Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prepared By:
Bassu, J.N
Contacts: 0754 553 303
June, 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTERS ............................................................................................................. 1
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Definition and parts of computer ................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Definition of computer ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1.2 Physical parts of a computer ................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Classification of computers ............................................................................................................ 2
(a) Classification according to size and processing power ................................................................. 2
(b) Classification according to purpose ............................................................................................. 5
(c) Classifications according to functionality ..................................................................................... 5
1.3 Historical development of computers ............................................................................................ 5
1.3.1 Abacus .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Napiers bones ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.3 Slide rule ................................................................................................................................. 6
1.3.4 La Pascaline machine .............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.5 Weaving loom ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.6 The Analytical engine .............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.7 Electronic computers .............................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Computer Laboratory and Computer Uses ..................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Computer Laboratory .............................................................................................................. 9
1.4.2 Computer Uses ..................................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Basic Computer Hands-on Skills ................................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Booting up a computer.......................................................................................................... 11
1.5.2 The computer Keyboard ........................................................................................................ 11
1.5.3 Mouse................................................................................................................................... 13
COMPUTER SYSTEMS............................................................................................................................. 14
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 14
2.1 Computer hardware .................................................................................................................. 14
2.1.1 Input devices ......................................................................................................................... 14
2.1.2 Central processing unit (CPU) ................................................................................................ 20
2.1.3 Output devices ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.1.4 Secondary storage ................................................................................................................. 31
2.1.5 Basic Computer Setup ........................................................................................................... 35
2.2 Computer Software...................................................................................................................... 37
2.2.1 System software ................................................................................................................... 37
2.2.2 Application Software ............................................................................................................. 37
2.3 Relationship between Hardware and Software ............................................................................ 38
2.4 Criteria for selecting computer system ......................................................................................... 38
2.4.1 Hardware consideration ........................................................................................................ 38
2.4.2 Software considerations ........................................................................................................ 40
i \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTERS
Chapter 1
Outline
1.0
Introduction
1.1
Definition and parts of a computer
1:2
Classifications of computers
1:3
Historical developments of computers
1.4
Computer laboratory and computers uses
1.5
Basic computer hands-on skills
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1.0 Introduction
The 20th century saw the birth of one of the most important tool widely in use today called a computer.
Since then, there have been dynamic changes in the way we behave, work, communicate and related to
each other due to this tool.
Storage: It can store vast amount of data in its main memory and auxiliary memory systems and
retrieve amount that the user wants in few seconds.
Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer system is very high otherwise wrongly programmed it will
give wrong results (GIGO).
Versatility: They are flexible, multipurpose, multi-programmed machines hence capable of
performing activities ranging from simple to complex calculations.
Diligence: It doesnt get tired; it can do a repetitive task many times without errors.
Reliability (low failure rate): Failures are usually due to human error, one way or another.
Speed: Computers can calculate at very high speed. A microcomputer can execute millions
instruction per second over and over again without mistakes.
Ability to communicate with other computers. This is possible via network connections.
1 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
Supercomputers are mainly found in large research stations and are used to control complex operations
and perform complex calculations. Typical application areas are in space science, nuclear physics and
aerodynamics.
Mainframe computers
Mainframe computers (fig.1.3) have the following characteristics:
Smaller than supercomputers.
Slower than supercomputers.
Smaller memory capacity than supercomputer.
Cheaper than supercomputers.
Minicomputers
A minicomputer (fig. 1.4), also referred to as a small scale mainframe, is a cheaper alternative to the
mainframe computers. Minicomputers have the following characteristics:
Smaller than mainframe computers.
Low processing power than mainframe computers.
Low memory capacity than mainframe computer.
Cheaper than mainframe computer.
Digital computers
Digital computers process data that is discrete in nature. This type of data is called digital data. Digital
data changes from one value to another without a time transition. It is usually represented using two
states, on represented by 1 and off represented by 0.
Hybrid computers
Computers that process both analog and digital data are known as hybrid computers. A good example is
a modem.
is recognized as the first real computer and Babbage as the father of computing. Fig. 1.13 shows the
design of the analytical engine.
Installing fire prevention and control equipment such as smoke detectors and fire extinguishers: The
recommended extinguishers are gaseous type and should be non-liquid/non-powder based. This is
because liquids may cause rusting and corrosion of computer components. On the other hand, powder
particles may increase friction and wear off moving parts. The particles can also cause disk to crash.
