Elements of civil engineering & engineering mechanics

1. Briefly explain the different fields of civil engineering.

sol. Civil engineering may be divided into the following fields.
a) Surveying It is a science and art of determining the relative position of points on the earthssurface by
measuring distances, directions and vertical heights directly or indirectly. It is a branch whichhandles
the surveying and leveling of land by using different instruments to map and contour the terrain. This is
done to locate and measure property lines, lay out buildings, bridges, channels, highways, and pipelines
for constructions. The cost of the project can also beestimated beforeimplementing the project.
b) Geo-Technical Engineering-It is a branch in which the study of soil, its properties, strength
characteristics, behavior on the application of load and its use as an engineering material in the
construction is done.This is useful in the design of earth dams, different foundations, buildings, etc.
c) Structural Engineering- This branch encompasses the analysis and design of structures. It is the
responsibility of the structural engineer to analyze and design a structure that will safely bear or resist
the stresses, forces and loads. The design must satisfy the project specifications while meeting all safety
regulations. The structure must endure massive loads as well as natural disasters and climate
changes.The use of computers in designing the members reduces the time and also maintains accuracy.
d) Transportation Engineering It deals with transport of men and materials through different
communication routes such as land, air, water. The railways and roads are the important modes of
communication.The knowledge of surveying and levelling is useful before deciding the alignment of
the roads or railways. The main aim of an engineer is to improve the roads,ports & harbors should be
designed to accommodate all sizes of vehicles, airports should be properly designedto provide a safe,
comfortable, convenient, economical and environmentally compatible mode of transport.
e) Irrigation& Water Resource Engineering - These engineers deal with the design and construction of
hydraulic structures. These structures include dams, canals and water distribution system. Irrigation is
the process of supplying water by artificial means to agricultural fields for raising crops. Since rainfall
in an area is insufficient or unpredictable in an area, water flowing in a river can be stored by
constructing dams and diverting the water into the canals & conveyed to the agricultural fields.
Hydroelectric power generation facilities are also included under this aspect.
f) Environmental Engineering- People in every village, town & city need potable water. The water
available (surface water & ground water) may not be fit for direct consumption.

In such cases, the

water should be purified and then supplied to the public. For water purification, sedimentation tanks,
filter beds, etc. should be designed. If the treatment plants are for away from the town or city, suitable
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pipelines for conveying water & distributing it should also be designed. In a town or city, a part of the
water supplied returns as sewage. This sewage should be systematically collected and then disposed
into the natural environment after providing suitable treatment. The solid waste that is generated in a
town or locality should be systematically collected and disposed off suitably. Before disposal,
segregation of materials should be done so that any material can be recycled & we can conserve our
natural resources
g) Building Materials & Construction Technology - Engineering structure requires wide range of
materials known as building materials such as stones, sand, cement, etc. The study of properties is
necessary before the construction.Construction engineering is a profession of civil engineering that
deals with the planning, construction, and management of infrastructures such as highways, bridges,
airports, railroads, buildings, dams, and utilities. It also covers the maintenance and repair of buildings.
2. What is a dam? What are the purposes of a dam?
Sol: Dam is a barrier or obstacle constructed across a river so that water gets accumulated on the upstream
side (u/s) of the dam.
The purposes of dams are:
Used for recreational purposes like boating, fishing, etc.
Water supply for domestic and industrial uses.
Water supply for agricultural purpose.
Generation of electricity.
Flood control
Inland navigation.

3. Explain the classification of dams.

Soln:
a) Classification based on the function of dam.
Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a large
flow in the river and is used during the period of scarcity. Water stored in the reservoir is used for
irrigation, power generation, water supply etc.
Detention dams: It is primarily constructed to temporarily detain the flood water in a river and to
gradually release the stored water later at controlled rates so that the entire region on the downstream
side of the dam is protected from possible damage due to floods. It may also be used as a storage
dam.
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Diversion dams: It is constructed to divert the water from a river into acanal. A diversion dam is
usually of low height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream.
b) Classification based on the flow condition :
Overflow dams: If the water is allowed to flow over the top of the dam, it is called as overflow dam.

