More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.

com
Thanks to the William's work!

Exercise Solutions to Functional Analysis

Note: References refer to M. Schechter, Principles of Functional Analysis

Exersize 1. Let 1 , . . . , n be an orthonormal set in a Hilbert space H. Show

that



n
n



X
X



(f, k )k
k k f
f



k=1

k=1

Solution 1. Since f H, we know that f V H, where V is some finite

dimensional subspace of H, say dim V = m n. We may assume that V contains
1 , 2 , . . . , n . Let {1 , . . . , n , n+1 , . . . , m } be an orthonormal basis for V (this
is possible by extending
Pm {1 , . . . , n } to an orthonormal basis via Gram-Schmidt).
Now write f = k k k . Then we have
f

n
m
X
X
(f, k )k =
k k
k

Hence

k=n+1

2

m
n


X
X


k2
(f, k )k =
f


k=n+1

since kk k = 1 for 1 k m. On the other hand,

f

n
X

k k =

Hence

n
X

(k k )k +

m
X

k k

k=n+1

2
n
n
m


X
X
X


k k =
(k k )2 +
k2
f


k

k=n+1

It is clear now that

2
2
n
n




X
X




k k f
(f, k )k
f




k

It follows that

n
n



X
X



k k f
(f, k )k
f



k

Were done.


1

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

Exersize 2. Let c denote the set of all elements (1 , 2 , . . . ) l such that {n }

is a convergent sequence, and let c0 be the set of all such elements for which n 0
as n . Show that c and c0 are Banach spaces.
Solution 2. It is known that l is a Banach space. The linear structure, as well
as the norm, of c and c0 is inherited from that of l . To show completeness of c
and c0 , it will suffice to show that c and c0 are closed in l . We show that c is
closed in l and c0 is closed in c.
Now, suppose that {xk } is a sequence in c converging to some x l . Then, for
any given  > 0, we know that there exists k0 such that

sup |xjk0 xj | <
3
j
Hence for all j we have
|xjk0 xj | <
n o
We also know that, since xjk0


3

is a convergent sequence, it is Cauchy, so there

jN

exists N N such that for all n m N , we have


|xnk0 xm
k0 | <
3
From this we deduce:
m
m
|xn xm | |xn xnk0 | + |xnk0 xm
k0 | + |xk0 x | < 

for all n m N . This shows that {x} is Cauchy, hence convergent. Thus x c.
This shows that c contains all its limit points, hence closed. So c, being a closed
subset of a complete space, must itself be complete.
Similarly, let us suppose that {xk } is a sequence in c0 that converges to x l .
Then for all  > 0, there exists k0 such that

sup |xjk0 xj | <
2
j
Hence for all j we have

2
c0 , there exists N N such that for all n N , we
|xjk0 xj | <

On the other hand, since xk0

have

|xnk0 | <


2

Hence for all n N we have

|xn | |xnk0 | + |xnk0 xn | < 

So x = xj converges to 0, hence x c0 . So c0 is complete.

Exersize 3. Show that the norm of an element is never negative.

Solution 3. Suppose that kxk < 0. But then 0 = kx xk kxk + | 1| kxk < 0.
Cant be!

Exersize 4. If x, y are are elements of a Hilbert space H and satisfy kx + yk =
kxk + kyk, show that either x = cy or y = cx for some scalar c 0.

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

Solution 4. Well, if either x = 0 or y = 0, the result holds vacuously. So assume

that neither x nor y is equal to zero. We may assume that x, y V H, with
dim V = m < . If m = 1, were done. If not, we may take for a basis of V the
set {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } of orthonormal vectors where x1 = x/ kx1 k. This can be done
via Gram-Schmidt. Write y = 1 x1 + + m xm . Then we have
kx1 + (1 x1 + + m xm )k = kx1 k + k1 x1 + + m xm k
From this we immediately deduce
2|(x1 , 1 x1 + + m xm )| = 2 kx1 k k1 x1 + + m xm k
By orthonormality of {x1 , . . . , xm }, we get from above:
q
2
|1 | = 12 + + m
From this we immediately deduce that
2 = = m = 0
Hence we must have
y = 1 x1 =

1
x
kxk

Were done.

Exersize 5. Show that in a normed vector space

X
X
X
vj =
vj +
vj
j=1

j=1

j=n+1

Solution 5. In a normed vector space the notion of the limit makes sense, and in
fact all standard results regarding algebra of limits hold. In particular we have, by
definition (for n fixed)

X
j=1

vj = lim

k
X

vj =

j=1

k
X

lim

k,kn

vj

j=1

On the other hand for k n we have

k
X
j=1

vj =

n
X

vj +

j=1

k
X

vj

j=n+1

Hence

X
j=1

n
k
n
X
X
X
vj = lim
vj +
vj =
vj + lim
k

j=1

j=n+1

j=1

k
X
j=n+1

vj =

n
X
j=1

vj +

vj

j=n+1


Exersize 6. For f = (1 , . . . , n ) Rn , show that
kf k0 = max |k |
k

and
kf k1 =

n
X

|k |

k=1

are norms. Is Rn complete with respect to either of them?

