Electrical Networks and RESONANCE SQA.

DG3G 34
Electrical Networks and

Resonance
March 2006
SQA
Electrical Networks and Resonance
DG3G 34
Acknowledgements
No extract from any source held under copyright by any individual or organisation has
been included in this publication.
Scottish Qualifications Authority Material developed by Lauder College.

This publication is licensed by SQA to COLEG for use by Scotlands colleges as commissioned
materials under the terms and conditions of COLEGs Intellectual Property Rights document,
September 2004.
No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior written consent of COLEG and
SQA.
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Contents
Acknowledgements
Contents
Introduction to the unit
What this unit is about
Outcomes
Unit structure
How to use these learning materials
Symbols used in this unit
Self assessed question
Activity
Tutor assignment formative assessment
Other resources required
10
Assessment information
11
How you will be assessed
11
When and where you will be assessed
11
What you have to achieve
11
Opportunities for reassessment
11
Section 1: Network theorems
13
Introduction to this section
15
What this section is about
15
Outcomes, aims and objectives
15
Approximate study time
15
15
Assessment information for this section
16
16
Introduction
17
Kirchhoff's laws
17
Kirchoff's current law (KCL)

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Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)
18
Network analysis using Kirchhoff's laws
22
Superposition theorem
28
Constant voltage sources and constant current sources
33
Practical voltage source
33
Ideal voltage source
34
Practical current source
35
Ideal current source
36
Thevenins theorem
37
Nortons theorem
48
Thevenins theorem versus Nortons theorem
56
The maximum power transfer theorem
59
Maximum power transfer in a dc network
59
Calculation of maximum power transfer
59
Proof of maximum power transfer
60
Maximum power transfer in an ac network
62
Impedance matching
65
Summary of this section
68
Answers to SAQs
69
Answers to activities
86
Section 2: Resonant circuits
89
91
91
91
91
91
92
92
92
92
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Introduction
93
The series resonant circuit
94
Revision
94
Condition for resonance
95
Resonant frequency
96
Impedance, current and phase angle
97
Impedance and current graphs
98
Q factor
98
Damping
99
Bandwidth and selectivity
100
The parallel resonant circuit
103
Ideal and actual parallel circuits
103
105
Resonant frequency
106
107
108
Q factor
109
Bandwidth
110
Worked example 2.9
110
Solution
111
117
Answers to SAQs
118
122
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Introduction to the unit

What this unit is about
This unit is designed to enable candidates to develop knowledge and understanding
and apply a range of network theorems to the solution of dc and ac electrical network
problems. The unit also allows candidates to undertake a detailed study of series and
parallel passive resonant circuits.
Outcomes
Apply network theorems to solve electrical network problems.
Solve problems involving resonating passive circuits.
Unit structure
This unit contains the following study sections:
Section number and title
Approx.
study time
Network theorems
24 hours
Series and parallel resonance
14.5 hours
How to use these learning materials

These learning materials consist of a number of self assessed questions (SAQs) to test
your understanding of the various topics covered along with practical activities. The
answers and solutions to the SAQs and practical activities are given at the end of this
package.
You should work through both sections, covering outcomes 1 and 2 before attempting
the tutor assignment, which will prepare you for the assessment of the unit.
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Symbols used in this unit

These learning materials allow you to work on your own with tutor support. As you work
through the course, you will encounter a series of symbols which indicate that
something follows which you are expected to do. You will notice that as you work
through the study sections you will be asked to undertake a series of SAQs, activities
and tutor assignments. An explanation of the symbols used to identify these is given
below.
Self assessed question
1
This symbol is used to indicate a self assessed question (SAQ). Most commonly, SAQs
are used to check your understanding of the material that has already been covered in
the sections.
This type of assessment is self-contained; everything is provided within the section to
enable you to check your understanding of the materials.
The process is simple:
you are set SAQs throughout the study section;
you respond to these by writing either in the space provided in the assessment
itself or in your notebook;
on completion of the SAQ, you turn to the back of the section to compare the model
SAQ answers to your own;
if you are not satisfied after checking your responses, turn to the appropriate part of
the study section and go over the topic again.
Remember, the answers to SAQs are contained within the study materials. You are not
expected to guess at these answers.
Activity
1
This symbol indicates an activity, which is normally a task you will be asked to do that
should improve or consolidate your understanding of the subject in general or a
particular feature of it.
The suggested responses to activities are given at the end of each section.
Remember that the SAQs and activities contained within your package are intended to
allow you to check your understanding and monitor your own progress throughout the
course. It goes without saying that the answers to these should only be checked after
the SAQ or activity has been completed. If you refer to these answers before
completing the activities, you cannot expect to get maximum benefit from your course.
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Tutor assignment formative assessment

1
This symbol means that a tutor assignment follows. These are found at the end of each
study section. The aim of the tutor assignment is to cover and/or incorporate the main
topics of the section and prepare you for unit (summative) outcome assessment.
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To complete the practical activities, you will need access to a PC with a suitable
simulation program such as Electronics Workbench, Crocodile Clips, etc.
You will also need a scientific calculator and are recommended to get one that can
perform coordinate transformations (polar/rectangular) such as a Casio fx-83WA or
equivalent.
You may have the resources above if you have already studied unit DG54 34 Single
Phase AC Circuits.
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Assessment information
You will be formatively assessed throughout the material using the SAQs and practical
activities. You will be summatively assessed at the end of the material by a single
closed book written test lasting 1 hours.

You will sit the summative assessment once you have satisfactorily completed all the
SAQs and practical activities. The location will be determined by your tutor.

To pass this unit you must achieve a minimum score of 60% in the summative
assessment. A score of 40 to 59% will require a partial reassessment and a score of
less than 40% will require a complete reassessment.

Normally, you will be given one attempt to pass an assessment with one reassessment
opportunity.
Your centre will also have a policy covering 'exceptional' circumstances, for example if
you have been ill for an extended period of time. Each case will be considered on an
individual basis and is at your centre's discretion (usually via written application), and
they will decide whether or not to allow a third attempt. Please contact your tutor for
details regarding how to apply.
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Section 1: Network theorems
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This section covers the use of network theorems to solve electrical network problems.
After completing this section, you should be able to:
use Kirchhoffs laws to solve problems in dc networks;
use the superposition theorem to solve problems in dc networks;
apply the concept of constant voltage and constant current sources;
use Thevenins theorem to solve problems in both dc and ac networks;
use Nortons theorem to solve problems in both dc and ac networks;
use the maximum power transfer theorem to solve problems in dc and ac networks.

24 hours.
PC with suitable simulation software.
Scientific calculator.
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There is no summative assessment for this first section.
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Introduction
The use of Ohms law in its basic form is limited to simple networks consisting of one
source and a few components. As the networks become more complex, other analysis
techniques are required.
There are many methods of analysis available and in this section we shall be focusing
on the following:
Kirchhoffs laws (dc circuits only)
the superposition theorem (dc circuits only)
Thevenins theorem (dc and ac circuits)
Nortons theorem (dc and ac circuits)
the maximum power transfer theorem (dc and ac circuits).
The ac circuit analysis will involve the use of complex numbers, which is also covered
in the unit DG54 34 Single Phase AC Circuits.
Kirchhoff's laws
Kirchoff's current law (KCL)
Kirchoff's current law states:
The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction in a
network is equal to zero.
To put it another way, the total current flowing towards a junction equals the total
current flowing away from the junction.
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I2
I1
I3
I4
I1 = I2 + I3 + I4
I1 I2 I3 I4 = 0
I = 0
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)
Kirchhoff's voltage law states:
The algebraic sum of the emfs acting around a

closed loop is equal to the algebraic sum of the
potential differences around the closed loop.
To put it another way, the sum of the energy sources is equal to the sum of the
component volt drops around the closed loop.
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R4
E1
R1
E2
R2
E3
R3
E1 + E2 + E3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4

E = IR
Worked example 1.1
Using KCL, determine the value of I in the diagram below.
2A
I
4A
8A
5A
Solution
From KCL, the total current entering the junction is equal to the total current leaving the
junction:
I+2+5=4+8
I + 7 = 12
I=5A
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Worked example 1.2

Using KVL, write down an expression for the circuit below.
R3
4A
E1
R1
E2
R2
Solution
From KVL, the sum of the emfs is equal to the sum of the voltage drops:
E1 + E2 = 4R1 + 4R2 + 4R3
E1 + E2 = 4(R1 + R2 + R3)
1.1
a) Use KCL to find the value of the current (I) in each diagram below.
(i)
(ii)
4A
2A
2A
5A
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(iii)
(iv)
4A
I1
I
3A
I2
I4
6A
I3
1.2
a) Use KVL to write down an expression for each of the following circuits.
(i)
R3
I
E1
R1
E2
R2
(ii)
R3
R4
2A
E1
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(iii)
4
I
E1
E2
(iv)
3
2A
E1
10 V
R2
7V
Network analysis using Kirchhoff's laws

The analysis of electrical networks makes use of both the current law and the voltage
law. The following list is a general set of steps that should be applied to the solution of
an electrical network by Kirchhoff's laws. A worked example follows to show how they
are applied.
1. Label all network loops on the diagram.
2. Assume all batteries to discharge current and enter these onto the diagram.
3. Apply KCL.
4. Select two loops and obtain an equation from each by applying KVL.
5. Use simultaneous equations to solve for the unknown quantities.
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Worked example 1.3

With reference to the circuit below, determine the magnitude and direction of the
current flowing through the 10 resistor.
10
2V
4V
Solution
Steps 1, 2 and 3
I1 + I2
10
D
I2
2V
I1
4V
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Step 4
Consider loop ACDF
4 = 4I1 + 10(I1 + I2)
4 = 4I1 + 10I1 + 10I2
4 = 14I1 + 10I2
(eqn 1)
Consider loop BCDE

