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29 June 2010
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Transformers Committee
of the
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Abstract: The electrical, mechanical, and physical requirements of oil-immersed and dry-type aircore smoothing reactors for high-voltage direct current (HVDC) applications are specified. Test
code is defined and appropriate technical background information is presented or identified.
Keywords: construction, dry-type air-core, HVDC, oil-immersed, rating, smoothing reactors, test
code application
ISBN 978-0-7381-6241-6
ISBN 978-0-7381-6242-3
STD96056
STDPD96056
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Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std 1277-2010, IEEE Standard General Requirements and Test Code for DryType and Oil-Immersed Smoothing Reactors for DC Power Transmission.
In 1986 the Transformers Committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers created the
HVDC Converter Transformers and Smoothing Reactors Subcommittee. This committee developed from
the working group that prepared paper 85 SM 375-1, Recommended Dielectric Tests and Test Procedures
for Converter Transformers and Smoothing Reactors. Although smoothing reactors for HVDC application
have been built and operated for over 30 years, prior to IEEE Std 1277 there were only a limited number of
papers, guides, and standards available that presented suggested dielectric tests for the HVDC equipment
(see Annex G of this standard for a list of some of the most relevant documents). The IEC reactor standard
IEC 60076-6:2007 [B9] also covers smoothing reactors in a specific clause; focus is not, however,
application-specific. a With the increased activity in HVDC transmission, there was a significant need for a
standard specifically covering the requirements and testing of smoothing reactors for HVDC applications,
and the first responsibility of the new subcommittee was to create proposed standards for converter
transformers and smoothing reactors for HVDC application. Two separate standards were developedone
for oil-filled converter transformers and one for both dry-type and oil-filled smoothing reactors.
IEEE Std 1277 was originally released in 2000 as trial use and, approximately two years later in 2002,
was granted full use status.
Significant accomplishments of IEEE Std 1277-2000 included:
a)
Establishment of dielectric tests on HVDC equipment. In addition to the polarity reversal and 1 h dc
tests recommended by previous papers, a special 1 h ac-applied voltage test was included for oilfilled smoothing reactors to demonstrate insulation integrity for service conditions.
b) A consistent test methodology was developed for both oil-immersed and dry-type air-core
smoothing reactors that reflects both in-service operating stresses as well as current test equipment
capability.
The purpose of this current revision is the same as the original document, which is to define requirements
and test code for dry-type and oil-immersed smoothing reactors for HVDC application. Although
requirements are usually construction independent, test code is not, and the revision of the standard will
continue to reflect this characteristic. This revision is required to upgrade test code, design considerations
and application information based on feedback from manufacturers and end usersdry-type or oilimmersed specific when required. Test code methodology has been modified to reflect current technology.
Notice to users
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Participants
At the time this standard was submitted to the IEEE-SA Standards Board for approval, the HVDC
Converter Transformers and Smoothing Reactors Working Group had the following membership:
Richard F. Dudley, Chair
Sten Andersson
Jack Aromin
Gene Blackburn
Fred E. Elliot
Joseph Foldi
Alan C. Forrest
Jan Hajek
Peter Heinzig
Lars-Erik Juhlin
Robyn L. Page
Klaus Papp
Carlos Piexoto
Ugo Piovan
Christoph Ploetner
Klaus Pointner
Ulf Radbrandt
Les Recksiedler
Pierre Riffon
Michael Sharp
Joe D. Watson
Tony Weekes
Gene Wolf
Waldemar Ziomek
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this standard. Balloters may have
voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
Wallace Binder
Gene Blackburn
William Bloethe
Carl Bush
Suresh Channarasappa
Dieter Dohnal
Richard F. Dudley
Gary Engmann
Joseph Foldi
Jalal Gohari
Randall Groves
David Harris
Peter Heinzig
Gary Heuston
Lars-Erik Juhlin
Joseph L. Koepfinger
Jim Kulchisky
Saumen Kundu
Chung-Yiu Lam
G. Luri
J. Dennis Marlow
Joseph Melanson
Gary Michel
Michael S. Newman
Klaus Papp
Bansi Patel
J. Patton
Alvaro Portillo
Iulian Profir
Jean-Christophe Riboud
Pierre Riffon
Michael Roberts
Charles Rogers
Marnie Roussell
Bartien Sayogo
Devki Sharma
Gil Shultz
James E. Smith
Jerry Smith
Gary Stoedter
John Vergis
Jane Verner
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When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this standard on 25 March 2010, it had the following
membership:
Robert M. Grow, Chair
Richard H. Hulett, Vice Chair
Steve M. Mills, Past Chair
Judith Gorman, Secretary
Karen Bartleson
Victor Berman
Ted Burse
Clint Chaplin
Andy Drozd
Alexander Gelman
Jim Hughes
Ronald C. Petersen
Thomas Prevost
Jon Walter Rosdahl
Sam Sciacca
Mike Seavey
Curtis Siller
Don Wright
*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Satish K. Aggarwal, NRC Representative
Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative
Michael Janezic, NIST Representative
Lisa Perry
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development
Matthew J. Ceglia
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development
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Contents
1. Scope .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 1
3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 3
4. Letter symbols ............................................................................................................................................ 4
5. General requirementsSystems and environmental data .......................................................................... 5
5.1 Usual service conditions ...................................................................................................................... 5
5.2 Unusual service conditions .................................................................................................................. 6
5.3 Environmental ImpactOil-immersed smoothing reactors ................................................................ 9
5.4 Synthetic materialsOil-immersed smoothing reactors ..................................................................... 9
5.5 Transformer oilOil-immersed smoothing reactors........................................................................... 9
6. Rating data.................................................................................................................................................. 9
6.1 Basis for rating..................................................................................................................................... 9
6.2 Rated dc voltage ................................................................................................................................ 10
6.3 Rated currents .................................................................................................................................... 10
6.4 Inductance.......................................................................................................................................... 10
6.5 Basic impulse insulation level ........................................................................................................... 11
6.6 Cooling classes .................................................................................................................................. 12
6.7 Other requirements ............................................................................................................................ 12
7. Construction of oil-immersed smoothing reactors.................................................................................... 14
7.1 Tank and tank components for oil-immersed smoothing reactors ..................................................... 14
7.2 Oil preservation for oil-immersed smoothing reactors ...................................................................... 16
7.3 Auxiliary equipment for oil-immersed smoothing reactors ............................................................... 18
8. Tests 20
8.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 20
8.2 Routine, design, and other tests for smoothing reactors .................................................................... 21
9. Losses and inductance .............................................................................................................................. 25
9.1 Losses ................................................................................................................................................ 25
9.2 Inductance.......................................................................................................................................... 26
10. Temperature rise and loading conditions................................................................................................ 26
10.1 Temperature-rise limits and loading conditions............................................................................... 26
10.2 Temperature of metallic parts in contact with insulation................................................................. 27
10.3 Temperature of other metallic parts................................................................................................. 27
10.4 Temperature rise of insulating liquid............................................................................................... 28
10.5 Temperature rise of terminals .......................................................................................................... 28
11. Dielectric tests and insulation levels....................................................................................................... 28
11.1 Impulse tests .................................................................................................................................... 28
11.2 DC voltage tests............................................................................................................................... 29
11.3 DC polarity-reversal test with partial discharge measurements for
oil-immersed smoothing reactors..................................................................................................... 29
11.4 Low-frequency voltage tests on line terminals ................................................................................ 30
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1. Scope
The scope of this standard is the definition and specification of the requirements and test code for dry-type
and oil-immersed smoothing reactors for high-voltage direct current (HVDC) power transmission. This
standard only applies to smoothing reactors for dc transmission. It does not apply to other smoothing
reactors such as reactors for power converters for variable speed drives, etc.
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
ANSI C68.3-1976, American National Standard Recommended Practice for the Detection and
Measurement of Partial Discharges (Corona) During Dielectric Tests. 1
ANSI S1.4-1983, American National Standard Specification for Sound Level Meters.
1
ANSI publications are available from the Customer Service Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 W. 43rd Street,
4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA (http://www.ansi.org/).
1
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ANSI/ASME B1.1-1989, American National Standard Unified Inch Screw Threads (UN and UNR Thread
Forms). 2
ANSI/ASME B1.1a-1984, Unified Inch Screw Threads (UN and UNR Thread Form) Supplement to ANSI
B1.1-1982.
ANSI/ASME B1.20.1-1983, Pipe Threads, General Purpose (Inch).
ANSI/ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPV), 1984 Edition.
ASTM D1275-2006, Standard Test Method for Corrosive Sulfur in Electrical Insulating Oils. 3
ASTM D3487-1981, Standard Specifications for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in Electrical Apparatus.
IEC 60076-3:2000, Power transformersPart 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests, and external clearance in
air. 4
IEC 60270:2001, High-voltage test techniquesPartial discharge measurements.
IEC/TS 61245:1993, Artificial pollution tests on high-voltage insulators to be used on dc systems.
IEEE Std 4-1995, IEEE Standard Techniques for High Voltage Testing. 5, 6
IEEE Std 315-1975 (Reaff 1993), IEEE Standard Graphic Symbols for Electrical and Electronics
Diagrams (Including Reference Designation Letters).
IEEE Std 315A-1986, Supplement to IEEE Std 315-1975.
IEEE Std 693-2005, IEEE Recommended Practices for Seismic Design of Substations.