Non-over flow dams: The excess water entering the dam is not allowed to flow over the top but is
released to the downstream side through a separate spill way & such dams are called non over flow
dams.
c) Classification based on structure and design :
Gravity Dams: It is a dam in which the external forces are resisted by self-weight of the dam. Thus
weight of the dam or gravity force maintains the stability of the dam. It is constructed either of
masonry or concrete. Eg: Bhakranangal Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and Second
Highest in the world.

Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side. An arch
dam transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch action.

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Buttress dams: Buttress is a support that transmits a force from a roof or wall to another supporting
structure. These buttresses are in the form of equally spaced triangular masonry or reinforced
concrete walls. This type of structure can be considered even if the foundation rocks are little
weaker.

Earth Dams: It is made up of earth (soil) built up by compacting layers of earth. The impervious
materials are used at the core and pervious materials on upstream and downstream side. It is
constructed where there is a need for small dams and weak foundation conditions. They resist the
forces exerted on the dam due to the shearing strength of the soil. Due to the seepage problems,
regular maintenance is necessary. E.g. Nagarjunasagar dam (Andra Pradesh). They may be further
divided into: homogeneous embankment type, zoned embankment type and diaphragm embankment
type.

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Rock-fill dams: It is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An impervious membrane
(cement concrete) is placed on the upstream side to reduce the seepage thorough the dam and loose
rock fill on the downstream. These dams require stronger foundation than those for earthen dams.
Self weight of this dam is intermediate between earthen and gravity dams and it a better earthquake
resistance.

4. With a neat sketch explain the classification of bridges.

soln: A bridge is a structure which provides a safe passage for a road or railway track over obstacles,
without closing the obstacle below. The obstacle to be crossed may be a river or stream, a canal, road or a
railway track etc.
The components of bridge are:
Super Structure: It refers to the part of the bridge above the bearing level. The components

included in the super structure are RCC beam, Deck slab, guard rails, pavement etc.
Sub Structure: It refers to the part of the bridge below the bearing level. The components included
in the substructure are bearings, piers, abutments, wing walls, foundation, etc.

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The types of bridges are:

a) Cable stayed bridge: These are usually constructed where the water flow is very fast. They are
supported by long cables carried over the tall towers provided at their ends.

b) Suspension bridges: These are the long span bridges in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is
hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders.These towers carry the weight of the deck upon which
traffic crosses.
c) Truss bridges: The load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss, a structure of connected elements
forming triangular units which are subjected to tension and compression.These bridges are suitable for railroad or long railway bridge of span 100 to 200m.

c) Skew bridges: If the center line of the bridge is not at right angles to the direction of flowing water in the
river, the bridge is known as skew bridge

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d) Arch bridges: An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch. Arch
bridges works by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust
restrained by the abutments at either side.

5. Explain the classification of roads.

soln: Depending upon various criteria, roads can be classified as follows:
a) Based on seasonal usage:
All weather roads: These are roads which are usable in all seasons including rainy season in a year.
Fair weather roads: These are roads which are usable during the dry seasons in a year.
b) Based on the nature of pavement surface provided:

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Surfaced roads: These are roads in which the topmost layer is covered with a bituminous material

or a rigid material like concrete.

Un- surfaced roads: These are roads in which the topmost layer is not covered by a bituminous
material or concrete but covered with a layer of stones mixed with gravel & thoroughly compacted.

c)Based on the importance of connectivity, function & traffic volume:

Expressways: These are roads which are developed to inter connect two important cities only,
where the traffic volume is very high. On these roads cross traffic & traffic in opposite direction is
not allowed. Throughout the length of the road medians are provided & vehicles can move at high

speeds. Fencing is also provided all along the road.

National highways: These are the main network of roads, running through the length& breadth of
a country. These roads inter connect state capitals, union territories, major ports, industrial areas and

tourist destinations.
State highways: These are roads at a state level, which interconnect district headquarters and

also interlink national highways running through a state or neighboring states.

