ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY ASSIGNMENT ON
AGGREGATE LAB TEST
NAME OF GROUP :
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

HAYLEAB TESFAYE
LAKEW MENGISTU
DEREJE KUMA
KEMAL A/KADIR
DEREJE SEMAN
ALEMAYEHU
AYICHEW

CDE 0092/05
CDE 0102/05
CDE
CDE
CDE
CDE
CDE

SUBMITTED TO:- Instructor Saimon

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, we wish to express our heartiest gratitude and appreciation to our lecturer, Mr.
Saimon for his precious time, patience, guidance, motivation and advice on carrying out all the
laboratory tests. Without him, this project would not turn out to be successful one.
Special thanks also to our classmates for their kindness and co-operation, contributions
throughout this study and help us while doing this project to make it successful.

Thank You

Physical Properties of asphalt and Aggregate

A Aggregate Tests
The term Aggregate refers to granular mineral particles that are widely used for highway
bases, subbases, and backfill. Aggregates are also used in combination with a cementing material
to form concretes for bases, subbases, wearing surfaces, and drainage structures. Sources of
aggregates include natural deposits of sand and gravel, pulverized concrete and asphalt
pavements, crushed stone and blast furnace slag. The Aggregates Test is carrying out to know the
properties of aggregates and the suitable of the aggregates used in highway construction. The
aggregate tests that carry out in this lab are as below:
1.0 Gradation Analysis HMA Gradation Envelop

1.1 Introduction
Aggregate is the main property of the performance of the pavement layers. The gradation
of aggregate is the blend of particle size of the mix that affects the density, strength and economy
of the pavement structure. There is various size of sieve to design the proportion in a mineral
aggregate mix.

1.2 Objective
Aggregate grading is carried out to determine the proportion of aggregate required from each
stockpile to fit into the given specification.

1.3 Apparatus
Sieves ( 20 mm, 14mm, 10mm, 5mm, 3.35mm, 1.18mm, 0.425mm, 0.15, 0.075mm)
Sieve Shaker
Balance machine

1.4 Procedure
1. Approximately 5 kg aggregate from each stockpile are sieved in the specified sieve size.
2. After allocating the aggregate in the sieve, then the mechanical sieve shaker is used to sieve
it.
3. The percent passing the sieve aggregate through the selective size are determined by taking
the weight retained on each individual sieves over the original weight of the aggregate.
4. The passing percent then is plotted on a 0.45 power gradation chart.
5. In highway projects, the material that gain the no.4 sieve is called the coarse aggregate
meanwhile the material that passes the no.4 sieve but retained in the no.200 sieve is known as
the fine aggregate.

1.5 Result
Specification
Sieve

Weight

size

retain

Passing
Weight (g)

(mm)
(g)
20.000
0
14.000
150
10.000
102
5.000
204
3.350
102
1.180
192
0.425
168
0.150
144
0.075
84
Pan
54
Total
1200
Example Calculations

0
1050
948
744
642
450
282
138
54
0

Percent

Percent

retained

passing

LL (%)

UL (%)

(%)
0
12.5
8.5
17
8.5
16
14
12
4.5
7
100

(%)
100
87.5
79
62
53.5
37.5
23.5
11.5
7

100
80
68
52
45
30
17
7
4

100
95
90
72
62
45
30
16
10

The percent retained and passing on sieve size 14 mm is calculated as below:

Percent retained (%) =
=

Weight retained on the particular sieve

x 100
Total weight

150
x 100
1200

= 12.5 %
4

Percent passing (%) = [Percent passing the sieve size higher than the particular sieve]
[Percent retained on the particular sieve}
= 100 % 12.5 %
= 87.5 %

1.6 Discussion
From the result above, we have found that the percentage retained is 12.5 % while the
percentage passing is 87.5 %. Generally, we find that the percentage passing the bigger sieves
such as the 10mm sizes and above are higher while the percentage passing the small sieves is
lower. This gradation of aggregates is very important for the pavement structure because it
affects the density and strength. For the aggregate material that is retained on a No. 4 sieve (for
particles larger than 2 mm) is known as coarse aggregate. Materials that passes the No.4 sieve
but is retained on a No. 200 sieve ( particles larger than 0.075 mm) is known as fine aggregates
while the materials that passes a No. 200 sieve is referred as fines. The grain size analysis data
are usually plotted on an aggregate grading chart to aid engineers to determine a preferred
aggregate gradation and require the gradation of aggregates used for highway projects to
conform to the limits of a specification band. From what we can see from the results, the results
conform to the specification band as set by AASHTO.

1.7 Conclusion
In conclusion, we can know that the result conform to the AASHTO specifications and
therefore is suitable for usage in pavement design. The gradation analysis is very important to
analyze the correct gradation mix so that it can provide adequate density and strength for the
usage on the road pavement design.

2.0 Los Angeles Abrasion Test

2.1 Introduction
The test is done in accordance with ASTM C131.The Los Angeles test is a measure of
degradation of mineral aggregates of standard grading resulting from a combination of action
including abrasion and grinding in a rotating steel drum containing a specified number of steel
spheres. The number steel charges depend upon he amount and grading of the test sample. As the
drum rotates s self plates picks up the sample and the steel spheres, carrying them until they are
dropped to the opposite site of the drum creating an impact-crushing effect. The content s the roll
within the drum with an abrading and grinding action until the self plate impacts and the cycle is
repeated. After the prescribe number of revolutions, the contents are removed from the drum and
the aggregate portion is sieved to measure the degradation as percent loss.

2.2 Objective
The objective of this test is to ascertain the degradation of aggregates by abrasion and impact.

2.3 Apparatus
Los Angeles abrasion machine
Sieve (19mm, 12.5mm, 1.7mm and pan)
Sieve Shaker
Balance machine

2.4 Procedure
1. The sample is washed and dried and later the weight is obtained.
2. The sample is place in LA Abrasion machine.
3. Eleven steel balls are added in the machine.
4. The drum is rotated for about 500 revolutions at 30-33rpm.
5. After being rotated, the sample is removed from the drum and is sieved on no. 12 sieve. Later
the sample that is retained on the sieve on dried at the temperature of 105 to 110C.The
weight of the sample is takes after the sample is cooling down.

2.5 Result
Aggregate size

Weight of sample

Weight of sample

(mm)
19 12.5
12.5 9.5

(g) before
2500
2500

(g) after
3850

Loss (g)

1150

Weight loss = (Weight of sample before abrasion) (Weight of sample after abrasion)
= 5000 3850
= 1150 g
Weight loss

Percent loss = Total Weight of sample x 100

=

1150
x 100
5000

= 23 %
This result is fulfilling the JKR requirement of 30% and it is suitable to be used for road works.

2.6 Discussion
From this experiment, the abrasion value for aggregates have been tested and determined.
This value is given by the percent of wearing or percent loss for the aggregates. The abrasion
value is important since it gives the measurement of hardness for aggregates that are going to be
used in highway projects. Furthermore it also used to determine the quality of the aggregates
itself. In order to ensure that the aggregates play its role effectively, the aggregates must possess
sufficient strength to retain load acting by heavy machinery such as roller during construction
project and also to retain traffic loading once the roads is complete. These aggregates should not
crush, degrade and disintegrate when subjected to this loading. Aggregates that lack adequate
toughness and abrasion resistance also may cause construction and performance problems.
Degradation occurring during production can affect the overall gradation and, thus, widen the
gap between properties of the laboratory-designed mix and the field-produced mix. The change
in the L.A. Abrasion value can be brought about by changing the specific surface of the
aggregate sample, i.e., the more equal dimensional or cubical the aggregate sample starts off, the
more abrasion resistant the aggregate will seem. Theoretically, the lower the abrasion value, the
more abrasion resistant for the aggregate is. The soft aggregates will be quickly ground to dust,
whilst the hard aggregates are quite resistant to crushing affects.
The value of percent loss calculated is 23 %.This value represented the abrasion resistant
for the given aggregates sample. There are several steps of precautions that need to be
considering during the test in order to minimize errors and to get more desirable results as stated
below:
1. Make sure that the aggregates sample is washed and dried properly (not interrupted)
2. Make sure that the aggregates are sieve accordingly follow the specification. (change in
size will change the properties of aggregates itself and at the same time effect the
performance)
3. Make sure there is no human error when handling the test (i.e. measure weight) or try to
minimize it by taking several readings.
4. Make sure that the sample is dried under the temperature of 105C to 110C after it is
removed from drum. (change in temperature will affect the cooling process and also the
sample weight)

2.7 Conclusion
From the test that had been done, we can say here that it had achieved the main objectives
that is to determine the degradation of aggregates by abrasion and impact. The percent loss
calculated is 23% and this value measure the abrasion resistant for the aggregates sample tested.
This value can be acceptable since it lies within the JKR requirements for L.A Abrasion Test that
is below 30%. The value obtained indicated that this sample can sustain or resist the possible
abrasion and impact before or during the service period of road and it is suitable to be used for
road work irrespective of other standard test of aggregates. More precise value can be obtained if
we consider the precaution steps that have been discussed.