IEEE Std C57.12.00-2006, IEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution,
Power, and Regulating Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.12.80-2002, IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.12.90-2006, IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.16-1996 (Reaff 2001), IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for
Dry-Type Air-Core Series-Connected Reactors.
IEEE Std C57.19.03-1996, IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for Bushings for
DC Applications.
2
ASME publications are available from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5990,
USA (http://www.asme.org/).
3
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken,
PA 19428-2959, USA (http://www.astm.org/).
4
IEC publications are available from the Central Office of the International Electrotechnical Commission, 3, rue de Varemb, P.O.
Box 131, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States from the
Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA
(http://www.ansi.org/).
5
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
6
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Clause 2 are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Incorporated.
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IEEE Std C57.98-1993 (Reaff 1999), IEEE Guide for Transformer Impulse Tests.
IEEE Std C57.106-2006, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Oil in Equipment.
IEEE Std C57.113-1991 (Reaff 2002), IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Measurement in Liquid-Filled
Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors.
NEHRP-1997, National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program, Recommended Provisions for Seismic
Regulations for New Buildings [Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 1997]. 7
NEMA CC1-2009, Electric Power Connection for Substations. 8
3. Definitions
Standard transformer terminology available in IEEE Std C57.12.80-2002 shall apply. 9 The IEEE Standards
Dictionary: Glossary of Terms & Definitions should be referenced for terms not defined in this clause. 10
ambient temperature: The ambient temperature is the temperature of the cooling air surrounding a
smoothing reactor.
incremental inductance: The incremental inductance of a smoothing reactor is the inductance of the
smoothing reactor, in Henries, determined on the basis of a small current increase (or decrease) at a predefined dc current. The incremental inductance is, therefore, defined as a function of dc current from the
minimum current up to the maximum peak short-circuit current.
rated dc current of a smoothing reactor: The maximum continuous dc current at rated conditions.
rated dc voltage: The rated dc voltage of a smoothing reactor is the maximum continuous dc voltage,
terminal to ground, that will be experienced by the smoothing reactor.
ripple current: The total harmonic current content superimposed on the dc current. For specific
engineering purposes, it is essential to define the harmonic spectrum of the ripple current in terms of
amplitude and frequency. For general purposes, the ripple current can be expressed as the root-mean-square
(rms) value of the harmonic current at any level of dc current; including the continuous rated dc current.
smoothing reactor (SMR) for HVDC transmission: A smoothing reactor for HVDC application is a
reactor intended for connection in series with an HVDC converter, or an HVDC transmission line or
insertion in the intermediate dc circuit of a back-to-back link, for the purpose of the following:
Complying, in conjunction with dc filters, with the dc side telephone interference requirements.
Limiting the surge-current amplitude during faults and disturbances, especially the limitation of
cable discharge currents in the case of a long dc cable.
Providing a high impedance to the flow of harmonics in the case of a cable link (high capacitance
of cable).
NEHRP publications are available from the Building for Seismic Safety Council, 1201 L St., N.W., Suite 400, Washington, D.C.
20005, USA.
NEMA publications are available from Global Engineering Documents, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, Colorado 80112, USA
(http://global.ihs.com/).
9
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
10
The IEEE Standards Dictionary: Glossary of Terms & Definitions is available at http://shop.ieee.org/.
8
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Limiting the rate of rise of inverter dc current in the case of inverter ac network disturbances, thus
reducing the risk of commutation failures.
Smoothing reactors may be built using either of two designs: dry-type air cooled or oil-immersed. Dry-type
smoothing reactors are of air-core design. Oil-immersed smoothing reactors utilize magnetic-core materials
as an inherent part of their design.
4. Letter symbols
A
altitude
Ao
Eac
ac voltage
EacApplied
Edc
EdcSystem
EPR
Er
Ex
Ez
fh
harmonic frequency
Idc
rated dc current
Ih
Im
Ir
rated current
Ireduced
Itest
dc test current
Iac equiv.
equivalent ac current
LPA
LPAi
LWA
Pa
Pfetor
core losses
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Ph
harmonic losses of oil-immersed smoothing reactor (SMR) (including core losses) at harmonic
frequency, h, and corrected to 85 C
Phtot
PLLG
PLLT
Po
Pr
Ps
PTL
Rdc
Rh
Rm
measured resistance
Rs
Ta
Tm
Ts
Xh
Zh
temperature (C)
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reactor. The valve hall temperature should only be specified as an unusual service condition for the internal
and external insulation of the bushing.
5.1.3 Altitude
The altitude shall not exceed 1000 m.
5.1.4 Installation location
Outdoor installation is the usual operating environment for smoothing reactors.
11
Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement
this standard.
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A corresponding reverse correction may be applied in cases where the altitude of the factory is
above 1000 m and the altitude of the installation site is below 1000 m.
b)
Any altitude correction shall be rounded to the nearest whole number of degrees Celsius.
c)
When the specific temperature-rise limits of the smoothing reactor have been reduced, either
because of high cooling media temperature or because of high-altitude installation, this shall be
indicated on the rating plate.
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operation following the loss of one pole, continuous overload with redundant coolers available (oilimmersed smoothing reactors only), 1 h or 2 h overload, temporary overload for a duration of minutes or
seconds, etc.
If the smoothing reactor is to be operated at various loading conditions (dc plus harmonics), these
conditions and the respective allowable temperature rises shall be included in the specification for the
smoothing reactor.
5.2.4 Seismic conditions
HVDC converter stations may be located in areas at significant risk of being affected by seismic activity.
Therefore, the appropriate seismic zone/category from IEEE Std 693-2005 and NEHRP-1997 or other
equivalent international seismic standard shall be indicated in the smoothing reactor specification.
5.2.5 Other unusual service conditions
In addition to the usual service conditions previously described, the following may also constitute unusual
service conditions for smoothing reactors in HVDC applications:
a)
Damaging fumes or vapors, excessive or abrasive dust, explosive mixtures of dust or gases, steam,
salt spray, excessive moisture, etc., constitute unusual service conditions. For smoothing reactors,
pollution aspects are important and shall be accurately defined so that proper external insulation
(particularly bushings and support insulators) may be provided. Pollution includes automotive, acid
rain (conductivities in the range of 1000 S/cm to 3000 S/cm versus less than 100 S/cm for
normal rain) fertilizers, road salt, oceanic salt, etc. Annex A and Annex B contain additional
information on pollution.
b)
Equivalent salt deposition density (ESDD) rates and creepage requirements should always be
specified for bushings and other external insulation.
c)
Installation conditions that may affect the operating temperature of the smoothing reactor include
station layout (clearances), lack of air movement, solar radiation based heating of ground cover,
etc.
d)
e)
Unusual limitations for transportation should always be specified, especially since smoothing
reactors are large, heavy pieces of equipment. Unusual storage conditions (heavy moisture
exposure) or duration of storage prior to installation (greater than 1 year) should be specified.
f)
Maintenance restrictions should be specified, especially if time between maintenance is longer than
1 year or if it is not possible to perform periodic inspections.
g)
Other unusual voltage conditions, including transient overvoltages, resonance, switching surge,
etc., which may require special consideration in insulation design. For instance, if smoothing
reactors are connected to SF6 insulated equipment, there may be risks of exposure to very fast
voltage transients.
h)
Planned short circuits as part of regular operation or as a consequence of relaying practice and
unusual short-circuit application conditions differing from those described in 12.8.
i)
Unusual number of line faults (>30 per year) or commutation failures (>50 per year).
j)
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6. Rating data
Rated dc voltage
b) Rated dc current
c)
f)
g) Method of cooling
12
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6.4 Inductance
6.4.1 Rated inductance
For air-cored reactors and iron-cored reactors operated well below magnetic saturation, the inductance is
considered to be independent of current. Therefore, the rated inductance of a smoothing reactor is the
inductance in henries, determined with low frequency (100 Hz) ac excitation.
For iron-cored reactors operated close to or beyond magnetic saturation of the core, the inductance is a
function of current. In this case, the inductance of a smoothing reactor shall be defined by its incremental
inductance. The rated inductance of a smoothing reactor in Henries is the incremental inductance at rated
continuous dc current.
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Oil-immersed, forced-oil-cooled with forced-air cooler; class OFAF and class ODAF.
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with winding conductors carrying ripple harmonics. Thus, the major sound level spectrum is at the discrete
frequencies of the harmonic ripple current.
6.7.3 Typical connections
Typical connections for smoothing reactors are presented in Figure 1(a), Figure 1(b), and Figure 1(c). They
are bipolar, monopolar, and back-to-back. It should be noted that for a few back-to-back schemes, the
commutation inductance of the converter transformers has been designed to provide an equivalent
smoothing inductance, sufficient to provide the necessary smoothing of the dc current in the link without
the need of adding a separate smoothing reactor.
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Maximum operating pressures (positive and negative) for which the smoothing reactor is designed shall be
indicated on the nameplate. The main tank, and any compartment attached thereto, that is subject to the
operating pressures shall be designed to withstand, without permanent deformation, a pressure 25% greater
than the maximum operating pressures, resulting from the system of oil preservation used.
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NOTE 2Individual designs may not necessarily reach the maximum pressures indicated in the definitions of oilpreservation systems.
Tanks for all smoothing reactors shall be designed to withstand vacuum filling (essentially full vacuum) in
the field.
7.1.2 Cover construction
A bolted or welded main cover shall be provided. A bolted or welded bell-type tank can also be provided as
an alternative to conventional tanks.
