Introduction to Environmental Engineering

What is Environment?

Definition: The word environment is originated from environ, which mean things that
surrounds.

So environment means all that environ us like all physical and biological surroundings
i-e air, water, human, trees, plants, animals, micro-organisms, road, building etc.

Broadly speaking environment is defined as sum of all conditions and influence ,

which affects development and life all organism on earth.

The environment is collective term for all condition, in which organism lives.

Thus all factor such as light, temperature, water, soil, air and organism constitute
environment.

Ecology:

It is the scientific analysis and study of interactions and various relationship of living
organisms with each other and with their environment.

Population:

The group of similar individual species that live together in same area in same time,
in ecological term form population.

Habitat: The type of environment in which particular organism or population lives is its
habitat and they are habitant of it.
Biodiversity: it is a term we use to define variety of life on earth like plants, animals etc.

It refers to wide variety of ecosystem and living organism and their habitats.

Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other

and with their environment such that energy is exchanged and system-level
processes.

Species: A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals having similar

characteristics and capable of interbreeding. Endangered is a specie which is in danger of
extinction.
Fauna: The animal of specified region or time.
Flora: The plant of specified region or time.
Bacteria: They are unicellular (single cell) prokaryotic (lack of cell/membrane) living
microorganism. Their importance is that
(1) They change composition and shape of organism.
(2) Alimentary canal bacteria which help us in digestion.
(3) Medical bacteria help us in medicine making.
(4) Industrial bacteria which are harmful for living organisms.
However bacteria which are harmful and causes disease are termed as pathogenic bacteria
like industrial bacteria. And those which do not cause disease are Non- pathogenic bacteria.

Viruses: these are very small non-cellular parasites or pathogen of plant and animal.
What is Environmental Engineering?
Definition: The application of science and engineering knowledge, concepts and principles
to improve, or restore our natural environment (air, water and land) and solve environmental
problems, in order to provide healthy environment for all living organism.

It involves management of waste water, pollution control, recycling waste disposal,

radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental stability, and public health
issues as well as knowledge of environmental laws.

It also includes study of the environmental impacts of proposed construction projects.

Difference b/w Environmental Engineering and Environmental science?

Environmental science deals only with study of environmental issues which hazards
environment, and environmental engineering deals with methods, techniques and
application of engineering principles to solve the environmental issues.

Lithosphere: The solid part of the earth consisting of the crust and outer mantle.
Hydrosphere: The watery layer of the earth's surface; includes water vapor etc.
Biosphere: Difference ecosystem whether terrestrial or aquatic are linked together and
collectively constitute a giant ecosystem is called biosphere. The biosphere consist of earth
surface with few meters depth of water and air capsule which is of about 20km surrounding
earth. All living things live within biosphere not beyond it.
Types of Environmental Engineering

Environmental chemistry

Environmental microbiology

Environmental impact assessment

Environmental hydrology

Environmental health and safety

Environmental quality of modeling

and monitoring

Water and waste water treatment,

distribution and disposal

Air pollution and its control.

Noise pollution and its control.

Solid and hazards waste

management.

Population forecasting
Design of water supply and sanitation scheme is based on the projected population of a
particular city, estimated for the design period. Any underestimated value will make system
inadequate for the purpose intended; similarly overestimated value will make it costly.
Changes in the population of the city over the years occur, and the system should be
designed taking into account of the population at the end of the design period.
Factors affecting changes in population are:

increase due to births

decrease due to deaths

increase/
migration

decrease

due

increase due to annexation

to

Population forecasting Methods

ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

GEOMETRICAL
METHOD

INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

GRAPHICAL METHOD

COMPARATIVE GRAPHICAL METHOD

INCREASE

METHOD

(OR

GEOMETRICAL

PROGRESSION

MASTER PLAN METHOD

LOGISTIC CURVE METHOD

ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable development.

If it is used for small, average or comparatively new cities, it will give lower
population estimate than actual value.

This method is based on assumption that the population increases at constant rate.
Or rate of change of population is constant.

Hence, dP/dt = x i.e., rate of change of population with respect to time is constant.

Therefore, Population after nth decade will be Pn= Po + n.x

Where, Pn is the population after n decades and P is present population

GEOMETRICAL
METHOD)

In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is

assumed to remain constant.

Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment in population.

Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new
industrial town at the beginning of development for only few decades. The population
at the end of nth decade Pn can be estimated as:

Pn

INCREASE

METHOD

(OR

GEOMETRICAL

PROGRESSION

=Po(1+IG/100) n

Where, IG = geometric mean (%) P = Present population N = no. of decades.

INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is modification of arithmetical increase method and it is suitable for an

average size town under normal condition where the growth rate is found to be in
increasing order.

In this method per decade growth rate is not assumed to be constant as in

arithmetical increase method, but progressively increasing and decreasing depends
the average incremental increase in past is positive or negative.

Hence, population after nth decade is Pn = Po+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y

Where, Pn = Population after nth decade X = Average increase Y = Incremental

increase

GRAPHICAL METHOD

In this method, the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable
scale on graph.

The population curve is smoothly extended for getting future population. This
extension should be done carefully and it requires proper experience and judgment.

The best way of applying this method is to extend the curve by comparing with
population curve of some other similar cities having the similar growth condition.

MASTER PLAN METHOD

The big and metropolitan cities are generally not developed in haphazard manner,
but are planned and regulated by local bodies according to master plan.

The master plan is prepared for next 25 to 30 years for the city.

According to the master plan the city is divided into various zones such as residence,
commerce and industry.

The population densities are fixed for various zones in the master plan. From this
population density total water demand and wastewater generation for that zone can
be worked out. By this method it is very easy to access precisely the design
population.

LOGISTIC CURVE METHOD

This method is used when the growth rate of population due to births, deaths and
migrations takes place under normal situation and it is not subjected to any
extraordinary changes like epidemic, war, earth quake or any natural disaster, etc.,

And the population follows the growth curve characteristics of living things within
limited space and economic opportunity.

If the population of a city is plotted with respect to time, the curve so obtained under
normal condition looks like S-shaped curve and is known as logistic curve

Environmental engineering

Water supply scheme (Water quantity, water demands, and variation in water
demands.)

Water supply scheme

Water supply schemes are provided and constructed where shortage of water occurs
or unavailability of water occurs.

Water supply schemes should be proposed by the public health engineer and that
scheme should be designed for the current population and for the population of
minimum 2 decades.

It is proposed that water supply schemes are facilitated in those areas where is
scarcity of water, there is no any proper maintenance, check and balance.

Silent features of water supply scheme

1. Population forecast: Water supply schemes should be designed to serve satisfactory at

least population of 3 decades.
2. Assessment of water demand: depending upon the population the total water
requirements should be estimated for a town or city including domestic, public, industrial
etc demands.
3. Record of industry: the nature and no of industries in a town should be recorded because
industries require much water for running and maintenance. This record should be
updated from time to time.
4. Record of public places: the nature and no of public places like parks, play grounds,
hospitals, schools, markets etc should be recorded for provision of additional water
requirement.
5. Source of water: the cost of water supply scheme depends upon selection of site for
source of water. The selection of site for source of site should be such that cost of
convenience and water treatment should be reasonable. If water supply scheme is
designed for two cities water supply scheme should be designed at the center of both.

Water quantity

When designing the water supply project for a town or city, it is essential to determine
the detailed quantity of a water required for various purposes by the city.

But as there are so many aspects involved in demand of water, it is impossible to

precisely figure out the actual demand.

Certain empirical formula and thumb rules are used in determining the water demand,
which is very near to the real demand.

Water Quantity Estimation

The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme
has to be designed requires following data:

Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per head)

Population to be served.
Quantity= Per capita demand x Population

Types of water demands

1.

The amount of water necessary in the residences for drinking, bathing, cooking,
washing etc is known as domestic water demand and primarily depends on the
habits, social status, weather and traditions of the people.

Under normal conditions,

135 litres/day/capita.

But in developed countries this figure may be 325 340 litres/day/capita because of
use of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, automatic household
appliances.

Domestic water demand

the

domestic consumption

of

water

is

about

2. Industrial water demand

The water needed in the industries mostly relies on the kind of industries that are
established within the town. The water needed by various industries like paper mills,
Cloth mills, Cotton mills, Breweries, Sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use.
About 50 l/c/d or 20 25% of total water demand is normally considered as industrial
water demand.