10

3.0 PSV and Skid resistance

3.1 Introduction
The Polished Stone Value (BS 812: Part 11V) gives a measure of resistance of road stone to
the polishing action of the pneumatic tire. Under conditions similar to those occurring on the
surface of the road where the surface of the roads consists largely of road stone, the state of
polish of the sample will be one of the major factors affecting the resistance of the surface to
skidding. The actual relationship between Polished-Stone Value and skidding resistance will vary
with the traffic condition, type of surfacing and others factors. All factors, together with the
reproducibility of the test, should be taken into account when drawing up specifications for
roadworks, which include test limit for Polished Stone Value.

3.2 Objective
To measure the extent of aggregates in wearing course that would be polished under the traffic
flow.

3.3 Apparatus

An accelerated polishing machine, which shall be rigidly mounted on a firm, level, and
resilient base of concrete.

Metal moulds for preparation of specimens

Friction test

British Standard Sieve

Material consisting of no.36 corn emery and air-floated emery flour.

3.4 Procedure
1. Specimens are prepared as shown in the standard and the particle use shall pass the 9.52 mm
and be retained on the 7.94 mm British Standard Sieve.
2. Specimens are polished using the polishing machine. Temperature should be within 27
degree Celsius during the polishing period.
3. Water and no.36 corn emery are fed continuously on the road wheel within the period of 3
hours. Then the machine and the specimens are washed to remove the trace of the corn
emery.
11

4. Step 2 is repeated with the air floated emery flour replacing No.36 corn emery but the rate of
feed of water must be twice that of emery flour.
5. The specimens are store facing downwards under water at temperature of 25 degree Celsius
for duration of to 2 hours.
6. Later the specimens are removed from the water and tested on the friction tester.
7. Before the friction is done, the specimens and the rubber slider must be wetted. After doing
this the pendulum is released from its original position and the reading is taken from the
pointer.

3.5 Result
Specimen
No.
1
2
3
4

PSV
1

52
51
50
52

52
51
50
52

51
50
50
51

51
50
49
51

50
50
49
51

Mean

Control
Specimen
No.
1
2

Mean
51.2
50.4
49.6
51.4
50.65

PSV
1

52
52

52
52

52
52

52
51

52
51

Mean

Mean
52
51.6
51.8

Calculation
PSV = S + 52.5 C
= 50.65 + 52.5 51.8
= 51.35
12

3.6 Discussion
From the test that had been conducted, a value that gives a measure of resistance between
the road stone and the polishing action by tire is determined. This value is usually referred as the
polishing stone value (PSV). One of the most major problems in the road traffic safety is
skidding. The skidding resistance is mainly depends on friction force between tires and the road
surface and the main material that contributed in providing the resistance is the aggregates itself.
Due to this, the main requirement in selecting the aggregates material for road works is that it
can provide a certain level of friction when having contact with the tire to ensure there is no
skidding problem that may lead to an accident. This test can be assumed to represent the actual
interaction between tires and the road surface. In this test, four specimens are made from each
test sample, and are split into pairs and polished on two separate polishing runs. This is done in
order to improve the reproducibility and repeatability of the test. The results are carefully
checked for consistency and are only accepted if set test criteria are met. The higher the test
result, the more polish (or skid) resistant the aggregate is. When the value is too small (<20), it
indicated that the particular aggregate had no resistance to skidding. When designing a road, the
road engineer specifies the minimum PSV value that the aggregate used in the surface course has
to have. This minimum value required depends on the volume and type of traffic using.
The PSV value also depends on the natural types of rocks itself. PSV values of naturally
occurring rocks have been studied on a number of occasions. It has been found as a general rule
that rock types consisting of a variety of mineral grains of different hardness or size, or of harder
grains in a softer cementing matrix, give higher PSV values than rocks composed of uniform
grains of uniform hardness in a similarly hard matrix. The most polish resistant naturally
occurring rock type is grit stone. Flint, a hard siliceous rock, limestone (excepting an occasional
gritty type) and granite tend to have low PSV values and polish too quickly to be used in surface
courses. Basalts and dolerites tend to fall between the low PSV rock types and the grit stones.
The value of PSV calculated for the given aggregates sample tested is 51.35. From the
observation, we can listed down here several step of precautions that needs to be consider when
the test is done in order to achieve a desirable results and to minimize errors. The steps are as
below:

13

1.

Make sure that the sample is polish in polishing machine is done under control temperature
of 27C (increased of temperature lead to the decrease of polishing value due to effect on
rubber resilience used for portable skid resistance)

2.

Make sure that the sample is sieve accordingly.

3.

Make sure no human error when handling the test (take several readings)

3.7 Conclusion
The test done on the aggregates sample had achieved it main objectives that is to measure
the extent of aggregates in wearing course that would be polished under the traffic flow. The
PSV value for the tested sample is 51.35. This value can be acceptable since it meet the JKR
requirements for PSV Test that is over 40. This value indicated that the aggregates sample tested
is suitable in providing adequate resistance of potential skidding that might occur during the
service period of road and it is suitable to be used for road work irrespective of other standard
test of aggregates. More precise value can be obtained if we consider the precaution steps that
have been discussed.

14

4.0 Specific Gravity Test

4.1 Introduction
The specific gravity is important properties that are required for the design of concrete
and bituminous. The specific gravity of aggregate is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal
volume of distilled water at the specified temperature. This test is carried out to determine the
specific gravity of aggregate from different source and type. It also helps to get the absorption
value.

4.2 Objective
The test is to determine the specific gravity of aggregate.

4.3 Apparatus
A balance to permit the basket containing the sample to be suspended from the beam and
weighed in water.
A well-ventilated oven.
A wire basket or perforated container.
A stout, watertight container in which the basket may be suspended.
Cloth.
A shallow tray
An airtight container

4.4 Procedure
1. The sample of 1 kg aggregate is thoroughly washed, drained and the placed in the wire
basket and immersed in distilled water.
2. Then, the entrapped air is removed from the sample by lifting the basket containing it 25
mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop 25 times. The basket and aggregate
remain completely immersed during this operation for a period of 24 hours afterwards.
3. The basket and sample are then jolted again and the weighed in water.

15

4. The basket and aggregate are removed from the water and emptied from the basket on to
the dry cloths.
5. The aggregate placed on the dry cloth shall be gently surface dried with the cloths. The
aggregate then weighed.
6. The aggregate is then placed in the oven in the shallow tray at a temperature of 105C
5C and maintained at this temperature for 24 hours.
7. Then it will be removed from the oven, cooled in the airtight container, and weighed.

4.5 Result
Weight of

Weight of

Saturated

Dried

sample in air

sample in

weight (g)

weight

(g)
1000

water (g)
596.6

1005

990

Absorption

Absorption

Specific
gravity

0.5

saturated weight of sample Weight of sample in air

Weight of sample in air

1005 1000
x 100
1000

2.45

x 100

= 0.5%
Weight of sample in air

Specific gravity = Saturated weight of sample weight of sample in water

=

1000
1005 596.6

= 2.45%

16

4.6 Discussion
From the test that had been done, the specific gravity for the aggregates sample is
determined. This test also is follow with the absorption test in determine the absorption value for
the sample. Absorption for aggregates is important since it influence the performance of
aggregates due to the drying process. Aggregates with high absorption value will influence the
effectiveness of dry equipment to dry the aggregates before bring into mixing with asphalt.
Difficulties in extracting the water from aggregates will produce mix that easily fails due to the
attack of water. The balance of water left inside the mix will soon cause the aggregates to loose
inter particle bonding and spill out easily. It can be stated here that the greater the water
absorption percentage, the more likely that an aggregates will have from susceptibility problems
in cold climes (rainy day).
Because the aggregates for road pavement usually measure by its weight, then the specific
gravity is the important factor in determining the desirable mix need. Gradation specification
only authentic if the part of course and fine aggregates having the specific gravity nearly the
same. If the specific gravity for the fine part higher than the course part, then it resulted to mix
that having not enough of fine aggregates. In opposite, if the specific gravity for course part is
higher than the fine part, then the mix produced will consists too much of fine aggregates.
The absorption value calculated in terms of percentage for the aggregates sample that had
been tested is 0.5%.Specific gravity for the sample is 2.45%. There are several steps of
precautions that need to be considered when the test is done. If one of these steps is neglected, it
may cause variation when the results obtained. The steps are as below:
1. Make sure that the aggregates sample is wash thoroughly to remove possible existing
impurities material from the aggregates that might effects the performance later.
2. Make sure that the sample is completely immersed in the water for about 24 hour before
weight is taken.
3. Make sure that the sample is gently surface-dried before weight is taken to fulfill fully
saturated surface dry condition.
4. Make sure that the entrapped air is removes completely after immersion. The presence of
air will not allowing the water to absorb through aggregates and effects the weight taken.