Providing stable power supply by installing surge protectors, power extension cables, uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) for each computers and power backup generator.
Installing lightning arrestors on the computers room.
The room should be well laid out with enough space for movement. The computers should be placed on stable,
wide enough desks to avoid accidentally knocking them down. Cables should be laid out in trunks away
from user paths to avoid stumbling on them.
Dust and dump proofing the computer room. Dust can be controlled by fitting good window curtains and an air
conditioning system that filters dust particles from the air entering the room. Also, the computers
should be covered with dust covers when not in use.
On the other hand, dampness or humidity in the laboratory can be controlled by using dehumidifiers.
High humidity leads to rusting of the metallic parts of a computer.
Cables and power sockets should be well insulated and of the correct power rating to avoid short circuits that
can damage computer components.
The users should not eat or drink in the computer laboratory. Food particle may fall in moving computer parts
like the keyboard and clog them while liquids may pour into electrical circuits and cause short circuits.
9 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
1.5.3 Mouse
The mouse got its name from its shape and long interface cable which makes it look like the biological
mouse. However, this similarity is vanishing out because of wireless technology which is doing away
with the cable. A typical mouse has a ball at its bottom that rotates when the mouse is moved. At the
top are two buttons and an optional scroll wheel. Fig. 1.20 shows the top of an ordinary mouse also
called mechanical mouse.
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Chapter 2
Outline
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Introduction
Computer Hardware
Computer Software
Relationship between Hardware and Software
Criteria for selecting a computer system
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.0 Introduction
Basically, a computer is made up of two main components, namely hardware and software. However a
computer cannot work on its own without human intervention hence the term computer system.
A computer system is a collection of three components namely hardware, software and liveware that
work together to receive, process, manage and present information in a meaningful format.
Mechanical mouse
A mechanical mouse has a ball underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll wheel.
The optical mouse
The optical mouse has a pointing device (Fig. 2.5) that uses light emitting diode (LED), an optical sensor
and digital signal processing (DSP) in place of the traditional mouse ball and electromechanical
transducer.
Some Uses of the Mouse:
i. It lets you quickly position the cursor on the screen without
using a cursor-movement key
ii. Choose commands from easy-to-use menus and dialog box
iii. Create graphics such as freehand drawing
Fig. 2.5: An optical mouse
Cordless mouse
Cordless or wireless mouse (Fig. 2.6) is a battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared waves
instead of being physically connected to the system unit.
The two common types of bar code scanners are the hand held wand and desktop bar code reader. Fig.
2.11 shows an illustration of a wand bar code reader and bar codes.
Fast page mode (FPM) which is rarely used today. It operates at a lower speed of between 60 ns
and 70 ns.
II.
Extended data out (EDO) is an improvement on FPM. It performs more than one task at a time.
When one piece of data is being sent to the processor, another is being retrieved from the RAM
module. EDO RAM operates at about 50 ns.
III.
Extended correcting code (ECC) is a special type of DRAM that corrects errors and is mainly used on
servers.
IV. Synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM) is about twice as fast as EDO RAM because it is able to run at
the speed of the system bus up to 100 133MHz.
V.
Rambus dynamic RAM (RDRAM) gets its name from the company that developed it, Rambus, Inc.
The memory uses a special Rambus channel that has a data transfer rate of 800MHz.
VI. Double-data rate (DDR) RAM is a faster DRAM with double the rate of speed at which SDRAM can
transfer data to the processor.
VII. Video RAM (VRAM) is a specialized type of memory that is used only with video adapters. The
video adapter is one of the computers busiest components, so VRAM is used to keep up with video
requirements.
VIII. Window RAM (WRAM) is a faster version of video memory. The term window refers to its ability
to retrieve large blocks (Windows) of data at one time.
Dynamic RAM is packaged in such a way that they have contact pins that connect to the system bus via
the memory bank slots. Depending on the type of a PC you are using, if you open its system unit or
memory chamber of the laptop, you may find any of the following DRAM packages:
Dual-inline Packages (DIP) is attached directly into sockets on the system board. Newer memory
modules are actually small cards with DIP chips on one or both sides. These cards fit upright into
slots on the system board and are held in place by clips that prevent loosening.