3. Institutional and commercial water demand

This type of water demand includes the water requirement for the public buildings
other than residences.

Commercial buildings, Malls, Colleges, Hotels, Bus depots and other similar public
buildings comes within this category. Commercial demand 20l/c/d

4. Public use water demand

Volume of water necessary for public utility needs like for washing and sprinkling on
roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc
comes under public demand.

Usually Public demand 20 l/c/d or 5 % of total water demand for city is considered for
public use while designing water supply scheme.

5. Fire water demand

Water requirement for firefighting purpose fall under this head. The volume of water
necessary for firefighting is usually computed by making use of various empirical
formula. For water demand kuichings formula provides acceptable results.

Q = 3182 Sqroot (p)

where,

Q = volume of water required in Lits / Hour

p = population of city in thousands

6. Wastage and Losses

There are always losses and wastage occurs in pipeline while water distribution. The
main reasons for this are listed below

Damage pipe line and or faulty accessories like valves, fittings etc.

Water tabs kept open in public or residences causing water wastage

Due to illegal and unauthorized connections

While calculating the total amount of water of a town; allowance of 50 l/c/d 270 l/c/d
or 12- 15% of total quantity of water is designed to make up for losses, thefts and
wastage of water.

Factors affecting per capita demand:

Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to
that for smaller towns as big cities have severed houses.

Presence of industries.

Climatic conditions: water usage is more in summer less in winter.

Pressure in the distribution system.

Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and
unauthorized use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.

Cost of water.as cost will increase wastage will decrease, because people will avoid to
waste water in their interest in order to minimize expenditures.

Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

Average Daily Per Capita Demand= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x

Population)

If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the
fluctuations.

Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally
more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.

Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and
Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.

Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the
evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the
requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is
required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum
rate of hourly supply.

As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.

Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand.

Peak demand=1.5 x average daily demand.

WATER impurities

Water is the universal solvent and in nature, it is never totally pure. No matter how
isolated it is from sources of contamination, it will always have some chemicals.
Gases or minerals in the air, soil, or rock are dissolved by the water. Some dissolved
materials give water its characteristic taste, and pure water is generally considered
to be flat and tasteless.
Minerals can cause hardness (calcium or magnesium), color (iron), contamination),
and radioactivity in the water. Humans can cause contamination through the
improper use of pesticides or fertilizers and through the disposal of waste. These
impurities can dissolve in the water, causing it to be contaminated.
Groundwater dissolves much of the material when it percolates through soil
formation, dissolved minerals and salts.
It is generally harder than surface water, and it usually contains more iron and
manganese. As stated earlier, water in nature is not pure.
The suspended impurities are likely less in ground water as sub surface porous soil
act as filter.

The quality of water in case of run off depends upon catchment area. Water quality
from storage reservoir appears to be good as suspended particles settle down in
bottom of reservoir and upper layers are exposed to more aeration. As more
dissolved solids are present in bottom of reservoir that results in change of color of
water. A reservoir which is designed to supply water to agricultural zones, industrial
zones must be free from suspended particles.
Minerals and impurities are normally present in very small concentrations, and are
measured in parts per million (ppm) (how many parts of impurities in a million parts
of water) or milligrams per liter (mg/l). The terms are equivalent and are used
interchangeably in water and wastewater.
Some contaminants can also be measured in parts per billion (ppb) or micrograms
per liter (g/l), which are also essentially equivalent.

Types of impurities

Depending upon nature impurities can be classified as

Physical impurities:

Chemical impurities:

Biological impurities

Physical impurities causes following impurities:

(1) Turbidity

(2) Color

(3) Taste

(4) Odor

(5) Temperature

(6) Radioactive substances

Physical impurities

Turbidity: Turbidity in the water indicates presence of suspended or colloidal insoluble

matter including coarse particles (mud, sediment, sand, clay, silt etc.) that settle
rapidly on standing.

In some cases salts of different also impart turbidity in water. The colloidal substance
and salts may be injurious to health.

