1

Introduction of Series Capacitors in the

Venezuelan EHV-grid
Nelson Sandoval, Alex Molina, ke Petersson, Gran Strmberg and Jan Samuelsson, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractENELVEN, a regional electricity utility in Venezuela,

has installed a total of five series capacitors in their grid to increase the capacity of existing overhead transmission lines serving
the residential, petroleum and petrochemicals center of Maracaibo. A sixth series capacitor is planned for future extension of
the grid in the same area.
This paper focuses on the power system engineering efforts
that were required in conjunction with the delivery of the five
series capacitors banks. In order to assure that grid code criteria
was met and that stresses on new and existing equipment was still
acceptable, a number of engineering studies were performed. The
following subtasks were given the utmost focus in this process:
transient stability validation, insulation coordination and switching overvoltage studies, short circuit calculations, line circuitbreaker transient recovery voltage (TRV) determination, line
protection coordination and sub synchronous resonance (SSR)
studies.
When series capacitors are to be introduced, the insulation coordination and the line breaker TRV stresses should be examined,
as well as the impact the series capacitor will have on the line
distance protections. The short circuit calculations are needed as
the series capacitors will reduce grid impedances, but also for the
rating of the series capacitors themselves. The issue of SSR was
apparent in this case, as a thermal power plant was located one
bus away from a series capacitor, with a prospective possibility
for the grid to be configured in a way known to be prone to SSR.
The above-listed engineering efforts are reviewed in the paper.
Input conditions, study methodologies and end results are dis-

Maracaibo. A sixth series capacitor is planned for future extension of the grid in the same area. The main purpose of the
transmission corridor is to transmit low cost hydroelectric
power to western Venezuela. Before, the system lacked the
capability to transmit all the power needed, therefore the use of
expensive fuel was required for local generation. By series
compensating the three 400 kV lines between Yaracuy substation and El Tablazo substation, plus the lines between Yaracuy
- Planta Centro and Yaracuy - Arenosa, the total power transmission capacity was increased from 1,800 to 2,125 MW.
Three series capacitors are located at El Tablazo and two at
Yaracuy.

Index TermsCapacitor, Overvoltages, Protection, Resonances, Sub-Synchronous, Switching, Transients.

Fig. 1. Venezuelan HV Transmission Grid

I. INTRODUCTION
ENELVEN, a regional electricity utility in Venezuela, has
installed a total of five series capacitors in their grid to increase the capacity of existing overhead transmission lines
serving the residential, petroleum and petrochemicals center of
Nelson Sandoval is with ENELDIS, Centro de Control Caujarito Via
Aeropuerto, PO Box 146 Maracaibo 4001, Venezuela (e-mail:
nelson.sandoval@cantv.net)
Alex Molina is with CADAFE, Termoelectrica Planta Centro, Venezuela
(e-mail: amolina@plantacentro.com.ve)
ke Petersson is with ABB Power Systems, 721 64 Vsters, Sweden (email: ake.petersson@se.abb.com)
Gran Strmberg is with ABB Power Systems, 721 64 Vsters, Sweden
(e-mail: goran.stromberg@se.abb.com)
Jan Samuelsson is with ABB Power Systems, 721 64 Vsters, Sweden (email: jan.samuelsson@se.abb.com)

1-4244-0288-3/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE

The project is making additionally 325 MW of power available to help meet growing demand for power in the Maracaibo
region, and enables ENELVEN to defer major investment in
additional transmission lines or new generating capacity to a
later stage.
The relation between the benefit of the project to the cost of
the installation is calculated as follows: 325 MW has a
monthly thermal energy cost of $6.5 million; the same amount
of hydroelectric power costs $1.6 million per month, which
corresponds to a monthly savings of $4.9 million. The total
monthly cost, including installation of five series capacitors is
$0.29 million. Therefore the benefit/cost relation is an amazing
17 times and a pay back period of less than a year.
Thus, conventional solutions to ENELVENs anticipated
shortfall in power would have been to build additional trans-