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

Solution 6. It is easy to see that (11) and (12) of the definition of a norm on p.
7 hold trivially in both cases. So we only verify the triangle inequality.
Write f = (1 , . . . , n ) and g = (1 , . . . , n ). Then we have
kf + gk0 = max |k + k | max(|k | + |k |)
k

which follows from the triangle inequality of | | on R. On the other hand, it isnt
hard to see that
max(|k | + |k |) max |k | + max |k | = kf k0 + kgk0
k

In the second case,

kf + gk1 =

n
X

|k + k |

n
X

(|k | + |k |) = kf k1 + kgk1

k=1

k=1
n

Now, we know that R is complete with respect to the standard Euclidean norm.
But all norms on a finite dimensional vector space are equivalent. So Rn is complete
with respect to the two norms above.
More directly, it isnt hard to see that:
q
kf k0 12 + + n2
and
kf k1

q
12 + + n2


Exersize 7. If F is a bounded linear functional on a normed vector space X, show

that
kF k = sup |F (x)| = sup |F (x)|
kxk1

kxk=1

Solution 7. By definition we have

kF k = sup
x6=0

But

|F (x)|
kxk

 


x 
|F (x)|

= sup |F (x)|
= sup F
sup
kxk  kxk=1
x6=0
x6=0 kxk

On the other hand,

sup |F (x)| = sup
kxk=1

x6=0

|F (x)|
|F (x)|
sup
sup |F (x)| sup |F (x)|
kxk
kxk1 kxk
kxk1
kxk=1

This verifies the claim.

Exersize 8. A functional F (x) is called additiveif F (x + y) = F (x) + F (y). If F

is additive, show that F (x) = F (x) for all rational .
Solution 8. Well, F (0) = F (0 + 0) = F (0) + F (0). So F (0) = 0.
By definition, for any n > 0 an integer, we have
nx = x + x + + x
|
{z
}
n - times

Hence we must have F (nx) = nF (x).

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

Now, for m > 0, F (x) = F (mx/m) = mF (x/m). So F (x/m) = F (x)/m. Now

it immediately follows that for n 0, m > 0, we have F (nx/m) = nF (x)/m.
Finally, 0 = F (x x) = F (x + (x)) = F (x) + F (x). So F (x) = F (x).
This completes the proof.

Exersize 9. Show that an additive functional is continuous everywhere if it is
continuous at one point.
Solution 9. Suppose that F is an additive function which is continuous at some
x0 . We shall show that F is bounded. That is, there exists C > 0 such that for all
x we have
|F (x)| C kxk
Since F is continuous at x0 , we know that, for arbitrary  > 0 fixed, there exists a
> 0 such that for all kx x0 k we have |F (x) F (x0 )| . Now take y 6= 0.
If kyk is not rational, we can always pick kyk /2 < M < kyk rational sufficiently
close to kyk. Set

y
x = x0 +
2M
Then it is clear that
kx x0 k <
Hence we have (also since F is additive):
|F (x x0 )| 
By the previous problem, since /2M is rational, we must have
 




 |F (x x0 )| = F
y  =
|F (y)|
2M
2M
Hence

2

kyk
|F (y)| 2M <

This construction works for all y, with 2

being independent of y. Hence F is
bounded, thus continuous everywhere.

Exersize 10. Show that the set I is compact.
Solution 10. Since l is a metric space, we know that a subset of a metric space is
compact if and only if it is sequentially compact. So we show that I is sequentially
compact: that is, every sequence has a convergent subsequence.
Let x(i, j)i,jN be a sequence in l such that |x(i, j)| 1/j for all i, j. Clearly
for each fixed j, x(i, j) has a subsequence x(ik , j) that converges. Now let y 1 (i, j)
be a subsequence of x(i, j) such that y 1 (i, 1) y1 . Let y 2 (i, j) be a subsequence
of y 1 (i, j), such that y 2 (i, 2) y2 . In general, let y n (i, j) be a subsequence of
y n1 (i, j), such that y n (i, n) yn . Now let z(i, j) = y i (i, j). We claim that
z(i, j), (
y 1 , y2 , . . . ) I and that z(i, j) (
y 1 , y2 , . . . ) as i .
Clearly, by construction, for each fixed i, |z(i, j)| 1/j, since it is a germ of
the sequence x(i, j)jN . Since yj is the limit of a subsequence of x(i, j)iN , and
x(i, j) 1/j for all i, we must have also |
y j | 1/j. Hence (
y j )jN I .
Now suppose that  > 0 is fixed. Let N be so large that 1/N < /2. Let
M1 , M2 , . . . , MN be such that for all k Mi , |y i (k, i) yi | < . Let M =
max {maxi {Mi } , N }. Then observe that for all k M , |z(k, j) yj | <  when

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

j N , and |z(k, j) y j | |z(k, j)| + |y j | 1/N + 1/N = 2/N <  when j > N .
Hence we have
sup |z(k, j) yj | <  for all k > M
j

So, as claimed, z(i, j) (

y j ) in l -norm. This proves sequential compactness of
I , and hence compactness.

