Aggression PSYA3

Social Psychological theories of

aggression (8+16) AO1

Social Learning Theory according to the behaviourist approach to

aggression, like any other behaviour, is learnt

This proposes that aggression is learnt through imitation

According to the behaviourist approach, behaviour is reinforced (rewarded)

is more likely to be repeated

If an individual sees aggressive behaviour being reinforced when another

person (the model) display it (vicarious reinforcement) the individual is
motivated to reproduce behaviour to obtain the same rewards

Bandura argues that learning aggressive behaviour occurs in 4 states:

Attention, Retention, Reproduction and Motivation (ARMM)

Social Psychological theories of

aggression (8+16) AO1

Deindividuation refers to the loss of personal identity and personal

responsibility when we are, for example, one of a crowd or wearing a
mask

This concept can be used to explain aggressive behaviour because

when deindividuated individuals feel less constrained by the norms of
social behaviour, and feel able to behave in an anti-social way

People feel part of the crowd and perhaps not identifiable e.g. in a
mob like during the 2012 riots

Social Psychological theories of

aggression (8+16) AO2/3

SLT explains inconsistencies in aggressive behaviour e.g. a person being

aggressive at home but submissive at work according to SLT, learnt that
aggressive behaviour is only appropriate in certain situations

SLT does not account for biological explanations of aggression

deterministic

Bandura 66 children watched film of adult model behaving aggressively

to bobo doll in 3 conditions neither rewarded or punished, rewarded or
punished if rewarded = most aggressive, punishment = least aggressive

SLT relies on Banduras experiment however Bobo dolls do not retaliate

when hit which raises questions about what the study tells us about
imitation of aggression

Social Psychological theories of

aggression (8+16) AO2/3

Zimbardo wanted to investigate brutality reported amongst American

prison guards . Recreated prison and recruited participants to play
role of prisoners and guards. Anonymity of each group made it easier
for guards to behave brutally towards and dehumanise prisoners

Ethical issues protection from harm

ThebehaviourobservedinZimbardosstudymayhavebeenaresulto
f
theparticipantsconformingtotheirrolesratherthanaresultofalos
s ofselfidentity.

A meta-analysis of 60 studies of deindividuation concludes that there

is insufficient support for deindividuation claims

Social Psychological theories of

aggression (8+16) AO2/3

Deindividuation can increase prosocial behaviour Spivey et al found

deindividuation could lead to either prosocial or antisocial behaviour,
depending on situational factors

When prosocial environmental cues were present (e.g. prosocial

model), deindividuated participants performed more altruistic acts
and less antisocial acts

Real world application man analysed 21 suicide leaps in US

newspapers from 1960-70 found 10 of 21 was where the crowd had
gathered to watch and baiting occurred urging to jump

Institutional Aggression (8+16) AO1

Importation model Irwin and Cressey

Thistheorystatesthatindividualswhoenterprisonwithparticular
characteristicsaremorelikelyto engageinviolencethanthose
whodonotpossessthesecharacteristics-violenceisnotaproduct
of theinstitutionitself,butofthecharacteristicsofthosewithin
the institution

Youngerinmatesarethoughttofindadjustingtoprisonlifemore
difficult,andsoaremorelikelyto
engageinviolencethanothers.Adams(1981)claimsthatyoungeri
nmatesaremorelikelytoview
violenceasanappropriatewayofsolvingconflicts.

Institutional Aggression (8+16) AO1

Deprivation model

Thistheoryacknowledgesthatwhilstinmatesmayenterprisonwith
characteristicsthatmaybe moresuitedtoviolence,itistheprison
environmentthatcausesstressandfrustration,whichinturn
leadstoviolence

HarrerandSteffensmeir(1986)proposethatviolentbehaviourininmates
isa
responsetotheproblemsofadjustmentposedbythedeprivationsofimpr
isonment.

Sykes(1958) identifiedsomeoftheseproblems,forexample,lossof
heterosexualrelationships.

Theproblemof
deprivationisparticularlycommoninovercrowdedprisonswherethecondi
tionsleadto exacerbatedtensionsbetweeninmatesandstaff.

Institutional Aggression (8+16) AO2/3

o

McCorkleetal(1995)statetheimportationmodelfailstoexplainhowto
manageviolent offenders/reduceprisonviolence.

Accordingtotheindividuationmodel,membersofviolentgangspriorto
imprisonmentwillshow higherlevelsofviolenceinprison,astheywill
importantcharacteristicsoftheirgangmembership.
However,DeLisietal(2004)foundthatin800malesinmates,gangmembership
priorto
imprisonmenthadnoeffectonviolentconduct.

Themainstudyofthedeprivationmodelfailstosupportitsmainassumptions.
McCorkleetal
(1995)foundnoevidencetosupportacorrelationbetweenviolenceandaspects
oftheprison
environmentinasampleof371U.S.prisons.McCorklealsopointedoutthatwhil
stthedeprivations
ofprisonlifeareconstant,seriousoutbreaksofviolencearenot.Hesuggestedt
hatprisonviolence
wasmoretodowiththepoormanagementofoffendersthandeprivation.