7.1.3 Core ground
A single core ground shall be provided and shall be accessible without removing oil. Cable or bus bar is
utilized from ground pad to bushing.
7.1.4 Manholes
Manholes shall be provided in the cover. Manholes, if circular, shall have a minimum diameter of 460 mm.
If rectangular or oval, they shall have minimum dimensions of 360 mm 460 mm.
7.1.5 Drain and filter valves
A combination drain and lower filter valve of the ball or globe type shall be located on the side of the tank.
This valve shall provide for drainage of the liquid to within 25 mm of the bottom of the tank. The drain
valve shall have a built-in 10 mm sampling device, which shall be located in the inside of the valve
between the main valve seat and the pipe plug. The device shall be supplied with a 5/16 in-32 male
thread for the users connection and shall be equipped with a cap.
The size of the drain valve for smoothing reactors is typically 25 mm or 50 mm, as appropriate or specified
by the purchaser, and shall have National Pipe Thread (NPT) threads (in accordance with ANSI/ASME
B1.20.1-1983) with nonferrous metallic pipe plug in open ends. Valves should not be located below any
control cabinets.
If appropriate or specified by the purchaser, smoothing reactors shall have a 25 mm upper filter plug, or
cap, located above the maximum liquid level.
In all other cases or as specified by the purchaser, smoothing reactors shall have an upper filter valve of the
ball or globe type, located below the 25 C liquid level. The size of the upper filter valve shall be 50 mm
and it shall have 2-in NPT threads (in accordance with ANSI/ASME B1.20.1-1983) with nonferrous
metallic pipe plug in open ends.
7.1.6 Lifting, moving, and jacking facilities
7.1.6.1 Lifting facilities
Lugs for lifting the complete smoothing reactor shall be provided. The bearing surfaces of the lifting lugs
shall be free from sharp edges and each lifting lug shall be provided with a hole having a minimum
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diameter of 21 mm for guying purposes. Lifting eyes shall be provided for lifting the cover only. Adequate
facilities shall be provided for lifting the core and coil assembly from the tank.
7.1.6.2 Moving facilities
The base of the smoothing reactor shall be designed to permit rolling or sliding in the direction of center
lines and provision shall be made for pulling the smoothing reactor in these directions. The base shall be so
designed that the center of gravity of the smoothing reactor, as normally prepared for shipment, should not
fall outside the base support members for a tilt of the base of 15 from the horizontal, with or without oil in
the smoothing reactor.
7.1.6.3 Jacking facilities
Jacking facilities shall be located near the corners of the tank.
Dimensions and clearances for jacking provisions shall be as shown in Figure 2.
7.1.7 Ground pads
Tank grounding provisions shall consist of two copper-faced steel pads or two stainless steel pads without
copper facing, each 50 mm 90 mm with two holes horizontally spaced on 44.5 mm centers and drilled
and tapped for 1/2 in National Coarse Thread (UNC) (as defined in ANSI/ASME B1.1-1989). The
minimum thickness of copper facing (if used) shall be 0.4 mm.
Thread protection for the ground pad shall be provided.
Ground pads shall be welded on the base or on the tank wall near the base, and shall be located diagonally
opposite from each other so as not to interfere with the jacking facilities.
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Weight 15 900 kg
or less
(mm)
Weight 15 900 kg
to 29 500 kg
(mm)
Weight over
29 500 kg
(mm)
89
127
457
64
64
102
686
686
508
127
127
127
76
76
76
127
127
127
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18
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a)
Surge arrester ground pad consisting of a tank-grounding pad (in accordance with 7.1.7) mounted
near the top of the tank may be specified for each set of arresters except that where the separation of
the arrester stack is such that individual pads for grounding each phase arrester represent better
design, individual ground pads may be supplied.
d) Many utilities prefer to run copper cable from the ground grid directly to the arrester. In such cases
provision to support the cable should be provided.
NOTEMaterial for connecting surge arresters to live parts and to ground pads is not included.
7.3.4 Accessories
7.3.4.1 Liquid-level indicator
A liquid-level indicator shall be mounted so as to be readable at the level of the base. Dial markings shall
show 25 C level and the minimum and maximum levels. The words liquid level shall be shown on the face
of the dial or on a suitable nameplate adjacent to the indicator.
7.3.4.2 Liquid-temperature indicator
A dial-type thermometer or thermocouple-based device shall be mounted on the side of the tank.
The temperature indicator shall have re-settable maximum temperature limits with corresponding contacts.
The thermometer shall be either a direct-stem mounted unit or a temperature sensing unit for remote eyelevel indication. Either unit shall be mounted in a closed well located at a suitable level to indicate the topoil temperature. For the dimensions of the well, see Figure 3.
The dial markings shall cover a minimum range of 0 C to 120 C. The words liquid temperature shall be
shown on the dial or on a suitable nameplate mounted adjacent to the indicator.
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8. Tests
8.1 General
Unless otherwise specified, tests shall be made at the factory or in a test laboratory prior to delivery.
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tests, with the exception of the audible noise measurement, shall be followed by the complete routine test
program.
8.2.5.3 Dry-type smoothing reactors
For dry-type smoothing reactors, the routine test sequence shall be such that the last dielectric test to be
performed shall be the ac power test. The sequence of remaining required routine tests is left to the
convenience of the manufacturer.
Other tests for dry-type reactors may be performed at the convenience of the manufacturer unless otherwise
indicated in Clause 12. For instance, the chopped-wave impulse test, if required, shall be performed within
the lightning impulse test sequence as prescribed in 12.6. In addition, any of the other tests with the
exception of the audible noise measurement and tests on support insulators has to be followed by the
complete routine test program.
8.2.6 Test sequence and other tests
If other tests are performed, their position in the sequence of tests should be determined by agreement
between the purchaser and the manufacturer. In most cases, position in the test sequence is not critical and
the test or verification can be performed or carried out as deemed appropriate, e.g., dc withstand voltage
test (pollution), short-circuit capability verification, seismic.
8.2.7 Test equipment and methods
Test equipment and methods (procedures) described in this document are state-of-the-art at the time of
publication. Newer equipment and procedures that give equivalent or improved tests should be used, if
available.
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Table 1 Routine, design, and other tests for oil-immersed smoothing reactors
Tests
Routine
DC resistance
Xa
Design
Other
X
Xb
Temperature-rise test
Xc
DC power test
Dielectric tests d, e
Impulse tests
Full-wave impulse
Chopped-wave impulse
Switching impulse
Xf
Xg
Xg
X
X
Xh
Insulation resistance
Xh
Xi
Short-circuit verification
Xj
Xk
X
Xl
The incremental inductance shall be measured from zero current to the maximum temporary dc overcurrent (including the peak value
of the rms sum of the harmonic currents).
b
The temperature-rise test may not be performed if the manufacturer demonstrates to the purchaser that temperature-rise test results on
an equivalent unit are available.
c
The dc power test is a quality assurance test, the purpose of which is to detect broken conductors or bad connections. This test can be
made part of the oil-particle filtration that is normally done prior to performing dielectric tests. The oil filtration is carried out by
applying a dc current for several hours to the smoothing reactor. However, it is recommended that the issue be dealt with by resistance
or continuity checks during manufacturing; and that such tests be part of an inspection and test plan, and the manufacturer should not
rely solely on a final test program.
d
The conductivity of transformer oil may impact the distribution of dielectric stresses in the converter transformer insulation system.
Therefore it is important that factory dielectric tests be carried out with transformer oil of conductivity, which is in the same
guaranteed range as it will be filled with for service.
e
Test sequence and time between some tests may be important and is a matter for agreement between purchaser and manufacturer.
One possible test sequence is that the heat run test is made first. Dielectric testing then begins with impulse testing followed by the
applied dc and polarity-reversal tests. The test sequence ends with the applied ac test with PD-measurement and Q-factor
measurement. The time between the polarity-reversal test and the ac tests is left to the manufacturer but it should be noted that in
many cases some elapsed time may be necessary in order to remove trapped charges within the insulation from the dc tests.
f
The switching impulse test across the windings of an oil-immersed smoothing reactor is a routine test. In general, it is difficult to
obtain the required wave shape due to the energy limitations of existing impulse generators. The switching impulse test to ground is a
routine test.
The dc applied voltage test and polarity-reversal test is not applicable for smoothing reactors if the rated dc voltage is below 15% of
the SIWL specified for terminal to ground, e.g., smoothing reactors installed at ground potential or located on the neutral bus.
This test may not produce meaningful results if the smoothing reactor does not include an inner magnetic shield or core.
Suitable allowance shall be made and mutually agreed upon for the harmonic contribution in service. Noise contributing elements of
the reactor such as pumps and fans shall be operated as appropriate.
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Calculations may be used based on a previous test of a reactor or model and strength of materials data in lieu of the short-circuit
withstand test.
k
This other test, when required, should be carried out at a frequency on the order of 300 Hz to 900 Hz. Its purpose is to simulate
operating conditions as described in Annex A. This test demonstrates voltage withstand capability.
l
Seismic qualification may be done by analytical methods. Refer to IEEE Std 693-2005.