23 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
Single inline memory module (SIMM) memory was available in 30- and 72-connector
configurations. Older Pentium computers included slots for both SIMM types. However, these types
have been phased out.
Dual Inline memory module (DIMM) is new than the SIMM and is typically used in Pentium,
Pentium II and Pentium III computers. The Rambus Inline memory module (RIMM) is designed
specifically for use with Rambus memory. RIMMs look just like DIMMs but have 184 connectors.
Small Outline DIMM (SoDIMM) is a memory module frequently used in laptop computers. The
physical size is much smaller than DIMMs. The most common pin configurations are 72- and 144-pin
modules.
MicroDIMM is half the size of a SoDIMM and allows for higher density of storage. It is designed
primarily for portable computers.
Mask ROM: This kind of ROM is written once at the time of manufacture and cannot be changed
afterwards.
II.
Programmable ROM (PROM): This can be written only once by the user after which it cannot be
changed again. After programming, it assumes the characteristics of mask ROM. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip
there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.
III. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): This is a special type of ROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed again by exposing it to ultra violet light.
IV. Electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM): This is programmed and erased electrically
under software control and can support selective modification of its contents. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming takes about 4 to 10 ms
(milliseconds). By selective modification means that any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip.
Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow. A BIOS chip found on a microcomputers
motherboard is an example of EEPROM.
24 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
Advantages of ROM:
Non-volatile in nature
These cannot be accidentally changed
Cheaper than RAMs
Easy to test
More Reliable than RAMs
These are static and do not require refreshing
Its contents are always known and can be verified
SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES
Some other types of memories are embedded in a microprocessor in order to enhance its processing
speed. These memories include buffers, registers and cache memory.
Cache memory
Cache memory (pronounced as cash) is a fast type of RAM. There are three types of cache memory
namely:
I. Level 1 also known as primary cache located inside the microprocessor
II. Level 2 also known as external cache that may be inside the microprocessor or mounted on the
motherboard.
III. Level 3 is the latest type of cache that works with level 2 caches to optimise system performance.
Buffers
Buffers are special memories that are found in input/output devices. Input data is held in the input
buffer while processed data is held in output buffer. For example, computer printers have buffers where
they can store massive documents sent by the CPU for printing hence freeing the CPU to perform other
urgent tasks as the printer continues to print in the background.
Registers
Registers are high speed memory location capable of holding only one piece of data item at time.
Registers are located inside the CPU. They hold data and instructions just before or after processing in
the ALU. Some types of registers include:
I. Program counter (PC) holds the memory address of the instruction to be fetched next.
II. Instruction register (IR) holds the instruction that is currently being processed.
III. Accumulator (AC) holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU.
IV. Address register (AR) holds the address of the next piece of data to be fetched for processing.
V. Storage resister (SR) holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU.
TYPES OF PROCESSORS
From programmers point of view, there are two types of processors. These are complex instruction set
computers (CISC) and reduced instruction set computers (RISC).
I.
Complex instruction set computers (CISC) design is made up of complex instructions microcode into
the processor. This design was popularized by Intel Corporation and is widely used on Pentium
processors. Other manufactures such as AMD and Cyrix who produce Intel compatible chips use the
same technology. Some example s of CISC includes Intel Pentium and AMD Athlon.
II. Reduced instruction set computers (RISC) design, on the other hand, uses fewer instructions set
than CISC hence it is less costly. Motorola and Sun Microsystems companies are the main
manufacturers of RISC processors. Motorola produced PowerPC is used on Apple Macintosh while
Sun produces SPARC used on servers.
MICROPROCESSORS AND THEIR CLOCK SPEEDS
Today, the microprocessor market is dominated by Intel Corporation. However, there are other Intel
competitors such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Cylix, Sun Microsystems and Motorola.
Over time, these manufacturers have released a number of processor models. Each release sees an
improvement in processing speed which is measured in Hertz (Hz) using a system clock. Table 2.1 gives a
summary of some microprocessors and their speeds.