The turbidity of feed water should not exceed 5 ppm. These materials can be
removed by settling, coagulation and filtration. Their presence is undesirable because
heating or evaporation produces hard stony scale deposits on the heating surface &
clog fluid system.

Color: The water gets color from discharge of industries like chemical, textile, paper
etc. Yellowish color indicates the presence of chromium and appreciable amount of
organic matter. Yellowish red color indicates the presence of iron, while red brown
color indicates the presence of peaty matter.

Taste: It is due to the presence of dissolved mineral in water produces taste, but not
odor.

Bitter taste can be due to the presence of iron, aluminum, manganese, sulphate or
excess of lime.

Soapy taste can be due to the presence of large amount of sodium bi carbonate.

Brackish (slightly salty, unpalatable) taste is due to the presence of unusual amount
of salts.

Palatable (acceptable taste) Taste is due to the presence of dissolved gases and
minerals like nitrates in water.

Odor: waste products discharge from industries. Some industries components such
as trades contain strong smelling compounds which impart odor and taste. Generally
smelling compounds are chlorine, hydrogen, sulphide etc.

Temperature: Temperature is an important factor to consider when assessing water

quality. In addition to its own effects, temperature influences several other
parameters and can alter the physical and chemical properties of water. Water is
most dense at 4 degrees Celsius, or 39 degrees Fahrenheit, and is less dense at
either higher or lower temperatures.

Radioactive substances: The discharge from nuclear power plant or research

center discharge radioactive substances which can seriously affect human health and
life.

Chemical impurities in water:

Followings are chemical impurities.

(1) Acids: the waste products of some industries such as battery factories, explosive
factories contain acids. If these waste products are directly discharged into river then it
will be harmful to life, and will destroy self-purification property of water.
(2) Inorganic compounds: The waste products of industries like fertilization
industry, oven industry contain certain inorganic compounds. These compounds mainly
consist of sulphide , ammonia etc which are harmful to life.

(3) organic compounds:

(a)Organic compounds may exist in the water due to presence of fats, protein
and carbohydrates.

(b)The suspended organic compounds may develop due to decayed fruits and
dead animals.

Organic compounds contain different dangerous elements which are harmful for
life.

(4) pH :It is a value that determines if a substance is acid, neutral or basic,

calculated from the number of hydrogen ions present. The initials pH stand for
"Potential of Hydrogen". It is measured on a scale from 0 to 14, on which 7 means the
substance is neutral. pH values below 7 indicate that the substance is acidic and pH

values above 7 indicate that it is basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH of 7 which
means that it is neutral.

Biological impurities in water:

Biological contamination of water is caused by the presence of living organisms like

algae, bacteria, protozoa, pathogens, microbes, Viruses, Parasites and their eggs
(cysts), etc. known collectively known as microorganisms and commonly called
'germs'.

The development of pathogenic bacteria , fungus, viruses etc in water is caused due
to dead bodies and due to unhygienic discharge of sewage into river without
treatment, and are responsible for water borne disease.

The health effects of drinking water contaminated with germs may be severe, but
easily curable with modern day medicine. These minute living organisms in water are
the causes of diseases from dirty water like typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera,
gastroenteritis, etc.

Water tanks can sometimes be a breeding ground for microbes in water. In the usual
test for microorganisms, only one group of bacteria known as Coliform or e-coli is
tested for, this is because it is the most common species, and the first microorganism
to infect water. Membrane purification of water actually filters out all bacteria from
water unlike UV water purifier which kill bacteria in water but leaves their bodies in
the drinking water.

What is coliform bacteria in water?

Coliform bacteria are one of the most common bacteria which is found almost
everywhere. Coliforms are a type or family of bacteria that includes many varieties,
such as Escherichia Coli or commonly known as E. Coli. Most of the E.Coli or Coliform
bacteria are harmless to human beings, and it is very rare for E.Coli bacteria to cause
sickness, especially since most people have immunity to their local variety of E.Coli.

Filtration

Filter Materials

Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size of the
sand is measured and expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size,
i.e. D10 may be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through which ten percent of
the sample of sand by weight will pass. The uniformity in size or degree of variations
in sizes of particles is measured and expressed by the term called uniformity
coefficient. The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D 60/D10) may be defined as the ratio of the
sieve size in mm through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the
effective size of the sand.
Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered
water to move freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move
uniformly upwards.
Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as filter media.
Anthrafilt is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without
smoke or flames. It is cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.