Exersize 11. Let M be a totally bounded subset of a normed vector space X.
Show that for each  > 0, M has a finite -net N M .
Solution 11. We proceed by contradiction. Suppose that M is totally bounded,
and for some fixed  > 0, there is no finite -net N contained entirely in M . Then
given x1 M , there exists x2 M such that kx2 x1 k > . Similarly there must
exist x3 M such that kxi x3 k > , with i = 1, 2. In general, we can continue
this process and obtain xn M such that kxn xi k >  with i = 1, 2, . . . , n1. Let
S = {x1 , x2 , . . . }. However, M is totally bounded, so there exists a finite /2-net of
M , say given by {w1 , w2 , . . . , wk } such that the balls B(wi , /2), with i = 1, 2, . . . , k
cover M . Since there are infinitely many distinct terms in the set S M , for
some i 6= j, xi , xj S and xi , xj B(wl , /2) for some 1 l k. But then
kxi xj k /2, which cannot be by construction of S. This is a contradiction. 
Exersize 12. Prove that if M is finite dimensional, then we can take = 1 in
Lemma 4.7
Solution 12. Let n = (n 1)/n < 1 for n 2. We know then that there exists
xn M c , such that d(xn , M ) n and kxn k = 1 (in some fixed norm on X: X has
many admissible norms, but all are equivalent). Since X is finite-dimensional and
(xn ) is a bounded sequence, we know that xn has a convergent subsequence, say
xnk x X. But then kxk = 1 (this is obvious from the continuity of the norm,
and the fact that kxn k = 1 for all n) and d(x, M ) (nk 1)/nk for all nk . Hence
d(x, M ) 1. Were done.

Exersize 13. Show that if X is infinite dimensional and K is one-to-one operator
in K(X), then K I cannot be in K(X).
Solution 13. Let S X be the unit sphere (that is, the set of all vectors of
unit norm). For convenience, let Sp(x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) denote the space spanned by
the vectors xi , i = 1, 2, . . . , k. Now, pick x1 S. Clearly Sp(x1 ) 6= X, so there
exists x2 S such that kx1 x2 k > 1/2. Now, obviously Sp(x1 , x2 ) 6= X. So there
exists x3 S such that kx1 x3 k , kx2 x3 k > 1/2. Continue this process, at nth
step selecting xn S such that kxi xn k > 1/2 with i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1. This is
possible since Sp(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn1 ) 6= X (since X is infinite dimensional). Now, the
sequence (xn )nN is bounded. Keep this in mind...
Now suppose that A = K I is compact. But then there exists a subsequence
(xnk ) such that Axnk converges; so in particular is Cauchy. Let, for convenience,
yk = xnk . Thus, for  < 1/2 there exists N N such that for all n m N we
have
kAyn Aym k < 
Hence
kym yn kkKym Kyn k k(ym yn ) (Kym Kyn )k = k(Kyn yn ) (Kym ym )k < 

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

But then
kym yn k <  + kKym yn k
Now, K is compact, so there exists a subsequence zk = ynk such that Kzk converges,
so in particular is Cauchy. Hence for N large enough,  + kKzm zn k < 1/2 for
all n m N . So
kzm zn k <  + kKzm zn k < 1/2
which cannot be, since kzm zn k > 1/2 by construction of the sequence (xn ), of
which (zn ) is a subsequence.
So A cannot be compact. This completes the proof.

Exersize 14. Let X be a vector space which can be made into a Banach space by
introducing either of two different norms. Suppose that convergence with respect to
the first norm always implies convergence with respect to the second norm. Show
that the norms are equivalent.
Solution 14. Let kk1 and kk2 denote the two norms. It will suffice to show only
that there exists C > 0 such that for all x X nonzero one has
kxk1 C kxk2
for then a similar argument will establish the existence of D > 0 such that
kxk2 D kxk1
from which equivalence of the two norms could be deduced easily.
Suppose, for a contradiction, that for all n N , there exists xn X nonzero
such that
kxn k1 > n kxn k2
But then we must have
kxn k2
1
<
kxn k1
n
Hence xn / kxn k1 0 in the kk2 -norm. But then, by hypothesis, xn / kxn k1 0
in the kk1 -norm. This cannot be, since kxn / kxn k1 k1 = 1 for all n. This is a
contradiction. Were done.