Table 2 Routine, design, and other tests for dry-type smoothing reactors
Tests
Routine
DC resistance
Xa
Inductance
Xa
Design
Other
X
Xa
Xb
Temperature-rise test
Xc
DC power test
Dielectric tests
Impulse tests
Xd
Full-wave impulse
Chopped-wave impulse
X
Xe
Switching impulse
AC power test
Xe
X
Xf
Xg
RIV test
Short-circuit verification
Xh
Xi
Xj
a
The routine test sequence for dry-type air-core smoothing reactors consists of dc resistance, inductance and loss measurement,
dielectric tests, dc resistance measurement (repeated), inductance measurement (repeated), and loss measurement (repeated). For the
order of dielectric tests refer to 12.6.2.
b
The temperature-rise test may not be performed if the manufacturer demonstrates to the purchaser that temperature-rise test results on
an equivalent unit are applicable.
c
The dc power test is a quality assurance test, the purpose of which is to detect broken conductors or bad connections.
If a dry-type air-core smoothing reactor is supplied with a pollution or sound mitigation shield (enclosure), the temperature-rise and
design tests shall be carried out with the mitigation measures installed.
e
The switching impulse test is a design test when performed across the support insulators to ground. It is an other test when performed
across the winding of a dry-type air-core smoothing reactor since it is not possible to obtain the desired wave shape due to the energy
limitations of existing impulse generators. For the switching impulse test across the winding, the capacitor discharge test can be an
alternative test.
f
This test is not usually required for smoothing reactors installed in the neutral bus, except possibly in the case of UHVDC systems. If
the smoothing reactor is installed indoors on the pole bus, the dc withstand test shall be performed in a dry condition.
g
This other test, when required, is to demonstrate performance of the support insulators only, under conditions of pollution. It is a wet
dc withstand test with contamination levels as specified by the purchaser. It is a test to be carried out on at least one of the support
insulators.
h
Calculations may be used, based on a previous test of a reactor or model and strength of materials data in lieu of the short-circuit
withstand test.
i
This other test, when required, should be carried out at a frequency on the order of 300 Hz to 900 Hz. Its purpose is to simulate
operating conditions as described in Annex A. This test demonstrates voltage withstand capability.
Seismic qualification may be done by analytical methods. Refer to IEEE Std 693-2005.
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9.1 Losses
9.1.1 Total losses
The losses of a dc smoothing reactor are those losses that are incident to the carrying of a current. They
include the following:
The resistance loss in the winding due to the dc load current constitute the primary loss in a dc smoothing
reactor.
Harmonics or ripple currents produce both resistive and eddy-current losses in the winding. These losses
are typically significantly smaller than the dc losses.
Losses caused by circulating currents in parallel windings.
Stray losses caused by magnetic flux in other metallic parts of the reactor are typically a very small
percentage of total losses, due to the low magnitude of the ripple current.
For dry-type smoothing reactors losses include those occurring in the support structure. Due to the low
magnitude of the ripple current, the stray losses in the support structure are usually a small percentage of
total losses.
For oil-immersed smoothing reactors core losses are typically 1.0% to 1.5% of total losses. In a few rare
cases, due to the magnitude of the harmonics, the core losses have been as high as 2% of total losses.
For oil-immersed smoothing reactors, power required for cooling fans, oil pumps, space heaters, and other
ancillary equipment is not included in the total loss. When specified or requested by the purchaser, loss data
on such ancillary equipment shall be furnished.
9.1.2 Tolerance on losses
A tolerance on losses is utilized for two purposes. One is for commercial evaluation and the other is to
provide the basis of a quality check.
9.1.2.1 Tolerance on losses for commercial evaluation
As energy costs increase, losses become a more significant component of total operating costs and as such
may be capitalized by the purchaser. Therefore, compliance to guaranteed losses becomes part of the
commercial contract. A tolerance on losses, to account for measurement tolerances, etc., may be part of the
contractual agreement. If the measured losses corrected to reference temperature exceed the guaranteed loss
by more than 10%, it may be indicative of a design issue.
Additionally, the contract may specify such guarantee criteria as maximum loss per unit, average loss for
all units, total package losses, etc. In any case, this is purely a commercial matter between the purchaser
and the manufacturer.
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It should be stressed that if a unit exceeds guaranteed loss, aside from the commercial implications that are
a matter between the manufacturer and the purchaser, it is essential to demonstrate that temperature-rise
limits, for the insulation systems employed, are not exceeded.
9.1.2.2 Tolerance on losses as the basis of a quality check
The losses, as defined in the specification, on any reactor shall not differ from the average loss of all units
of the same design by more than 6%. The average loss shall be calculated by using the measured losses on
each individual unit.
If one of the units exceeds this tolerance, the manufacturer shall initiate an investigation in order to find the
cause of this deviation. In order for acceptance to be considered, the manufacturer shall demonstrate to the
purchaser, by either calculation and/or test, that the deviation will not impair the ability of the unit to meet
the other requirements of this standard, particularly the temperature-rise limits.
9.2 Inductance
9.2.1 Tolerances on inductance
9.2.1.1 Tolerance versus current
Tolerances on inductance apply over a current range from zero to maximum specified overload dc current.
The minimum inductance at rated short-circuit current shall also be specified.
9.2.1.2 Tolerance percentage
The inductance of a smoothing reactor shall have a standard tolerance of 7% or, if specified, shall not vary
from the specified value set by the purchaser by more than a specified plus or minus percent. The tolerance
on inductance may impact the design of the dc filters.
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Conversely, many HVDC schemes have overload conditions specified as part of their standard operating
mode (e.g., seasonal overloads, monopolar operation). HVDC smoothing reactors are directly impacted by
such requirements and, hence, the maximum hottest-spot temperature rise should either reflect the worstcase service duty or the hottest-spot temperature rise at normal nameplate current rating should be adjusted
accordingly. See Annex D for more information.
Total hot-spot temperature defines the rate of aging of insulation and, in conjunction with time at
temperature, determines service life. Therefore, care should be taken in selecting insulation materials and in
selecting (design objectives) total operating hot-spot temperature for full load rated current, short-time
overloads, and continuous overloads.
Table 3 Limits of temperature rise for HVDC smoothing factors
Average
winding temperature
rise by resistance c
(C)
Hottest-spot
winding
temperature rise d
(C)
65
80
(A) 105
55
65
(B) 130
80
90
(F) 155
100
115
(H) 180
125
140
(C) 220
150
180
a, b
The insulation temperature classes in Table 3 are selected in accordance with the preferred temperature index
for insulation materials as defined in IEEE Std 1-1986 [B16].
The assignment of the reactors insulation system to a certain temperature class shall be proven by experience
or testing.
The average temperature rise and hot-spot temperature rise are upper limits and neither are to be exceeded.
The difference between the hot-spot rise and the average rise is not intended to be an indication of hot-spot
allowance. Hot-spot allowance is very much design related and no simple rule can account for it, especially
with the wide variety of custom designs available today.
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(1)
(2)
11.3 DC polarity-reversal test with partial discharge measurements for oilimmersed smoothing reactors
This test shall be applied to the terminals of the winding(s) connected together. The test level for smoothing
reactors is shown in Equation (3):
EPR = 1.25 EdcSystem
(3)
A double reversal test shall be used as shown in Figure 4. The duration of the first two voltages is 90 min
each, while the duration of the last voltage is 45 min. The reversal should be accomplished within 2 min
maximum.
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a)
The 90 min hold time for polarity-reversal testing is based on the recommendation in the CIGRE JWG
12/14.10 paper (Lindroth [B21]). At the time of the initial drafting and subsequent revision of IEEE Std 1277,
the working group conclusion was that 90 minutes is needed to achieve a steady-state charge distribution prior
to the reversal taking place. The paper also supported using two reversals according to existing practice at the
time of publication. However, since the publication of the December 1994 paper, CIGRE has recognized the
need for further investigation of the performance and testing of HVDC converter transformers and in 2004
established CIGRE JWG A2/B4-28 HVDC Converter Transformers. The 90 min hold time is one of the
subjects under review. Reports were not published at the time of this revision.
b)
The 2 min reversal stated in this standard comes from test laboratory limitations. It is impossible in a test lab,
with the dc HV rectifiers currently available, to change the polarity faster than 1 minute. Before changing the
polarity one has to slowly decrease the voltage, earth the rectifier, change the polarity and then, go up to the
required test voltage by slowing raising the ac supply of the HV rectifier. Note that the change of polarity of
the HV rectifiers is a mechanical reversal of the diodes built-in to the rectifier and this takes time. Time is also
required for decreasing and increasing the generator field or for moving the ac voltage regulator supplying the
HV dc rectifier.
c)
Fast polarity reversals normally occur during a system fault. This is required to remove the trapped energy in
the line and is achieved by putting both converters into inverter mode to drain the energy from the dc line.
This mode of operation is of very short duration, and it is more equivalent (from the smoothing reactor
insulation point of view) to a switching surge of 2.0 pu and not to a long-term dc voltage polarity reversal. The
compatibility of the oil insulated turns to withstand the stresses during a fast polarity reversal is validated by
the ac applied test.
d)
Normally, longer duration polarity reversals (e.g., power flow reversal) are not as fast as the situation
described above. In practical terms one cannot export hundreds of megawatts and suddenly, within few
hundred milliseconds (even if technically possible for the dc converter), import hundreds of megawatts. The
exception is islanded systems due to the loss of local generation. With this exception, the polarity reversal is
generally quite slow, and it is of the order of magnitude used during type and routine polarity-reversal tests
(e.g., 2 min) as defined in this standard.
e)
Therefore, no changes were made to the polarity-reversal time specified in the previous versions of
IEEE Std 1277, due to actual in-service system requirements and test equipment limitations.