17

5. Make sure there is no human error occurs. The error can be reduced by taking several
readings during test and find the average.

4.7 Conclusion
This test achieved its main objective that is to determine the specific gravity of aggregates
from different source and type and also helps to get the absorption value. Specific gravity for
sample tested is 2.45% with absorption of 0.5%. This value is consider small and can be
acceptable. From the results obtained, we conclude that these aggregates are suitable for
roadwork irrespective the other standards of tests required. This is because the low absorption
value for the sample indicate that the aggregates itself provide good resistance of failure due to
the possible attack of water before and during the service of the road. More accurate values can
be obtained if we consider the precautions steps that have been discussed.

18

5.0 Flakiness and Elongation Test

Introduction
The type of rocks and type of crushing machine highly determine the shape and size of the
aggregates produced. Elongated and flaky stones are normally not very suitable for roadworks
since the shape and the make them difficult to compact. As such the flakiness and elongation test
mush be carried out to determine the suitability of the material.
5.1 Flakiness Index Test

5.1.1Objective
This test is to determine the suitability of the material.

5.1.2 Apparatus
Sieve (50mm, 37.5mm, 25mm, 20mm and pan)
Sieve Shaker
Balance machine
A metal gauge plate.

5.1.3 Procedures
1. Three samples of aggregates weighing 2.5kg each is prepared: Tte aggregates of the first
sample passing 50mm BS sieve and retained on 37.5 mm BS sieve, those of the second
sample passing 37.5 mm BS sieve and retained on the 20 mm BS sieve.
2. Each sample is gauged in turn of thickness on the metal gauge.
3. Finally, weighed the passing material of each sample.

19

5.1.4 Result
Passing sieve

Retained sieve

(mm)
50
37.5
25
Average

(mm)
37.5
25
20

Sample (Nos)

Passing (Nos)

Flakiness

0
11
12

index (%)
0
11.58
8.22

0
95
146
6.6 %

Example calculation
The flakiness index of aggregate passing sieve size 37.5mm and retained on sieve size 25mm
was calculated as follows:
Flakiness index (%) =
=

Number of aggreate pas sin g

x 100
Total number aggregate

11
x 100
95

= 11.58%

Average

Summation of all frations

No of fraction

(0 11.58 8.22)
3

= 6.6%

20

5.1.5 Discussion
Based on the result obtained, each sample collected has about less than 15% flaky
aggregates. This shows that the samples are quite suitable to be used for bituminous mix. But, the
appropriate percentage of flaky aggregates in each sample is determined by the specification
stated in respective manual used for different purpose. For sample passed 37.5mm and retained
on 25mm sieve has flakiness index 11.58% while sample, which passed 25mm and retained on
sieve 20mm has the flakiness index about 8.22%. This makes the average flakiness index
become 6.6%. Aggregates that flaky could always lower the workability of concrete and also
affects its long-term durability. In bituminous mixtures, flaky aggregates make for a harsh mix
that can crack or break up during the compaction process.

5.1.6 Conclusion
After carried out the test, the flakiness index of the collected sample is determined. By
knowing the average index of about 6.6%, the sample collected is very suitable for bituminous
mix. But, different bituminous mix may require different proportion of flaky aggregates.
Therefore, appropriate manual should be referred in order to gain the right mixture of aggregates
for an accurate bituminous mix.

5.2 Elongation Index Test

5.2.1 Objective
This test is to determine the suitability of the material.

5.2.2 Apparatus
Sieve (50mm, 37.5mm, 25mm, 20mm and pan)
Sieve Shaker
Balance machine
A metal gauge plate.

21

5.2.3 Procedures
1. Three samples of aggregates weighing 2.5kg each is prepared: the aggregates of the first
sample passing 50mm BS sieve and retained on 37.5 mm BS sieve, those of the second
sample passing 37.5 mm BS sieve and retained on the 28 mm BS sieve and the third sample
passing 28mm BS sieve and retained on the 20mm BS sieve.
2. Each sample is gauged in turn of length on the metal gauge.
3. Finally, weighed the retained material of each sample.

5.2.4 Result
Passing

Retained sieve

sieve (mm)
50
37.5
25
Average

(mm)
37.5
25
20

Sample (Nos)

Retained (Nos)

Elongation

0
1
6

index (%)
0
1.05
4.11

0
95
146
1.72%

Example calculation
The flakiness index of aggregate passing sieve size 37.5mm and retained on sieve size 25mm
was calculated as follows:
Flakiness index (%) =
=

Number of aggregate retained

Total number aggregate

x 100

1
x 100
95

= 1.05%

Average

Summation of all frations

No of fraction

(0 1.05 4.11)
3

= 1.72%

5.2.5 Discussion
22

Based on the result obtained, each sample collected has about less than 5% elongated
aggregates. This shows that the samples are quite suitable to be used for bituminous mix. But, the
appropriate percentage of elongated aggregates in each sample is determined by the specification
stated in respective manual used for different purpose. For sample passed 37.5mm and retained
on 25mm sieve has flakiness index 1.05% while sample, which passed 25mm and retained on
sieve 20mm has the flakiness index about 4.11%. This makes the average flakiness index become
1.72%. Aggregates that elongated could always lower the workability of concrete and also affects
its long-term durability. In bituminous mixtures, flaky aggregates make for a harsh mix that can
crack or break up during the compaction process.

5.2.6 Conclusion
After carried out the test, the elongation index of the collected sample is determined. By
knowing the average index of about 1.72%, the sample collected is very suitable for bituminous
mix. But, different bituminous mix may require different proportion of elongated aggregates.
Therefore, appropriate manual should be referred in order to gain the right mixture of aggregates
for an accurate bituminous mix.

23

6.0 Soundness Test

6.1 Introduction
The soundness of aggregates or their resistance to the forces of weathering is undoubtedly
one of the most important considerations in the selection of a material for highway material
construction. The primary exposure that one is concerned with is alternate freezing and thawing.
Somewhat less frequently one may be concerned with resistance of materials to alternate heating
and cooling, wetting and drying, or the action of aggressive waters.
The common soundness requirement for aggregates is based on a sodium or magnesium
sulfate soundness test.
The method may be used for acceptance of material but rejection should be based on
other determinations such as freezing and thawing tests. Freezing and thawing tests of aggregate
are also commonly used as the basis for a soundness specification.
In the particular case of aggregates for Portland cement concrete, soundness in freezing
and thawing is something specified on the basis of results of tests in which concrete, made with
the aggregate, is exposed to alternate freezing and thawing and the deterioration of the concrete
is noted.
Specification based on this type of test appears to be better founded than those based on a
sulfate soundness test. It has been stated by Powers, however, that such test are not capable of
giving reliable information about durability of concrete as most commonly used in the field. He
suggests that a better approach would be measurement of the length of time that the concrete
remains immune to frost attack while it is exposed to moisture.

6.2 Objective
To determine the resistance of aggregates to disintegration by saturated solution of sodium
sulphate.
To measure the resistance of aggregates to cycle of freezing and thawing.
To judge the soundness of aggregates subject to weathering action.

24

6.3 Apparatus
Containers
Balance (accurate to 0.01g)
BS Sieve with square openings
Oven

6.4 Procedures
1. The sample of coarse aggregate is washed thoroughly and dried to constant weight at 105110C and separated it into the different sizes by sieving to refusal. Weighted out the proper
weights of sample for each fraction are and placed it in separate containers for the test.
2. Then, the samples is immerse in the prepared sodium sulphate solution for approximately 18
hours in such a manner that the solution covered the aggregates to a depth of at least in. The
container is covered to reduce evaporation and prevent the accidental addition of extraneous
substances. Maintained the samples immersed in the solution at a temperature of 21 1C for
the immersing period.
3. The aggregate sample from the solution is removed after the immersing period and the
permitted it to drain for 15 5 min, and the sample is placed in the drying oven (105 to
110C). The sample at specified temperature is dried until constant weight has been achieved.
During the drying period, the samples is removed from the oven, then the sample is cooled to
room temperature, and weighed at time intervals of not less than 4hr and not more than 15 hr.
Constant weight may be considered to have been achieved when successive weights for any
sample, made as described above, differed by less than 1.0g in the case of coarse aggregate
samples.
4. After constant weight has been achieved, cool the samples to room temperature, when they
shall again be immersed in the prepared solution.
5. The process of alternate immersion is repeat and dried for 5 days.
6. After the completion of the final cycle and after the sample has cooled, the sampled is washed
to let it free from sodium sulphate.
7. When the sodium sulphate has been removed, the sample is dried at 105 to 110C. Then,
weighed each fraction of the sample.