Exersize 15. Suppose A B(X, Y ), K K(X, Y ), where X, Y are Banach spaces.
If R(A) R(K), show that A K(X, Y ).
Solution 15. Since both A and K are linear operators, we know that R(A), R(K)
Y are vector subspaces of Y . Now, we also know that since K is compact, R(K)
is finite-dimensional (see next problem below). But then A : X R(A) R(K)
is a bounded operator into a finite dimensional space. Hence A is compact. To see
this: let (xn ) be a bounded sequence in X. Since A is bounded, A(xn ) is a bounded
sequence in R(A). Since R(A) is finite-dimensional, A(xn ) must have a convergent
subsequence. Were done.

Exersize 16. Suppose X, Y are Banach spaces and K K(X, Y ). If R(K) = Y ,
show that Y is finite dimensional.
= X/N (K). Now, N (K) is certainly closed in X. Define the
Solution 16. Let X
norm on X/N
R by k
kkX : X
xkX = inf kz x
k
zN (K)

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

where kk is the norm on X. It isnt hard to verify that the norm above is welldefined, and actually is a norm.
: X
Y be the homomorphism (of vector spaces) induced by the hoLet K

momorphism K - that is, K([x])

= K(x). Then this induced homomorphism is
actually a vector space isomorphism (fundamental theorem of vector space homo is compact! To see this,
morphisms - isnt hard to verify). But more is true - K
observe that since N (K) is closed, for all x
/ N (K), there exists z N (K) such

that k[x]kX = kx zk. Now, let us suppose that [x1 ], [x2 ], . . . is a sequence in X
that is bounded, say by C > 0. But then there exist z1 , z2 , N (K) such that
kxn zn k = k[xn ]kX < C
for all n. Hence the sequence (xn zn ) is bounded in X. Now, for all n,
n ]) = K(xn ) = K(xn ) 0 = K(xn ) K(zn ) = K(xn zn )
K([x
since zn N (K). But then, by compactness of K, there is a subsequence K(xnk )
n ]) converges in Y , which is what we wished to
that converges (in Y ). Hence K([x
k
show.
is compact, onto Y and is 1-to-1. Hence K
is bounded
Now, observe that K
(hence closed), onto Y and is 1-to-1. But then there exists C > 0 such that for all

x
X,




(*) k
xk C K(
x)
X

Were now ready to prove that Y is finite dimensional. Well proceed by contradiction.
Suppose that dim Y = . But then there exists a sequence (yn ) in Y such that
kyn kY = 1 for all n, and for all i 6= j, one has kyn ym kY > 1/2. See solution
4 above for construction of such a sequence. Clearly then (yn ) has no convergent
is 1-to-1, let xn = K
1 (yn ). But then by (*) above,
subsequence in Y . Since K

(xn ) is a bounded sequence in X, and, as noted above, its image, namely (yn ), does

not have a convergent subsequence. This contradicts compactness of K.


Exersize 17. Show that if X is an infinite dimensional normed vector space, then
there is a sequence {xn } such that kxn k = 1, kxn xm k 1 for m 6= n.
Solution 17. For convenience, S and Sp will be used as in solution 4. Throughout,
all our vectors are taken to be nonzero.
Now, let x1 X. But then there exists y1 X such that dim Sp(x1 , y1 ) = 2.
But then, according to solution 3, there exists x2 Sp(x1 , y1 ) such that x2 S and
kx1 x2 k 1. Proceed inductively. At the nth step, since X is infinite dimensional,
there exists yn X such that dim Sp(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , yn ) = n + 1. So there exists
xn+1 S such that kxi xn+1 k 1 for 1 i n. Thus (xn ) is the sequence we
need.

Exersize 18. Show that every finite-dimensional vector space can be made into a
strictly convex normed vector space.
Solution 18. Observe that both, Rn and Cn are strictly convex vector spaces (under the standard Euclidean norm). This follows easily from the Cauchy-Schwartz
inequality, since both are actually Hilbert spaces. Now, if dim V = n, where V
is a vector space over K = R, C, then V is isomorphic, as a vector space, to K n .
Suppose that f : K n V realizes this isomorphism (for instance, if {1 , . . . , n }

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

is a basis for V , we could take f (ej ) = j ), where {e1 , . . . , en } is the standard

basis for K n , and extend f linearly to all of K n ). Now define a norm on V via
kvk = E(f 1 (v)), where E is the standard Euclidean norm on K n . Then V is
strictly convex under kk.