Classification of Filters

The filters are classified according to the rate of filtration and the force by which the
water passes the filtering media. so, under these conditions, the filters may be of the
following types:

Constructional Features

 Backwashing
To keep water treatment filters functional, they have to be cleaned periodically to
remove particulates. Ineffective backwashing is one of the main reasons that water
treatment
filters
fail.
In
terms
of water
treatment,
including
water
purification and sewage treatment, backwashing refers to pumping water backwards
through the filter media, sometimes including intermittent use of compressed

air during the process. Backwashing is a form of preventive maintenance so that the
filter media can be reused.

WATER PURIFICATION

In early days surface water was used by human for their domestic purposes. At that
man did not have knowledge how to purify water, thats why man had to suffer from
water borne diseases, So many villages were destroyed because of water borne
diseases.
With the growth of civilization and development of town or city, people started
thinking over issue of water for drinking, safety of life and healthy environment.
It is observed that people are not still using portable water. Before supplying the
water to the consumer, should be completely purified, and this involves very
extensive and modern methods of treatment.
By purification does not mean to remove all bacteria, because some of them are
good for health. The water which does not contain harm salts or minerals and does
contain impurities which are good for health is called portable water, or whole sum
water. Portable water is very clear in color, free from any type of odor, and should be
free from harmful bacteria.
So the Water purification is process of removing any kind of impurity it contain such
as undesirable chemical, biological contaminants , suspended solids and harmful
substances from raw water, to make it safe and portable for human consumption.
To obtain desired quality of water, a sample from resources like river, reservoir, canal
etc is collected and tested in laboratory and necessary treatment should be
recommended accordingly.
The extent of treatment depends upon characteristics and quality of available water
and also quality required.

Purification of water supply

Screening: In this method net is used to remove large solids, dead animals, solids,
logs, wooden branches etc. This method is installed while designing of purification of
water.

Chemical addition:

Before coagulation, chemicals like aluminum sulphate (Alum), polymers, or

chlorine are added to water. These kill the germs and improve taste, odor and
help to settle the solid particles suspended in the water and these particles are
then mixed together.
Coagulation and flocculation:
Here the Alum and other chemical from chemical addition start cling to particles
in the water this called coagulation. It causes the particles to stick together and
form large particles called floc and this process is called flocculation.

Sedimentation: The water and floc particles flow into sedimentation basin, here the
floc settles in the bottom of basin and get removed from water.

Filtration: From the sedimentation basin water flows through filters. Filters are made
of sand and gravels. Filters are used to remove any remaining particle left in water.
The gravel layer is often about 1 foot deep and the sand layer about 2 feet deep.

Disinfection: A small amount of chlorine or the disinfection chemicals are added in

this process. This is used to kill an remaining particle or germ to keep the water safe
as it travels to the public. In some water system specially those within ground water,
this is only treatment to be provided.

Storage and distribution: After disinfection water is stored for a period of 15 days
to check is there any effect of germ and bacteria. When it is checked there is no any
harmful bacteria and germ, water is distributed to community.

For domestic supply it is necessary to make the water wholesome and pleasant to
drink. Water contain suspended solids, turbidity, bacteria and dissolved salts.
They are harmful and need to be removed, so that water is fit for health.

To make water consumable following factors should be taken into consideration.

Safety for preventing water borne diseases.

Ensuring water quality so as to attain permissible standard before to reach

consumers.

Removing turbidity, color, taste and odor which cause the water to be
unacceptable.

Supplying adequate quantity of water for various domestic purposes.

Distribution System

The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate

quality, quantity and pressure.
Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply water
from its source to the point of usage.

Requirements of Good Distribution System

Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.

It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient
pressure head.
It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.
The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during
the repair of any section of the system.
All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the
sewer lines.
It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.

Layouts of Distribution Network

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their
layouts generally follow the layouts of roads.
There are, in general, four
different types of pipe
networks; any one of
which either singly or in
combinations, can be used
for a particular place.