25

8. Weighted average calculated from the percentage of loss for each fraction.

6.5 Result
Aggregate size

Weight of sample

Weight of sample

Percent loss14

14
10
5

1g (before)
999.4
1000.7
500.4

1g (after)
994.0
994.4
498.9

0.54
0.41
0.3

Percent loss =1.25%

6.6 Discussion
Based on the result obtained, aggregates of size 14 have loss about 0.54% after exposed to
long period of weathering process. For aggregates of size 10 and 5 have loss about 0.41% and
0.3% respectively undergone the same process. Therefore, the total loss of the sample is about
1.25%. Certain aggregates may be unsuitable for a highway construction application because if
the aggregates unable to resist the weathering process happened. This is because an aggregate
that is not durable is unstable physically and chemically. Crack may occur due to freezing and
thawing process. Temperature may also affect its durability. For instance, water accumulated in
the crack of the aggregates may be frozen when the temperature decrease and melted when vice
versa. The freezing and thawing process may lead to disintegration of the aggregates. Aggregates
used for roadway construction subject to plenty of chemical substances in the soil. This chemical
sentences may be acidic or alkalinity. Therefore, aggregates subjected to these chemical
substances can be weathered. This will definitely affect the aggregates durability and strengths of
the aggregates will be reduced. Furthermore, the bonding effect between aggregates and
bituminous materials will affected too. Then, the strength of the pavement will be affected at last.
So, is important to determine the durability of aggregates by soundness test before it is used for
construction.

6.7 Conclusion
26

The durability of aggregates is commonly measured by soundness test, as specified in the

manual. This test measures the resistance of aggregates to disintegration in a saturated solution of
sodium or magnesium sulfate. It stimulates the weathering of aggregates that occur in nature.
From the result obtained, percentage of loss of the sample collected is 1.25%. therefore, the
sample is very durable and suitable for highway construction.

27

7.0 Impact Tests

7.1 Introduction
Impact value of an aggregate is the percentage loss of weight of particles passing 2.36mm
sieve by the application of load by means of 15 blows of standard hammer and drop, under
specified test condition. The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of
an aggregate to sudden shock or impact, which in some aggregates differs from their resistance
to a slowly applied compressive load.

7.2 Objective
To determine the aggregates impact value in the laboratory.

7.3 Apparatus

Impact testing machine

It consists of a cylindrical hammer of 13.5kg sliding freely between two vertical supports.
Its fall is automatically adjusted to a height of 38 cm. There is a brass plate over which an
open cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 10.2 cm and 5 cm depth is placed and fixed
to the brass plate.

Measure
A cylinder of internal diameter 7.5 cm and 5 cm deep for measuring aggregate.

Tamping rod of 1 cm diameter and 23 cm long rounded at one end and pointed at the other
end.

Sieve
12.5 mm, 10 mm and 2.36 mm openings.

Balance
5000-g capacity

Laboratory oven capable of maintaining a constant temperature up to 110C.

28

7.4 Procedures
1. The aggregate is sieve to obtain the portion passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve.
2. Then, the aggregate obtained is washed and dried at a constant temperature of 105 to 110C;
and the sample is cooled.
3. The aggregate obtained in the cylindrical measure is filled in layers, tapped each layer 25
times with the tamping rod. Using the straight edge, the surface of tamping rod is leveled.
4. Then the aggregate is weight in the measure. This weight of the aggregate is used for the
duplicate test on the same material.
5. After that, the aggregate is transferred from the cylindrical measure to the cup in three layers
and each layer compacted by tamping in 25 strokes with the tamping rod.
6. The hammer is release to fall freely on the aggregate. The test sample is subjected to a total
of 15 blows.
7. Then, the aggregate sample is removed from the cup and is sieved through 2.36 mm sieve.
8. Finally, the fraction passing the sieve is weighed.

7.5 Result
Sample
Weight of cylindrical measure, Wc (kg)
Weight of cylindrical measure, Wc + sample (kg)
Weight of pan,Wp (kg)
Weight of sieve size 2.36mm, Ws (kg)
Weight of sieve size 2.36mm, Ws + weight of sample retained (kg)
Weight of pan,Wp + weight of sample passed (kg)

A
2.9
3.46
0.85
1.46
1.96
0.89

B
2.9
3.47
0.85
1.46
1.96
0.88

Sample

Aggregate

Weight before

Weight after

Weight passing 2.36

No.
A

size (mm)
12.5 - 10

(g)
560

(g)
500

mm sieve (g)
40
29

B
Average

12.5 - 10
12.5 - 10

570
565

Aggregate impact Value, AIV =

=

500
500

30
35

Average weight of aggregate pas sin g 2.36mm

x 100
Average weight before impact

35
x100
565

= 6.19%

7.6 Discussion
Based on the result obtained, sample A 7.14% of aggregates impact value while sample B
has 5.26% of aggregates impact value. This makes up the average value of 6.19%. Aggregates
impact value is used to determine sustainability of aggregates due to dynamic loading or static
loading. As we know, aggregates is an important material used for road construction, therefore,
traffic loading will be the chief loading for a roadway. Aggregates used for road construction
should be able to sustain heavy lading applied. This parameter is measured by impact test. From
the test carried out, we know that the sample has low impact value. This shows that percentage of
aggregates deformed and crashed into smaller particles is less. Therefore, this aggregates is very
sustainable to heavy loading. Experience has shown that in asphalt road construction, the quality
of the courses (wearing course plus binder course) is primarily dependent on the quality of the
individual construction materials. This is especially true for wearing courses, which are made
using the Stone Mastic Asphalt principle. Here the choice and quality of the aggregate plays an
exceptionally important role.

30

7.7 Conclusion
After carried out impact test, we can conclude hat the sample has an aggregate impact
value of 6.19%. This shows that the aggregates are very sustainable and hard. Therefore, it is
very suitable to use for roadway construction. The aggregates used for road construction should
be hard enough to resist dynamic loading due to heavy traffic. Soft aggregates can easily turn
into smaller particles when subjected to loading. Therefore, the pavement constructed will not be
stiff and strong.

31

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

B. Asphalt Tests
Asphalt have no odor, are more resistant to weathering and less susceptible to
temperature than tar. Asphalt will be dissolved in petroleum oils. A large number of different
laboratory tests are performed on asphalt for the purpose of checking compliance with the
specification that is being used. The Asphalt Tests that carry out in this lab are as below:
1.0 Penetration Test

1.1 Introduction
The penetration test is an empirical test used to measure the consistency of asphalt cement.
Generally, the penetration of a bituminous substance may be defined as distance in hundredths to
which a standard needle penetrates the material under known conditions of time, loading and
temperature.
The

various

grades

of

asphalt

cement

are distinguished by their hardness, as

measured by a field penetration test. For purposes of field identification, the consistency of
asphalt cement maybe approximated at room temperature as hard (penetration 40-85), medium
(penetration 85- 150), and soft (penetration 150-300). These limitations are flexible, as complete
accuracy is not essential. You can make an approximation of the hardness while in the field
by attempting to push a sharpened pencil or nail (in this lab, needle has been used) into the
asphalt at 77F with a firm pressure of approximately 10 pounds. When the pencil point
penetrates with difficulty or breaks, the asphalt cement is hard. When it penetrates slowly with
little difficulty, the asphalt cement is medium. If the pencil penetrates easily, the asphalt cement
is a high penetration or soft grade.
Theory
Penetration Test is used to determine the grade of asphalt cement. In performing the test,
the needle is carefully brought to contact with the surface of the sample, then released so as to
exert a pressure of 100 grams. The seconds after the needle is released, the distance it penetrated
the sample is read, to the nearest 0.01 centimeter, on the penetrometer dial. The reported
penetration is the average of at least three tests on the same material whose values do not differ
more than four points between maximum and minimum. In addition to grade determination,
the penetration test is useful for other purposes, such as detecting overheating or

32

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

prolonged heating of asphalts in storage tanks. Also, when the asphalt is extracted from a
pavement, the penetration test is useful in determining how the asphalt has changed with age
and weathering.
Penetration = ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) / 3
Where: R is the penetration reading at different locations

1.2 Objective
To measure the penetration value of asphalt which is melted and cooled and kept at a room
temperature of 25oC (77 F).

1.3 Apparatus
Penetration Needle
Water bath
Time device
Penetration Container
Penetrometer
Thermometers

1.4 Procedure
1.

The asphalt is heated until it is fluid enough to pour. Then asphalt is poured into appropriate
sample container which the container should be large enough such that sample depth is at
least 10 mm greater than maximum needle penetration depth and minimum lateral dimension
of 70 mm.