Exersize 19. Let V be a vector space having n linearly independent elements
v1 , . . . , vn such that every element v V can be expressed in the form (4.12). Show
that dim V = n.
Solution 19. Obviously dim V n, since V is spanned by n vectors.
u1 , . . . , um also span V . Then we can write
v1 =
.. ..
. .
vn =

Say

c11 u1 + c21 u2 + + cm
1 um
..
.
c1n u1 + c2n u2 + + cm
n um

We also know that each uj is a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vn . Hence we may

write
Pn
Pn
Pn
j
v1 = c11 j=1 dj1 vj + c21 j=1 dj2 vj + + cm
1
j=1 dm vj
.. .. ..
. . .
Pn
Pn
Pn
j
vn = c1n j=1 dj1 vj + c2n j=1 dj2 vj + + cm
n
j=1 dm vj
Or, equivalently,
Pn
Pn
Pn
j
0 = (c11 d11 1)v1 + j=2 c11 dj1 vj + j=1 c21 dj2 vj + + j=1 cm
1 dm vj
.. .. ..
. . .
Pn
Pn
Pn1 m j
1 j
2 j
m n
0 =
j=1 cn d1 vj +
j=1 cn d2 vj + +
j=1 cn dm vj + (cn dm 1)vn
If m < n, then the system above clearly has at least one nontrivial solution in cji dlk ,
contradicting linear independence of v1 , . . . , vn . Hence m n. Thus dim V n.
We conclude that dim V = n.

Exersize 20. Let V, W be subspaces of a Hilbert space. If dim V < and
dim V < dim W , show that there is a u W such that kuk = 1 and (u, v) = 0 for
all v V .
Solution 20. Suppose that u1 , . . . , un is a basis for V . We may assume, without loss of generality, that {u1 , . . . , un } is an orthonormal basis (perform GrammSchmidt). Now, obviously V 6= W , so there exists w W such that w
/ V . Hence
the set {u1 , . . . , un , w} is linearly independent. Perform Gramm-Schidt orthonormalization process on w to obtain the set {u1 , u2 , . . . , un , u} of orthonormal vectors.
Then u
/ V , kuk = 1 and (u, uj ) = 0 for 1 j n. Then, obviously by linearity
of the inner product, (v, u) = 0 for all v V . Were done.

Exersize 21. For X, Y Banach spaces, let A be an operator in B(X, Y ) such that
R(A) is closed and infinite-dimensional. Show that A is not compact.
Solution 21. Well, since Y is a Banach space and R(A) is closed, R(A) is also a
Banach space. Let Y = R(A). Then A B(X, Y ) and is onto. Now use solution 7
above.

Exersize 22. Suppose X is a Banach space consisting of finite linear combinations
of a denumerable set of elements. Show that dim X < .

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

Solution 22. We prove here the contrapositive. So, suppose that X is infinite
dimensional. Suppose S = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . . } is a basis for X in the sense that for
any k N and any choice of i1 , i2 , . . . , ik N, xi1 , . . . , xik are linearly independent
and every element of X is a finite linear combination of elements of S. We may
assume, without loss of generality, that kxj k = 1, for j N (simply normalize xj :
xj = xj / kxj k, by abuse of notation). Now let
sn =

n
X
1
xj
2j
j=1

Then the sequence (sn ) is easily seen to be Cauchy (it is bounded above by partial
sums of a geometric series), but does not converge, since

X
1
xj
2j
j=1

cannot be written as a linear combination of finitely many elements of S, by linear

independence of the elements of S. Hence X is not Banach. This proves the
contrapositive of the original claim.

Exersize 23. Show that every linear functional on a finite dimensional normed
vector space is bounded.
Solution 23. Let K = R or C. Let kkK on K n be the norm given by
k(1 , . . . , n )k =

n
X

|j |

j=1

Suppose now that f is a linear functional on K n . Then we have

f ((1 , . . . , n )) = 1 f ((1, 0, . . . , 0)) + + n f ((0, . . . , 0, 1))
hence



X
n
X

 n

j f ((1j , . . . , nj )) max {kf ((1j , . . . , nj ))k}
|j |
|f ((1 , . . . , n ))| = 
 1jn
 j=1
j=1
= max {kf ((1j , . . . , nj ))k} k(1 , . . . , n )k
1jn

so f is bounded.
Now, suppose that X is an n-dimensional vector space over K. Then X is
isomorphic, as a vector space, to K n . Let : V K n realize this isomorphism.
Define a norm on V by kvkV = k(v)k. Then it is easily seen
functional
that every

g on V is bounded with respect to this norm, with kgkV = g 1 , where g 1
is viewed as a functional on K n . But all norms on V are equivalent, hence g is
bounded with respect to any norm on V .

