LOGARITHMS

WHEN WE ARE GIVEN the base 2, for example, and exponent 3, then we can evaluate 23.
23 = 8.
Inversely, if we are given the base 2 and its power 8 -2? = 8
-- then what is the exponent that will produce 8?
That exponent is called a logarithm. We call the exponent 3 thelogarithm of 8 with base 2. We
write
3 = log28.
We write the base 2 as a subscript.
3 is the exponent to which 2 must be raised to produce 8.
A logarithm is an exponent.
Since
104 = 10,000
then
log1010,000 = 4.
"The logarithm of 10,000 with base 10 is 4."
4 is the exponent to which 10 must be raised to produce 10,000.
"104 = 10,000" is called the exponential form.
"log1010,000 = 4" is called the logarithmic form.
Here is the definition:
logbx = n means bn = x.
That base with that exponent produces x.
Example 1. Write in exponential form: log232 = 5.
Answer. 25 = 32.

1
16

Example 2. Write in logarithmic form: 42 =

1
16

Answer. log4

= 2.

Problem 1. Which numbers have negative logarithms?

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Do the problem yourself first!
Proper fractions.
Example 3. Evaluate log81.
Answer. 8 to what exponent produces 1? 80 = 1.
log81 = 0.
We can observe that, in any base, the logarithm of 1 is 0.
logb1 = 0
Example 4.

Evaluate log55.

Answer. 5 with what exponent will produce 5? 51 = 5. Therefore,

log55 = 1.
In any base, the logarithm of the base itself is 1.
logbb = 1
Example 5 . log22m = ?
Answer. 2 raised to what exponent will produce 2m ? m, obviously.
log22m = m.
The following is an important formal rule, valid for any base b:
logbbx = x
This rule embodies the very meaning of a logarithm. x -- on the right -- is the exponent to which
the base b must be raised to produce bx.
The rule also shows that the exponential function bx is the inverse of the function logbx. We will
see this in the following Topic.
1
9

Example 6 . Evaluate log3

Answer.
log3

1
9
1
9

is equal to 3 with what exponent?

=

Compare the previous rule.

log332 = 2.

1
9

= 32.

Example 7. log2 .25 = ?

Answer. .25 = = 22. Therefore,
log2 .25 = log222 = 2.
Example 8. log3

=?

= 31/5. (Definition of a rational exponent.) Therefore,

Answer.

log3

= log331/5 = 1/5.

Problem 2. Write each of the following in logarithmic form.

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a)

bn = x

logbx = n

b)

23 = 8

log28 = 3

c)

102 = 100

log10100 = 2

d)

52 = 1/25.

log51/25 = 2.

Problem 3. Write each of the following in exponential form.

bn = x

a) logbx = n

82 = 64

c) 2 = log864

b) log232 = 5

25 = 32

d) log61/36 = 2

62 = 62 = 1/36 1/36

Problem 4. Evaluate the following.

=4

a) log216

=3

c) log5125

d) log81

=1

e) log88

=2

b) log416

=0

f) log101

=0

Problem 5. What number is n?

1000

a) log10n = 3

c) log2n = 0

e) logn

1
1
16

= 2

b) 5 = log2n

32

d) 1 = log10n

10

f) logn

1
5

= 1

g) log2

1
32

=n

1
2

h) log2

=n

Problem 6. logbbx = x
Problem 7. Evaluate the following.
1
9

a) log9

log991 = 1

b) log9

1
81

c) log2

1
4

= 2

d) log2

1
8

e) log2

1
16

f) log10 .01

= 2

g) log10 .001

h) log6

1/3

i) logb

= 3/4

Common logarithms
The system of common logarithms has 10 as its base. When the base is not indicated,
log 100 = 2
then the system of common logarithms -- base 10 -- is implied.
Here are the powers of 10 and their logarithms:
Powers of 10:

1
1000

1
100

Logarithms:

1
10

10

100

1000

10,000

Logarithms replace a geometric series with an arithmetic series.

Problem 8. log 10n = ? n. The base is 10.
Problem 9. log 58 = 1.7634. Therefore, 101.7634 = ?
58. 1.7634 is the common logarithm of 58. When 10 is raised to that exponent, 58 is
produced.
Problem 10. log (log x) = 1. What number is x?

log a = 1, implies a = 10. (See above.) Therefore,

log (log x) = 1 implies log x = 10. Since 10 is the base,
x = 1010 = 10,000,000,000
Natural logarithms
The system of natural logarithms has the number called e as its base. (e is named after the 18th
century Swiss mathematician, Leonhard Euler.) e is the base used in calculus. It is called the "natural"
base because of certain technical considerations.
ex has the simplest derivative. Lesson 14 ofAn Approach to Calculus.)
e can be calculated from the following series expressed withfactorials:
1
1
1
1
=1+
+
+
+
1!
2!
3!
4!