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acApplied =
1.5 EdcSystem
(4)
The frequency of the power supply shall be between power frequency (60 Hz or 50 Hz) and 1000 Hz. The
test voltage shall be at 2 times the maximum specified continuous harmonic voltage drop. The duration of
the test shall be 5 min. The Q-factor or losses at test supply frequency will be measured at the beginning of
the dielectric test sequence and these values will be compared to those measured during the ac power test.
NOTE 2As an alternative the ac power test can be carried out at 1.8 times the maximum specified continuous
harmonic voltage drop for 30 min.
12.1 General
This clause prescribes methods for performing the tests specified in Clause 8. Although the figures of this
standard show conventional meters, adequate digital readout measuring devices and digital sampling
techniques with computer calculations are considered as satisfactory alternatives and may actually be
preferred as mentioned in various places in the standard.
b)
c)
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The winding has been under insulating liquid with no excitation and with no current in the winding
for a time of 3 h to 8 h (depending on the size of the smoothing reactor) before the cold resistance
is measured.
b)
The temperature of the insulating liquid has stabilized, and the difference between the top and
bottom temperatures does not exceed 5 C.
R s = Rm
Ts + Tk
Tm + Tk
(5)
where
Rs
Rm
Ts
Tm
Tk
NOTEThe value of Tk may be as high as 230 for alloyed aluminum. In general, for any other type of conductor
material the appropriate constant of Tk shall be used. In such cases, the manufacturer shall demonstrate by test or
calculations, the validity of the constant Tk.
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The measuring instruments shall have such ranges as will give reasonably large deflection.
b)
For all iron-core oil-immersed smoothing reactors, the polarity of the core magnetization shall be
kept constant during all resistance readings.
NOTEA reversal in magnetization of the core can change the time constant and result in erroneous readings.
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The resistance should be large compared to the inductance of the winding. It will then be necessary to
increase the source voltage to compensate for the voltage drop in the series resistor.
12.2.3.5 Readings and values of current
Readings shall be taken with not less than four values of current. The average of the resistances calculated
from these measurements shall be considered to be the resistance of the winding.
The current used shall not exceed 15% of the rated current of the winding whose resistance is to be
measured. Larger values may cause inaccuracy by heating the winding and thereby changing its
temperature and resistance.
di
= Ri
dt
(6)
where R is the resistance of the discharge circuit (reactor, connecting leads, and measurement shunt).
The circuit resistance shall be kept as low as possible and should be measured before and after the test in
order to take into account the effect of temperature rise on the discharge circuit components. The mean
value of the resistance measured before and after the test shall be used as the circuit-resistance value. The
slope of the current curve at every point represents the inverse value of the incremental inductance.
The incremental inductance at dc currents close to zero may be determined accurately with ac excitation at
relatively low voltage.
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I
Pr = r Ps
Im
(7a)
where
is losses at rated current
is rated current
is current in the reactor when losses were measured
is losses at reference temperature, Ts, and measured current, Im
Pr
Ir
Im
Ps
The total (dc + harmonic current) losses are calculated as shown in Equation (7b):
PLLT = Pdc + Ph
(7b)
where
PLLT
Ph
Pdc
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Z h = Rh + X h
(8)
where
Zh
Rh
Xh
If a wattmeter is used to determine losses, then impedance can be calculated by measuring simultaneous
current and voltage and dividing the voltage by the current.
Resistance and reactance components of the impedance voltage are determined by Equation (9) and
Equation (10):
Er =
Pa
I
(E
Ex =
(9)
2
Z
Er
(10)
where
Er
Pa
I
Ex
Ez
a)
b)
c)
d)
Core losses
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The total harmonic losses are the sum of the losses as described in items b) to d). The individual harmonic
loss components described in items b) to d) cannot be separated by measurement. Therefore, a value for the
core losses provided by the manufacturer should be used in the loss calculations for oil-immersed
smoothing reactors as presented in 12.3.8.
2
NOTEFor a typical oil-immersed smoothing reactor, the Idc Rdc losses represent approximately 95% of the total
losses, while the harmonic losses (including the core losses, which account for about 50% of the harmonic losses)
represent the remainder. Therefore, any resultant inaccuracy, due to using a core-loss figure that is not based on
measurement, is low. For instance, an error of 20% in calculating core losses results only in an error of 0.5% for the
total losses.
Pr =Prm
Tk +
Tk +
(11a)
Tk +
Tk +
(11b)
PS = Psm
where
Tk
Pr and Ps are the resistance and stray losses, respectively, at the specified temperature C, and Prm and Psm
are the measured resistance and stray losses at temperature ' C.
12.3.8 Loss calculations for oil-immersed smoothing reactors
The procedure for determining losses of an oil-immersed smoothing reactor is as follows:
a)
b)
Calculate Idc R loss (Pdc) using rated dc current and correct loss value to the standard reference
temperature of 85 C by using Equation (11a).
c)
Measure harmonic losses for each specified harmonic current. Calculate the associated Ih Rdc loss
and stray losses. This measurement shall be carried out at zero dc current; harmonic current only.
The value for the core loss provided by the manufacturer shall be deducted from this measurement.
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Correct the measured losses to the standard reference temperature of 85 C by using Equation (11a)
and Equation (11b).
d)
Correct the measured harmonic losses at each harmonic frequency for the specified harmonic
current amplitude (Ih) by using Equation (7).
e)
PLLT = Pdc + Ph
(12)
where
PLLT
Ph
2
I test = I dc
RDC + Phtot /RDC
(13)
where
Itest
Idc
Phtot
Rdc
is dc test current
is rated dc current
is sum of harmonic current losses (resistive plus eddy) corrected to the reference temperature
is winding dc resistance corrected to reference temperature
If laboratory power is not sufficient or power control adjustment is not fine enough to carry out a test at full
current, testing at a current level down to 90% of Itest is permissible. The measured temperature rise shall be
corrected using Equation (17).
12.4.2 Temperature-rise testGeneral (common) test procedures
12.4.2.1 Assembly for test
Reactors shall be completely assembled. For dry-type air-core smoothing reactors, the temperature-rise test
need not be performed on the contract support structure (see 12.4.4.8).
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NOTE 1See Clause 11 of IEEE Std C57.12.90-2006 for additional background information on temperature-rise test
conditions and methodology.
NOTE 2Since core losses do not contribute to winding temperature rise, they may be deducted from the total
harmonic losses (Phtot) in Equation (13).
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heating up period. This will reduce the risk of having to repeat the temperature-rise test if it is terminated
too soon as determined by a measurement of the cooling down thermal time constant.
12.4.4.5 Correction for ambient air temperature
When the ambient air temperature is other than 30 C, a correction shall be applied to the temperature rise
of the winding by multiplying it by the correction factor, C, which is given by the ratio shown in
Equation (14):
C=
Tk + 30 o C
Tk + Ta
(14)
where
Tk
Ta
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Another important criterion is to verify that the measuring device or the bonding system does not impede or
influence the flow of cooling air.
A hot-spot measurement should be made for each encapsulated winding group in the reactor under test.
Hottest-spot location and hence measurement-point location is typically in the last turns of the upper
winding end. Exact location, and hence the temperature measuring device placement decision, should be
based on the manufacturers detailed knowledge of the product.
Hottest-spot temperature rise should not exceed the limits specified in Table 3, taking into consideration the
insulation temperature class.
12.4.4.8 Ventilation clearance
It is not necessary to perform the temperature-rise test on the contract support structure since, due to the
heights involved, assembly of the smoothing reactor on the full structure for performing the temperaturerise (heat run) test could be extremely difficult and costly. However, a minimum air clearance is required
below the dry-type air-core smoothing reactor to obtain realistic temperature-rise test results. A good rule
of thumb is to provide a clearance to ground equal to at least 1.5 times the total build or section of the
winding, conductor and cooling ducts. Inadequate ventilation clearance below the smoothing reactor could
result in the inner winding groups operating at a higher temperature versus the outer winding groups.
Adequate ventilation clearance above the dry-type air-core smoothing reactor is very important to avoid
air stagnation effects. This is especially critical if the contract structure is employed, including possibly
insulators of extended creepage, and the top of the smoothing reactor is in close proximity to the roof of the
test laboratory. A good indication of inadequate ventilation clearance above the smoothing reactor is if
ambient temperature measurements taken at heights in the lab above the maximum height of the assembled
smoothing reactor are substantially hotter than those taken at the mid-plane of the reactor winding per
standard temperature-rise test procedure. A final consideration, due to the very large dimension of a fully
assembled dry-type air-core smoothing reactor is to perform the temperature-rise test at a suitable location
outdoors. A final criterion if an alternative support structure is employed is that it shall be equal to or less
than the height of the contract support structure.
12.4.5 Temperature correction back to shutdown
12.4.5.1 Correction back to shutdown, cooling curve method
The resistance at time of shutdown is to be determined as follows.
12.4.5.2 Readings
Take a series of at least four, preferably more, resistance readings on the winding, and record the time after
shutdown for each reading.
The readings should be time-spaced to achieve accurate extrapolation back to shutdown.
12.4.5.3 Reading time
The overall reading time should exceed 4 min and may extend considerably beyond. If the thermal time
constant measurement is required, the dc resistance readings may be extended for a sufficient time. This
method is an alternative if an overload is applied during the beginning of the heat run test.