2.

The sample container (100g) is place directly on the submerged stand into the penetrometer.
Then the sample container is keep completely covered with water at temperature of
25o0.5oC.

3.

Needle holder is checked and guided to ensure that needle is cleaned and guided apparatus
was functioning properly. The penetration needle is clean with toluene or other solvent and
dries it with a clean cloth. Then insert the needle carefully in the penetrometer.

33

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

4.

The needle slowly lowered into the water bath until the tip just makes contact with the
surface of the asphalt sample. Then either note the penetrometer reading or set it to zero.

5.

Quickly the needle holder is released and allowed the needle to move under its own weight
for a total of 5 seconds, then locked the position of the needle. Get the reading in units of 0.1
mm. (If the sample container moves during the test, that result should be discarded.)

6.

Three penetration measurements at points on the surface is make not less than 10 mm from
the side of the container and not less than 10 mm apart.

1.5 Result
Number of penetration
1
2
3
Average
Penetration =

Penetration (mm)
69
73
65
69

69 73 65
3

= 69 mm

34

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1.6 Discussion
The penetration of an asphalt substance may be defined as the distance (in hundredths of a
centimeter) to which a standard needle penetrates the material under known conditions of time,
loading and temperature. The standard penetration test procedure involves use of the standard
needle under a load of 100 g for 5 seconds at a temperature of 25 C (or 77 F). This test is
handled for the purpose of testing the consistency of asphaltic material; asphalt exhibits high
surface tension and contain relatively large amount of carbon.
Penetration ranges such as 30-40, 40-50, 50-60, 60-70, 70-85, and 85-100 may be used in
specifying the desired grades of asphalt cements prepared from petroleum. The most common
used asphalt in road constructions in Malaysia is the asphalt with penetration within the range of
85-100.
From the result of penetration obtained, we can say that the penetration rate which
equivalent to 69 mm is acceptable since it fall in the penetration range of 60-70. There is a
precaution step that we need to take into account during handling this test. For example, the
asphalt specimen must be tested using standard needle under a load of 100 g for 5 seconds at a
temperature of 25 C (or 77 F). These precaution step must being practice to ensure the asphalt
prepared is suitable for mix design use.

1.7 Conclusion
The standard penetration test procedure involves use of the standard needle under a load of
100 g for 5 seconds at a temperature of 25 C (or 77F). The penetration of asphalt specimen
obtained from the test is 69 mm, and the result is acceptable.

35

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

2.0 Softening Point Test

2.1 Introduction
The softening test is defined as the mean of the temperature at which the bitumen disks
often and sag downward a distance of 25 mm under the weight of a steel ball. In other word, it
can be simplified that it is (softening point) the temperature at which bitumen becomes soft
enough to flow. The softening point of asphalt is measured by the "ring-and-ball" test (ASTM
Standard D 2398). The softening point of coal tar pitch is measured by the "cube-in-water" test
(ASTM Standard D 61).
In general, with material of those types, softening does not take place at a definite
temperature. As the temperature rises, those materials gradually and imperceptibly change from
brittle or exceeding slow flowing materials to softer and less viscous liquid. This method is
useful I determining the consistency of bitumen in establish the uniformity of shipments or
sources of supply.
Theory
This test method covers the determination of the softening point of bitumen in the range
from 30 to 157C (86 to 315F) using the ring-and-ball apparatus immersed in distilled water (30
to 80C), USP glycerin (above 80 to 157C), or ethylene glycol (30 to 110C).
Bitumen is warmed until it can no longer support 3.5 grams metal ball - this temperature
is the softening point.
Softening Point =( R1 + R2 ) / 2
Where : R is temperature reading upon the ball touches the bottom plate

36

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Softening Point Test Set

ASTM D-36

AASHTO T-53

For determining softening point of asphalt and tar using the ring and ball method
BI-211

Shouldered Ring
Assembly

Machined brass, height adjustment

1 Set

BI-212 Standard Ball

Steel ball, 9.53 mm diameter.

2 Pieces

BI-213 Flash Support

Mesh wire gauze variable height

adjustment

1 Set

BI-214 Support Assembly

Metal, provided with thermometer

holder

1 Set

GE-230 Bunsen Burner

Heat resources

1 Piece

GE-237 Asbestos Wire Gauze

15 x 15 cm

1 Piece

GE-424 Beaker Glass

1000 ml capacity

1 Piece

GE646.1

ASTM

1 Piece

Thermometer

15 C, 2 to 80oC

2.2 Objective
To determine the temperature at which a phase change occurs in the asphalt cement. It is
measured by ring and ball method in accordance with ASTM D36

2.3 Apparatus
Steel ball, 9.53mm in diameter, weighing between 3.55g
Ring
Ball-centering guide
Ring Holder
Bath
Thermometer

37

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

2.4 Procedure
1. The hot asphalt is poured into the ring and cooled it to room temperature for about 30
minutes. Then, the sample is leveled.
2. Te ring is placed on the ring shoulder. the temperature in the water bath is maintained at 5 1
o

C for 40 minutes and the sample is kept in the water bath at a level of not less than 102 mm

and not more than 108 mm from the bottom of the bath.
3. Place the ball in each ball centering guide by using forceps. Then the heat is applied at a rate
of 5 o C per minute and make sure it is increased uniformly.
4. Temperature of each ring and ball is recorded by using thermometer when the specimen
surrounding the ball touches the bottom plate .

2.5 Result
Test
Softening Point (oC)

Softening Point =

1
45

2
46

Average
45.5

45 46
2

= 45.5 oC

38

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

2.6 Discussion
Since the softening point of asphalt material does not take place at any definite
temperature, but involves a gradual change in consistency with increasing temperature, any
procedure that is adopted for determining the softening point must be arbitrary nature. The
procedure in common use in highway materials laboratories is known as the ring-and-ball
method and may be applied to semisolid and solid materials. The ring-and-ball method is also
used to determine the penetration index and in conjunction with penetration and loading time.
The softening point is taken to be the temperature at which asphalt material touches the bottom
of the container.
From the result above, the temperature of the softening point is given as 45.5C. As for
asphalt with penetration of 60-70, the temperature of softening point is in the range of 45 to
52C. Thus, we can conclude that the temperature stated above is within the range; which is
acceptable
.As precaution step, it is important to ensure that the water bath floated with ices is heated
gradually until its temperature increased. Asphalt will become softer as the temperature of water
bath rise, and thus, the temperature of when the asphalt become softer is noted.

2.7 Conclusion
Temperature of the softening point of the tested asphalt specimen is given as 45.5C.

39

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3.0 Viscosity Test

3.1 Introduction
Viscosity can simply be defined as resistance to flow of a fluid. Viscosity grading of asphalt
is based on viscosity measurement at 60

C. This temperature was selected because it

approximates the average pavement surface temperature during hot weather. Viscosity is also
measured at 170 o C where this temperature approximates the mixing temperature.
Brookfield rotational viscometer is used accordance to ASTM D4402 to determine the
viscosity of the asphalt cement at different temperatures. Viscosity can be adjusted by blowing
air through hot bitumen - causing oxidation and an increase in molecular weight - and leading to
more viscous semi-blown or blown grades.

3.2 Objective
To determine the viscosity of the asphalt cement at different temperature.

3.3 Apparatus
Brookfield rotational Viscometer

3.4 Procedure
1. The 10 ml of preheated asphalt cement is poured into the thermocel and heat the sample to
170oC. Check the temperature by using thermometer.
2. Selected the appropriate spindle and RPM to carry out the test.
3. Reported the result in centipoises.

40

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3.5 Result
Shear rate (SR)

= 6.8

CP

= 1688 at 104 C

Torque

= 15 %

Shear stress (SS)

= 134.3

3.6 Discussion
There are two types of viscosity, i.e. kinematics viscosity and absolute viscosity. Absolute
viscosity of asphalt cements, stated in poises, is measured by standard test procedure AASHTO
Designation T202. This test is usually performed at a temperature of 60C (140F). The test
involves the measuring of time required for a fixed volume of the liquid to be drawn through one
of several specially designed capillary tubes by means of a vacuum.
For liquid asphalts, the kinematics viscosity may be measured with a gravity-flow
viscometer (AASHTO Designation T201). As precaution, the time for the fluid to flow between
two points in a capillary tube under carefully controlled conditions of temperature and head is
measured. Using the measured time in seconds and the viscometer calibration constant, then
compute the viscosity of the material in fundamental units, stokes, or centistokes.

3.7 Conclusion
From the viscosity test that has been handled onto asphalt specimen, we found that the
shear rate is 6.8, CP is equivalent to 1688 at 104 C, asphalt torque is 15% and shear stress is
134.3. As for asphalt specimen being prepared, the results obtained are acceptable.