Processor
Intel 8086
Intel 8088
Intel 80186
Intel 80286
Intel 80386
Intel 80486
Pentium
Year
1978
1979
1980
1982
1985 1990
1990
1993
Manufacturer
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Pentium Pro
1995
AMD K5
Pentium MMX
Pentium II
AMD K6
Cyrix 6x86
Pentium III
AMD Athron
AMD Duron
Pentium 4
Intel Core 2
Duo
AMD Athron
Dual Core
1995
1997
1997
1997
1997
1999
1999
2000
Nov. 2000
Intel
Used on servers
AMD
Intel
Intel
AMD
Cyrix
Intel
AMD
AMD
Intel
2006
Intel
2005
AMD
II. Enhanced graphics adapter (EGA) was an improvement of CGA but also displays in 16 colours.
III. Video graphics array (VGA) displays text and graphics and video using 256 colours.
IV. Super video graphics array (SVGA) displays text and graphics using more than 16 million colours. It
has a minimum resolution of 800 600 pixels.
V. Extended graphics array (XGA) has a resolution of up to 1024 768 pixels. It is popular with 17 and
19 inch monitors.
VI. Super extended graphics array (SXGA) has a resolution of 1280 1024 pixels and is popular with 19
and 21 inch monitors.
VII. Ultra extended graphics array (UXGA) is the latest and has the highest standard.
Refresh rate: Since CRTs cannot hold an image for a long time, image in the video RAM is used to refresh
the one on the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has a low refresh rate, images tend to flicker
hence causing eyestrain. Display size is measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen
measured from top right to bottom left.
Cathode ray tube monitors
A cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor consists of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a
screen on the other end. The screen is coated with tiny phosphorus dots that illuminate red, green and
blue to make a pixel.
The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated
pixel to form whole character, such as the letter e - in the word help. A finite number of characters can
be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed
location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying
80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are two types of CRTs namely Invar and Trinitron.
In the invar type, pixels are placed horizontally while in the Trinitron type, pixels are placed in a vertical
grid.
27 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
(i) Printers
Printers can generally be classified into two main categories namely impact and non- impact printers.
Impact printers
Impact printers print using striking mechanism. This means that they strike the paper in order to form an
imprint on it. Impact printers are cheaper to run and print for long periods without breaking down.
They, however, produce low quality printouts.
Characteristics of Impact Printers:
Two examples of impact printers are dot matrix and daisywheel printers.
A dot matrix printer (Fig. 2.27a) has a set of pins which strikes on an ink ribbon placed over the paper.
A daisywheel printer (Fig. 2.27b) has a removable flower-like wheel consisting of spokes with embossed
characters. When printing, the wheel is rotated to align the required character and then hit with a
hammer. However these printers are no longer in the market.
Non-impact printers
Non-printers are faster and produce less noise than the impact printers. They print using ink, thermal or
laser mechanisms.
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers:
Faster than impact printers.
They are not noisy.
High quality.
Support many fonts and different character size.
There are four types of non-impact printers namely inkjet, thermal, laser printers and photo printers.
I.
Inkjet printers (Fig. 2.28) print by spraying tiny ink droplets onto a paper to create an image. They
make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. A colour inkjet printer may have two cartridges, one for black and a tricolor that contains
cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY) compartments. The cartridge has nozzles that do the actual
spraying of ink on the paper.
Inkjet printers are cheaper and produce better quality printouts. They are, however, slow as
compare to laser printers and more expensive to run due to the high cost of replacing the cartridges.
Another drawback is that, an inkjet printout easily gets smudged when water drops on it.
(ii) Plotters
A plotter (Fig. 2.32) is used for printing wide format printouts mainly photographs, maps and
architectural designs.
Compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM): As the name suggests contains data that can only
be read but cannot be written on.
II. Compact disk recordable (CD-R): They are coated with special dye which changes colour to
represent data when burned using a laser beam. Once data is burned on a CD-R, it becomes a
read only. Both the CD-ROM and the CD-R are generally known as write once read many
(WORM) disks.
III. Compact disk rewritable (CD-RW): Unlike a CD-R, the CD-RW disk can be erased and rewritten
more than once. Because of this, it is also called a compact disk erasable (CD-E). It is also coated
with special dye which allows rewriting.
(ii) Digital versatile disk (DVD): Digital versatile disks resemble CD-ROMs in every aspect only that they
can store more data. For example, a typical DVD can store approximately 17 GB. Just like CDs, there
are three common types of DVDs namely read only, recordable and rewritable DVDs.
Serial ports: Also known as COM (communication) port or RS232 port, support transmission of data
one bit at a time. Serial ports are used for devices which do not require high speed transmission
such as mice and modems. A serial port that enables data transfer rates of 12 Mbps is called USB
port.