LCB at P.Centro- Phase A

1400
1200
1000
(kV)

mission infrastructure to permit more electricity to be imported

into Maracaibo, or to build new generation plants to produce
power at the point of demand. But these solutions would have
required more complex investments, have had considerable
environmental impact and could have taken several years only
to receive the necessary rights of way and permits.
Instead, with series compensation, ENELVEN has gained a
fast and very substantial increase in available power, at around
one fifth of the cost of adding new transmission capacity.
Under the terms of the Greenfield contract, five series capacitors, one for each of five existing 400 kV transmission
lines, were designed, built, installed and commissioned. A
considerable supply of line protection equipment was part of
the undertaking, as well.

800
600
400
200
0
1

10

19

28

37

46

55

64

73

82

91

100

73

82

91

100

73

82

91

100

No. of simulations

LCB at P.Centro- Phase B

1400
1200

II. TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE

(kV)

800
600
400
200
0
1

10

19

28

37

46

55

64

No. of simulations

LCB at P.Centro- Phase C

1400
1200
1000
(kV)

Series capacitors in a transmission line can have a significant effect on the transient voltage that appears across the contacts of a line circuit breaker when opening to clear a fault.
This voltage is referred to as the transient recovery voltage
(TRV). Circuit breakers have limited TRV capability. Another
limitation in the circuit breaker is the rate of rise of restriking
voltage (RRRV) [1].
The stress on existing line breakers on transmission lines
connected to either El Tablazo or Yaracuy substations was
determined. The study was performed using a deterministic
method, by varying the fault instant in steps of 1ms, to find the
worst fault type and location for each circuit breaker. Then the
worst fault case for each line circuit breaker i.e. the fault that
results in maximum TRV was repeated with 100 random
switching. Each simulation considers the randomness of fault
application, SC bypass (indirectly as it follows the fault inception) and LCB opening. The worst fault cases have been performed with the SC bypassed and not bypassed.
The result of random switching for one breaker in Planta
Centro (line Yaracuy - Planta Centro) is showed in Fig. 2. The
maximum calculated TRV for this breaker is 1292 kV, which
was more than this breaker could withstand. The study showed
also other line circuit breakers that could not withstand the
maximum TRV. All in all twenty line circuit breakers in the
substations El Tablazo, La Arenosa and Planta Centro had to
be replaced.

1000

800
600
400
200
0
1

10

19

28

37

46

55

64

No. of simulations

Fig. 2. TRV for breaker in Planta Centro (line Yaracuy-Planta Centro) random switching method.

III. SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES

The possible influence on the switching over voltage levels
in the 400 kV system, when series capacitors are introduced,
has been studied [2]. The switching over voltages appearing on
representative 400 kV lines is compared for stages before and
after the installation of the SCs. The study was focused on the
highest voltage levels phase-to-ground, which generally appear
on long transmission lines during three-phase high-speed autoreclosing following a single-line-to-ground (SLG) fault. A
SLG fault generates an increase in the voltage levels on the
healthy phases prior to fault clearing. The ground fault current
level is one parameter, which determines the overvoltages.
When the fault is cleared, by opening the circuit breakers in
both line ends, the healthy phase voltages remain as trapped
charges (if not discharged by inductive voltage transformers).
The trapped charges appear as DC voltage, or oscillating voltage if shunt reactors are connected to the line. The highest
transient overvoltages are generally obtained for the DC case,
i.e. no shunt reactors connected.
The simulations include variations of the SLG fault posi-

tion, opening of the line circuit breakers at instants depending

on the fault positions, a dead time after fault clearing and reclosing of the breakers taking the spread in closing time in
account. The application and clearing of the fault is done deterministic to cover the variations in fault positions, faulted
phases and circuit breaker openings. Also the line reclosing
considers the spread in closing times and closing moments.
The phase voltages at the open end at Yaracuy are shown in
Fig. 3, at a fault clearing and reclosing of line Yaracuy El
Tablazo I. In this case, the fault position is at the line end at
Yaracuy (phase B). The maximum over voltage appears after
the circuit breaker in El Tablazo is closed. The magnitude is
2,3 2,4 p.u., which actually is the highest transient among the
400 simulations performed.
04yt1 ys1 bdetrT>YT1YA (Type 4)