2 = 5I2 + 10(I1 + I2)
2 = 5I2 + 10I1 + 10I2
2 = 10I1 + 15I2
(eqn 2)
Consider loop ABEF

4 2 = 4I1 5I2
2 = 4I1 5I2
(eqn 3)
Although we have developed three equations here, only two will be required to solve
for the unknown currents I1 and I2.
Step 5
Each equation contains two unknowns and on their own cannot be used to solve for
both I1 and I2. Any two equations must be chosen and solved using the simultaneous
equations method. We shall choose equations 1 and 2 for this example.
You may already be familiar with solving simultaneous equations but if not here is a
quick guide in doing so. The technique involves multiplying one or both chosen
equations by some number(s) which will make the coefficients of either I1 or I2 equal.
The two equations can then be added or subtracted as appropriate to eliminate that
term, leaving one new equation with a single term that can be solved.
Once the current (either I1 or I2) has been solved from above, it is substituted back into
any of the other equations to solve for the other current. Lets put this into practice.
If we look below at the coefficients of I2, they are 10 from equation 1 and 15 from
equation 2.
4 = 14I1 + 10I2
(eqn 1)
2 = 10I1 + 15I2
(eqn 2)
We shall multiply equation 1 throughout by 1.5 (remember all parts of the equation
must be multiplied). This will now make the coefficient of I2 equal to 15. Since both I2
coefficients are positive, to eliminate them the two equations must be subtracted from
each other:
6 = 21I1 + 15I2
(eqn 1) 1.5
2 = 10I1 + 15I2
(eqn 2)
4 = 11I1
(subtract)
I1 =
4
= 0.364 A
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This value for I1 can now be substituted into any of the previous equations to solve
for I2. We shall substitute I1 into equation 2 which gives:
2 = 10I1 + 15I2
2 = 10(0.364) + 15I2
2 = 3.64 + 15I2
15I2 = 1.64
I2 =
1.64
= 0.109 A
15
Note the value of I2 in this case is negative. This simply means that the assumed
direction at the start of question was incorrect. However, we carry on and use this
negative value.
The current flow through the 10 resistor (I) is equal to I1 + I2 therefore:
I = I1 + I2
I = 0.364 + (0.109)
I = 0.255 A flowing from C to D.
1.3
a)
Use Kirchhoffs laws to calculate the current flowing in each branch of the circuit
below.
2
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12 V
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b)
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Determine the magnitude and direction of the current through the load resistor
in the circuit below by Kirchoffs laws. (Hint: take care with current directions.)
RL = 10
c)
12 V
8V
With reference to the circuit below, use KCL and KVL to determine the voltage
drop across the load resistor.
15
4V
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6V
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1.1
Verification of Kirchhoffs laws
Equipment required
PC
Electronics Workbench or similar
Circuit 1: Kirchhoffs voltage law

Using the software package available to you, connect up the circuit shown below. The
symbols you use may be slightly different to the ones shown here.
Procedure
1.
Connect voltmeters across the supply and across each resistor.
2.
Activate the simulation and verify KVL.
Circuit 2: Kirchhoffs current law

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Procedure
1.
Connect ammeters into the circuit to measure the supply current and each of the
branch currents.
2. Activate the simulation and verify KCL.
Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem states:
In any electrical network containing two or more sources or emf (or

current), the current through or the potential difference across any
branch can be found by considering each source separately (with all
other sources replaced by their respective internal resistances) and
adding together or superimposing their individual effects.
The following list is a general set of steps that should be applied to the solution of an
electrical network using the superposition theorem. The types of circuit covered will be
the same as for Kirchhoffs laws.
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RL
RB
RA
1.
Remove battery B, replace with its internal resistance (zero ohms unless specified)
and calculate the circuit voltages and/or currents due to battery A.
2.
Remove battery A, replace with its internal resistance (zero ohms unless specified)
and calculate the circuit voltages/currents due to battery B.
3.
Determine circuit voltages/currents by adding or superimposing the results from

the two steps above.
Worked example 1.4

Use the superposition theorem to calculate the currents flowing through each branch of
the network below.
4
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4V
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Solution
Step 1
Remove 2 V battery.
I3
I2
Total resis tan ce = 2 +

Battery current I1 =
4V
I1
4 1
= 2 + 0 . 8 = 2 .8
4 +1
4
= 1.429 A
2 .8
Branch current I 2 = 1.429
4
= 1.143 A (by current division rule)
4 +1
1
4 +1
Step 2
Remove 4 V battery.
I6
I4
2V
I5
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Total resis tan ce = 1 +

Battery current I 4 =
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42
= 1 + 1.333 = 2.333
4+2
2
= 0.857 A
2.333
4
4+2
2
4+2
Step 3
Combine or superimpose the results from steps 1 and 2.

I3
I2
I1
I6
I4
I5
4V
2V
4 V battery current = I1 I5 = 1.429 0.571 = 0.858 A

The 4 V battery is discharging a current of 0.858 A into the circuit.
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2 V battery current = I4 I2 = 0.857 1.143 = 0.286 A

The 2 V battery is being charged by a current of 0.286 A.
The 4 resistor current is I3 + I6 = 0.286 + 0.286 = 0.572 A, flowing left to right.
1.4
a)
Use the superposition theorem to calculate the current flowing in each branch of
the circuit below.
2
b)
10 V
12 V
Determine the magnitude and direction of the current through the load resistor
in the circuit below by the superposition theorem.
RL = 10
12 V
8V
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c)
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With reference to the circuit below, use the superposition theorem to determine
the voltage drop across the load resistor.
15
RL
4V
6V
Constant voltage sources and constant current sources

The next two theorems (Thevenins and Nortons) deal with circuit analysis techniques
involving devices known as constant voltage sources and constant current sources. An
explanation of their function is given below.
Practical voltage source
The function of a voltage source is to deliver a known voltage to a circuit. It is shown as

a voltage generator (V) connected in series with a resistor (Rint). The voltage source
represents the magnitude of the voltage supplied and the resistor represents the
internal resistance of the source. For a voltage source, the value of Rint should be as
low as possible.
Consider the diagrams below, which show two actual voltage sources, one operating
under no load conditions and one operating under load conditions.
Rint
Rint
Vo
RL
Vo
No load conditions
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Under no load conditions, the output voltage (Vo) will always be equal to the voltage
supplied by the generator, thus:
Vo = V
Under load conditions, a current will flow around the loop producing a potential drop
across Rint. The output voltage will drop and will be given by:
Vo = V I Rint
Under load conditions, the value of Vo will depend on the value of the load RL and will
always be less than V.
Ideal voltage source
The internal resistance of a voltage source should be as low as possible. Under ideal
conditions, the value can be considered to be zero. Let us look at how this affects the
value of the output voltage under no load and load conditions.
Vo
No load conditions
RL
Vo
Load conditions
Vo = V
Vo = V
In this case, it can be seen that the value of the output voltage will always be the same
irrespective of RL. The source therefore supplies a constant voltage for any load
condition. Such a source is called a constant voltage source (CVS).
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Example
10
10 V
Vo
Vo = 10 V
I=
10 V
Vo
Vo = 10 V
10
= 1A
10
I=
10
=2A
5
As the load changes, the current supplied by the CVS changes but the output voltage
remains constant. A CVS is therefore defined as a device that supplies a constant
voltage to a circuit irrespective of the load connected across it.
Practical current source
The function of a current source is to deliver a known current to a circuit. It is shown as

a current generator (I) connected in parallel with a resistor (Rint). The current source
represents the magnitude of the current supplied and the resistor represents the
internal resistance of the source. For a current source, the value of Rint should be as
high as possible.
Consider the diagrams below, which show two actual current sources, one operating
under no load conditions (load terminals on short circuit) and one operating under load
conditions.
Rint
Io
No load conditions
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Io
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Under no load conditions, the output current (Io) will always be equal to the current
supplied by the generator, thus:
Io = I
Under load conditions, the current from the source will split between the internal
resistance and the load resistance. The output current will drop and will be given by:
Io = I IRint
Under load conditions, the value of Io will depend on the value of the load RL and will
always be less than I.
Ideal current source
The internal resistance of a current source should be as high as possible. Under ideal
conditions, the value can be considered to be infinite. Let us look at how this affects the
value of the output current under no load (load terminals on short circuit) and load
conditions.
Io
RL
No load conditions
Io
Load conditions
Io = I
Io = I
In this case, it can be seen that the value of the output current will always be the same
irrespective of RL. The source therefore supplies a constant current for any load
condition. Such a source is called a constant current source (CCS).
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Example
10
5A
Io
5A
Io = 5 A
Io
Io = 5 A
Vo = 5 10 = 50 V
Vo = 5 5 = 25 V
As the load changes, the voltage produced across the load changes but the output
current remains constant. A CCS is therefore defined as a device that supplies a
constant current to a circuit irrespective of the load connected across it.
Thevenins theorem
Thevenins theorem states:
Any two terminal networks can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit comprising a constant voltage source in
series with a single resistor
A
Network
containing any
number of
sources and
resistances
A
RTH
RTH
VTH
B
VTH
B
The constant voltage source is known as the Thevenin voltage (VTH) and is equal to
the open-circuit terminal voltage of the network measured between points A and B.
The resistance value is known as the Thevenin resistance (RTH) and is equal to the
resistance of the network measured between points A and B with all sources replaced
by their internal resistances (normally short circuit for voltage sources and open circuit
for current sources).
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Once the values of VTH and RTH have been determined, the Thevenin equivalent circuit
is drawn and this can be used to determine a range of circuit quantities. The following
is a set of steps to be followed when solving network problems using Thevenins
theorem:
1. Remove the resistor in question and calculate the Thevenin voltage (VTH).
2. With the resistor still removed, replace all sources with their internal resistances
and calculate the Thevenin resistance (RTH).
3. Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit, place the original resistor across terminals AB
and calculate the quantity required.
Note: When dealing with ac circuits the word resistor will be replaced with the word
impedance. The procedures for working with Thevenins theorem remain unchanged.
Worked example 1.5
Use Thevenins theorem to calculate the voltage across the 6 resistor in the network
below.
10
8V
15
Solution
Step 1
Remove the 6 resistor and calculate VTH

10
4
A
8V
15
VTH
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Battery current I =
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8
= 0.32 A
10 + 15
There will be no current flowing through the 4 resistor therefore the value of VTH will
be the same as the voltage across the 15 resistor, thus:
VTH = 0.32 15 = 4.8 V
The voltage division rule could also have been used here:
VTH = 8
15
= 4 .8 V
10 + 15
Step 2
Replace the 8 V battery with a short circuit and calculate RTH.