They are:

Dead End System

Radial System

 Advantages
Relatively cheap.
Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves.
Disadvantages
Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.
Radial System
The area is divided into different zones.
The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in the middle of each zone.

The supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the periphery.

Advantages:
It gives quick service.
Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.

 Grid Iron System

It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches
are laid in rectangles.
Advantages
Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.
In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other
direction.
Disadvantages
Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all
branches.
Ring System
The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch out from
the mains.

This system also follows the grid iron system with

the flow pattern similar in character to that of dead
end system.

So, determination of the size of pipes is easy.

Advantages
Water can be supplied to any point from at least two
directions.

Methods of water distribution

For efficient distribution system adequate water pressure required at various points.

 Depending upon the level of source, topography of the area and other local
conditions the water may be forced into distribution system by following ways Gravity system
Pumping system
Combined gravity and pumping system
Gravity system
Suitable when source of supply is at sufficient height.
Most reliable and economical distribution system.
The water head available at the consumer is just minimum required.
The remaining head is consumed in the frictional and other losses.
Pumping system
Treated water is directly pumped in to the distribution main without storing.
Also called pumping without storage system.
High lifts pumps are required.
If power supply fails, complete stoppage of water supply.
This method is not generally used.
Combined gravity and pumping system
Most common system.
Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir.
Then supplies to consumer by action of gravity.
The excess water during low demand periods get stored in reservoir and get supplied
during high demand period.
Economical, efficient and reliable system.

Disinfection
Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic
microorganisms.
When microorganisms
are not removed from drinking water, drinking water usage will cause people to fall
ill. Sterilization is a process related to disinfection. However, during the sterilization
process all present microorganisms are killed, both harmful and harmless
microorganisms.
Some common water-borne diseases prevented by disinfection:

Bacterial
Typhoid fever
Para-typhoid

Viral
Hepatitis
Rotavirus diarrhea

Protozoan
Amoebiasis
Giardiasis

Bacterial diarrhea
Cholera
Legionnaires
disease

Crypto sporidiasis

Types of disinfection:

Physical disinfection techniques include boiling and irradiation with ultraviolet light.
Chemical disinfection techniques include adding chlorine, bromine, iodine, and ozone
to water.

Physical disinfection (boiling):

Boiling kills vegetative bacterial cells, but spores (produces), viruses, and some
protozoa may survive long periods of boiling.
Boiling is an effective method for small batches of water during water emergencies.
Boiling is prohibitively expensive for large quantities of water.

Physical disinfection (UV radiation):

Ultraviolet radiation is an effective and relatively safe disinfection method, but is

relatively expensive and not widely used.
UV light disrupts DNA of microbial cells, preventing reproduction.
Specific wavelengths, intensities, distances, flow rates, and retention times are
required.

Chemical disinfection:

Chemicals added to water for disinfection include chlorine, bromine, and iodine.
Bromine is not recommended for drinking water disinfection, but may be used for
pool water.
Iodine is sometimes used for drinking water disinfection, but causes a bad aftertaste.

Chlorine disinfection:

Chlorination is a cheap, effective, relatively harmless (and therefore most popular)

disinfection method.
It is the method of disinfection by which the microorganisms are killed if chlorine & its
components are used. Chlorination serves not only for disinfection, but as an oxidant
for other substances (iron, manganese, cyanide, etc) & for taste & odor control in
water & wastewater.

Other chemical disinfectants include chlorine dioxide, ozone, bromine, iodine. The
last two chemicals are generally used for personal application, not for the public
water supply.

Chlorine is added as a gas or hypochlorite solution.

Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions form in solution, which are strong chemical
oxidants, and kill microbes.

Combined chlorine is the proportion that combines with organic matter.

Free chlorine is the amount that remains to kill microbes in the distribution system
(0.5 ppm, 10 min.)

Total chlorine is the combined concen-tration of combined and free chlorine.

 Disinfection By-Products (DBPs)

Plain Chlorination : This term is to indicate that only the chlorine treatment without
any other treatment
Pre Chlorination: The application of chlorine to raw water before any other treatment
to improve the coagulation & to remove the taste, odor, & color

Post Chlorination: Application of chlorine to treated water after all the other
treatment

Double chlorination: When water has been chlorinated twice.