Neural and Hormonal (8+16) AO1

Low levels of serotonin and high levels of dopamine have been

associated with aggression in animals and humans

Serotonin thought to reduce aggression by inhibiting responses to

emotional stimuli that might otherwise lead to an aggressive response

Low levels of serotonin in brain have been associated with increased

susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent
suicide

Some drugs are thought to alter serotonin levels and this increase
aggressive behaviour

Mann et al found deplete serotonin dexfenfluramine in males was

associated with aggression and hostility scores

Neural and Hormonal (8+16) AO1

High levels of dopamine and aggressive behaviour is not as well

established as serotonin, there is some evidence to suggest that a link
exists

Increases in dopamine activity via the use of amphetamines have also

been associated with increases in aggressive behaviour

Antipsychotics which reduce dopamine activity in brain have been

shown to reduce aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents

Male sex hormone testosterone thought to influence aggression from

young adulthood onwards due t action on brain areas controlling
aggression.

Wagner et al castrated male mice found mice were less aggressive,

more aggressive if injected in aggression

Neural and Hormonal (8+16) AO2/3

Links between biological mechanisms such as serotonin and

testosterone established in non-human animals

This isnt to deny such links exist but rather that the complexity of
human social behaviour means biological on its own is insufficient to
explain all aspects of aggressive and violent behaviour

If low levels of serotonin are associated with low impulse control and
aggressive behaviour, drugs that clinically raise serotonin levels
should produce concurrent lowering in aggression

Bond established this is exactly what happens in studies of

antidepressant drugs that elevate serotonin levels

Such drugs to dent to reduce irritability and impulse aggression

Neural and Hormonal (8+16) AO2/3

Although research is fairly inconclusive about the casual role of dopamine

in aggression, recent research suggests its influence might be as a
consequence instead

Couppis and Kennedy found that in mice, a reward pathway in brain

becomes engaged in response to aggressive event and dopamine is involved
as positive reinforce in pathway

Suggests individuals intentionally seek out an aggressive encounter solely

because they experience a rewarding sensation out of it

Wagner et al animal study not generalisable

Most studies concerned with testosterone and aggression involved male

participants, does it also increase aggression in females? Gender bias

Neural and Hormonal (8+16) AO2/3

Research suggests testosterone and aggression is higher in female

than male samples (Archer et al)

Further study showed that women with higher testosterone had higher
occupational status, as a result of being more assertive?

Eisenegger et al found testosterone could make women act nicer

rather than more aggressively, depending on situation

Supports the idea that rather than directly increasing aggression,

testosterone promotes status-seeking behaviour of which aggression
is one type

Genetic Factors (8+16) AO1

Monozygotic (MZ) twins share all of their genes whilst dizygotic (DZ)
share only 50%

In twin studies researchers compare the degree of similarity for a

particular trait (e.g. aggression) between MZ twins to the similarity
between sets of DZ twins

If MZ more alike in terms of aggressive behaviour then this should be

due to genes rather than environment

Coccaro et al used twin adult pairs and found nearly 50% of the
variance in direct aggressive behaviour could be due to genetic
factors

Genetic Factors (8+16) AO1

Adoption studies If a positive correlation is found between aggressive

behaviour and adopted studies and aggressive behaviour belongs to
biological parents, a genetic effect is implied

A study of over 14,000 adoptions in Denmark found that a significant

number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological
parents (especially fathers) with criminal convictions. This provides
evidence for a genetic effect

Although no individual gene for aggression has been identified in

humans, a gene responsible for producing a protein called MAOA has
been associated with aggressive behaviour

Genetic Factors (8+16) AO1

MAOA regulates metabolism of serotonin in the brain and low levels of

serotonin are associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour

Dutch family found that many of its male members behaved violently
and aggressively. Many had been involved in serious crimes such as
rape and arson. These men were found to have abnormally low levels
of MAOA

Genetic Factors (8+16) AO2/3

More than one gene usually contributes to a given behaviour

As well as genetic factors there are many non-genetic factors i.e.

environmental influences on the manifestation of aggressive
behaviour

These influences may interact with each other. Genetic factors may
affect environmental factors that have an influence and vice versa

Many of the reported studies of aggression relied on either parental or

self reports of aggression social desirability bias

We ignore free will plays in behaviour idea that gene for aggression
changes ideas of legal and moral responsibility

Genetic Factors (8+16) AO2/3

Miles and Carey meta-analysis mode of assessment was found to be a

significant moderator of aggressive behaviour in the 24 studies that
made up their analysis