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R
(Tk + o ) Tk
Ro
(15)
R Ro
(Tk + o ) + o
Ro
(16)
where
R
Ro
Tk
o
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resistance method when steady-state conditions have been reached, and corrected to full thermal equivalent
current, by the formula shown in Equation (17):
n = ( I test / I reduced ) 2
(17)
where
n
Itest
Ireduced
The use of an exponent of 2 is conservative and worst case. If the manufacturer wishes to use another
exponent (1.8 and 1.6 are typical), a second heat run at 80% of the test current should be performed in order
to determine the specific exponent of the tested reactor.
12.4.8 Correction of observed temperature rise for variation in altitude
12.4.8.1 Altitudes less than 1000 m
When tests are made at an altitude not exceeding 1000 m above sea level, no altitude correction shall be
applied to the temperature rise.
12.4.8.2 Smoothing reactors installed at altitudes exceeding 1000 m
When a smoothing reactor that is tested at an altitude less than 1000 m is to be operated at an altitude in
excess of 1000 m, it shall be assumed that the observed temperature rise in service will increase in
accordance with the following relation.
Increase in temperature rise, in degrees C, at altitude A in meters is equal to:
Observed rise
1 F
Ao
(18)
where
A0
F
is 1000 m
is an empirical factor, as follows:
Method of cooling
Empirical factor, F
0.04
Dry-type, self-cooled
0.05
0.06
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a)
Top-oil temperature rise, or average-oil temperature rise, and winding-temperature rise over the
ambient temperature for oil-immersed smoothing reactors
b)
Winding-temperature rise over the ambient temperature for dry-type smoothing reactors
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Depending on system requirements, the test voltage level at one terminal may differ from that of the
opposite terminal.
For guide information on impulse testing techniques, interpretation of oscillograms, and failure detection
criteria, see IEEE Std C57.98-1993.
12.5.3.1 General
12.5.3.1.1 Oil temperature
Lightning impulse tests may be performed at oil temperatures assumed under normal operation or at the
temperatures attained under the conditions of routine tests.
12.5.3.1.2 Full-wave test
The test wave rises to crest in 1.2 s and decays to half of its value in 50 s from the virtual time zero. The
crest value shall be in accordance with the assigned BIL, subject to a tolerance of 3%, and no flashover of
the bushing or test gap shall occur. The tolerance on time to crest should normally be 30% and the
tolerance on time to half of crest shall normally be 20%. However, as a practical matter, the impedance of
some windings may be so low that the desired time to the 50% voltage point on the tail of the wave cannot
be obtained with available equipment. In such cases, shorter waves may be used. Several alternatives can
be used to improve the time to the 50% voltage point (e.g., use of parallel stages in the impulse generator).
The time to the 50% voltage point on the tail of the wave is basically a function of the available energy
from the impulse generator. Therefore, in cases where it is not possible to achieve the 50 s tail and to
verify that an adequate test is obtained, the available energy of the generator, with the connection used,
shall be as high as possibleif attainable, a minimum available energy during actual test of 50 kJ is highly
recommended.
For convenience in measurement, the time to crest may be considered as 1.67 times the actual times
between points on the front of the wave at 30% and 90% of the crest value. The virtual time zero can be
determined by locating points on the front of the wave at which the voltage is, respectively, 30% and 90%
of the crest value and then drawing a straight line through these points. The intersection of this line with the
time axis (zero-voltage line) is the virtual time zero.
When there are oscillations on the front of the waves, the 30% and 90% points shall be determined from the
average, smooth wave front sketched in through the oscillations. The magnitude of the oscillations
preferably should not exceed 10% of the applied voltage.
When there are high-frequency oscillations on the crest of the wave, the crest value shall be determined
from a smooth wave sketched through the oscillations. When the period of these oscillations is 2 s or
more, the actual crest value shall be used.
12.5.3.1.3 Reduced full-wave test
This wave is the same as a full wave except that the crest value shall be between 50% and 70% of the fullwave value. Several reduced full-wave tests may be applied during the test sequence if needed.
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Digital data acquisition systems: Digital test systems provide the opportunity for various test
analysis methodologies, e.g., transfer function.
b)
Voltage oscillograms: Any unexplained differences between the reduced full wave and final full
wave detected by comparison of the two voltage digital test records, or any such differences
observed by comparing the chopped waves to each other and to the full wave up to the time of
chopping, are indications of failure.
c)
Failure of gap to sparkover: In making the chopped-wave test, failure of the chopping gap, or any
external part to sparkover, even though the voltage digital test record shows a chopped wave, is a
definite indication of a failure within the smoothing reactor.
d)
Noise: Unusual noise within the smoothing reactor at the instant of applying the impulse is an
indication of failure. Such noise should be investigated.
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performed within 2 min. The completion of the reversal is defined as the time when the voltage has reached
its 100% test value. After being held at the positive polarity value for another 90 min, the voltage is
reversed once again to the same level at negative polarity and maintained for 45 min. This reversal should
also be performed as quickly as possible and shall be accomplished within 2 min. When the entire polarityreversal sequence is completed, the voltage shall be returned to zero within 1 min.
CAUTION
Although the voltage levels are lower for the polarity-reversal test than the dc applied voltage test,
substantial electrical charge can remain on the insulation structure within the reactor. For safety reasons, all
bushings should be grounded after the polarity-reversal test for a period of time. Subsequent partial
discharge measurements may also be affected unless the insulation structure is adequately discharged.
12.5.5.3 Acceptance criteria
Failure may be indicated by an audible sound such as a thump, a sudden increase in test current, or the
inability of the power supply to maintain a dc voltage. Oil-immersed smoothing reactors may also
experience the presence of smoke and bubbles rising in the oil.
Partial discharge measurements shall be performed throughout the entire polarity reversal. Partial discharge
levels shall be monitored and documented for the full duration of the polarity-reversal test, reversal
duration, and for the final 15 min of the final 45 min reversal duration. In terms of interpreting the partial
discharge measurements, the results shall be considered acceptable when during the last 30 min period
following each reversal no more than 30 partial discharge pulses > 2000 pC are noted, with no more than
10 pulses > 2000 pC occurring in the last 10 min period of each measuring window. Because some
discharge activity is normal during polarity reversals, partial discharge measurements made during the first
minute after completion of the last polarity reversal shall be disregarded.
When no breakdown occurs, and unless a very high number of partial discharge pulses exceeding 2000 pC
are detected and sustained for a long time, the test is considered nondestructive. A failure to meet the
partial discharge criteria shall, therefore, not warrant immediate rejection of the reactor but lead to
consultation between the purchaser and manufacturer about further investigation.
It is recommended to conduct the polarity-reversal test with ultrasonic transducers installed on the
smoothing reactor tank. These transducers may help to distinguish if the partial discharge pulses are from
internal or external sources.
12.5.6 AC applied voltage test and ac power test for oil-immersed smoothing reactors
12.5.6.1 AC applied voltage test to ground with partial discharge detection for oilimmersed smoothing reactors
12.5.6.1.1 Duration, frequency, and connections
A normal power frequency such as 60 Hz shall be used and the duration of the test shall be 60 min.
The winding being tested shall have all its parts joined together and connected to the line terminal of the
testing transformer. All other parts (including core, if used, and tank) shall be connected to ground and to
the other terminal of the testing transformer.
Equipment and techniques used for measurement of partial discharge shall be as defined in 12.5.7.1.
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(19)
where
Ih
Zh
h
NOTEDue to laboratory limitations EAC may not be attainable. In this case, the test value is to be agreed upon by the
purchaser and the manufacturer, and consideration should be given to increasing the duration of the test as a
compensating factor. A suggested rule of thumb is that test duration should be doubled for each 10% reduction in
available test voltage versus the calculated required test voltage per Equation (19).
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Three full impulse tests at positive and negative polarity on both terminals
It should be noted that a further verification of the successful completion of dielectric tests is achieved by
performing the 1 h ac power test following the dielectric test sequence.
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Impulse-design tests primarily focus on suitability of design for in-service conditions. In the case of
impulse-design tests on dry-type air-core smoothing reactors, the following rationale should be taken into
consideration. Smoothing reactors are considered to be strategic equipment in an HVDC substation and it is
important that the confidence level obtained during impulse-design tests is consistent with the type of
insulation system being used. For the windings of dry-type air-core smoothing reactors, two types of
insulation systems are mixed (employed): internal insulation (conductor insulation system) and external
insulation (air). If an external insulation system design of sufficient safety factor is employed, the inherent
probabilistic withstand capability of the external air portion of the winding insulation system will not be a
significant factor. Therefore, the issue of whether this portion of a dry-type air-core smoothing reactor
insulation system is self restoring in nature is secondary. It should also be noted that specified dielectric
design objectives and test levels, coupled with insulation coordination margins, address the issue of inservice factors, which may affect dielectric withstand.
Therefore, the recommended design impulse test procedure is consistent with dielectric test practice in
other dry-type reactor standards and, in fact, in standards for power transformers. Procedure C in
IEEE Std 4-1995 provides the basis for the test rationale. The lightning impulse-design test consists of three
full waves of positive and negative polarity to each terminaleach set of three full waves is preceded by a
reduced wave of corresponding polarity.