41

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

4.0 Ductility Test

4.1 Introduction
Ductility is a general meant that the property of the material that permits it to under go for a
greasy deformation without breaking. Ductility may be further defined as a distance in
centimeters to which a standard sample of the material may be elongated without breaking. This
test is applicable only to semisolid asphaltic material that is melted by gentle application of heat.

4.2 Objective
To measure the cementing power of the asphaltic material.

4.3 Apparatus
ductility machine
mold

4.4 Procedure
1. The asphaltic material is melted by a gentle heat and poured into a standard mold.
2. The minimum cross section of the mold is exactly 1 cm 2.
3. The mold then is immersed in the water bath which the temperature is maintained about 77 F.
4. After the sample has attained the desired temperature, the sample is placed in the ductility
machine.
5. The machine is set to the one end held in fixed position while the other end is pulled
horizontally at a standard rate.
6. The behavior of the thread was recorded and the elongation until it starts to break.
7. Then the distance the machine has traveled is recorded which is the ductility of the material.

42

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

4.5 Result
Ductility = 125 cm

4.6 Discussion
From the experiment, the ductility found is to be 125 cm. Thus it is classified as
ductile because the minimum limit of ductility for the asphalt used should not be less than 100
mm and should be around 125 mm. By getting the results above it also shows the ability of the
material to undergo great deformation (elongation) without breaking. Generally, it also measures
the cementing power of the asphaltic material and therefore the presence of ductility is desirable
in most applications. The binding property is very important because of the pavement road has to
endure hard weather conditions such as heavy rain, acrid condition and strong wind. However,
the value of ductility is not as important as the mere presence or the lack of ductility.

4.7 Conclusion
From the experiment, we can conclude that the sample tested is a very ductile material, thus
it can used to bind the aggregates well in the pavement mix design that is used for the road.

43

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

5.0 Thin Film Oven Test [Loss on Heating (aging) use TFO]

5.1 Introduction
Loss of heating is defined as the compound of the material which is volatile evaporate during
the heating process. This volatile compound actually is the main substance that is important
which shows the behavior of the material (asphalt).

5.2 Objective
To determine the effect of heat and air on a film of semi-solid asphalt materials. The effects of
this treatment are determined from measurements of selected asphalt properties before and after
the test.

5.3 Apparatus
Oven
Rotating shelf
Thermometer
container

5.4 Procedure
1. 50 gram of the material is weighted carefully into a standard flat cylindrical container.
2. The cylinder than is placed in a specially constructed oven and the temperature is maintained
at 163C for during 5 hours in the rotating direction.
3. The oven actually is set leveled and rotating in the horizontal plane
4. After being inside for 5 hours the sample then is taken out from the oven, cooled, and
weighted.
5. Then the loss of the sample can be determined, and converted to the percentage of loss of
heating base on the weight of the original sample

44

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

5.5 Result
Pan 1
88.2
146.8
146.3
0.5
0.85

Weight of pan (g)

Weight of pan + asphalt before heating (g)
Weight of pan + asphalt after heating (g)
Loss in weight (g)
Percent loss (%)
Average percent loss

Pan 2
87.5
145.0
144.6
0.4
0.7
0.78

Example calculation
Pan 1 :
Original weight of asphalt = ( Weight of pan + asphalt before heating) (Weight of pan)
= 146.8 88.2
= 58.6 g
Loss in weight

= (Weight of pan + asphalt before heating ) (Weight of pan

+ asphalt after heating)
= 146.8 146.3
= 0.5g

Percentage loss in weight =

=

Loss in weight

Original

weight

x 100

0.5
x 100
58.6

= 0.85 %

Average Pecentage Loss

0.85 0.7
2

= 0.78 %

5.6 Discussion
For the two pans, we have an average percentage weight loss of 0.78 % which is small
by comparison and thus it also shows the percentage of volatile material that is in the asphaltic
45

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

material. Indirectly, it also shows the durability of the asphalt against heat and wind. High
percentage of weight loss would also mean that the volatile material could be easily evaporated
and thus reducing the strength in the asphalt. Usually, relatively high temperatures are used in the
plant mixing of asphalt cements and aggregates. However, excessively high temperatures are
detrimental, hardening the mixture and reducing the pavement life. Specifications usually
prescribe the minimum values for the percentage of retained penetrations for the various grades
of asphalt cement.

5.7 Conclusion
The asphaltic material from both of the pans shows that it is durable to the high
temperature

condition

that

may

be

imposed

^`OJ46QJ46o(46h46464646H4646

46
46

46464646464646464646464646H46464646464646 46ng long pavement life.

46

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Marshall Mix Design

1.0 Preparation of specimens for Marshall Analysis
1.1 Introduction
Asphalt mix design is a complex issue with a lot of variables involved. However two
methods of mix design have become popular worldwide. They are the Marshall Mix Design and
the Hveem Mix Design Method. In Malaysia the Marshall Method of mix design has become the
norm in the road industry.
Before any asphalt mixes can be replaced and laid on the road, the aggregate and the binder
types are generally screened for quality and requirement. Approximately 15 samples are required
to be prepared to determine the required Optimum Asphalt Content (OAC). The prepared cahe
samples are to be analyzed for bulk density, air void and stability. By using the Asphalt Institute
Method, the Optimum Asphalt Content are determined from the individual plots of bulk density,
voids in total mix, and stability versus parccant asphalt content. The average of the 3 OAC
values is taken for further sample preparation and analysis.
Another procedure developed in UPM is the inclusion of Resilient Modulus, which is
consider as the important parameter in the performance of pavement. As the previous analysis, a
graph of resilient Modulus versus percentage of asphalt content id to be plotted. From the graph
the percentage of asphalt content is to be plotted. From the graph the percentage of asphalt at the
optimum Resilient Modulus will be determined.
The Optimum Asphalt Content, using UPMs method, was adopted from asphalt Institute by
averaging the percentage of Asphalt at optimum value for Resilient Modulus, Marshall Stability,
Bulk Density and 4% VTM.

1.2 Objective
To prepare standard specimens of asphaltic concrete for the determination of stability and flow in
the Marshall apparatus and to determine density, percentage air voids and percent of aggregate
voids filled with binder.

47

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1.3 Apparatus
mould
filter paper
Marshall compaction pedestal

1.4 Procedures
1. The aggregate is graded according to the ASTM or BS standard, then the aggregate are over
dried at 170-180oC and a sufficient amount is weighed (about 1200g) for sample preparation
that may give a height of 63.5 mm when compacted in the mould
2. The asphalt is weight and is heated to the a temperature of about 160-165 oC.
3. The aggregate is heated in the oven to a temperature not higher than 28 oC about the binder
temperature.
4. A crater is formed in the aggregates, the binder poured in and mixing carried out until all the
aggregate ate coated. The mixing temperature shall be within the limit set for the binder
temperature. The thoroughly cleaned mould is heated on a hot plate or in an oven to a
temperature between 140 and 170 oC. Te mould is 101.6 mm diameter by 76.2 mm high and
provided with a base plate and extension collar.
5. A piece of filter paper is fitted in the bottom of the mould and the whole mix poured in the
three layers. The mix is then vigorously trowelled 15 times round the perimeter and 10 times
in the centre leaving a slightly rounded surface.
6. The mould is placed on the Marshall Compaction pedestal and gives 50 blows.
7. Te specimen is then carefully removed from the mould, transferred to a smooth flat surface
and allowed to cool to room temperature.
8. Finally, the specimen is measured and weighed in air and water (for volume determination).
If the asphalt mix has an open (porous) texture, the weighing in water will lead to error in
the volume and so the specimen must be coated with a measured mass of paraffin mix. The
specimen is then marked and stored for stability and flow measurement.

48

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1.5 Result
% Asphalt

Weight of aggregate (g)

Weight of asphalt (g)

Total weight (g)

cement

4.0 - 1
4.0 - 2
4.0 - 3
4.5 - 1
4.5 - 2
4.5 - 3
5.0 - 1
5.0 - 2
5.0 - 3
5.5 - 1
5.5 - 2
5.5 - 3
6.0 - 1
6.0 - 2
6.0 - 3

1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200

50.00
50.00
50.00
56.54
56.54
56.54
63.16
63.16
63.16
69.84
69.84
69.84
76.6
76.6
76.6

1250.00
1250.00
1250.00
1256.54
1256.54
1256.54
1263.16
1263.16
1263.16
1269.84
1269.84
1269.84
1276.60
1276.60
1276.60

Calculation
Example calculation for the first sample with 4% Asphalt cements content.
(Sample 4 .0 1)
weight of asphalt cement

% Asphalt Cement

= weight of aggregate weight of asphalt cement x100%

4.0 %

= 1200 weight of asphalt cement x 100%

weight of asphalt cement

Weight of asphalt cement= 50 g

49

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1.6 Discussion
In the preparation for the Marshall Mix Design, there are a lot of problems that we have
encountered. The heating oven is a bit spoiled and the temperature inside is not consistent,
therefore leading to long wait for sample to be ready for mixing. The aggregates must be at 180
C while the asphalt must be at 165 C before the mix can be done. Another problem is when
pouring the asphalt into the aggregates on the weighing scale. This is a quite hard to do
procedure because the asphalt is extremely hot and we have to pour exact amount calculated to
get the different mixtures. And if we over pour, we had to get some paper to quickly wipe off
some of the asphalt before the asphalt hardens and the mixture cant be done. The third problem
is the compacting machines always give us a hard because it doesnt work properly. We had to
resort to manual compaction by using our hands. The machines will have to be serviced
frequently in order for it to work properly. The jack also has a bit of problem while trying to get
sample out from the mold. Some of the sample has honeycombing because it was not mixed well
enough during the mixing in the hot bowl.