Exersize 24. If M is a subspace of a Banach space X, then we define
codimM = dim X/M
If M is closed, show that codimM = dim M and codimM = dim M .

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

= X/M . Suppose now that dim X

= n < .
Solution 24. For convenience, set X
Then, as is easily verified, 1 , . . . , n are linearly
Let [1 ], . . . , [n ] be a basis for X.
independent in X. In fact, we may write
X = Sp(1 , . . . , n ) M
and X denote the spaces of functionals on X
and X, respectively. Consider
Let X
X
:X
given by
(f )(j ) = f ([j ])
and extending linearly to all of X by setting (f )(x) = 0 for all x
/ Sp(1 , . . . , n ).
) M . Since dim X
=
Then clearly is a vector space homomorphism, and (X

dim X = n, and N () = 0, we conclude that dim (X ) = n, so dim M n.

On the other hand, if g M , then g is completely determined by its action on
given by
1 , . . . , n . Let g be the functional on X
g([j ]) = g(j )
to
Then, obviously, (
g ) = g. So in fact is a vector space isomorphism from X

M . Hence dim M = dim X = n.

= , then for all n N there exists a subspace Vn X
of dimension
If dim X

n. Restricting to Vn shows that dim M n. This shows that dim M = .

One shows similarly that codimM = dim M .

Exersize 25. If M, N are subspaces of a Banach space X and codimN < dim M ,
show that M N 6= {0}.
Solution 25. We prove the contrapositive. Suppose that M N = {0}. Assume first that dim M = m < . Let 1 , . . . , m a basis for M . By assumption,
1 , . . . , m
/ N , and [1 ], . . . , [m ] are linearly independent when viewed as elements of X/N . Hence
Sp([1 ], . . . , [m ]) X/N
is a subspace of X/N of dimension m. So codimN dim M .
Suppose that dim M = . But then for any n N there exists a subspace Vn of
dimension n in M , for which the above argument can be carried out. Hence again
codimN n for all n N, so codimN = dim M = .
This proves the contrapositive.

Exersize 26. If A B(X, Y ), R(A) is dense in Y and D is dense in X, show that
A maps D onto a dense subset of Y .
Solution 26. Why do we need the assumption R(A) is dense in X? We know
that A is bounded, hence continuous from X to Y , when X and Y are viewed as
topological spaces (the topologies are induced by the norms). But a continuous
map maps dense sets to dense sets. To see this, suppose f : U V is continuous,
with U , V topological spaces. Say D U is dense. Let v V and N an open
neighborhood about v in V . By continuity of f , f 1 (N ) is open in U . By density
of D, there exists d D such that d f 1 (N ). Hence f (d) f (D) and f (d) N .
This shows that f (D) is dense in V . Were done.

Exersize 27. Show that every infinite dimensional normed vector space has an
unbounded linear functional.

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

Solution 27. Let S = {x1 , x2 , . . . xn , . . . } X be linearly independent. We can

assume, without loss of generality, that kxj k = 1 after normalizing each xj . Let V
be the subspace of X consisting of all finite linear combinations of elements of S.
Define fj on V by

jc
if
x = cxj
fj (x) =
0
otherwise
Let f be the functional on V defined by
f=

fj

j=1

f is well-defined, since for each x V , f is a finite sum. Now, f is unbounded on

V (it is unbounded on the unit ball in V ). To see this, let x = x1 + x2 + + xn .
Extend f to all of X by defining f (x) = 0 when x
/ V.

Exersize 28. Let F, G be linear functionals on a vector space V , and assume
that F (v) = 0 = G(v) = 0, v V . Show that there is a scalar C such that
G(v) = CF (v), v V .
Solution 28. From the hypothesis it is evident that N (F ) N (G). We claim
that codimN (F ) 1. So, suppose that codimN (F ) > 0 and suppose that V is a
vectorspace over the field K. Then F : V K is a homomorphism of vector spaces
which is surjective. But then
F : V /N (F ) K
is an isomorphism of vector spaces, where F is induced by F in a natural way (i.e.,
F ([v]) = F (v)). Hence dim V /N (F ) = dim K = 1.
From this it follows that F is completely determined by its action on
/ N (F ).
If N (F ) = V , then there is nothing to prove. Otherwise, since N (F ) N (G) and,
by the argument above, codimN (G) 1. If N (G) = V , then again were done
(take C = 0). If not, then there exists N(F),
/
N(G). Hence both F and G are
completely determined by their action on . Since K is a field and F () 6= 0, we
may take C = G()/F ().

Exersize 29. If {xk } is a sequence of elements in a normed vector space X and
{k } is a sequence of scalars, show that a necessary and sufficient condition for the
existence of an x0 X 0 satisfying
x0 (xk ) = k and kx0 k = M,
is that
 n

n

X

X





k k  M
k x k





1

holds for each n and scalars 1 , . . . , n .