If an optional chopped-wave test is specified, the test sequence for each terminal is as follows:
Two full waves of negative polarity (the first one preferably within 10 min after the last choppedwave test)
The requirements of the test are met if there are no disruptive discharges across the self-restoring part of the
insulation system and if there are no indications of failure in the non-self-restoring part of the insulation
system. If a flashover occurs, then 9 impulses of that polarity are applied; no additional flashovers are
allowed. It shall also be demonstrated that the flashover did not damage the winding.
An optional procedure for the impulse-design test is proposed to be consistent with other substation
equipment employing mixed insulation systems (bushings, instrument transformers, circuit breakers, etc.).
The objective is for the number of impulses applied to each terminal to be statistically significant.
Procedure B in IEEE Std 4-1995 provides guidance.
Therefore, the lightning impulse-design test should consist of one reduced wave of positive polarity and 15
full waves of positive polarity applied to each terminal.
If a chopped wave or other impulse test is required, the test sequence for each terminal should consist of the
following:
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NOTEChopped-wave tests are specified with negative polarity because of the behavior of the chopping gap, which is
more consistent when using negative polarity. It is allowable to perform all tests, including chopped-wave tests, with
positive polarity if the behavior of the chopping device permits the performance of positive polarity tests with
consistency.
The requirements of the test are met if there are no more than two disruptive discharges on the selfrestoring insulation and if there are no indications of failure of the non-self-restoring insulation.
12.6.3.2 Test procedure
Lightning impulse tests are required as routine and design tests for dry-type smoothing reactors.
The tests shall be applied to each terminal, one at a time, while the opposite terminal shall be grounded
through a low-resistance shunt so that ground-current measurements can be made.
Depending on system requirements, the test voltage level at one terminal may differ from that of the
opposite terminal.
The tests shall consist of, and be applied, in the order specified for routine or type tests in 12.6.3.1.
When an optional chopped-wave test is specified, the test sequence is as described in 12.6.3.1.
At least one reduced full wave shall be applied first, other reduced full waves may be applied at any time
during the test sequence, as deemed necessary.
If multiple coils are used to comprise one smoothing reactor, then based on a demonstration of the voltage
sharing under voltage surge conditions, impulse tests can be carried out on separate coils at an appropriate
test voltage level, to be agreed upon by the purchaser and manufacturer.
It is very critical to limit the amount of overshoot on the impulse test. Refer to IEEE Std C57.98-1993 for
guidance and information on impulse-testing techniques, interpretation of recorded wave shapes, and
failure detection criteria.
12.6.3.3 Full-wave test
The wave shape shall be the standard 1.2/50 s and the crest value shall be in accordance with the specified
test level subject to a tolerance of 3%. The tolerance on time to crest shall be 30% and the tolerance on
time to half of peak value shall be 20%.
In case the minimum allowable time from zero to half of peak value cannot be obtained (40 s), the
minimum available energy from the impulse generator during the actual test shall be 50 kJ. On this basis,
shorter wave shapes are thus acceptable.
12.6.3.4 Wave polarity
For dry-type smoothing reactors tested according to Procedure C of IEEE Std 4-1995, the test waves shall
be of both positive polarity and negative polarity, unless otherwise specified. If tested according to the
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alternative Procedure B of IEEE Std 4-1995, the polarity of full impulse waves shall be as described in
12.6.3.1.
12.6.3.5 Impulse digital test record
All impulses applied to a reactor shall be recorded by a suitable digital transient recorder, unless their crest
value is less than 40% of the full-wave level. These digital test records shall include voltage records for all
impulses and ground-current test records for all full-wave and reduced full-wave impulses. (See 11.3.8 of
IEEE Std C57.16-1996 for additional information.)
12.6.4 Switching impulse tests
12.6.4.1 Test procedures
Switching impulse tests are required as a design test for dry-type smoothing reactors. Functionally, the
switching impulse test can be applied both across the winding and to ground. However, for a switching
impulse test applied across the winding of a dry-type smoothing reactor, it is technically impossible for any
test laboratory in existence today to obtain the required wave shape parameters (250/2500 s). As an
example, in the case of a 200 kJ impulse generator used to test smoothing reactors of 200 mH and 1000 mH
(which covers the typical range of inductance rating for smoothing reactors), the best achievable wave tails
are 150 s and 400 s, respectively. Another consideration is that BIL levels are at least 10% higher than
switching impulse levels. For these reasons, the switching impulse across the winding of a smoothing
reactor is classified as other. The number of impulses should be as for the recommended impulse-design
test.
Alternatively, a capacitor discharge test may be performed using either the capacitor banks of a synthetic
test circuit for carrying out tests on circuit breakers or by reconfiguring a standard impulse generator (using
the capacitors without the use of front and tail resistors). For both cases, caution should be paid to the initial
overshoot, which may theoretically reach up to two times the required peak voltage. Additional equipment
such as surge arrester or front capacitor may be needed to limit the amplitude of this overshoot.
For the switching impulse type test to ground, there is no difficulty in obtaining the required wave shape. In
the case of dry-type smoothing reactors, the major insulation to ground is provided by the support
insulators. Therefore, this test is essentially a test of the support insulators. Since the insulators constitute a
self-restoring insulation system, the test should be consistent with Procedure B in IEEE Std 4-1995, and the
test should consist of 15 impulses of positive polarity. Two flashovers are allowed. In the case of smoothing
reactors intended for outdoor applications, the test shall be made under wet conditions as specified in
IEEE Std 4-1995. If the test equipment cannot provide full wet conditions for all insulators simultaneously,
the specified parameters for wet testing shall be met at least for one insulator column of the support
structure. Provisions shall be made to provide adequate wetting of the reactor coil surface located just
above the tested insulator column since the reactor surface will act as a water collector and will influence
the water quantity/flow on the tested insulator as it will be in-service.
12.6.4.2 Wave polarity
For dry-type smoothing reactors the test waves shall be of positive polarity, unless otherwise specified.
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NOTE 1The RIV test can be performed (and has been performed for a number of projects) using the contract support
structure and a suitable mock-up of important aspects of the reactor geometry. Performing this test in this manner is a
matter for agreement between purchaser and manufacturer.
NOTE 2An RIV test with dc voltage is possible in principle but associated test equipment has not always been
readily available. Also, the measuring methodology using dc voltage has not been standardized.
(20)
where
Ih
Zh
h
NOTEDue to laboratory limitations EAC may not be attainable. In this case, the test value is to be agreed upon by the
purchaser and the manufacturer and consideration should be given to increasing the duration of the test as a
compensating factor. A suggested rule of thumb is that test duration should be doubled for each 10% reduction in
available test voltage versus the calculated required test voltage per Equation (20).
For failure detection, the winding of the reactor shall be carefully observed for unusual noise, sparking, or
smoke.
The primary method of determining if a failure has occurred is to compare Q factor or harmonic losses after
the ac power test to those measured during or prior to the dielectric tests.
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Sound-pressure level (Lp), in decibels (dB), is 20 times the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of
the measured sound pressure to a reference pressure of 20 106 Pa.
b)
Ambient sound-pressure level is the sound-pressure level measured in the test facility without the
reactor energized.
c)
Measurement surface area (S) is a hypothetical surface enveloping the sound source (reactor) and
on which the measurements are taken.
d)
Sound-power level (LW), in decibels, is 10 times the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the
emitted sound power to a reference power of 1012 W. It is derived from the measured soundpressure level and the measurement surface area.
e)
Semi-reverberant facility is a room with a solid floor and an undetermined amount of soundabsorbing materials on the walls and ceiling.
12.7.3 Instrumentation
Sound-pressure level measurements shall be made with instrumentation that meets the requirements of
ANSI S1.4-1983 for type 2 meters.
A suitable wind screen on the microphone shall be used when the air velocity due to winds causes the
readings to be in error.
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Sound-measuring instrumentation shall be calibrated before and after each measurement session. Should
the calibration change by more than 2 dB, the measurements shall be declared invalid. Further, it should be
demonstrated prior to the measurement that the magnetic field of the reactor does not affect the reading of
the sound level meter by more than 1 dB.
12.7.4 Test conditions
The reactor shall be completely assembled and the installed mounting configuration of the reactor should be
utilized as much as practicable including all integral corona shields. Note that in the case of HVDC SMRs
the support structure is usually very high due to system voltage and creepage requirements, and thus the use
of the complete installed structure may not be feasible (including safety reasons) or even required for the
accurate measurement of sound level.
Measurements should be made in an environment having an ambient sound-pressure level at least 5 dB
below the combined sound-pressure level (reactor plus ambient). When the ambient sound-pressure level is
5 dB or more below the combined level of reactor and ambient, the corrections shown in Table 4 shall be
applied to the combined sound-pressure level to obtain the reactor sound-pressure level. When the difference
between the reactor sound-pressure level and the ambient sound-pressure level is less than 5 dB, and it is
only desired to know the sound-pressure level that the reactor does not exceed, a correction of 1.6 dB may
be used.
Table 4 Correction for ambient sound
Difference between average
sound level of combined smoothing
reactor and ambient and average
sound level of ambient
(dB)
1.6
1.3
1.0
0.8
0.6
10
0.4
Over 10
0.0
If the reactor is tested within a semi-reverberant facility (as is usually encountered when testing indoors),
an environmental correction may be applied for undesired sound reflections from the room boundaries and
other reflecting objects to compensate for the increase of the measured sound level. The environmental
correction factor shall be determined in accordance with 11.1.2 of IEC 60076-10:2001 [B10]. To keep the
correction as small as possible the reactor shall be located so that no acoustically reflecting surface is
within 3 m of the measuring microphone.