Major district roads:These are important roads within a district, which help in moving goods from
agricultural production areas to market places. These roads may also inter connect state highways

and national highways. The permissible speed and traveling comforts on such roads is lesser.
Other district roads: These are roads which interlink taluk headquarters and other main roads.

They also serve as a link between agricultural areas and market places.
Village roads: These are roads connecting villages & remote habitat groups with major district
roads & other district roads.The surface of such roads may not be covered with a bituminous layer,

but fairly leveled and covered with stones and gravel.

6. Explain the components of roads.
soln:

The components are:

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Subsoil: It refers to the natural or prepared soil on which the loads coming on the road are ultimately

transferred. Hence the Sub Soil should be prepared by compacting it properly by rollers.
Sub grade: This layer gives support to the road structure. This should remain dry and stable
throughout the year. Much attention should be given in preparing the sub grade. This layer consists
of disintegrated rocks mixed with gravel. Now a day, a lean mixture of concrete with large amounts
of sand and stones is used in preparing this layer. The thickness of this layer depends upon, the type

of vehicles and traffic volume on the road.

Base Course: This layer is constructed in one or two layers consisting of stones mixed with gravel.
Bigger stones are used at the bottom. At the top level, smaller stones mixed with cohesive soil or
cement are provided and thoroughly compacted. This layer provides a proper support for the upper

layers.
Surface course/wearing course: It is the topmost layer of the road which takes the loads directly.
This layer is either made of flexible materials (bitumen or coal tar mixed with stones) or a rigid
material (concrete). This layer should be moderately rough to provide good grip for the vehicles.

7. Explain the role of a civil engineer in the infrastructural development of a country.

Soln: The role of civil engineers in the infrastructure development activities are:
Providing shelter to people in the form of low cost houses to high rise apartments.
Laying ordinary village roads to express highways.
Constructing irrigation tanks, multipurpose dams & canals for supplying water to agricultural

fields.
Supplying safe and potable water for public & industrial uses.
Protecting our environment by adopting sewage treatment & solid waste disposal techniques.
Constructing hydro-electric & thermal-power plants for generating electricity.
Providing other means of transportation such as railways, harbour & airports.
Constructing bridges across streams, rivers and also across seas.
Tunneling across mountains & also under water to connect places easily & reduce distance.

8. Explain the difference between a flexible and rigid pavement.

1.

2.

Flexible Pavement
It consists of a series of layers with the
highest quality materials at or near the
surface of pavement.
It reflects the deformations of subgrade and
subsequent layers on the surface.

Rigid Pavement
It consists of one layer Portland cement
concrete slab or relatively high flexural
strength.
It is able to bridge over localized failures and
area of inadequate support.
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3.

Its stability depends upon the aggregate

interlock, particle friction and cohesion.
Pavement design is greatly influenced by
the subgrade strength.
It functions by a way of load distribution
through the component layers

Its structural strength is provided by the

pavement slab itself by its beam action.
Flexural strength of concrete is a major factor
for design.
It distributes load over a wide area of subgrade
because of its rigidity and high modulus of
elasticity.
Temperature variations due to change in Temperature changes induce heavy stresses in
atmospheric conditions do not produce rigid pavements.
stresses in flexible pavements.
Flexible pavements have self-healing Any excessive deformations occurring due to
properties due to heavier wheel loads are heavier wheel loads are not recoverable, i.e.
recoverable due to some extent.
settlements are permanent.

4.
5.

6.

7.

9. Explain briefly the impact on infrastructural development on the socio-economical development of

the country.
Soln:
Improved health care & Cultural activities.
Housing & means of communication to people.
Direct employment to much number of skilled, semiskilled & unskilled laborers.
Growth of associated industries like cement, steel, glass, timber, plastics, paints, electrical goods

etc.
Increase in food production & protection from famine
Exporting agricultural goods can fetch foreign currency

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