Solution 29. Suppose there exists such a functional x0 . Let 1 , . . . , n be scalars,
fixed. Let x = 1 x1 + + n xn X. Applying x0 to x, we obtain

n
n
X
X
x0 (x) = x0
j x j =
j j
j=1

j=1

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

Since kx0 k = M , we immediately get from above





X

X

n
 n



0



=
|x
(x)|

M
kxk
=
M

x
k k
k k


 j=1

j=1

Let now V be the vector subspace of X consisting of all finite linear combinations
of {xk }. Suppose that
 n

n

X

X





k k  M
k x k





1

holds for each n and scalars 1 , . . . , n .

Define x0 (xk ) = k and extend linearly to V . Then extend x0 to all of X by
defining x0 (y) = 0 if y
/ V.
However, the condition that




n
n

X

X




k x k
k k  M





1

holds for each n and scalars 1 , . . . , n does not imply that kx0 k = M . Indeed, if
K > M , then one has




n
n

X

X




k x k
k k  K





1

holds for each n and scalars 1 , . . . , n .

Exersize 30. If a normed vector space X has a subspace M such that M and
X/M are complete, show that X is a Banach space.
Solution 30.

Exersize 31. If X, Y are normed vector spaces and B(X, Y ) is complete, show
that Y is complete.
Solution 31. Let {yn } be a Cauchy sequence in Y . Fix nonzero x0 in X. Define
An (cx0 ) = cyn and for all x
/ Sp(x0 ), let A(x) = 0. Clearly then An B(X, Y )
and kAn k = kyn k / kx0 k (the norms are taken in respective spaces, of course). Now,
observe that
k(An Am )(x0 )k = kAn (x0 ) Am (x0 )k kyn ym k / kx0 k
So {An } is Cauchy in B(X, Y ), hence An A B(X, Y ). But then An (x0 )
A(x0 ) in Y . Hence yn A(x0 ) in Y . So Y is complete, hence Banach.

Exersize 32. Prove that if {Tn } is a sequence in B(X, Y ) such that lim Tn x exists
for each x X, then there is a T B(X, Y ) such that Tn x T x for all x X.
Solution 32. Set T x = lim Tn x. First observe that T is linear. Indeed, T (cx+y) =
lim Tn (cx+y) = c lim Tn (x)+lim Tn (y) = cT x+T y. Next observe that T is bounded.
Suppose first that Tn (x) T (x) uniformly for all x S, where S is the unit
sphere in X. If this is the case, then there exists N N such that for all x of unit
norm,
kT x Tn xk < 1 for all n N, x S
so
kT xk < TN x + 1, x S

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

hence
kT xk kTN k + 1 for all x S
So T is bounded.
If convergence on S is not necessarily uniform, then T is not necessarily bounded.
Consider the following example.
Let S = {e1 , e2 , . . . }, where ej = (xjk ) : N {0, 1} given by xjk = kj . We can
visualize each ej as an -tuple, having 1 in j th position and 0 everywhere else.
Let V be the (infinite-dimensional) vector space over R formed by all finite linear
combinations of elements of S. Endow V with the norm
m
X
|ck |
kc1 ej1 + c2 ej2 + + cm ejm k =
1

Define Tj : V R by Tj (ei ) = jji , and extend Tj linearly to V . Then each Tj

is a linear functional on V . Define
n
X
Tn =
Tk
1

Then each Tn is obviously a linear functional on V . Let

X
T = lim Tn =
Tn
n

n=1

T is well-defined, since for each x V , T (v) is a finite sum (recall that v is a finite
linear combination of elements of S). Further, each Tn is bounded. T , however, is
unbounded! Indeed,


 n

n
X
 X
n(n + 1)



j=
|T (e1 + e2 + + en )| = 
Tj (ej ) =
2
 j=1
 j=1
On the other hand,
ke1 + e2 + + en k = n
So

n+1
|T (e1 + e2 + + en )|
=
ke1 + e2 + + en k
2
which cannot be bounded by a constant.
Exersize 33. Let F, G be linear functionals on a vector space V , and assume
that F (v) = 0 = G(v) = 0, v V . Show that there is a scalar C such that
G(v) = CF (v), v V .
Solution 33. From the hypothesis it is evident that N (F ) N (G). We claim
that codimN (F ) 1. So, suppose that codimN (F ) > 0 and suppose that V is a
vectorspace over the field K. Then F : V K is a homomorphism of vector spaces
which is surjective. But then
F : V /N (F ) K
is an isomorphism of vector spaces, where F is induced by F in a natural way (i.e.,
F ([v]) = F (v)). Hence dim V /N (F ) = dim K = 1.
From this it follows that F is completely determined by its action on
/ N (F ).
If N (F ) = V , then there is nothing to prove. Otherwise, since N (F ) N (G) and,
by the argument above, codimN (G) 1. If N (G) = V , then again were done

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

(take C = 0). If not, then there exists N(F),

/
N(G). Hence both F and G are
completely determined by their action on . Since K is a field and F () 6= 0, we
may take C = G()/F ().