04yt1 ys1 bdetrT>YT1YB (Type 4)

04yt1-ys1-bdetrT>YT1YC (Type 4)

1000000

Voltage (V)

500000

-500000

-1000000
0

50

100
Time (ms)

150

200

Fig. 3 Fault clearing and reclosing simulation for line Yaracuy Tablazo I.

After completing the 400 simulations, the maximum overvoltage levels among the three phases were sorted in 0,05 p.u.
bins, ranging from 1,5 to 2,5 p.u.. Finally, the 2% overvoltage
level was determined from the cumulative distribution. The
overvoltage levels for series compensated lines have been determined before and after installation of the series capacitors.
The result is shown in Table I.
TABLE I
STATISTICAL 2% SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGE LEVELS AT OPEN END OF SERIES
COMPENSATED LINES

Line

Fault

Reclosed

No SC

SC

Position

From

Installed

Installed

Tablazo

2,11 pu

2,14 pu

Yaracuy

1,75 pu

1,77 pu

Planta Centro

1,81 pu

1,80 pu

Yaracuy

1,76 pu

1,78 pu

Arenosa

1,84 pu

1,79 pu

Yaracuy

1,83 pu

1,81 pu

Yar-Tabl

Line end

I, II, III

Yaracuy

Yar-Tabl

Line end

I, II, III

Tablazo

YaracuyPl.Centro
YaracuyPl.Centro
YaracuyArenosa
YaracuyArenosa

Line end
Yaracuy
Line end
Pl.Centro
Line end
Yaracuy
Line end
Arenosa

Since the lines Yaracuy and El Tablazo I, II, III are

equipped with surge arresters at El Tablazo end, the overvoltages at open end are limited to the protection level of the arresters, i.e. 1,8-1,9 pu.
The statistical simulation results for the series compensated

lines show that the influence of the SCs on the switching overvoltage level is small, the difference are less than 0,1 p.u. The
risk of insulation failure due to switching over voltages can be
estimated by a comparison with the insulation levels of the
line. The switching impulse withstand level (SIWL) is 1175
kV, corresponding to about 3,4 p.u., which gives a good margin, well above international standards, between the highest
calculated switching over voltage level and the SIWL of the
lines. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the risk of insulation failure due to switching overvoltages is low and practically unaffected by the installation of the series capacitors.
IV. SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
The fault current levels and the through-fault currents with
the series compensated lines have been determine in a study.
The faults (three-phase-to-ground, two-phase-to-ground, twophase and single-phase-to-ground) were applied on 765 kV,
400 kV, 230 kV and 138 kV-buses. For the series compensated lines, also internal faults were applied on the line side of
the series capacitor (SC). The SC was modeled as a capacitor
with MOV protection according to Goldsworthy linearized
MOV model [3], as an ideal capacitor and as a bypassed capacitor.
The conclusion is that the SC with linearized model of the
MOV gives a good approximation of the SC through-fault currents for all types of faults. The SC modeled as an ideal capacitor can be used for external faults and for internal faults,
the SC bypassed gives a close approximation compared to the
linearized model.
For distance faults the through-faults currents through the
series capacitors have been found within the protective limit.
The maximum through-fault currents have been found to be
within limits of the existing equipment.
V. LINE PROTECTION COORDINATION
With line protection we here refer to the power system
aspect of selectively detecting a fault on a transmission line,
and subsequently clear the fault by tripping the line. In line
with state-of-art praxis, such protection is designed in a redundant configuration, with two different detection principles. The
two common principles are (i) Differential current measurement, and (ii) Distance (to fault) calculation. Whereas the differential current measurement is based on comparing the line
end currents (hence relying on high-speed line transfer communication), detecting any current deviation between into and
out of the transmission line, the distance protection scheme
functions primarily out of measured parameters at the line end
where the protection is located. Out of these two protection
schemes, only the distance protection is affected by the introduction of Series Capacitors. This comes out of the fact that
the series capacitors have a large impact on the electrical
length of the transmission line, they actually make it a lot
shorter and consequently they can lure distance protections
into false tripping. But there are modern computerized distance protections, in this case REL531, that are built for use