II. Parallel connection ports: Unlike a serial port, a parallel port, commonly referred to as LPT,
transmits more than one bit at a time. This results in faster data transfer than in serial port
connection.
III. Universal serial bus (USB): This is a special serial port that has become the standard connectivity for
most of the peripheral devices. It can be used to connect as many as 127 peripheral devices to a
computer.
A USB (universal serial bus) is an external bus that supports Plug and Play installation. Using USB,
you can connect and disconnect devices without shutting down or restarting your computer. You
can use a single USB port to connect up to 127 peripheral devices (using a USB hub), including
speakers, telephones, CD-ROM drives, joysticks, tape drives, keyboards, scanners, and cameras. A
USB port is usually located on the back of your computer near the serial port or parallel port.
There are two types of USBs namely low speed USB (1.1) and a relatively faster high speed USB
(2.0).
Plug and Play is a set of specifications developed by Intel that allows a computer to automatically
detect and configure a device (a plug and play device) and installs the appropriate device drivers.
A Non-Plug and Play device is a piece of equipment, such as a printer, modem, or game controller,
which requires manual configuration of hardware settings before it can be used. Non-Plug and Play
devices are becoming increasingly rare as manufacturers stop producing them in favour of Plug and
Play devices. Non-Plug and Play typically applies to older pieces of equipment.
IV. PS/2 ports: PS/2 connectors, also known as mini-DIN connectors, get their names from Deutche
Industrinom which is Germany standard. An example of PS/2 port is where PS/2 mouse and
keyboard are connected.
V. Video port: A video port is where monitor is connected to LCD projectors. It is shaped like a letter D
with 15 pins and colour coded in blue.
VI. Firewire port: Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmits data faster than
USB. It is mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.
VII. Infrared and Bluetooth: These are both wireless connectivity. Infrared, also referred to as infrared
data association (IrDA), uses the infrared waves to transmit data. Infrared (IR) is light that is beyond
red in the colour spectrum. While the light is not visible to the human eye, infrared transmitters and
receivers (infrared devices) can send and receive infrared signals (communicate using infrared light).
Infrared-enabled devices must be at a line of sight of infrared rays in order to transmit data.
Bluetooth, on the other hand, broadcast a radio signal within the surrounding. Any Bluetoothenabled device when turned on will be detected.
Mutually dependent. Both of them must work together to make computer produce a useful output.
Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware
Hardware is a one time expense.
Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
Different software can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to
each other.
Desktop PC
Notebook PC
Apple iMac
Fig. 2.43: Types of microcomputers
Hard disk is used for storage purpose. The higher the capacity, the more data you can save in it.
Now-a-day's computer are equipped with 500GB which can be extended to 2TB.
Most hard drives in desktop computers operate at the standard performance speed of 7200RPM.
Recommended - 500GB
(e) Display
Flat-panel display monitors are becoming more popular and are gradually replacing the traditional CRT
monitors.
Size - It is the diagonal size of the LCD screen. The larger the area, the bigger the picture screen. A
bigger picture is preferable for movie watching and gaming. It will increase productivity as well.
Resolution - This is the number of pixels on the screen. For example, 24-inch display is 1920x1200
(width by length) and 22-inch display which is 1680x1050. High resolution provides better picture
quality and a nice gaming experience.
Inputs - Now-a-days monitors can accept inputs from cable as well as apart from computer. They
also can have USB ports.
Stand - Some monitors provides adjustable stands but some may not.
Recommended - 24 Inch LCD
(f) Warranty
The hardware bought must have a warranty cover and must be guaranteed for a specific period of time.
In most cases, the longer the warranty, the better the hardware.
(g) Cost
The cost of the components must be considered. A good market survey would enable purchase of
genuine components at a reasonable cost.
(h) Compatibility and upgradability
The hardware bought must be compatible across platforms and easily upgradable.
(i) Special needs
The hardware must be able to take care of the special need of the user. If the user is physically
challenged, special hardware may be required.
(j) Portability
Portable computers are ideal for people who do not take most of their time in an office. However, these
are expensive.
(k) Other considerations
Other considerations include available ports, wireless connectivity, multimedia and the system unit
form factor (whether tower type or desktop).
2.4.2 Software considerations
There are a number of factors that may need to be put into consideration before acquiring system or
application software. (Fig 2.43) shows three off-the-shelf software products.