10
4
A
15
RTH
R TH = 4 +
10 15
= 10
10 + 15
Step 3
Draw a Thevenin equivalent circuit and place a 6 resistor across points A and B.
A
10
6
4.8V
B
V 6 = 4 .8
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= 1.8 V
10 + 6
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Worked example 1.6
If the 6 resistor in the previous example is replaced by a 12 resistor, calculate the

new voltage drop across it.
Solution
This example will now show the power of Thevenins theorem. The values of VTH and
RTH will remain the same so these calculations do not need to be redone. We just need
to perform step 3 again.
Step 1
VTH = 4.8 V
Step 2
RTH = 10
Step 3
A
10
12
4.8V
B
V6 = 4.8
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= 2.62 V
10 + 12
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Worked example 1.7
Use Thevenins theorem to calculate the current through the 10 resistor in the
network below.
20 V
10
15
10 V
Solution
Step 1
Remove the 10 resistor and calculate VTH.

5
A
20 V
V15 = 20
VTH
B
15
15
= 15 V
5 + 15
V8 = 10
10 V
8
=8V
2+8
VTH = V15 V8 = 15 8 = 7 V
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Step 2
Replace the 20 V and 10 V batteries with short circuits and calculate RTH.
RTH
A
15
If you are having difficulties in visualising how the resistors are connected together, it
may help if you redraw the network. The above may be redrawn as shown below.
15
R TH =
5 15 2 8
+
= 3.75 + 1.6 = 5.35
5 + 15 2 + 8
Step 3
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A
5.35
10
7V
B
I=
7
= 0.456 A
5.35 + 10
We shall now look at one further example based on an ac network. The rules are
exactly the same as for the dc network. Complex numbers will be used in the solution
to this and all other ac networks.
Worked example 1.8
Use Thevenins theorem to calculate the current through the 100 resistor in the ac
network below.
600
120 V
j150
j200
100
Solution
Step 1
Remove the 100 resistor and calculate VTH.
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600
j150
120 V
j200
VTH
VTH = 120
j 200
120 200 90
=
600 j 200
632.5 18.4
VTH = 3.79 71.6 o V = (1.2 j 3.6) V
Step 2
Replace the 12 V source with a short circuit and calculate ZTH.

600
j150
j200
ZTH
Z TH = j150 +
600 ( j 200 )
j 120000
120000 90
= j150 +
= j 150 +
600 + ( j 200 )
600 j 200
632.5 18.4
Z TH = j150 + 189.7 71.6 = j 150 + (60 j 180 ) = (60 j 30)
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Step 3
A
(60 j30)
100
3.79 71.6 o V
I=
3.79 71.6
3.79 71.6 3.79 71.6
=
=
= 0.023 61o A
162.8 10.6
(60 j 30 ) + 100
160 j 30
1.5
a)
Use Thevenins theorem to calculate the load current and load voltage in each
of the dc networks below.
(i)
20
16 V
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RL = 12
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(ii)
RL = 2
b)
10 V
12 V
With reference to the ac network below, use Thevenins theorem to calculate

the apparent power in the load ZL.
100
j80
50
75
ZL = j150
100
j200
1000 V
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c)
DG3G 34
Use Thevenins theorem to calculate the voltage across the load RL in the ac
network below.
j25
j35
j50
10
RL = 20
500 V
1.2
Verification of Thevenins theorem

Equipment required
PC
Electronics Workbench or similar.
Circuit
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Procedure
1.
Connect an ammeter and a voltmeter to measure the current through and the
voltage across the 100 load resistor.
2.
Activate the simulation and display the results.
3.
Apply Thevenins theorem to the above circuit and determine values of VTH and
ZTH.
4.
Construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit and measure the current through and the
voltage across the 100 load resistor. Compare with the answers for question 2.
Note: VTH must be entered in polar form (magnitude and angle) and ZTH must be
entered in rectangular form (real part = resistance, imaginary part = reactance). The
reactance value must be converted back to either inductance or capacitance.
Nortons theorem
Nortons theorem states:
Any two terminal networks can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit comprising a constant current source in
parallel with a single resistor
A
Network
containing any
number of
sources and
resistances
A
RN
IN
IN
RN
B
B
The constant current source is known as the Norton current (IN) and is equal to the
short-circuit terminal current of the network measured through points A and B.
The resistance value is known as the Norton resistance (RN) and is equal to the
resistance of the network measured between points A and B with all sources replaced
by their internal resistances (normally short circuit for voltage sources and open circuit
for current sources). This is the same as the Thevenin resistance.
Once the values of IN and RN have been determined the Norton equivalent circuit is
drawn and this can be used to determine a range of circuit quantities. The following is a
set of steps to be followed when solving network problems using Nortons theorem:
5.
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1. Remove the resistor in question, replace with a short circuit and calculate the
Norton current (IN).
2.
Remove the short circuit, replace all sources with their internal resistances and
calculate the Norton resistance (RN).
3.
Draw the Norton equivalent circuit, place the original resistor across terminals AB
and calculate the quantity required.
Note: When dealing with ac circuits the word resistor will be replaced with the word
impedance. The procedures for working with Nortons theorem remain unchanged.
Worked example 1.9
Use Nortons theorem to calculate the voltage across the 6 resistor in the network
below.
10
15
8V
Solution
Step 1
Remove the 6 resistor, replace with a short circuit and calculate IN.
10
4
A
8V
IN
15
Battery resistance R = 10 +
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15 4
= 13.16
15 + 4
49
Developed by COLEG
Battery current I =
DG3G 34
8
= 0.6 A
13.16
By the current division rule:

I N = 0 .6
15
= 0.48 A
4 + 15
Step 2
Remove the short circuit across AB, replace the 8 V battery with a short circuit and
calculate RN.
10
4
A
15
RN
RN = 4 +
10 15
= 10
10 + 15
Step 3
Draw a Norton equivalent circuit and place a 6 resistor across points A and B.
10
0.48 A
By the current division rule I 6 = 0.48
10
= 0.3 A
10 + 6
V 6 = 0. 3 6 = 1. 8 V
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Worked example 1.10
Use Nortons theorem to calculate the current through the 100 resistor in the ac
network below.
600
j150
j200
120 V
100
Solution
Step 1
Remove the 100 resistor, replace with a short circuit and calculate IN.
600
j150
IN
j200
120 V
Source impedance Z = 600 +
( j150 ) ( j 200 )
30000
30000 0
= 600 +
= 600 +
( j150 ) + ( j 200 )
j 50
50 90
Z = 600 + 60090 = (600 + j 600 )
Source current I =
120
120
=
= 0.014 45 o A
600 + j 600 848.545
By current division rule:

IN = 0.014 45
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200 90
j 200
= 0.014 45
= 0.056 45 o A
( j 150 ) + ( j 200 )
50 90
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Step 2
Remove the short circuit across AB, replace the 12 V source with a short circuit and
calculate ZN.
600
j150
j200
ZN
ZN = j150 +
600 ( j 200 )
j 120000
120000 90
= j 150 +
= j 150 +
600 + ( j 200 )
600 j 200
632.5 18.4
ZN = j150 + 189.7 71.6 = j150 + (60 j 180 ) = (60 j 30) = 67 26.5
Step 3
A
(60 j30)
0.056 45 o A
100
By current division rule:

I100 = 0.056 45
SQA Version 1
(60 j 30 )
67 26.5
= 0.056 45
= 0.023 61 A
(60 j 30) + 100
162.8 10.6
52
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1.6
a)
Use Nortons theorem to calculate the load current and load voltage in each of
the dc networks below.
(i)
20
16 V
30
RL = 12
(ii)
RL = 2
SQA Version 1
10 V
12 V
53
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b)
DG3G 34
With reference to the ac network below, use Nortons theorem to calculate the
apparent power in the load ZL.
100
j80
50
75
ZL = j150
100
j200
1000 V
c)
Use Nortons theorem to calculate the voltage across the load RL in the ac
network below.
j25
j35
j50
10
RL = 20
500 V
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1.3
Verification of Nortons theorem

Equipment required
PC
Circuit
Procedure
1.
Connect an ammeter and a voltmeter to measure the current through and the
voltage across the 100 load resistor.
2.
Activate the simulation and display the results.
3.
Apply Nortons theorem to the above circuit and determine values of IN and ZN.
4.
Construct the Norton equivalent circuit and measure the current through and the
voltage across the 100 load resistor. Compare with the answers for question 2.
Note: IN must be entered in polar form (magnitude and angle) and ZN must be entered
in rectangular form (real part = resistance, imaginary part = reactance). The reactance
value must be converted back to either inductance or capacitance.
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Thevenins theorem versus Nortons theorem

You may have noticed from the examples in SAQs 1.5 and 1.6 that the same network
can be solved by either Thevenins theorem or Nortons theorem. Some networks,
depending on the types of sources used and their complexity, will favour one theorem
rather than the other.
There is a simple relationship between the Thevenin equivalent circuit and the Norton
equivalent circuit and it is very easy to convert from one to the other.
RTH
IN =
VTH
RTH
RN = RTH
VTH
A
RTH = RN
IN
RN
VTH = IN RN
B
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Worked example 1.11
Convert the Norton circuit below to its Thevenin equivalent and hence calculate the
voltage across a 5 resistor when it is connected across the output terminals AB.
A
5.5 A
B
Solution
The Thevenin voltage is VTH = IN RN = 5.5 3 = 16.5 V.