Ozonation: Ozone (O3) is an effective, relatively harmless disinfection method, but

is expensive (and therefore less popular than chlorine). Ozonation is a chemical water
treatment technique based on the infusion of ozone into water. Ozone is a gas
composed of three oxygen atoms (O3), which is one of the most powerful oxidants.
Summary: Disinfection is the destruction of microorganisms in drinking water to safe
levels. Disinfection techniques include physical (boiling, ultraviolet light) and
chemical methods (chlorine, bromine, iodine, and ozone).

Hard Water, Soft Water

Hard Water:

One class of impurity that is of special interest is "hardness".

As water moves through soil and rock, it dissolves very small amounts of
minerals and holds them in solution. Calcium and magnesium dissolved in
water are the two most common minerals that make water hard. The
degree of hardness becomes greater as the calcium and magnesium content
increases.

Minerals in hard water interact with soap.

Interferes with soaps ability to lather.

Effects of Hard Water

Homes with hard water use more soap!

More soap residue.

Calcium and iron deposits can build up in appliances

Washing machine

Dish washer

Steam iron

Shortens their life span and adds to landfill problem!

Soft Water
Water with very low concentrations of minerals.
Soap lathers easily and is sometimes difficult to rinse off.

Sedimentation
Sedimentation is water treatment process, during which water has little
or no movement, and suspended solids sink to the bottom under the
force of gravity and form a sediment, this process is called
sedimentation.

Purpose of sedimentation

To
To
To
To

remove coarse dispersed phase.

remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking filters.

Sedimentation Principle

Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of
water tend to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by
offering storage. Inorganic suspended solids having specific gravity of about
2.65; and Organic suspended solids having specific gravity of about 1.04

The particles having specific gravity of about 1.20 or so readily settle down at
the bottom of tank. But it is difficult to cause the settlement of lighter
particles.
This phenomenon of settling down of particles at the bottom of sedimentation
tank is known as hydraulic subsidence and every particle has its own
hydraulic settling value which will cause its hydraulic subsidence.
Basin in which the flow is retarded is called sedimentation basin. Theoretical
average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called
the detention period

Types of sedimentation

Plain sedimentation: It is process of settling down of solids and impurities

in the raw water to the bottom of sedimentation basin by natural gravity
force alone, no chemical is added. This method is very cheaper and
mostly used in all filtration and purification system of water.
Sedimentation by using clarifier and contact: In this method chemicals are
mixed in water and that water is rotated by help of pumps for period of
two hours per day, and suspended solids are settled down in the bottom
of reservoir or tank etc.
Chemically Assisted sedimentation or clarification: this is process in which
chemicals are added to water and through mixing the suspended solids
and other impurities are stick together and form floc, which settles to the
bottom of basin. In general most used process is chemically assisted
horizontal sedimentation and following assumptions are based on:
o

water generally flows through a tank as an irregular flow thus the

intention of sedimentation is to create condition in which the flow is
uniform as for long enough period, to permit the maximum practical
amount of floc to be settled before the water reaches at the end of
tank.

Size, shape and weight of particles.

Viscosity and temperature of water.

Detention period of tank.

Effective depth of tank.

Area of tank.

Surface over flow rate.

Velocity of flow and outlet design.

Rectangular sedimentation basin

Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing water to flow

horizontally through a long tank. This type of basin is usually found in largescale water treatment plants.
Rectangular basins have a variety of advantages such as predictability, costeffectiveness, and low maintenance. They are the least likely to short-circuit,

especially if the length is at least twice the width. The inlet and outlet
arrangements of rectangular basis are shown below.
A disadvantage of rectangular basins is the large extent of land area required.

Circular sedimentation basin

Square and circular sedimentation basins with horizontal flow are often known as
clarifiers.
This type of basin faces short-circuiting problems. Below Figure shows the inlet
and outlet arrangements.
Design detail

Detention period for plain sedimentation 4-8 hours and for coagulated
sedimentation 3-4 hours.
Velocity of flow not greater than 30cm/ mint( horizontal flow).
Tank dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common) maximum 100 m.
Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m. generally 20 to
40 m.
Depth 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m).
Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000 L/d/m2 tank
area; for thoroughly flocculated water 24000 to 30000 L/d/m2 tank area.
Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.
Detention period
The theoretical (calculated) time required for a given amount of water or
wastewater to pass through a tank at a given rate of flow. In other words it is
average time for which the water is detained in tank.

volume

t= flow rate = Q

LBD
AV

D
V

Where t is detention period, Q is flow rate.