Some important factors need to be put into consideration. They include:
(a) Authenticity
Authenticity of software must be considered to avoid purchasing pirated software. Authenticity is
established by having the manufactures certificate of authenticity.
(b) Documentation
Software documentation includes user manuals, troubleshooting and installation guides as well as
online help. A good software product must be accompanied with this documentation.
(c) User needs
Before purchasing a software product or engaging in developing one, one should analyse the users
needs.
(d) Reliability
Good software must be reliable and secure.
(e) User-friendly
The graphical user-interface has made modern software that are more user-friendly. However, GUIbased software may be difficult to use.
(f) Cost
Software tend to be more expensive that hardware. The cost of acquiring a software product must be
carefully considered before acquiring it against the benefits that it is likely to bring. It is not also
advisable to go for products which are freely available on the internet because some of them may be
malicious programs.
However, you may go for Free and Open Source Software (FOSS), which are now-a-days increasing in
their importance since most of them are not attached by malwares (like viruses, Trojan and worms).
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Chapter 3
Outline
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Introduction
Features, Objectives and Characteristics of an operating system
Role, structure, resources and function of an operating system
Types of operating systems
How an operating system organizes information
Managing files and folders using windows
Managing storage devices using windows
Installation and configuration of an operating system
3.0 Introduction
As mentioned earlier, an operating system is the main program that controls and manages the
computers hardware and software resources. Some examples of operating systems include Microsoft
windows, Macintosh operating system (MacOS), Linux, FreeBSD, Sun Solaris, VSE/ESA, zOS and those
embedded on PDAs and cell phones.
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer
hardware.
It is an integration set of specialised programs that are used to manage overall resources and
operations of the computer.
It is specialised software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in
the computer, including application programs and other system software.
Memory Management -- It keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it are in use by whom,
what part are not in use etc. Allocates the memory when the process or program requests it.
Processor Management -- Allocate the processor (CPU) to a process. Deallocate processor when
processor is no longer required.
Device Management -- Keep tracks of all devices. This is also called I/O controller. Decides which
process gets the device when and for how much time.
File Management -- Allocates the resources. De-allocates the resource. Decides who gets the
resources.
Security -- By means of passwords & similar other techniques, preventing unauthorized access to
programs & data.
Job accounting -- Keeping track of time & resources used by various jobs and/or users.
42 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
Control over system performance -- Recording delays between request for a service & from the
system.
Interaction with the operators -- The interaction may take place via the console of the computer in
the form of instructions. Operating System acknowledges the same, do the corresponding action and
inform the operation by a display screen.
Error-detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging and errordetecting methods.
Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
Job scheduling: The operating system kernel schedules or determines which task will use what
resources at what time. Some tasks will be given priority over others due to the nature of request.
This is referred to as interrupt handling.
Interrupt handling: An interrupt is a break from the sequential processing of a task or program by
transferring control to a new process that requests to be executed.
Resource control and allocation: The operating system maintains a set of queues made up of the
processes waiting for a particular resource. Using the round robin technique, each process on the
queue is given access to a resource in turn.
Input/ Output management: The operating system uses special software called device drivers to
manage and communicate with input/output devices such as keyboard, mouse, display, sound output
devices, printers and scanners.
Memory management: The operating system divides the main memory into partitions. If the
partitions are of fixed size, they are called pages and the operating system knows exactly on which
page a process or data is currently held.
At any one time, not all the pages of a process may be held in the virtual memory. Virtual memory is
an image of main memory created on secondary storage devices like the hard disk in order to allow
programs that are too large to fit in RAM to be executed.
Error handling: The operating system performs error checking on hardware, software and data. It
may suggest solutions to problems that are identified.
Job sequencing: The operating system arranges tasks to be processed in a particular order and
clocks them in and out of the processor.
Security: Modern operating systems implement security policies such that unauthorised users cannot
get access to a computer or network resource.
use menu driven interface. An example of a menu driven interface is the DOS editor screen (Fig 3.8) that
came with later versions of MS DOS.