The Thevenin resistance is RTH = RN = 3 .
A
3
5
16.5 V
B
V5 = 16.5
SQA Version 1
5
= 10.3 V
3+5
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1.7
a)
Convert each of the following Norton circuits to their Thevenin equivalents.
(i)
(ii)
A
10
5A
(3 + j3) A
(25 j40)
B
b)
Convert each of the following Thevenin circuits to their Norton equivalents.
(i)
(ii)
A
A
(10 + j5)
20
100 V
(40 j30) V
B
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The maximum power transfer theorem

Maximum power transfer in a dc network
The maximum power transfer theorem for a dc network states:

The power transferred from a dc source to its load
will be a maximum when the value of the load
resistance is equal to the value of the source
internal resistance.
Rs
RL
V
The simple network above shows a dc voltage source of value V and internal
resistance RS connected across a variable load resistance RL. Maximum power will be
transferred from the source to the load when:
RL = RS
This can be shown in a number of different ways: by calculation, by measurement and

by mathematical proof.
Calculation of maximum power transfer
Consider a 10 V dc source of internal resistance 5 connected across a variable load

resistance.
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RS = 5
RL
10V
The power transferred to the load resistance can be calculated from:

V
PL = I R L =
R S + RL
RL
10
10
RL =
When RL = 2 then: PL =
2 = 4.08 W
5+2
RS + RL
RL =
When RL = 5 then: PL =
5 = 5 W
5+5
RS + RL
10
RL =
Then RL = 7 then: PL =
7 = 4.86 W
5+7
RS + RL
If all values of RL from 1 to 10 in 1 increments are calculated, the following table of

results is obtained.
RL ()
10
PL (W)
2.78
4.08
4.69
4.94
4.96
4.86
4.73
4.59
4.44
Clearly, it can be seen from the above table that the maximum power transferred to the
load is when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.
Proof of maximum power transfer
The following mathematical proof uses basic differential calculus to show that
maximum power is transferred when the load resistance equals the source resistance.
You are not required to reproduce anything like this in any assessments but it
should not be outwith your scope to be able to follow the mathematical steps.
It was stated on the previous page that the power transferred to the load is calculated
from the expression:
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V
PL =
RS + RL
DG3G 34
RL
This can be rearranged to give:

PL =
V 2 RL
(R S + R L ) 2
To determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer, PL is differentiated with

respect to RL and then the result is equated to zero (this being the standard method for
finding maximum and minimum values).
Since the term RL appears on both the top and bottom of the equation, the quotient rule
must be used which gives:
(R S + R L ) 2 V 2 V 2 R L 2(R S + R L )
dPL
=
=0
dR L
(R S + RL )4
(R S + R L ) 2 V 2 = V 2 R L 2(R S + R L )
(R S + R L ) 2 = 2R L (R S + R L )
R S + R L = 2RL
RL = R S
Once again, it has been shown that maximum power is transferred when the load
resistance is equal to the source resistance.
Worked example 1.12
With reference to the network below, use Thevenins theorem to reduce it to a single
source and single resistance, and hence determine the maximum power delivered to
the load RL.
3
12
RL
15
V
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Solution
With RL removed, we have:
VTH = 15
12
= 12 V
3 + 12
With 15 V supply removed and replaced with a short circuit we have:
R TH =
3 12
= 2.4
3 + 12
For maxiumum power transfer, the load resistance must be equal to the equivalent
source resistance, i.e. RL = RTH.
This gives the following circuit.
2.4
RL = 2.4
12
V
I=
12
= 2.5 A
2.4 + 2.4
PL = 2.52 2.4 = 15 W
Maximum power transfer in an ac network
The condition for maximum power transfer in an ac network is slightly more involved
compared to a dc network as there are a number of different circuit conditions that will
cause this to happen. We shall look at two cases and in each of these we will consider
the transfer of active or real power measured in watts.
Consider an ac source V with internal impedance ZS = RS + jXS connected to a load of
impedance ZL = RL + jXL as shown below. (Note: In this instance, the term XL refers to
the reactance of the load and not inductive reactance.)
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ZS = RS + jXS
ZL = RL + jXL
V
Condition 1: Load impedance consists of variable RL and zero XL.
The power transferred to the load is given by:
V
PL = I 2 RL =
R
+
jX
S + RL
S
V
RL =
(R + R ) + jX RL
L
S
A similar mathematical proof as in the previous section can be performed on the above
equation, which will show that maximum power is transferred from source to load when
the load resistance is equal to the magnitude of the source impedance:
RL = R S 2 + X S 2
Condition 2: Load impedance consists of variable RL and variable XL.
The power transferred to the load is given by:

2
V
V
RL =
RL
PL = I 2 RL =
(RS + jX S ) + (RL + jX L )
(RS + RL ) + j ( X S + X L )
A similar mathematical proof as in the previous section can be performed on the above
equation which will show that maximum power is transferred from source to load when
the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the source impedance:
ZL = Z S
RL + jX L = RS jX S
RL = RS
and
XL = XS
Worked example 1.13
With reference to the circuit below, determine the value of load resistance for maximum
power transfer. Also determine the amount of power transferred to the load.
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ZS = (15 + j20)
RL
V = 1200 o V
Solution
Maximum power occurs when RL = 15 2 + 20 2 = 25
I=
V
1200
1200
=
=
= 2.68 26.6 A
Z T (15 + j 20 ) + 25 44.7226.6
PL = I2RL = 2.682 25 = 179.6 W.

Worked example 1.14
With reference to the circuit below, determine the value of load resistance and load
inductance for maximum power transfer. Also determine the amount of power
transferred to the load resistance.
ZS = (20 j30)
ZL
o
V = 1000 V
50Hz
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Solution
Maximum power occurs when ZL = ZS*
ZS = (20 j30) ZL = (20 + j30)

RL = 20 and XL = 30
L=
I=
XL
30
=
= 0.0955 H
2f 2 50
V
1000
1000
=
=
= 2.50 A
Z T (20 j 30 ) + (20 + j 30)
400
PL = I2RL = 2.52 20 = 125 W

Impedance matching
The purpose of this section is to show that the load resistance or load impedance of a
dc or an ac network can be adjusted to ensure that maximum power is transferred from
the source to the load.
This process is called impedance matching and is an important consideration in
electronics and communications devices that normally involve very small amounts of
power, i.e. coupling an aerial to a receiver or a loudspeaker to an amplifier.
1.8
a)
A dc source has a terminal voltage of 50 V and an internal resistance of 6 .

Determine the value of load resistance that will deliver maximum power and
determine that value of power.
b)
With reference to the network below, use Thevenins theorem to reduce it to a

single source and single resistance, and hence determine the maximum power
delivered to the load RL.
4
25
RL
10V
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c)
DG3G 34
For the circuit shown below, determine the value of the source resistance RS if
maximum power is to be delivered to the15 load resistor. Also determine this
maximum power.
RS
1.91 mH
RL = 15
V = 1000 V
1 kHz
d)
With reference to the circuit below, determine the value of load resistance and
load reactance for maximum power transfer. Also determine the amount of
power transferred to the load resistance.
ZS = (12 + j25)
ZL
V = 250
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e)
DG3G 34
Determine, for the ac network below, the values of RL and XL that result in
maximum power being transferred across terminals AB and determine that
value of power.
A
V = 5040
RL
XL
j6
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This first section has been designed to allow you to develop knowledge, understanding
and skills in the application of network theorems to the solution of electrical and
electronic circuits. Such theorems underpin much of the work in electrical and
electronic engineering and so a good grasp of these theorems is essential.
SQA Version 1
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Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1.1
a)
(i) I = 4 + 2 + 5 = 11 A
(ii) I + 2 = 6 + 3
I+2=9
I=92=7A
(iii) I + 4 + 3 = 6
I+7=6
I = 6 7 = 1 A
(iv) I + I2 = I1 + I3 + I4
I = I1 + I3 + I4 I2
SAQ 1.2
a)
(i) E1 + E2 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
E1 + E2 = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
(ii) E2 E1 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4
E2 E1 = 2(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4)
(iii) E2 E1 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4
E2 E1 = I(2 + 4 + 6 + 4)
E2 E1 = 16I
(iv) E1 E2 + E3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4
E1 10 + 7 = 22 + 2R2 + 23 + 23
E1 3 = 16 + 2R2
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SAQ 1.3
a)
I1 + I2
I2
I1
10 V
12 V
12 = 2I1 + 2(I1 + I2)

12 = 4I1 + 2I2
(eqn 1)
10 = I2 + 2(I1 + I2)
10 = 2I1 + 3I2
(eqn 2)
12 = 4I1 + 2I2
(eqn 1)
20 = 4I1 + 6I2
(eqn 2 2)
8 = 4I2
(subtract)
I2 = 2 A
12 = 4I1 + 2I2
(eqn 1)
12 = 4I1 + (22)
12 = 4I1 + 4
8 = 4I1
I1 = 2 A
I1 + I2 = 2 + 2 = 4 A
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b)
I2 I1
I2
I1
RL = 10
12 V
8V
I1 I2
8 = 2I1 + 10(I1 I2)