Exersize 34. If {xk } is a sequence of elements in a normed vector space X and
{k } is a sequence of scalars, show that a necessary and sufficient condition for the
existence of an x0 X 0 satisfying
x0 (xk ) = k and kx0 k = M,
is that





n
n
X

X





k k  M
k x k





1

holds for each n and scalars 1 , . . . , n .

Solution 34. Suppose there exists such a functional x0 . Let 1 , . . . , n be scalars,
fixed. Let x = 1 x1 + + n xn X. Applying x0 to x, we obtain

n
n
X
X
0
0

x (x) = x
j x j =
j j
j=1

j=1

Since kx k = M , we immediately get from above




X

X
n



 n
0



k xk
k k  = |x (x)| M kxk = M



j=1

 j=1
Let now V be the vector subspace of X consisting of all finite linear combinations
of {xk }. Suppose that




n
n

X

X




k xk
k k  M





1

holds for each n and scalars 1 , . . . , n .

Define x0 (xk ) = k and extend linearly to V . Then extend x0 to all of X by
defining x0 (y) = 0 if y
/ V.
However, the condition that
 n

n

X

X





k k  M
k x k





1

holds for each n and scalars 1 , . . . , n does not imply that kx0 k = M . Indeed, if
K > M , then one has
 n

n

X

X





k k  K
k x k





1

holds for each n and scalars 1 , . . . , n .

Exersize 35. If a normed vector space X has a subspace M such that M and
X/M are complete, show that X is a Banach space.
Solution 35.

Exersize 36. If X, Y are normed vector spaces and B(X, Y ) is complete, show
that Y is complete.

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

Solution 36. Let {yn } be a Cauchy sequence in Y . Fix nonzero x0 in X. Define

An (cx0 ) = cyn and for all x
/ Sp(x0 ), let A(x) = 0. Clearly then An B(X, Y )
and kAn k = kyn k / kx0 k (the norms are taken in respective spaces, of course). Now,
observe that
k(An Am )(x0 )k = kAn (x0 ) Am (x0 )k kyn ym k / kx0 k
So {An } is Cauchy in B(X, Y ), hence An A B(X, Y ). But then An (x0 )
A(x0 ) in Y . Hence yn A(x0 ) in Y . So Y is complete, hence Banach.

Exersize 37. Prove that if {Tn } is a sequence in B(X, Y ) such that lim Tn x exists
for each x X, then there is a T B(X, Y ) such that Tn x T x for all x X.
Solution 37. Set T x = lim Tn x. First observe that T is linear. Indeed, T (cx+y) =
lim Tn (cx+y) = c lim Tn (x)+lim Tn (y) = cT x+T y. Next observe that T is bounded.
Suppose first that Tn (x) T (x) uniformly for all x S, where S is the unit
sphere in X. If this is the case, then there exists N N such that for all x of unit
norm,
kT x Tn xk < 1 for all n N, x S
so
kT xk < TN x + 1, x S
hence
kT xk kTN k + 1 for all x S
So T is bounded.
If convergence on S is not necessarily uniform, then T is not necessarily bounded.
Consider the following example.
Let S = {e1 , e2 , . . . }, where ej = (xjk ) : N {0, 1} given by xjk = kj . We can
visualize each ej as an -tuple, having 1 in j th position and 0 everywhere else.
Let V be the (infinite-dimensional) vector space over R formed by all finite linear
combinations of elements of S. Endow V with the norm
m
X
kc1 ej1 + c2 ej2 + + cm ejm k =
|ck |
1

Define Tj : V R by Tj (ei ) = jji , and extend Tj linearly to V . Then each Tj

is a linear functional on V . Define
n
X
Tn =
Tk
1

Then each Tn is obviously a linear functional on V . Let

X
T = lim Tn =
Tn
n

n=1

T is well-defined, since for each x V , T (v) is a finite sum (recall that v is a finite
linear combination of elements of S). Further, each Tn is bounded. T , however, is
unbounded! Indeed,



X
n
 n
 X
n(n + 1)


|T (e1 + e2 + + en )| = 
Tj (ej ) =
j=
2
 j=1
 j=1
On the other hand,
ke1 + e2 + + en k = n

More solutions manual at www.DumbLittleDoctor.com

Thanks to the William's work!

So

|T (e1 + e2 + + en )|
n+1
=
ke1 + e2 + + en k
2
which cannot be bounded by a constant.