VI. SUB-SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE

Since the early 1970s sub-synchronous resonance (SSR)
has been following in the footsteps of series capacitors. Two
major incidents at large thermal turbine-generators (tg-sets) in
Arizona, US, made every power system engineer involved in
series capacitors, aware of the prospective electromechanical
oscillations that might develop when series capacitors were
installed electrically near such machines. The market for series
capacitors was more or less halted for the rest of the 1970s,
but then recovered when the SSR phenomenon was understood
worldwide and countermeasures had been established. Around
the turn into the new millennium series capacitor technology at
EHV level has been introduced in several countries, e.g.
Finland, Vietnam, Mali, Senegal, Saudi-Arabia and, as this
paper is devoted to, Venezuela. The Venezuelan pioneering
project did prove to be a case where SSR had to be treated
with the utmost care.
The series capacitors in Yaracuy s/s are one 400kV bus
away from the thermal power plant Planta Centro. Planta
Centro is also connected to another major 400/800kV substation, La Arenosa, but should this power corridor be lost Planta
Centro is radially connected to the grid, over a series compensated transmission line. The classical SSR grid configuration
would here be a reality, however at an N-3 state as three
400kV transmission lines connect Planta Centro and La
Arenosa (see Fig. 1).
CASE L04 #24 :Outage P.CentroLa Arenosa ckt1/2/3+ all SCs bypassed YaracuyTablazo, PC=G3,4
150

Resistance [Ohm]

together with series capacitors.

The series capacitor introduces a large capacitive reactance
between the line protection terminal and a prospective line
fault. Consequently there is a risk that the voltage measured by
the protection terminal is phase shifted 180 degrees, this being
called voltage reversal. The distance relay must have means to
handle this case, the applicable solution being to utilize the
voltage just before the fault, this being recorded and stored for
fault impedance calculations. The other apparent difficulty is
to determine the distance to the fault. The series capacitor will
strongly affect the fault current, as it will flow partly through
the capacitor, and partly through the metal oxide varistors. The
higher the fault current, the more resistive fault current is obtained, as the varistors dominate the apparent impedance. For
very high fault currents the spark gap will flash over and
eliminate the effect of the series capacitor. With this in mind
the following impedance characteristics will be obtained for a
generic series compensated line.
From Fig. 4 it can be noted that the reactive component
when the gap doesnt flash over is reduced considerably for
faults beyond the series capacitor. The relay (at A) will in
order to cope with this, use line transfer high speed communication with the line protection terminal in the other line end
(B). A permissible overreach will be allowed as the opposite
protection sees the fault unaffected by the series capacitor.
Important in Fig. 6 is also the apparent high resistive impedance, caused by the varistors conducting. The distance protection has to be set such that it discriminates between varistor
conduction and high resistive faults.

100
50
0
50

10

20

30
Electrical frequency [Hz]

40

50

10

20

30
Electrical frequency [Hz]

40

50

60

Reactance [Ohm]

100
50
0

TI Undamping [1/s]

50

Short circuit studies with the purpose to identify prospective voltage reversal for various fault locations were performed
as part of the project. These studies identified that voltage reversal could happen at the line terminals of the series compensated lines, but also in the line terminals one bus away from
the series compensated lines. All in all twenty-two line protection terminals had to be replaced in the substation El Tablazo,
Yaracuy, Cuatrocentenario, La Arenosa and Planta Centro.

fm Hz
+1 Hz
1 Hz

0.1
0.05
0
0.05

Fig. 4 Showing generic impedance characteristics from line terminal A to

line terminal B, under various fault scenarios. Protection is located in line
terminal A, 50% series compensation is located mid-line.