8 = 12I1 10I2
(eqn 1)
12 = I2 + 10(I2 I1)
12 = 10I1 + 11I2
(eqn 2)
8 = 12I1 10I2
(eqn 1)
14.4 = 12I1 + 13.2I2
(eqn 2 1.2)
22.4 = 3.2I2
(add)
I2 = 7 A
8 = 12I1 10I2
(eqn 1)
8 = 12I1 (107)
8 = 12I1 70
78 = 12I1
I1 = 6.5 A
Load current I2 I1 = 7 6.5 = 0.5 A left to right.
SQA Version 1
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c)
DG3G 34
15
I1
RL
I2
4V
6V
4 = 10I1 + 15(I1 I2)

4 = 25I1 15I2
(eqn 1)
6 = 10I2 + 15(I2 I1)

6 = 15I1 + 25I2
(eqn 2)
60 = 375I1 225I2
(eqn 1 15)
150 = 375I1 + 625I2
(eqn 2 25)
210 = 400I2
(add)
I2 = 0.525 A
4 = 25I1 15I2
(eqn 1)
4 = 25I1 (150.525)
4 = 25I1 7.875
11.875 = 25I1
I1 = 0.475 A
Load current I2 I1 = 0.525 0.475 = 0.05 A
Load voltage = 0.05 15 = 0.75 V
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SAQ 1.4
a)
I3
I6
I2
12 V
I1
R = 2+
I1 =
I4
I5
1 2
= 2.667
1+ 2
R = 1+
12
= 4. 5 A
2.667
I4 =
I 2 = 4 .5
2
=3A
1+ 2
I 3 = 4 .5
1
= 1 .5 A
1+ 2
10 V
22
= 2
2+2
10
=5A
2
I5 = 5
I6 = 5
2
= 2 .5 A
2+2
2
= 2 .5 A
2+2
I12V = I1 I5 = 4.5 2.5 = 2 A

I10V = I4 I2 = 5 3 = 2 A
I2 = I3 + I6 = 1.5 + 2.5 = 4 A
b)
I2
I4
RL = 10
I1
8V
SQA Version 1
I3
RL = 10
12 V
73
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R = 2+
I1 =
DG3G 34
10 1
= 2.91
10 + 1
R = 1+
8
= 2.75 A
2.91
I 2 = 2.75
I3 =
1
= 0.25 A
1 + 10
10 2
= 2.67
10 + 2
12
= 4 .5 A
2.67
I 4 = 4 .5
2
= 0.75 A
2 + 10
Iload = I4 I2 = 0.75 0.25 = 0.5 A left to right.

c)
9
I2
1
15
RL
15
I1
I4
I3
6V
4V
R = 10 +
I1 =
RL
15 10
= 16
15 + 10
R = 10 +
4
= 0.25 A
16
I 2 = 0.25
I3 =
10
= 0.1 A
10 + 15
15 10
= 16
15 + 10
6
= 0.375 A
16
I 4 = 0.375
10
= 0.15 A
10 + 15
Iload = I4 I2 = 0.15 0.1 = 0.05 A

Vload = 0.05 15 = 0.75 V
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SAQ 1.5
20
a) (i)
30
16 V
VTH = 16
VTH
30
= 9.6 V
20 + 30
20
30
RTH = 8
RTH
20 30
= 20
20 + 30
20
RL = 12
9.6 V
IL =
9 .6
= 0.3 A
20 + 12
VL = 0.3 12 = 3.6 V
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(ii)
DG3G 34
VTH
1
10 V
12 V
2
Battery current =
12 10
= 0.667 A
1+ 2
VTH = 12 (0.667 2) = 10.667 V
or
VTH = 10 + (0.667 1) = 10.667 V
RTH
RTH =
1 2
= 0.667
1+ 2
0.667
RL = 2
10.67 V
IL =
10.67
=4A
0.667 + 2
VL = 4 2 = 8 V
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b)
100
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j80
50
75
VTH
100
j200
1000 V
Source current =
1000
1000
=
= 0.28920.3 A
100 + 50 + 100 + j 80 + 75 j 200 346.5 20.3
VTH = 0.28920.3 (50 + 100 + j 80 + 75) = 0.28920.3 238.819.6 = 6940 V
100
j80
50
75
ZTH
100
SQA Version 1
j200
77
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Z TH =
DG3G 34
(50 + 100 + j 80 + 75 ) (100 j 200 ) 238.819.6 223.6 63.4

=
(50 + 100 + j 80 + 75) + (100 j 200 )
346.5 20.3
Z TH = 154.1 23.5 = (141.3 j 61.4)
(141.3 j61.4)
ZL = j150
6940 V
IL =
6940
6940
=
= 0.4148 A
(141.3 j 61.4) + ( j150 ) 166.832
VL = 0.4148 15090 = 62.198 V
SL = VL I * L = 62.198 0.414 8 = 25.790 o VA
c)
j25
or
25.7 var
j35
-j50
10
VTH
500 V
Source current =
SQA Version 1
500
500
=
= 1.8668.2 A
10 + j 25 j 50 26.9 68.2
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VTH = 50 (1.8668.2 50 90) = 50 (93 21.8) = 50 (86.3 j 34.5)

VTH = ( 36.3 + j 34.5)V = 50136.5 V
j25
j35
-j50
10
ZTH
Z TH = j 35 +
(10 + j 25) ( j 50)

1345 21.8
= j 35 + 5046.4
= j 35 +
26.9 68.2
(10 + j 25) + ( j 50)
Z TH = j 35 + (34.5 + j 36.2) = (34.5 + j 71.2)
(34.5 + j71.2)
RL = 20
50136.5 V
VL = 50136.5
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200
= 50136.5
= 11.1583.9 V
(34.5 + j 71.2) + 20
89.752.6
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SAQ 1.6
a) (i)
20
30
16 V
Source resis tan ce = 20 +

Source current =
IN = 0.608
IN
8 30
= 26.3
8 + 30
16
= 0.608 A
26.3
30
= 0.48 A
30 + 8
RN = 20 as per SAQ 1.5.
20
0.48 A
IL = 0.48
RL = 12
20
= 0 .3 A
20 + 12
VL = 0.3 12 = 3.6 V
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IN
IN =
10 V
12 V
10 12
+
= 16 A
1
2
RN = 0.667 as per SAQ 1.5.
0.667
2
16 A
IL = 16
RL =
0.667
=4A
0.667 + 2
VL = 4 2 = 8 V
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b)
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100
j80
50
75
IN
100
j200
1000 V
IN =
1000
1000
=
= 0.44763.4 A
100 j 200 223.6 63.4
ZN = (141.3 j61.4) as per SAQ 1.5.
0.44763.4 A
IL = 0.44763.4
(141.3 j61.4)
ZL = j150
141.3 j 61.4
154 23.5
= 0.44763.4
= 0.4138 A
(141.3 j 61.4) + ( j150 )
166.832
VL = 0.4138 15090 = 6298 V

SL = VL I * L = 6298 0.413 8 = 25.690 VA
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c)
j25
j35
-j50
10
IN
500 V
Source impedance = (0 j 50) +
(10 + j 25) ( j 35)

26.968.2 3590
= (0 j 50) +
(10 + j 25) + j 35
60.880.5
Source impedance = (0 j 50) + 15.577.7 = (0 j 50) + (3.3 + j15.1) = (3.3 j 34.9)

Source current =
500
500
=
= 1.4384.6 A
3.3 j 34.9 35 84.6
IN = 1.4384.6
10 + j 25
26.968.2
= 1.4384.6
= 0.63272.3 A
(10 + j 25) + j 35
60.880.5
ZN = (34.5 + j71.2) as per SAQ 1.5.
0.63272.3 A
IL = 0.63272.3
(34.5 + j71.2)
RL = 20
34.5 + j 71.2
79.164.1
= 0.63272.3
= 0.55683.8 A
(34.5 + j 71.2) + 20
89.752.6
VL = 0.55683.8 200 = 11.183.8 V
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SAQ 1.7
a)
(i) VTH = IN RN = 5 10 = 50 V
RTH = RN = 10
(ii) VTH = (3 + j 3) (25 j 40) = 4.4245 V
ZTH = (25 j40)

b)
(i) IN =
VTH 100
=
=5A
RTH
20
RN = RTH = 20
(ii) IN =
40 j 30 50 36.9
=
= 4.46 63.5 A
10 + j 5
11.226.6
ZN = ZTH = (10 + j5)

SAQ 1.8
a)
RL = RS = 6
2
50
PL = I 2RL =
6 = 104.2 W
6+6
b)
VTH = 10
25
= 8.62 V
4 + 25
RTH =
4 25
= 3.45
4 + 25
2
8.62
PL = I 2RL =
3.45 = 5.38 W
3.45 + 3.45
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For maximum power transfer RL = ZS