Icons
Window
A and B
Drive
Hard disk
Optical drives
C, D, E, F
D, E, F, G
Other removable
D, E, , Z
Network drive
Logical drives D Z
Remarks
If a computer has two floppy drives, one will be assigned letter A
and the other B
If a computer has 4 hard drives, they will be assigned letters C F
If a computer has one hard disk and three or more CD/DVD drives,
they will take up any letters between D and Z
If a computer does not have an optical drive, any removable drive
attached to the computer can take any letter between D and Z
In a networked environment, network drives can take up letters D
to Z depending on the number of physical drives installed or
attached
Table 3.1
48 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
3.4.3 Files
A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access, manipulation and storage on
a backing storage. Every file has the following details:
1. A unique name and an optional extension. The name and extension are separated by a period (.) e.g.
JUNE.doc. In this case the file name is JUNE and the extension is doc. Extensions are used to identify
the type of file, for example:
Doc is a word processor file,
Txt is a plain text file,
Sys is a system file.
2. The size, date and time the file was created or modified.
Types of Files
Types are tree types of files namely system, application and data files. System files contain information
that is critical for the operation of the computer. Application files hold programs that are executable.
Data files contain user specific data. Table 3.2 shows some files extension and whether it is a system,
application or data file.
Extension
File type
Description
.doc
Data
A Microsoft Word document file (Word 97-2003 document)
.docx
Data
A Microsoft Word document file (Word 2007- document)
.txt
Data
A plain text file created using notepad or any text editor
.tif
Data
A graphic file created using applications such as Adobe Photoshop
.exe
Application file
The file that launches a particular application, e.g. Winword.exe,
PM70.exe, etc
.bat
System file
File containing a series of commands loaded during boot up
.sys
System file
System files that perform fundamental operations in a computer
Table 3.2
Clean installation
To perform clean installation, the computer BIOS should be setup so that the computer boots from a
CD/DVD. During POST, press the key(s) that display BIOS set-up. In the BIOS setup, change the boot
sequence so that the computer boots from CD/DVD first.
To start the installation process:
1. Insert the CD/DVD ROM into the CD/DVD drive.
2. Turn on the computer. The installation process proceeds from the booting steps to the CD/DVD
initialization phase.
3. Partition and format the drive into either NTFS file system.
4. Windows XP copies all the file into the hard disk.
5. Windows XP will reboot and take you through the installation process
6. Accept the end user license agreement (EULA) then product key. Invalid key activation may display
unauthorized product key message.
7. Configure network settings if the computer is on a network. Windows XP will successfully be
installed and you may be required to setup user accounts and connect to the Internet for updates.
4.0
Introduction
4.1
Memory Units
4.2
Number system
4.3
Number conversion
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4.0 Introduction
A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit of information handled by a computer. One bit expresses a 1 or a
0 in a binary numeral, or a true or false logical condition. A group of 8 bits makes up a byte, which can
represent many types of information, such as a letter of the alphabet, a decimal digit, or other
character.
A byte is a unit of data that typically holds a single character, such as a letter, a digit, or a punctuation
mark. Some single characters can take up more than one byte.
A double-byte character is a set of characters in which each character is represented by two bytes.
Some languages, such as Japanese, Chinese, and Korean, require double-byte character sets.
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first
remainder becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most significant
digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.
4.3.2 Other base system to Decimal System
Steps
Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of the
digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding columns.
Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.
EXAMPLE:
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
5.1
What is data?
5.2
Information
5.3
Data Processing Cycle
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5.2 Information
5.2.1 What is Information?
Information is organised or classified data so that it has some meaningful values to the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based. For the decision to be
meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics:
Timely - Information should be available when required.
Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
Completeness - Information should be complete.
For making budgets and financial control: You need to have information on requirements, plans,
costs and income in order to make budget.
To ensure effective and efficient decision-making leading to prosperity of the organization.
Information helps for condensing decision making process. In order to make decision on various
issues, we need investigation in which we need to get information from different sources, then make
experiments, researches and make breakdown of the information gained. You can know weakness
areas for resetting the planning, goals, objectives, policy and rules.
A way to learn how things are done: Helps people to get meaning, knowledge, instructions,
communication and mental stimulus on various issues.
A method of making things better and a means to achieving goals: Information can give us detailed
analysis on various current events, public opinions and immediate coverage of an event
Input - In this step the input data are prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form will
depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data
could be recorded on any one of several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so
on.
Processing - In this step input data are changed to produce data in a more useful form. For example,
pay-checks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month may be
calculated from the sales orders.
Output -Here the result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular form of the
output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for
employees.
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