60

0.15

10

20

30
Electrical frequency [Hz]

40

50

60

Fig. 5. Showing electrical resonance near Planta Centro unit #3-5 torsional
mode. Torsional modes are indicated with colored vertical lines.

Initially the SSR risk, or more correctly the risk for selfexcited sub-synchronous torsional interaction (SSTI), was
studied using frequency scanning technique. This is an effective screening tool as numerous grid configurations can be
analyzed quickly with a minimum of computer effort. The results of the frequency scanning analysis indicated that SSTI
could appear with both types of machines in Planta Centro.
Specifically the Planta Centro units #3-5, these having a natural torsional mode near 30Hz, could interact with the series
compensated grid as the electrical resonance could show up at
the complementary frequency 30Hz. This resonance also ap-

peared with negative electrical damping, such that SSTI could

prospectively occur.
With the frequency scanning studies indicating a prospective SSTI, the next step was to obtain field data of the damping
at this resonance. This damping depends on the resistive element of the grid impedance, plus the mechanical damping of
the tg-sets themselves. Both these parameters can not be reliably predicted by calculations, field measurements are therefore
needed in order to find reliable data. The field measurements
in practice mean that shaft torsional oscillations are to be captured, e.g. as an angular speed deviation.
The field measurements at Planta Centro were performed
using two different detection principles. First the conventional
method where a stroboscopic-like detector sensed black and
white fields painted along the shaft perimeter. Secondly using
a contact-less torque sensor (see Fig. 6) that works with anisotropic magnetostrictive effect in ferromagnetic materials [4].
The permeability for the magnetization in the direction of
compressive stress is different in comparison with the direction
of tensile stress. The sensor measures this difference, which is
proportional to the applied mechanical torque.

series capacitor for 15 seconds in the n-3 grid configuration.

The results are shown in Fig. 7 below. It is apparent how the
damping becomes quite low with the series capacitor inserted,
in fact the electrical damping is practically zero here and the
oscillations are damped thanks to the mechanical damping in
the machine.

Fig. 6. Torque sensor

The contact less sensor seems superior at least from two

viewpoints; the first being that it doesnt need anything to be
attached to the shaft and secondly that it measures the prime
parameter of interest, namely the torsional torque. But the field
measurements showed that both principles worked perfectly
and gave identical results.
The measurements involved synchronizing and tripping of
units #2 and #4 at Planta Centro, as well as setting the transmission grid up for the n-3 radial condition that could lead to
an SSR. Executing this in several steps, analyzing the electromechanical system damping after each test, revealed that the
damping related to the electrical circuits was considerably
higher than what had been assumed in the frequency scanning
studies. This electrical damping is known to be quite difficult
to calculate as it depends to a high degree on the characteristics of the power system loads.
The ultimate test, where the grid is configured for SSTI to
appear, was arranged by inserting the Yaracuy Planta Centro

Fig. 7. Torsional oscillation when Planta Centro is radially connected to grid.

At t=2s series capacitor is inserted and at t=17s series capacitor is again bypassed. Angular speed deviation vs. time above and critical torsional mode
(appr. 30Hz) oscillation magnitude in logarithmic scale below. From the
diagram below the total electromechanical damping can be derived and it
appears around 0.03 1/sec with the series capacitor inserted. This damping
corresponds well with the mechanical damping of the #4 generating unit.

Following the measurements it could be concluded that there

exists sufficient damping in the electromechanical system,
even under n-3 light loading conditions, this will effectively
prevent SSTI. Nevertheless an SSTI-protection logic is implemented. This logic senses that two or more transmission
lines between Planta Centro and La Arenosa have been
opened, indicating that the system is radial (or close to radial)
seen from Planta Centro. Under these conditions the series
capacitor in the Yaracuy Planta Centro line is bypassed, an
action that is acceptable from a grid operation point of view.