15 = RS + (2 1000 1.91 10 3 )2
2
15 = RS + 12 2
RS = 15 2 12 2 = 9
I=
1000
100 0
= 3.73 26.6 A
=
(9 + j12) + 15 26.826.6
PL = I2RL = 3.732 15 = 208.7 W

d)
For maximum power transfer ZL = ZS*
ZL = (12 j25)
RL = 12 and XL = 25
I=
250
250
=
= 1.040 A
(12 + j 25 ) + (12 j 25 ) 240
PL = I2RL = 1.042 12 = 13 W
e)
Apply Thevenins theorem to reduce network to single source and single

impedance.
VTH = 5040
Z TH =
10 36.9
8 j6
= 42.934.1 V
= 5040
11.66 31
10 j 6
2 (8 j 6) 16 j 12 20 36.9
=
=
= 1.72 5.9 = (1.71 j 0.18 )
2 + (8 j 6) 10 j 6 11.66 31
For maximum power transfer ZL = ZS* = ZTH*
ZL = (1.71 + j0.18)
RL = 1.71 and XL = 0.18
I=
42.934.1
42.934.1
= 12.5434.1 A
=
(1.71 j 0.18 ) + (1.71 + j 0.18 )
3.420
PL = I2RL = 12.542 1.71 = 269 W
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Activity 1.1
E = IR
100 = 25 + 12.5 + 62.5
100 V = 100 V
entering
leaving
17 = 10 + 5 + 2
17 A = 17 A
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Activity 1.2
X L = 2fL = 2 50 0.16 = 50.24

XC =
1
1
=
= 99.5
2fC 2 50 32 10 6
I source =
100
= 0.89863.3 A
50 j 99.5
VTH = 0.89863.3 99.5 90 = 89.35 26.7 V

Z TH = (20 + j 50.24) +
500 99.5 90
= (60 + j 30.24)
500 + 99.5 90
R = 60 and XL = 30.24 and L = 96 mH
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Activity 1.3
Z source = (50 + j 0) +
I source =
IN =
(20 + j 50.24) (0 j 99.5)

= (119 + j 72.4) = 139.331.3
(20 + j 50.24 ) + (0 j 99.5)
1000
= 0.72 31.3 A
139.331.3
0.72 31.3 99.5 90

= 1.33 53.1
(0 j 99.5) + (20 + j 50.24)
ZN = ZTH
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Section 2: Resonant circuits
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This section covers problem solving in resonating passive circuits.

After completing this section, you should be able to:
determine resonant frequency and dynamic impedance in an RLC series circuit;
determine Q-factor and bandwidth in an RLC series circuit;
draw impedance/frequency and current/frequency graphs for the above circuits;
determine resonant frequency and dynamic impedance in an RLC parallel circuit;
determine Q-factor and bandwidth in an RLC parallel circuit;
draw impedance/frequency and current/frequency graphs for the above circuits.
14.5 hours.
PC with suitable simulation software.
Scientific calculator.
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You will be assessed at the end of Section 2 by a single closed book written test lasting
1 hours. The assessment will cover both Sections 1 and 2.
You will sit the assessment once you have satisfactorily completed all the SAQs,
practical activities and the tutor assignment which is at the end of Section 2. The
location will be determined by your tutor.
To pass this unit you must achieve a minimum score of 60% in the assessment. A
score of 40 to 59% will require a partial reassessment and a score of less than 40% will
require a complete reassessment.
Normally, you will be given one attempt to pass an assessment with one reassessment
opportunity.
Your centre will also have a policy covering 'exceptional' circumstances, for example if
you have been ill for an extended period of time. Each case will be considered on an
individual basis and is at your centre's discretion (usually via written application), and
they will decide whether or not to allow a third attempt. Please contact your tutor for
details regarding how to apply.
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Introduction
This section looks at a phenomenon known as resonance, which can occur under
certain circumstances in both series and parallel RLC ac circuits. Although we shall be
looking at resonance from an electrical/electronic engineering perspective, it has many
implications in the wider context.
The Tacoma suspension bridge in Washington, USA, collapsed in 1940. While
subjected to a 40-mile-an-hour wind it started to oscillate and as the oscillations built up
the bridge broke up and fell into the river below.
The Millennium footbridge in London was opened in June 2000. Like all bridges, it was
designed to cope with a degree of movement but it soon became clear that things were
going seriously wrong as the deck swayed back and forth. After two days of random
swaying, swinging and oscillating wildly, the bridge was closed down by embarrassed
engineers. Modifications had to be made to the design and after nearly two years the
bridge was reopened.
A glass has a natural resonance, a frequency at which it will vibrate easily. If the force
making the glass vibrate is big enough, the size of the vibration will become so large
that the glass breaks.
These are some examples of resonance in action and show that if this condition is
allowed then disaster can happen. Resonance can be a problem in electrics and
electronics, but equally some types of electronic circuits rely on resonance to make
them work.
There are many different definitions of resonance depending on the context but the
following is probably the best suited to the examples above and for what we will be
using in this section.
Resonance is defined as:
The increase in amplitude of oscillation of an electric or

mechanical system exposed to a periodic force whose
frequency is equal or very close to the natural undamped
frequency of the system.
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Revision
Consider an RLC series circuit connected across an ac supply as shown below.
VR
VL
VC
The supply voltage (V) will cause a current (I) to flow around the circuit, producing volt
drops across each of the individual components given by:
VR = I R (in phase with I)

VL = I XL (leading I by 90)
VC = I XC (lagging I by 90)
These three voltages are represented on the phasor diagram below.
VL
I
VR
VC
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The supply voltage will be the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. Since VL and VC are acting
in opposite directions, their phasor sum will simply be the difference between them.
This resultant phasor can then be combined with VR to give the supply voltage and the
circuit phase angle.
Since this circuit contains both inductance and capacitance, how do we know whether
the circuit will have a lagging or a leading phase angle? This will depend on the values
of VL and VC, and ultimately whether the difference between VL and VC acts upwards or
downwards. These two conditions are shown below.
VL
VL
I
VR
VC
VR
VC
VL VC
V
VR
VR
VC VL
You may have noticed that there could be a third condition where VL and VC are equal.
In this case, the resultant of VL and VC would be zero. This is a special condition in a
series ac circuit known as resonance.
VL
I
I
VC
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The voltages VL and VC can only be equal if their respective reactances are also equal.
We know that reactance is dependent on frequency. Let us look at graphs of XL and XC
against frequency.
jXL
XL = 2fL
2frL
Frequency (Hz)
fr
1
2frC
XC =
1
2fC
-jXC
Here we can see that at one frequency, identified as fr, the values of XL and XC are
equal and opposite and thus will cancel out. Below fr XC is greater than XL and above fr
XL is greater than XC.
This frequency fr is known as the resonant frequency of the circuit and at this
frequency certain conditions will apply. Firstly, we shall look at how to determine what
the resonant frequency is.
Resonant frequency
It was stated earlier that the condition for resonance in a series RLC circuit is that the
inductive and capacitance reactances are equal. This is the starting point for
developing an equation to calculate the resonant frequency.
XL = XC
2fr L =
1
2fr C
(2fr )2 LC = 1
(2fr )2 =
2fr =
fr =
1
2
1
LC
1
LC
1
LC
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Therefore, it can be seen that the resonant frequency (expressed in Hz) depends on
the values of both the inductance (expressed in Henries) and the capacitance
(expressed in Farads).
Worked example 2.1
A series ac circuit comprises a coil of resistance 10 and inductance 0.2 H connected

in series with a 47 F capacitor. Calculate the resonant frequency and the values of the
inductive and capacitive reactances.
Solution
fr =
1
2
1
1
=
LC 2
1
0.2 47 10
1
106383 = 52 Hz
2
X L = 2fr L = 2 52 0.2 = 65.3

XC =
1
1
=
= 65.2
2frC 2 52 47 10 6
The general expression of impedance for an RLC series circuit is given by:
Z = R + j(XL XC)
Since at resonance the net reactance is zero (since XL = XC) then we have:
Z=R
Therefore, at resonance the circuit impedance is simply equal to the resistance and will
be a minimum value. This is sometimes referred to as the dynamic impedance or
dynamic resistance.
The supply current will therefore be a maximum value and will be equal to:
I=
V
R
Since the circuit impedance is purely resistive at resonance, the supply current will be
in phase with the supply voltage giving a phase angle of:
=0
Worked example 2.2
A series ac circuit comprises a coil of resistance 5 and inductance 0.1 H connected

in series with a 20 F capacitor. If the circuit is connected across a 100 V ac supply
determine the circuit impedance and the supply current at resonance.
Solution
Z=R=5
I=
V 100
=
= 20 A
R
5
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Both impedance and current will vary as a function of frequency, with impedance being
a minimum and current being a maximum at resonance. Typical impedance vs.
frequency and current vs. frequency graphs are shown below.
Imax =
V
R
Zmin = R
fr
Frequency (Hz)
Q factor
At resonance, if R is much smaller than XL and XC, the voltages VL and VC can rise to
many times the supply voltage (see worked example). This voltage increase or
magnification is given by:
voltage magnificat ion at resonance =
voltage across L or C
supply voltage
Resonant circuits respond to frequencies close to their own natural frequency much
stronger than they respond to other frequencies. This ratio is a measure of the quality
of a resonant circuit, i.e. how well it resonates, and is referred to as the quality factor
or Q factor. The Q factor of a series circuit can also be represented in terms of the
circuit components:
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Q=
Since f r =
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2f f L
VL
I XL
XL
=
=
=
V
I R
R
R
1
2
1
then 2f r =
LC
Q=
2f f L L
1
=
R
R
LC
Q=
1 L
R C
1
LC
Worked example 2.3
A coil of resistance 5 and inductance 75 mH is connected in series with a 0.2 F

capacitor across a 100 V variable frequency supply. Determine (a) the resonant
frequency, (b) the supply current and (c) the circuit Q factor.
Solution
a) fr =
b) I =
1
2
1
1
=
LC 2
1
75 10
0.2 10 6
= 1.3 kHz
V 100
=
= 20 A
5
R
c) Q =
1 L
1 75 10 3
=
= 122.5
R C 5 0.2 10 6
Damping
Circuits with a high Q factor will resonate with a greater amplitude (at the resonant
frequency) than circuits with a lower Q factor. The Q factor of a circuit can be altered by
changing the amount of resistance in the circuit, the higher the resistance the lower the
Q factor and vice versa.
This process of increasing the circuit resistance to lower the Q factor is called
damping. This will have an effect on the operating bandwidth of the circuit (see next
section).
Worked example 2.4
A resistor of value 5 is connected in series with the circuit in the previous worked
example. Calculate the new Q factor and state whether the damping effect has been
increased or decreased.
Solution
The new circuit resistance is now 5 + 5 = 10 .