Detention time is inversely proportional to the incoming flow rate - as flow
rate increases, the detention time decreases.
Example
Calculate the detention time for a rectangular sedimentation tank with the
following dimensions, length is 20m, width is 10m, depth is 4m, and the flow
rate is 0.5

m3 per sec.

detention time = tank volume

incoming water flow rate
Note units of measurement are all consistent. ie time is given in seconds and
length is given in meters.
detention time = (20 x 10 x 4)
0.5

detention time = 800

0.5
detention time = 1600 seconds
detention time = 26.7 minutes
The
term detention is
often
with retention and hydraulic retention time.

used

interchangeably

Coagulation
The very fine suspended particles and the colloidal matter present in water
cannot be settled in plain sedimentation tank. So they need special treatment
to remove, for this purpose certain chemicals compound called coagulants
are added to water, which on thorough mixing form a gelatinous precipitated
called folc.
The process of addition and mixing of chemicals is called coagulation.
In addition to removing turbidity from water, coagulation and flocculation is
beneficial. In other ways the process to remove many bacteria which are
suspended in the water and can be used to remove color from water.
The coagulation before sedimentation is almost universally adapted in all the
major water treatment plant and is followed by rapid sand filtration.

COMMON COAGULANTS
The coagulants like aluminum sulphate (Alum), ferrous sulphate etc carry
positive charge and attract negatively charged colloidal particles of clay,
turbidity, and color. Thus helping in the removal of these impurities from
water.
Following are common coagulants:
1. Aluminum sulphate
2. Ferrous sulphate
3. Chlorinated copperas
4. Magnesium carbonate

5. Poly electrolytes
6. Ferric chloride
7. Sodium aluminate etc
Aluminum sulphate
This is most common and universal coagulant used in water works.
Its chemical composition is Al2(SO4)3.18H2O. It requires the presence of
alkalinity in water to form flux. Many water have bicarbonate alkalinity naturally
in them. When dissolved in water aluminum sulphate tends to hydrolyze into
aluminum hydrolyze as is evident from following reactions
Al2(SO4)3 18H2O+3Ca (HCO3)= 2Al( OH3)+3CaSO4+18H2O+6CO2
If Natural alkalinity in water is insufficient to react with alum , lime is also added
to water to form calcium hydrodoide Ca(OH)2 Or hydrated lime which reacts with
Alum as follows
Al2(SO4)3 18H2O+3Ca(OH)2=2Al( OH3)+3CaSO4+18 H2O
Sometimes sodium carbonate known as soda ash is added to form alkalinity the
resulting reactions are
Al2(So4)3 18H2o+3Na2co2 = 2Al(OH)2+3NaSo4+3cO2+18H2O
Though soda ash does not cause hardness, it is expensive than lime and is found
to be effective when ph value of water varies from 6.5 t0 8.5.
Its dose depends upon turbidity, color, taste, ph value and temperature of water.
The dose of alum varies between 10 t0 30mg per dm3 of water. Alum is
preferred over other coagulants because it reduces taste and odor etc
effectively. It is cheap and floc formed is quite tough to be broken easily.
It produce crystal clear water. The main disadvantage of alum is that it is
difficult to dewater sludge formed.
Ferrous sulphate
Ferrous or copperas can react with naturally calcium carbonate and alkalinity in
water but this is very much delayed one, hence lime is used with ferrous
sulphate and the following reactions take place.
Fe(SO4) 7H2O+ Ca (OH)2= Fe(OH)2+ Caso4+ 7H2O
The ferrous hydroxide is satisfactory gelatinous floc , which is heavier than one
formed by Alum.
The effective Ph range for this is 8.5 and above. Ferrous sulphate is not suitable
for soft colored water.
Chlorinated copperas
Hydrated Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4.7H2O is traditionally referred to as Copperas.
It has too high solubility to act as satisfactory coagulant . It is therefore, first