VII. CONCLUSIONS
ENELVEN, a regional electricity utility in Venezuela, has
installed a total of five series capacitors in their grid to increase the capacity of existing overhead transmission lines
serving the residential, petroleum and petrochemicals center of
Maracaibo. The project is making additionally 325 MW of low
cost hydroelectric power available. The pay back period for
the installation is less than one year.
In order to assure that grid code criteria was met and that
stresses on new and existing equipment was still acceptable, a
number of engineering studies were performed. The following
subtasks were given the utmost focus in this process: transient
stability validation, insulation coordination and switching over
voltage studies, short circuit calculations, line circuit-breaker
transient recovery voltage (TRV) determination, line protection coordination and sub synchronous resonance (SSR) studies.
The series capacitors impact on insulation levels of the existing equipment has been found very low. But the installation
of SCs has required replacement of twenty line breakers, due
to TRV stresses, and replacement of twenty-two line distance
protections, specially designed for series compensated lines.
The issue of SSR was apparent in this case, but studies and
measurements concluded that the there is sufficient damping in
the electromechanical system of the generators in Planta
Centro, i.e. low SSR risk. Nevertheless, a protection logic was
implemented. This logic is bypassing the serie capacitor in the
Yaracuy Planta Centro line, when two or more lines between
Planta Centro and Arenosa have been opened.
The conclusion is that power system engineering studies are
required to minimize failure in existing equipment and unwanted line trips, when installing series capacitors.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]

[4]

P. M. Anderson and R. G. Farmer Series Compensations of Power

Systems.
Jan Lundquist, Chris Engelbrecht Switching Overvoltages on Eneelven
400 kV Transmision Lines, STRI Report R02-098.
D.L. Goldsworthy, A linearized model for MOV-protected Series Capacitors, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.2, No.4, pp 953958, Nov. 1987
I Dr. Andreas Wirsn, Dr. Patrick Lang1, Dipl.-Ing. Matthias Humer
Systems for monitoring and analyzing torsional vibrations in turbine
generator shaft.

IX. BIOGRAPHIES
Nelson Sandoval was born in Caracas, Venezuela on December, 4 1947. He
received his M. Sc. Degree in Electrical Power Engineering from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, New York, USA in 1977. Since then he has been working for ENELVEN in several areas, but his main experience is in transmission
and distribution planning.
Alex Molina was born in Barinas, Venezuela on March 12, 1970. He graduated as Electrical Engineer at I.U.P. Santiago Marino, Valencia, Venezuela in
1998. He is now studying for a M. SC. Degree in Electrical Engineering at
University Simn Bolvar, Venezuela. Since 1992 he has been working for
CADAFE in Planta Centro generating station in several areas. He is presently
responsible for the department of Protections and Substations.

ke Petersson was born in Vxj, Sweden, in 15 April, 1958. He received

his M. Sc. Degree in Electrical Engineering from Chalmers University of
Technology, Gothenburg Sweden, in 1982. He then joined ABB (at that time
ASEA) and has over the years held various engineering positions related to
the application of power electronics in high voltage electrical systems.
Presently he works for ABB Power Systems in Vsters, Sweden, focusing on
the application of FACTS systems in transmission grids.
Jan Samuelsson was born in Sweden, on 4 January, 1940. He received his
M. Sc. Degree in Electrical Engineering from Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg Sweden, in 1966. He then joined ABB (at that time
ASEA) and has over the years held various engineering positions related to
power system analysis and simulation.
He has participated in standardization work of IEEE, IEC and CIGRE. He
is currently working for ABB Power Systems in Vsters, Sweden, focusing
on Series Capacitor Systems.
Gran Strmberg was born in Vsters in Sweden, on December 4, 1954.
He received his M. Sc Degree in Electrical Engineering from the Chalmers
University of Technology, Gothenburg in 1979.
He is currently working for ABB Power Systems in Vsters, Sweden,
where he is manager for Sales Support of FACTS and Reactive Power Compensation Systems. Mr. Strmberg has been active in ABB and previously
Asea for a number of years.