Q=
1 L
1 75 10 3
=
= 61.25
R C 10 0.2 10 6
Since the total circuit resistance has doubled, the Q factor has halved, which has
increased the damping effect on the circuit.
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Bandwidth and selectivity
A typical current vs. frequency graph is shown below.
Imax
0.707 Imax
B
Bandwidth
f1
fr
f2
Frequency (Hz)
The graph shows the current at a maximum value at resonance (Imax) occurring at
resonant frequency fr. Also shown are points A and B where the current is 0.707 Imax
at the frequencies f1 and f2.
The difference between frequencies f2 and f1 is known as the bandwidth (B) and is
measured in hertz (Hz). It is defined in this instance as the range of frequencies over
which the current has not fallen by more than 70.7% of its maximum value. If you are
studying this unit as part of an HN Electronics course then you may already be familiar
with this term and the definition.
B = f2 f1
As was mentioned in the previous section, bandwidth and Q factor are related to one
another, the higher the Q factor the smaller the bandwidth and vice versa. It is outwith
the scope of this unit to prove that relationship however the following equation can be
used:
B=
fr
Q
The term selectivity is the ability of a circuit to respond better to signals of one
frequency (or range of frequencies) than to signals of other frequencies. The response
of the circuit will become poorer the further away it operates from the resonant
frequency. High Q factor circuits will have narrow or small bandwidths and are said to
be highly selective compared to circuits with low Q factors and wide or large
bandwidths.
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Worked example 2.5
A series circuit has component values R = 25 , L = 50 mH and C = 100 nF. Determine

the bandwidth of the circuit.
Solution
fr =
1
2
1
1
=
LC 2
Q=
1 L
1 50 10 3
=
= 28.3
R C 25 100 10 9
B=
fr
2.25 10 3
=
= 79.5 Hz
Q
28.3
50 10
100 10 9
= 2.25 kHz
To summarise, a series RLC circuit at resonance has the following properties:

The resonant frequency is given by fr =
1
2
1
LC
The impedance is a minimum and is given by Z = R

The supply current is a maximum and is given by I =
V
R
The supply current and supply voltage are in phase, i.e. = 0

The circuit Q factor is given by Q =
1 L
R C
The circuit bandwidth is given by B =
fr
Q
2.1
Equipment required
PC
Circuit
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Procedure
Calculate the resonant frequency and the supply current at resonance.
Measure and record the supply current from 10 Hz up to 100 Hz in 10 Hz steps.
Plot a graph of current vs. frequency.
Clearly indicate on the graph the resonant frequency and the maximum current.
2.1
a)
A series RLC circuit comprises a coil of resistance 10 and inductance 50 mH

connected to a 0.05 F capacitor across a 100 V variable frequency ac supply.
Calculate (i) the resonant frequency, (ii) the supply current, (iii) the circuit Q
factor and (iv) the circuit bandwidth.
b)
Determine the values of (i) circuit resistance and (ii) circuit capacitance that
must be connected in series with a 50 mH pure inductor to cause a maximum
current of 0.12 A to flow when connected across a 24 V 40 kHz supply.
c)
A series RLC circuit has the values R = 15 , L = 150 mH and C = 25 F. If the

circuit is connected across a 200 V ac supply determine the maximum voltage
across the capacitor.
d)
Using the data in the table below, plot graphs of current vs. frequency and
impedance vs. frequency. Clearly show on the graphs the resonant frequency,
Imax, bandwidth and Zmin.
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R = 25
Impedance ()
Frequency
(Hz)
R = 50
Current (A)
Impedance ()
Current (A)
10
750
0.1
750
0.1
20
330
0.3
335
0.3
30
170
0.6
175
0.55
40
75
1.4
85
50
25
50
60
62
1.6
75
1.4
70
110
0.9
120
0.8
80
155
0.7
160
0.6
90
200
0.5
200
0.5
100
240
0.4
240
0.4

Ideal and actual parallel circuits
Consider the ideal parallel circuit shown below comprising a perfect inductor (zero
resistance) connected in parallel with a capacitor across an ac supply.
IL
C
IC
The supply current (I) will split to form two branch currents (IL and IC) given by:
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IL =
V
XL
and
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V
XC
IC =
The current IL will lag the supply voltage (V) by 90 and the current IC will lead the
supply voltage (V) by 90. If we consider the case where XL = XC as for the series
circuit then the two branch currents will be equal and opposite in direction, as shown on
the phasor diagram below.
IC
V
IL
This would result in large (actually maximum) currents flowing in the parallel branches,
and since I = IL + IC, there would be no current drawn from the supply.
This was all happening when the condition XL = XC was met, which was the same as
the resonant condition for the series circuit. Therefore, for this parallel circuit, this
condition must also happen when the frequency of the supply is equal to:
fr =
1
2
1
LC
Clearly, this condition cannot occur in practice since all inductors will have some finite
amount of resistance, but as we shall see in the sections that follow, conditions close to
this can be achieved in actual parallel circuits, i.e. small supply current but large branch
currents.
Consider the actual parallel circuit shown below comprising an inductor or resistance
(R) and inductance (L) connected in parallel with a capacitor across an ac supply.
IRL
IC
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Branch current IC will lead the supply voltage by 90 (as in the ideal case) but due to
the resistance of the inductor which has now been included, branch current IRL will no
longer lag the supply voltage by 90. It will lag somewhere between 0 and 90
depending on circuit conditions.
Since this circuit contains both inductance and capacitance, how do we know whether
the circuit will have a lagging or a leading phase angle? This will depend on the values
of IC, IRL and the phase angle RL. These two conditions are shown below.
IC
IC
I
RL
RL
I
IRL
IRL
The phasor diagram on the left shows the supply current (I) leading the supply voltage
(V) by angle . The phasor diagram on the right shows the supply current (I) lagging
the supply voltage (V) by angle .
There must be some condition which makes the supply current and supply voltage be
in phase with each other. This is the condition for resonance in the parallel circuit and
we shall look at this next.
Have a look at the phasor diagram below. It shows the current phasors for IC and IRL
such that their phasor sum causes the supply current (I) to be in phase with the supply
voltage (V).
IC
RL
IRL sin RL
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This condition will only happen when the vertical component of the inductor branch
current (IRL sin RL) is equal in magnitude to the capacitor branch current, i.e.
IC = IRL sin RL
This is the starting point for the development of the parallel resonant frequency
equation, which will be shown in the next section.
Resonant frequency
The parallel resonant frequency equation is developed as follows:

IC = IRL sin RL
X
V
V
=
L
X C ZRL ZRL
X
1
= 2L
X C Z RL
2frC =
C=
2fr L
2
R + (2fr L )2
L
2
R + (2fr L )2
R 2 + (2fr L )2 =
(2fr )2 L2 =
(2fr )2 =
2fr =
fr =
1
2
L
C
L
R2
C
1 R2
LC L2
1 R2
LC L2
1 R2
LC L2
If the resistance R is small, making the term R2/L2 small compared to the term 1/LC,
then the term R2/L2 can be removed from the equation. It then becomes the same as
the equation for the series circuit.
Worked example 2.6
An ac circuit comprises a coil of resistance 4 and inductance 0.1 H connected in

parallel with a 68 F capacitor. Calculate the resonant frequency of the circuit.
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Solution
fr =
1
2
1 R2
1
2 =
2
LC L
1
0.1 68 10
42
2
0 .1
1
1.47 10 5 1600 = 60.7 Hz
2
Worked example 2.7
Calculate the resonant frequency for the above circuit assuming the resistance term is
to be neglected.
Solution
In this case, the formula for the resonant frequency becomes the same as that for the
series circuit.
fr =
1
2
1
1
=
LC 2
1
0.1 68 10
1
1.47 10 5 = 61 Hz
2
From the phasor diagram in section (b), it can be seen that the supply current at
resonance (I) is equal to:
I = IRL cos RL
I=
I=
V
R
ZRL ZRL
V R
Z 2RL
From line 3 of the parallel resonance proof in section (c) we have:

