melt due to
warmer temperature of the Earth so that new ice can accumulate

Deforestation Plants give us oxygen which is the most important thing for our survival. They undergo a
process of photosynthesis in which they give out oxygen and take carbon dioxide.

Industrial Advancement More and more industries and factories are set up in this modern world to meet
the needs of human beings. These big factories need large amount of fuels like coal, petroleum for power

and electricity required by the machines to work. Burning of these fuels releases large amount of carbon
dioxide which absorbs the harmful radiations from the sun making it warm, hence global warming.
8

Use of Chemical Fertilizers The use of artificial chemicals for the crops has become one of the reason for
global warming.These chemicals are very dangerous not only for Earth but also for human beings
too. These fertilizers are rich in nitrogen oxide which is even more dangerous than carbon dioxide. These
oxides of nitrogen destroys the ozone layer even more faster than any other greenhouse gas and hence let
the harmful ultraviolet rays enter the atmosphere, making the Earth warm and leading to global warming.

Burning of Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels are burnt on a day-to-day basis and they contain high percentage of
carbon, coal and petroleum and many other gases. So burning of these fuels releases large amount of extra
carbon which has been entombed inside the Earth millions of years ago.

10 Human Activities nd malls, the dumping of trash everywhere and not recycling it, excessive use of
plastics, smoke from the factories, etcetra.
Solutions
In the long-term, the least expensive solutions involve the prevention of greenhouse gas emissions.
Decreasing fossil fuel consumption.
Improve energy efficiency.
Reduce deforestation.
Reduce agricultural practices known to release greenhouse gases.
Both animal and plant agriculture have major impacts on global warming.
Deforestation leads to carbon dioxide release.
Flooding of rice fields leads to methane production and release by bacteria.
Cattle release large amounts of methane through their digestive processes.
35-40% of total global methane release!
Nitrous oxide is released by fertilizer application.
Carbon sequestration is the removal and storing of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Sequestration can be accomplished biologically, through the use of living organisms.
Iron fertilization of the ocean, which would encourage algae growth.
Restoring bogs,forest, and wetlands can store carbon.
Carbon capture and storage is the process of capturing carbon dioxide produced from large point sources,
such as coal-burning power plants and depositing it underground.
This significantly increases the cost of electricity.
Geoengineering
Geoengineering is the study of intentionally and artificially changing natural processes of the Earth.
One idea is to combat warming by blocking some of the sunlight entering the Earths atmosphere.
Inject sulfur dioxide
or particulate pollutants
into the stratosphere.

This would block out just enough sunlight to bring global temperatures down to acceptable ranges