+ . . .

e is an irrational number; its decimal value is approximately

2.71828182845904.
To indicate the natural logarithm of a number we write "ln."
ln x means logex.
Problem 11. What number is ln e ?
ln e = 1. The logarithm of the base itself is always 1. e is the base.
Problem 12. Write in exponential form (Example 1): y = ln x.
ey = x.
e is the base.
The three laws of logarithms
1.

logbxy = logbx + logby

"The logarithm of a product is equal to the sum
of the logarithms of each factor."

2.

logb

= logbx logby
"The logarithm of a quotient is equal to the logarithm of the numerator
minus the logarithm of the denominator."
3.

logb xn = n logbx

"The logarithm of x with a rational exponent is equal to

the exponent times the logarithm."
We will prove these laws below.
Example 9.

Apply the laws of logarithms to log

abc2

d3
Answer. According to the first two laws,
log

abc2
d3

log (abc2) log d

log a + log b + log c2 log d

log a + log b + 2 log c 3 log d,

according to the third law.

The Answer above shows the complete theoretical steps. In practice, however, it is not necessary
to write the line
abc2
d3

log

log (abc2) log d

The student should be able to go immediately to the next line -log

abc2
d3

log a + log b + log c2 log d

-- if not to the very last line

abc2
d3

log

Example 10.

Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite log

Answer.

log

Now,
log

log a + log b + 2 log c 3 log d.

z5

z5

= log x + log

log z5

= y. (Lesson 29 of Algebra.) Therefore, according to thethird law:

= log x + log y 5 log z.

z5

Example 11. Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite ln

Solution.
ln

ln (sin x ln x)

ln (sin x ln x), 3rd Law

(ln sin x + lnln x), 1st Law.

Note that the factors sin x ln x are the arguments of the logarithm function.
Example 12. Solve this equation for x:
log 32x + 5 = 1

Solution. According to the 3rd Law, we may write

(2x + 5)log 3 = 1

Now, log 3 is simply a number. Therefore, on distributing log 3,

2x log 3 + 5 log 3 = 1

2x log 3 = 1 5 log 3

x =

1 5 log 3
2 log 3

By this technique, we can solve equations in which the unknown appears in the exponent.
Problem 13. Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite the following.

a) log

ab
c

= log a + log b log c

b) log

ab2
c4

= log a + 2 log b 4 log c

c) log

= 1/3 log x + 1/2 log y log z

d) ln (sin2x ln x) = ln sin2x + ln ln x = 2 ln sin x + ln ln x

e) ln

= ln (cos x x1/3 ln x)

= (ln cos x + 1/3 ln x + ln ln x)

2x
f) ln (a2x 1 b5x + 1 ) = ln a

+ ln b5x

+ 1

= (2x 1) ln a + (5x + 1) ln b

Problem 14. Solve for x.

Problem 15. Prove:

ln 23x + 1 =

5.

(3x + 1) ln 2 =

3x ln 2 + ln 2 =

3x ln 2 =

5 ln 2

x =

5 ln 2
3 ln 2

ln x

= ln
ln x = (1)ln x =

ln

x1,

ln

1
x

1
x

Third law

Proof of the laws of logarithms

The laws of logarithms will be valid for any base. We will prove them for base e, that is, for y = ln x.
1.

ln ab = ln a + ln b.

The function y = ln x is defined for all positive real numbers x. Therefore there are real
numbers p and q such that
p = ln a and q = ln b.
This implies
a=e

and b = e q.

Therefore, according to the rules of exponents,

ab = e p e

=e

p+q

And therefore
ln ab = ln e

p+q

= p + q = ln a + ln b.

Which is what we wanted to prove.

In a similar manner we can prove the 2nd law. Here is the 3rd:
3.

ln an = n ln a.

There is a real number p such that

p = ln a;
that is,
a = e p.

And the rules of exponents are valid for all rational numbers n(Lesson 29 of Algebra; an irrational
number is the limit of a sequence of rational numbers). Therefore,
an = e

pn

This implies
ln an = ln e

pn

= pn = np = n ln a.

That is what we wanted to prove.

Change of base
Say that we know the values of logarithms of base 10, but not, for example, in base 2. Then we can
convert a logarithm in base 10 to one in base 2 -- or any other base -- by realizing that the values will
beproportional.

Each value in base 2 will differ from the value in base 10 by the same constant k.
Now, to find that constant, we know that

Therefore, on putting x = 2 above:

That implies

Therefore,

That is,

By knowing the values of logarithms in base 10, we can in this way calculate their values in
base 2.
In general, then, if we know the values in base a, then the constant of proportionality in changing
to base b, is the reciprocal of its log in base a.

Problem 16. Write the rule for changing to base 8 from base e.

General Mathematics

A function is a special relationship where each input has a single output. It is often written as "f(x)" where
x is the input value. Example: f(x) = x/2 ("f of x is x divided by 2") is a function, because each input "x"
has a single output "x/2": f(2) = 1.
A logarithms is a quantity representing the power to which a fixed number (the base) must be raised to
produce a given number.
-the inverse of exponentiation.