They found that genetic factors explained a large proportion of the

variance in aggressive behaviour in studies that had parental of selfreports

Those that had made use of observational ratings showed significantly

less genetic contribution and greater environmental influence

Focuses on nature not nurture deterministic

The twin studies never found a 100% concordance rate suggesting

other factors also influence the twins not just genes

Genetic Factors (8+16) AO2/3

Ideally, twin studies should examine pairs of MZ twins raised in

separate environments to eliminate the influence of environmental
factors

However, difficult to find large number of MZ twins raised in different

environments

Most studies only consider males being susceptible in showing

aggressive behaviour

Button et al studied 258 twin pairs aged 11 to 18 and found that

inheritance of antisocial aggressive behaviour was higher for females
than males

Evolutionary Explanation(8+16) AO1

Buss suggests that males have a number of strategies that have

evolved specifically for the purpose of keeping a mate

These include, restricting their partners autonomy and negative

inducements in the form of violence or threats of violence to prevent
her from straying

Sexual jealousy is the primary cause of violence against women, those

who are perceived by their partner to be threatening infidelity are
more at risk of violence than those who are not

For example: studies have shown that majority cases, women cite
extreme jealousy on the part of their husbands as key cause of
violence is directed towards them

Evolutionary Explanations (8+16) AO1

Sexual infidelity by a woman may sometimes lead to pregnancy

From the perspective of her long term made, if the child is born, he
risks investing in the offspring of another male and consequently
lowering his own reproductive success

When a woman becomes pregnant with another mans child, the

function of violence directed towards her may be to terminate
pregnancy

Thus, eliminating the potential offspring of a rival and leaving her

free to bear offspring for him

Evolutionary Explanations (8+16)

AO2/3

Shackelford et al used survey method to test evolutionary psychology

predictions concerning mate retention strategies

They used 461 men and 560 women in US. All participants committed,
heterosexual relationships. Male answered questions about their use of
mate retention techniques and were assessed on how often they
perform each of 26 types of violent acts against partners.

Females answered questions concerning their partners use of male

retention techniques and degree their partners use violence against
them

Mens use of two retention techniques (intersexual negative

inducements and direct guarding) +ively correlated with violence scores

Evolutionary Explanations (8+16)

AO2/3

Using emotional manipulation (e.g. I will kill myself if you left results from female participants confirmed this trend

This study shows a clear relationship between sexual jealousy, mate

retention strategies and violence against women

This study suffers from sexual bias (homosexual relationships?)

Ethnocentric

Can lie social desirability bias as self report quesitonnaires

Evolutionary Explanations (8+16)

AO2/3

Burch and Gallup found frequency of violent acts towards pregnant

mate were doubled than those who were not pregnant, with sexual
jealousy characterising men who were violent towards pregnant
partners

Brownridge et al found women abused while pregnant were more

likely to be carrying child of anothers man than her current mates.

Nicaraguan study found half of sample of pregnant women were

physically abused and suffered most blows to stomach area

Evolutionary cannot explain why people react in different ways when

same problem

Group Display (8+16) AO1

SPORTS: Wilson claims that xenophobia has been documented in

virtually every group of animals displaying higher forms of social
organisation. Natural selection, it appears, has favoured those genes
that caused human beings to be altruistic toward members of their
own group but intolerant of outsiders

Podalin et al found evidence of xenophobic tendencies in their

analysis of the group displays of Italian football crowds. In 1980s,
xenophobic political organisations such as the Northern league led to
growth of extreme right wing movements characterised by racist
chants and openly anti semantic banners

Group Display (8+16) AO1

WARFARE: Displays of aggressiveness by individual warriors would also

lead peers to respect them more and so strengthen the bond between
other males in group

As cooperation between males is important to individual status in

group, fleeing from battle would make individual appear as coward
thus losing respect of their peers

According to this perspective displays of aggressiveness and bravery in

battle means individuals are more likely to share benefits with those
associated with status which would increase reproductive fitness

Group Display (8+16) AO2/3

Theideathatcommittingactsofheroicbraveryisafemalemate
preferencecanbeseeninreallife,
asmanywomenchoosetomatewithbravemen.Similarly,footballorganisatio
nshaverecognised the
rolethatxenophobiaplaysinfootballcrowdviolenceandhave
introducedcampaignstoreduce itsimpacti.e.KickRacismOutof
Football.

Thereisacleargenderbiasinevolutionaryresearchintosports
crowdviolence,asallofthestudies haveexaminedmalesubjects

Theevolutionaryapproachignorestheinfluenceoffreewilland
cultureonourbehaviour. Evolutionarytheoriesstatethatifa
characteristicisadaptive,itwillbedisplayedbyallhuman beings,
however,aggressionisnotuniversal.

Group Displays (8+16) AO2/3

Evolutionaryideasrelyonanalysingeventsaftertheyhavehappened
toseewhetherornotthey
wereadaptive.Thiscouldleadtobias,asresearchersmayhavealrea
dyestablishedwhattheywere
lookingfortotesttheirideasbeforeanalysingevents.

Deterministic as it suggests that group display of aggression are driven

by out genes and serve sole purpose of survival and enhancing
reproductive success

This explanation is post-hoc, based on events that have already

passed and applying abstract concepts retrospectively, which cannot
be scientifically tested