1.7 Conclusion
In conclusion, we didnt manage to get the sample done within a short period of time
because of all the problems encountered by us such as stated above. However, as we go along,
the procedure becomes a routine and simpler and therefore, we are able to make the sample
much faster than before.

50

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

2.0 Density and Void Analysis

2.1 Introduction
The specific gravity and absorption of aggregates are important properties that are
required for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the
ratio of its mass to that an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because
aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, two measures of specific gravity of aggregates
are used: apparent specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.
All mix design methods use density and voids to determine basic HMA physical
characteristics. Two different measures of densities are typically taken:
Bulk specific gravity (Gmb).
Theoretical maximum specific gravity (TMD, Gmm).
These densities are then used to calculate the volumetric parameters of the HMA.
Measured void expressions are usually:

Air voids (Va), sometimes expressed as voids in the total mix (VTM)

Voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA)

Voids filled with asphalt (VFA)

Bulk Density
If the specimen has a smooth compact surface, i.e. fairly impermeable, bulk density is simply
determined by weighing in air and water. Then:
Bulk Density,d=Gmb x w
Gmb =[ WD / ( WSSD WSUB )]
Where, d

= bulk density ( g / cm3 )

Gmb

= bulk specific gravity of the mix.

= density of water = 1 g / mm3

WD

= mass of specimen in air ( g )

WSUB = mass of specimen in water ( g )

51

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

WSSD = saturated surface dry mass ( g )

Void in Total Mix (VTM)
The percentage of air voids in the mix is determined by firstly calculating the maximum
theoretical density TMD (zero voids) and then expressing the difference between it and the
actual bulk density, d as a percentage of total volume.
VTM =[ 1 ( d / TMD ) ] x 100
TMD =Gmm x w
Gmm ={ 1/ [ (( 1- Pb ) / Gse ) + Pb / Gb ]}
Where,

d=bulk density ( g / cm3 )

w

= density of water = 1 g / mm3

Gmm

= maximum theoretical specific gravity of the mix.

TMD = maximum theoretical density ( g / mm3 )

Pb

= asphalt content, % by weight of the mix.

Gse

= effective specific gravity of the mix

Gb

= specific gravity of asphalt cement

Voids in Mineral Aggregate ( VMA )

The volume of void in mineral aggregate ( VMA ) is an important factor for the asphalt mixture
design.
VMA=100 x {[ 1- ( Gmb ( 1- Pb ) / Gsb ]}
Where,

Gmb

= bulk specific gravity of the mix

Pb

= asphalt content, percent by weight of the mix.

Gsb

= bulk specific gravity of the aggregate.

52

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Voids Filled with Asphalt ( VFA )

VFA =[ ( VMA VTM ) / VMA ] x 100
NB: These calculations involve the manipulation of small differences, therefore great precision is
needed for accurate results.
Typical Marshall Minimum VMA (from Asphalt Institute, 1979)
Nominal Maximum
Particle Size
(mm)
(U.S.)
63
2.5 inch
50
2.0 inch
37.5
1.5 inch
25.0
1.0 inch
19.0
0.75 inch
12.5
0.5 inch
9.5
0.375 inch
4.75
No. 4 sieve
2.36
No. 8 sieve
1.18
No. 16 sieve

Minimum
VMA
(percent)
11
11.5
12
13
14
15
16
18
21
23.5

2.2 Objective
The test is to determine the Density and Void for specimens

2.3 Apparatus
A balance to permit the basket containing the sample to be suspended from the beam and
weighed in water.
A well-ventilated oven.
A wire basket or perforated container.
A stout, watertight container in which the basket may be suspended.

53

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Cloth.
A shallow tray
An airtight container

2.4 Procedures
1. All 15 specimens are measured and weighed in air and water for volume determination. If
the asphalt mix has an open ( porous ) texture, the weighing in water will lead to error in
the volume and so the specimens must be coated with a measured mass of paraffin wax
2. The bulk density, VTM, VMA and VFA for each specimen is calculated according to the
formulas given above. Then, the optimum asphalt binder content for those specimens are
determined.
3. After completing those mentioned procedures as above, the specimens are marked and
stored for stability measurements.
Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content
The optimum asphalt binder content is finally selected based on the combined results of Marshall
Stability and flow, density analysis and void analysis. Optimum asphalt binder content can be
arrived at in the following procedure (Roberts et al., 1996):
1. The following graphs are plotted: As
o

Asphalt binder content vs. density. Density will generally increase with increasing
asphalt content, reach a maximum, and then decrease. Peak density usually occurs at
higher asphalt binder content than peak stability.

Asphalt binder content vs. Marshall Stability. This should follow one of two trends:

Stability increases with increasing asphalt binder content, reaches a peak, then
decreases.

Stability decreases with increasing asphalt binder content and does not show a peak.
This curve is common for some recycled HMA mixtures.
o

Asphalt binder content vs. flow.

54

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

o

Asphalt binder content vs. air voids. Percent air voids should decrease with
increasing asphalt binder content.

Asphalt binder content vs. VMA. Percent VMA should decrease with increasing
asphalt binder content, reach a minimum, then increase.

Asphalt binder content vs. VFA. Percent VFA increases with increasing asphalt
binder content.

2. The asphalt binder content that corresponds to the specifications median air void content
(typically this is 4 percent) is determined. This is the optimum asphalt binder content.
3. The properties at this optimum asphalt binder content are determined by referring to the
plots. Each of these values are being compared against specification values and if all are
within specification, then the preceding optimum asphalt binder content is satisfactory.
Otherwise, if any of these properties is outside the specification range the mixture should
be redesigned.

55

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

2.5 Result
% Asphalt
cement

Weight in
air (g)

Weight in
water (g)

SSD

4.0 - 1
4.0 - 2
4.0 - 3

1219.6
1194.4
1192.5

675.6
659.6
656.9

1.2214
1.1945
1.1944

1220.2
1238.1

676.4
692.3

1.2216
1.2393
1.1991

Average

4.5 - 1
4.5 - 2
4.5 - 3
Average

5.0 - 1
5.0 - 2
5.0 - 3

1228.0
1245.5
1190.7

677.2
703.0
85.2

1.2290
1.2459
1.1913

1249.4
1223.3
1212.0

699.8
689.2
688.2

1.2501
1.2241
1.2146

1235.1
1248.3
1190.4

0.7081
0.7149
0.6813

1.2355
1.2494
1.1915

Average

5.5 - 1
5.5 - 2
5.5 - 3
Average

6.0 - 1
6.0 - 2
6.0 - 3
Average
( * - not consider)

Bulk
Density
2.234518
2.232941
*2.218605
2.23373
2.238078
2.263437
2.259853
2.253789
2.225444
2.294161
*1.076485
2.259803
2.270398
2.28697
2.302432
2.2866
2.341866
2.335454
2.333203
2.336841

TMD

VTM

VMA (%)

VFA (%)

2.457406
2.457406
2.457406
2.457406
2.439796
2.439796

9.0701
9.1342
9.7176
9.3073
8.2678
7.2284

1.1984

0.6688

2.439796
2.422437
2.422437
2.422437
2.422437
2.405322
2.405322
2.405322
2.405322
2.388448
2.388448
2.388448
2.388448

7.6239
8.132
5.2953
*55.562
6.71365
5.6094
4.9205
4.2776
4.9358
1.9503
2.2188
2.313
2.1607

17.5898
17.64798
18.1767
17.80483
17.88843
16.95804
17.08953
17.312
18.77942
16.2715
*60.71223
17.52546
17.57487
16.97325
16.41191
16.98668
15.43013
15.66168
15.74297
15.61159

48.4357
48.24196
46.53799
47.73855
53.78107
57.37454
56.84293
55.99951
56.69725
67.45649
*8.48319
63.07687
68.08277
71.01052
73.93583
71.00971
87.36028
85.83302
85.30752
86.16694