X
1
= 2L
X C Z RL
Z 2RL = X L X C = (2fL )(
I=
1
L
)=
2fC
C
V R VCR
=
LC
L
Since the supply current at resonance is in phase with the supply voltage, the circuit
impedance acts like resistance. This is known as the dynamic impedance (ZD) or
dynamic resistance (RD) of the circuit. At resonance, the dynamic resistance is given
by:
RD =
V
I
RD =
V
VCR L
RD =
VL
VCR
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RD =
DG3G 34
L
CR
In a parallel circuit at resonance, the dynamic resistance is a maximum value. The

supply current at resonance will therefore be a minimum and equal to:
I=
V
RD
As was already mentioned, since the supply current and supply voltage are in phase
with each other at resonance the phase angle is zero:
=0
Worked example 2.8
An ac circuit comprises a coil of resistance 4 and inductance 0.1 H connected in

parallel with a 68 F capacitor across a 120 V ac supply. Calculate the dynamic
resistance and the supply current at resonance.
Solution
RD =
I=
L
0. 1
=
= 367.6
CR 68 10 6 4
120
V
=
= 0.326
RD 367.6
Both impedance and current will vary as a function of frequency, with impedance being
a maximum and current being a minimum at resonance. Typical impedance vs.
frequency and current vs. frequency graphs are shown below.
Zmax = RD =
L
CR
Imin
fr
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Frequency (Hz)
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Q factor
At resonance in a parallel circuit currents greater than the supply can circulate within
the parallel branches. This current magnification (similar to the voltage magnification in
a series resonant circuit) is given by:
current magnificat ion at resonance =
capacitor current
supply current
Circulating current
IC
V
This current magnification in a parallel circuit at resonance is called the Q factor and
can be represented in terms of circuit components:
Q=
IC
I
IC =
V
= V (2frC )
XC
I=
VCR
L
( from section d)
Q=
V (2frC ) V (2frC ) L
=
VCR L
VCR
Q=
2ff L
R
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Bandwidth
A typical impedance vs. frequency graph is shown below.
Zmax
0.707 Zmax
Bandwidth
f1
fr
f2
Frequency (Hz)
The bandwidth for a parallel circuit is defined in the same way as for a series circuit,
the only difference being it is constructed on the impedance graph rather than on the
current graph.
It is defined therefore as the range of frequencies over which the impedance has not
fallen by more than 70.7% of its maximum value.
B = f2 f1
B=
fr
Q
Worked example 2.9
A coil of resistance 60 and inductance 0.2 H is connected in parallel with a 20 F

capacitor across a 20 V variable frequency supply. Determine at resonance:
a)the supply frequency
b) the dynamic resistance
c) the supply current
d) the circuit Q factor
e) the bandwidth.
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Solution
a) fr =
1
2
b) RD =
c) I =
1 R2
1
2 =
LC L
2
1
0.2 20 10
60 2
0.2
1
2
2.5 10 5 90000 = 63.7 Hz
L
0.2
=
= 166.7
CR 20 10 6 60
V
20
=
= 0.12 A
RD 166.7
d) Q =
2fr L 2 63.7 0.2

=
= 1.33
60
R
Alternatively,
Q=
e) B =
I C V X C 20 (2 63.7 20 10 6 )
=
=
= 1.33
0.12
I
I
fr
63.7
=
= 48 Hz
Q 1.33
To summarise, a parallel RLC circuit at resonance has the following properties:

The resonant frequency is given by fr =
1
2
1 R2
LC L2
The impedance is a minimum and is given by RD =
L
CR
The supply current is a maximum and is given by I =
V
RD
The supply current and supply voltage are in phase, i.e. = 0

The circuit Q factor is given by Q =
2ff L
R
The circuit bandwidth is given by B =
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Q
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2.2
Equipment required
PC
Circuit
Procedure
Calculate the resonant frequency and the supply current at resonance.
Measure and record the supply current from 10 Hz up to 100 Hz in 10 Hz steps.
Plot a graph of current vs. frequency.
Clearly indicate on the graph the resonant frequency and the minimum current.
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2.2
a)
A coil of resistance 25 and inductance 25 mH is connected in parallel with a

capacitor of value 3.5 F across a 100 V variable frequency supply. Calculate:
(i) the resonant frequency
(ii) the dynamic resistance
(iii) the supply current
(iv) the circuit Q factor
(v) the circuit bandwidth.
b)

capacitor of value 7.5 F across a 230 V variable frequency supply. Calculate:
(ii) the dynamic resistance
(iv) the circuit Q factor
(v) the circuit bandwidth.
c)

variable capacitor across a 50 V ac supply. The capacitor is varied until the
supply current reaches a minimum value of 70 mA. Determine the value of the
capacitor and the supply frequency at which this occurs.
d)
Using the data in the table below, plot graphs of current vs. frequency and
impedance vs. frequency. Clearly show on the graphs the resonant frequency,
Zmax, bandwidth and Imin.
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Frequency (Hz)
Impedance ()
Current (A)
10
30
3.3
20
54
1.8
30
70
1.4
40
76
1.3
50
80
1.25
60
76
1.3
70
74
1.35
80
70
1.4
90
66
1.5
100
62
1.6
110
60
1.7
120
56
1.8
114
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2.1
Attempt all questions

You should aim to complete this in 1 hours
The pass mark for this assignment is 60%
1.
Use Kirchhoffs laws to calculate the current flowing through the 4 resistor in
the circuit below.
(8)
2.
Repeat Q1 using the superposition theorem.
Use Thevenins theorem to calculate the current flow through the 8 resistor in
the circuit below.
(8)
(8)
j20
j12
100 V
12
4.
32 V across the 16 resistor in the

Use Nortons theorem18
to V
calculate the voltage
circuit below.
(8)
12
16
10V
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5.
a)
For the circuit shown below, determine at resonance:

(3)
(ii) the impedance
(2)
(2)
(iv) the Q factor
(3)
(v) the bandwidth
(2)
10
0.12 H
4 F
200 V
b)
Using values obtained from part (a) draw graphs of current and impedance
against frequency. Clearly indicate on the graphs the resonant frequency,
maximum current, minimum impedance and bandwidth.
(6)
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This section has been designed to allow you to develop knowledge, understanding and
skills in the behaviour of series and parallel ac circuits when operating in their resonant
state. You should now have a sound understanding of how circuit quantities such as
current, voltage and impedance change when the circuit goes through resonance and
the significance of factors such as voltage and current magnification.
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Answers to SAQs
SAQ 2.1
a)
(i) fr =
1
2
1
1
=
LC 2
(ii) I =
V 100
=
= 10 A
R
10
1
0.05 0.05 10 6
(iii) Q =
1 L
1
0.05
=
= 100
R C 10 0.05 10 6
(iv) B =
fr 3180
=
= 31.8 Hz
Q
100
= 3.18 kHz
b)
(i) R =
V
24
=
= 200
I 0.12
(ii) At resonance XC = XL = 2 40000 0.05 = 12560

1
= 12560
2fr C
c)
C=
1
1
=
= 317 pF
2fr 12560 2 40000 12560
Q=
1 L
1
0.15
=
= 5.16
R C 15 25 10 6
Since Q =
VC
V
then VC = Q V
VC = Q V = 5.16 200 = 1032 V
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d)
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R = 25
Imax = 4 A
B
0.707Imax =2.83 A
Z
Zmin = 25
fr = 50 Hz
Frequency (Hz)
R = 50
Imax = 2 A
0.707Imax =1.41 A
B
Zmin = 50
fr = 50 Hz
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Frequency (Hz)
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SAQ 2.2
(a)
(i) fr =
1
2
(ii) RD =
(iii) I =
1 R2
1
=
LC L2
2
1
0.025 3.5 10 6
25 2
0.025 2
= 514 Hz
L
0.025
=
= 285.7
CR 3.5 10 6 25
V
100
=
= 0.35 A
RD 285.7
(iv) Q =
2fr L 2 514 0.025

=
= 3.23
25
R
(v) B =
fr
514
=
= 159 Hz
Q 3.23
(i) fr =
1
2
(b)
(ii) RD =
(iii) I =
c)
RD =
0.05 7.5 10 6
10 2
0.05 2
= 258 Hz
L
0.05
=
= 666.7
CR 7.5 10 6 10
2fr L 2 258 0.05

=
= 8. 1
R
10
fr 258
=
= 31.85 Hz
Q 8 .1
V
50
=
= 714.3
I
0.07
Since RD =
fr =
V
230
=
= 0.345 A
RD 666.7
(iv) Q =
(v) B =
1 R2
1
2 =
LC L
2
1
2
L
0.05
L
then C =
=
= 8.2 F
RD R 714.3 12
CR
1 R2
1
=
LC L2
2
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1
0.05 8.2 10 6
120
12 2
0.05 2
= 246 Hz
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d)
Zmax = 80
B
0.707Zmax = 57
I
Imin = 1.25 A
fr = 50 Hz
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Frequency (Hz)
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Activity 2.1
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Activity 2.2
SQA Version 1
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Developed by COLEG
SQA Version 1
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124
Developed by COLEG

Electrical Networks and RESONANCE SQA.

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Electrical Networks and RESONANCE SQA.

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DG3G 34

Electrical Networks and

Electrical Networks and Resonance

Scottish Qualifications Authority Material developed by Lauder College.

Electrical Networks and Resonance

Introduction to the unit

What this unit is about

How to use these learning materials

Symbols used in this unit

Self assessed question

Tutor assignment formative assessment

Other resources required

How you will be assessed

When and where you will be assessed

What you have to achieve

Opportunities for reassessment

Section 1: Network theorems

Introduction to this section

What this section is about

Outcomes, aims and objectives

Approximate study time

Other resources required

Assessment information for this section

How you will be assessed

Kirchoff's current law (KCL)

Electrical Networks and Resonance

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

Network analysis using Kirchhoff's laws

Constant voltage sources and constant current sources

Practical voltage source

Ideal voltage source

Practical current source

Ideal current source

Thevenins theorem versus Nortons theorem

The maximum power transfer theorem

Maximum power transfer in a dc network

Calculation of maximum power transfer

Proof of maximum power transfer

Maximum power transfer in an ac network

Summary of this section

Section 2: Resonant circuits

Introduction to this section

What this section is about

Outcomes, aims and objectives

Approximate study time

Other resources required

Assessment information for this section

How you will be assessed

When and where you will be assessed

What you have to achieve

Opportunities for reassessment

Electrical Networks and Resonance

The series resonant circuit

Condition for resonance

Impedance, current and phase angle

Impedance and current graphs

Bandwidth and selectivity

The parallel resonant circuit

Ideal and actual parallel circuits

Condition for resonance

Impedance, current and phase angle

Impedance and current graphs

Worked example 2.9

Summary of this section