56

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Calculation
Example calculation for the first sample with 4% Asphalt cements content. (Sample 4 .0 1)
Bulk density
Gmb

WD
WSSD WSUB
1.2196

= 1.2214 0.6756
= 2.234518
Bulk Density, d = Gmb x w
= 2.235 x 1g/mm3
= 2.234518
Theoretical Maximum Density
Gmm

1
P
b
Gb
= (1 Pb )
Gse
1

= 1 0.04

0.04
1.03

2.608

= 2.457406
TMD

= Gmm x w
= 2.457406 x 1g/mm3
= 2.457406

Void in total Mix (VTM)

VTM

1
x 100
d
=
TMD

= 9.0701%
Void in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
57

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

VMA

= 100 x

1 Gmb 1 Pb
Gsb

= 100 x

1 2.2345181 0.04
2.603

= 17.5898%
Void Filled with Asphalt (VFA)
VFA

=
=

VMA VTM
VMA

x 100

17.5898 9.0701
17.5898

x 100

= 48.4357%
Where,
d

= Bulk density (g/cm3)

Gmb

= Bulk specific gravity of the mix

= Density of water (1g/mm3)

TMD

= Maximum theoretical density (g/mm3)

Pb

= Asphalt content, percent by weight if the mix

Gse

= Effective specific gravity of the mix

Gb

= Specific Gravity of asphalt cement

WD

= mass of specimen in air (g)

WSUB

= Mass of specimen in water (g)

WSSD

= Sutured surface dry mass (g)

Gsb

= Bulk specific gravity of the aggregate

58

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

59

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

2.6 Discussion
For the results obtained, we plotted two graphs. The first graph is density plotted against
the percentage of binder while the second graph is Void in total Mix (VTM) plotted against
percentage of binder. The first graph is supposed to be shaped like a crest curve. However, based
on our results, we plotted a different graph which is not acceptable. There are a few possibilities
which could have lead to the difference in the graphs. It could be due to the sample may still
contains some voids that has water with it because it not fully dried, thus jeopardizing the results.
Secondly, the weighing scale also may give inaccurate results because it has the buoyant effect of
the water on the weighing scale.
Meanwhile, the graph for the VTM against the percentage of binder is acceptable against
the standard graph produced.

2.7 Conclusion
In the results that we get, we can conclude that the results for the VTM against percentage
of binder is not acceptable due to some the mistakes that have been mentioned and therefore
should be rectified accordingly. Meanwhile the graph for VTM against the percentage of binder
can be accepted based on the standard graph produced in the guide book.

60

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3.0 Marshall Stability Test

3.1 Introduction
The most widely used method of asphaltic mix design is the Marshall method developed by
the U.S. Corps of Engineers. Stability and flow, together with density, voids and voids filled with
binder are determined at varying binder contents to determine an optimum for stability,
durability, flexibility and fatigue resistance.
The mechanism of failure in the Marshall test apparatus is complex but it is essentially a type
of unconfined compression test. This being so, it can only have limited correlation with
deformation in a pavement where the material is confined by the tires, the base and the
surrounding surfacing. Wheel tracking tests have shown that resistance to plastic flow increases
with reducing binder content whereas Marshall stability has an optimum, below which stability
decreases. Improvement on the assessment, based on stability, is possible by considering flow
and most agencies set minimum for stability and maximum for flow for various purposes such as
for roads, airports and other facilities.
In addition to binder content, stability and flow being the prime variables in the performance of
an asphalt sample. Type of binder, grading of aggregates, the particle shape, geological nature of
parent rock (most importantly, porosity) and degree of compaction also play an important role in
the performance of the asphalt itself

3.2 Objective
To measure the resistance to plastic flow of cylindrical specimens of an asphaltic paving
mixture loaded on the lateral surface by means of the Marshall Apparatus. The method is
suitable for mixes containing aggregates up to 25mm maximum size.

3.3 Apparatus

Marshall apparatus

Water bath

Thermometer

Cloth

Watch

61

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3.4 Procedures
The dimension and specification of the Marshall apparatus are explained in ASTM D1559. The
diameter of the specimen is 101.6mm and the nominal thickness is 63.5mm. Table 3.1, taken
from ASTM d1559, gives a correlation ration for stability of specimens which are not 63.5 thick.
1. Three specimens, prepared according to the standard, are immersed in a water bath for 30 at
601.0C.
2. The testing heads and guide rods are thoroughly cleaned. Guide rods are lubricated and the
head maintained at a temperature between 21.1 and 37.8C.
3. A specimen is removed from the water bath or oven and placed in the lower jar and the
upper jar placed in position. The complete assembly is then placed in the compressiontesting machine and the flow meter adjusted to zero.
4. The load is applied to the specimen at a constant strain rate of 50.8 mm/min until the
maximum load is reached. The maximum force and flow at that force are read and recorded.
The maximum time that is allowed between removal of the specimens from the water bath
and maximum load is 30 second.

62

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3.5 Result
% Asphalt
cement

4.0 - 1
4.0 - 2
4.0 - 3
Average
4.5 - 1
4.5 - 2
4.5 - 3
Average
5.0 - 1
5.0 - 2
5.0 - 3
Average
5.5 - 1
5.5 - 2
5.5 - 3
Average
6.0 - 1
6.0 - 2
6.0 - 3
Average

Average
diameter
of sample
(mm)

Average
height of
sample
(mm)

100.93
100.84
100.23

68.87

Height

Stability

Corrected

Correlation

(KN)

Marshall

ratio

Flow (mm)

Stability

67.55
70.47

0.8786
0.90875
0.847438

2.82
4.79
6.09

100.90
101.87
100.10

69.23
69.40

0.8714
0.868

69.17

0.8726

4.43
4.53
2.40

101.17
101.87
101.6

64.97
68.93
68.47

0.96325
0.8774
0.8866

6.28
4.69
3.37

101.37
101.20
101.13

70.00
67.80
67.13

0.85625
0.9025
0.91925

3.56
6.98
7.32

101.2
101.07
101.00

66.83
67.50
65.03

0.915688
0.903125
0.96175

5.07
4.87
3.50

(KN)
2.477652*
4.352913
5.160894*
4.352913*
3.860302
3.932040

0.21
0.34
0.25
0.27
0.37
0.47

2.09424*
3.896171
6.04921*
4.115006
2.987842*
4.115006
3.04825*
6.29945
6.72891
6.51418
4.642536
4.398219
3.366125*
4.520377

0.47
0.44
3.47
0.53
0.41
1.47
0.53
0.56
0.50
0.53
0.54
0.46
0.59
0.53

( * - not consider)

63

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Marshall Stability
Void in total mix (VTM)
Average

% Asphalt
5.4
5.6
5.5

* Bulk density is not considered here.

Therefore, the Optimum Asphalt Content for HMA Mix = 5.5%

64

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3.6 Discussion
Based on the result obtained, 5.5% asphalt content is the most optimum content required
fro HMA mix. This shows clearly in the graph. But, due to the inconsistency of the reading, one
of the plots in the graph need to be ignored in order to obtain more accurate reading.
Inconsistency of the reading is due to:
1. Error of the machine. Skilled personal is required to monitor the machine.
2. Error occurred during mixing of samples. This is because the content of the asphalt
needed for each sample is very hard to the determined. The excess asphalt is very
difficult to retrieve from the aggregates.
3. Temperature is very hard to control during mixing. This is because the oven is not
functioning well.
4. The compaction process needs to be carried out manually due the compactor fail to
work mechanically.
These are all the errors occurred during the process of preparing the samples. All these errors
may lead to the imperfections of the reading. Therefore, some of the readings recorded are not
consistent. Based on the observation of the mix samples, samples with 4% of asphalt content
have many loose aggregates. This is because the content of asphalt needed as binder is not
sufficient and the situation is vice versa when the asphalt content increased to 6%. Therefore, we
need to determine the optimum asphalt content required in order to produce sample with the
optimum plastic flow.

3.7 Conclusion
After carried out the test, we can conclude that the optimum asphalt content needed is
5.5%. But, this figure will be different if subjected to different condition. Factors affecting this
reading are temperature, percentage of aggregates, particles shape, and percentage of fillers.
Therefore, specification in the manual needs to be referred in order to achieve the required
Marshall stability.

65

KAW 3612 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Reference
1. Highway Materials (A Guide Book for Beginners), Ratnasamy Muniandy, Radin Umar
Radin Sohadi, Penerbit UPM, 2001.
2. Highway Engineering, Paul H. Wright, 6th edition, John Wiley & Son, Inc. 1996
3. www.highways.gov.sk.ca/docs/reports_manuals/manuals/STP_DOC/stp20410.pdf+Marshall+Mix+samples+density+and+void+analysis+test+procedure&hl=en&ie=U
TF-8

66