12.7.5 Energization
Since the sound level of an HVDC smoothing reactor is determined by the interaction of dc with ac, it is
necessary to perform sound level measurements on smoothing reactors with dc and harmonic currents
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superimposed. Unless otherwise specified, it is recommended to consider only the main harmonic out of the
harmonic current spectrum of the ripple current.
A bridge circuit as shown in Figure 6 may be used for sound level testing. This circuit requires two
identical reactors that are acoustically isolated from each other. The ac source may be a semiconductor
power converter with variable frequency. To achieve maximum harmonic current through the reactors, the
capacitors, C, are tuned for resonance at the harmonic frequency.
If rated current values cannot be achieved, due to limitations of the test laboratory power supplies, it is
possible to use calculations to extrapolate measured values of sound level; provided measured values of
sound level are at least 5 dB above ambient level. The manufacturer shall demonstrate to the purchasers
satisfaction that reduced current testing produces sufficiently accurate results when extrapolated to the rated
current level.
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For smoothing reactors with a winding less than 2.4 m tall, microphone locations shall be at mid-height of
the winding. For smoothing reactors greater than 2.4 m tall, microphone locations shall be at one-third and
two-thirds of the winding height. In plan view, the microphone locations shall be laid out clockwise,
sequentially at intervals of less than or equal to 1 m along the circumference of a circle having its center at
the geometric center of the reactor, and a radius equal to the reactor radius plus 3 m. The first station will
be on a radial line through the bottom terminal, or as close to it in the clockwise direction as is permitted to
comply with safety requirements and minimum clearance distances to live parts.
Continuous measurement by a walk around test with an integrating sound level meter is an alternative
test method. The measurement contour as described in the preceding paragraphs is to be employed when
using the capabilities of an integrating sound level meter. It is important that the contour be traversed at a
near constant speed (uniform walking speed). Experience has shown that results obtained using the walk
around audible sound measurement methodology are in agreement with those obtained using the discrete
microphone position methodology.
12.7.7 Sound level measurement
Sound-pressure levels shall be measured in conformance with 12.7.1, 12.7.3, 12.7.4, 12.7.5, and 12.7.6
using the sound level meter A-weighting characteristic.
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The equivalent power frequency power rating of smoothing reactors utilized on most large HVDC projects
is such that commercial test laboratories may not be able to test the smoothing reactor at full rated shortcircuit power. At the time of the writing of this standard, Annex D contains background information on
typical laboratory short-circuit capability and information required in an analytical verification of shortcircuit capability.
Therefore, due to limitations of test laboratories, the normal method of short-circuit withstand verification
is by calculation.
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Some of the issues that may be encountered with building codes, and contrasts to the approach taken in
IEEE Std 693-2005, are as follows:
a)
The objective of building codes is typically to protect the public by averting structural collapse.
IEEE Std 693-2005 has a functionality aspect considered whereby, in addition to the structural
aspects, equipment is expected to be operational during and after an event.
b) In general, the nomenclature and definitions developed for building type of construction are not
directly attributable to substation equipment (e.g., soft story, elevation irregularity). As a result, the
application of a building code can be subject to considerable interpretation and may involve very
fundamental parameters. Since IEEE Std 693-2005 is specifically written for substation engineering,
it is succinct and is less susceptible to variances in interpretation.
c)
There is a tendency for building codes, especially with regard to dynamic analysis, to emphasis the
expected low natural frequency response (typically <1 Hz) of buildings. This tendency frequently
manifests itself in period calculations and in the shape of the spectrums. In contrast, the spectrums
developed by IEEE Std 693-2005 envelope the response expected by most substation equipment
(generally >1 Hz).
d) The seismic criteria in building codes often reflect the damping levels expected from general
construction methods (typically about 5%). In comparison, the damping expected from substation
equipment can be significantly lower, and this is reflected in the general 2% assumption of
IEEE Std 693-2005 (refer to 6.9).
e)
Building codes tend to address the materials that are prevalent in general construction. Typically,
little or no guidance is given for materials that are ubiquitous in substation design (e.g., porcelain,
fiberglass, cast aluminum). In contrast, IEEE Std 693-2005 specifically addresses the materials used
in substation equipment.
Building codes are useful for providing insight into the expected level seismicity of a geographic location
(users are always cautioned that the probabilities of exceedance should always be understood). Subclause
8.6 in IEEE Std 693-2005 suggests methods of utilizing this type of information with regards to selecting
an IEEE 693 qualification level.
It is noted that some building codes recognize the unique nature of substation equipment and guide users
accordingly.
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Rated current
Year of manufacture
Rated inductance
Measured inductance
Voltage (3)
Name of manufacturer
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The following information may be useful and is optional to be included on the nameplate:
The letters and numerals showing serial number and voltage ratings shall have a minimum height
of 4 mm whether engraved or stamped. The height of other letters and numerals shall be optional
with the manufacturer.
2.
Where the class of reactor involves more than one current rating, all ratings shall be shown.
3.
The voltage rating of a smoothing reactor shall be the dc system operating voltage to ground.
4.
For smoothing reactors, full-wave BIL in kV of line terminals shall be designated as follows:
Terminal to ground 825 BIL
Terminal to terminal 450 BIL
5.
6.
Liquid
Total mass
All winding terminations shall be identified on the nameplate or the connection diagram.
A schematic plan view shall be included. This should preferably indicate orientation by locating a
fixed accessory such as instruments, control cabinet, or other prominent items. All termination or
connection points shall be permanently marked to agree with the schematic identification.
Indications of voltage measuring devices, current transducers, winding temperature devices, etc.,
when used, shall be shown. Polarity and location identification of current transducers shall be
shown when used for metering or relaying. Polarity need not be shown when current transducers
are used for winding temperature equipment or cooling control.
Where development of windings is shown, the scallop symbol shall be used in accordance with
IEEE Std 315-1975 and IEEE Std 315a-1986.
7.
For oil-immersed smoothing reactors only. Provide the following tank, pressure, and liquid data.
a)
Maximum operating pressures of liquid preservation system ____ kPa (lbf/in ) positive
2
and ___ kPa (lbf/in ) negative.
2
Liquid level below top surface of highest point of the highest manhole flange at 25 C
___ mm (in). Liquid level changes ___ mm (in) per 10 C change in liquid temperature.
(This applies only to reactors that have a gas cushion above the liquid in the unit.)
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The volume of insulating liquid in m3 (gallons) and type shall be shown for the main tank and
for each liquid-filled compartment.
8.
It is suggested that when SI units are used, liters be used for volumes less than 1000 L and cubic
meters be used for volumes of 1000 L and larger.
Manufacturers name
Year of manufacture
Rated current
Rated inductance
Measured inductance
Temperature rise
Type of cooling
Total weight
Altitude
The following information may be useful and is optional to be included on the nameplate:
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Annex A
(informative)
Application of HVDC smoothing reactors
A.1 Background
To date, the vast majority of HVDC facilities employ 12-pulse, two-bridge, line commutated (sometimes
also referred to as naturally commutated) converters. At the sending end, the ac is converted by a rectifier
to dc, which is reconverted at the receiving end by a second converter (inverter) to ac. For several technical
reasons, which are briefly outlined in the following paragraphs, the intermediate dc circuit (dc overhead
line, dc submarine cable, or the connecting bus of a back-to-back dc link) of a line commutated power
converter system usually contains a smoothing reactor.
The components of converter stations may be categorized in five major subsystems. Progressing from the
ac to the dc side, these subsystems are: ac filters (to attenuate harmonic currents and to provide reactive
power), converter transformers, converter bridges, smoothing reactors, and dc filters. Figure A.1 illustrates,
by means of one-line diagrams, the basic elements of a converter station for monopolar and bipolar HVDC
transmission links as well as a back-to-back HVDC converter station.
The transmission capability of an HVDC link is defined by its rated dc system voltage and the continuous
dc current, which may typically be about 10% higher than the rated dc current of the link. In addition, it is a
general practice to require about 20% overcurrent capability above rated current for limited duration (1 h to
2 h). The smoothing reactor shall be designed to meet these loading requirements.
The inductance of the smoothing reactor of a dc line or cable is governed by system requirements such as
control and stability criteria, transient overvoltage, and overcurrent protection duty for the valves.
Smoothing reactors for dc links with overhead lines are an integral part of the dc filtering system, and as
such, one of the main objectives is to meet telephone interference (TIF) requirements. In the case of cable
links, the main objective of inserting a reactor is to provide a high impedance between the converter and the
capacitance of the cable, so as to limit the inrush current from the converter into the cable and to lower the
flow of harmonics. In either case, the inductance shall be chosen so that the reactor does not resonate with
the cable or line capacitance at the ac system frequency or at multiples thereof. Additionally, if there is a
power transmission system or a railway system nearby, then multiples of the transmission system frequency
or the railway system frequency shall not coincide with the resonant frequency of the smoothing reactor
inductance and cable capacitance.
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a)
b)
Converter transformer
c)
Converter bridge
d)
Smoothing reactor
e)
DC filter
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In summary, a smoothing reactor is connected in series with an HVDC transmission link or inserted in the
intermediate dc circuit of a back-to-back link, for the purpose of the following:
Reducing the ripple in the dc current and preventing the current from becoming discontinuous
during light loading.
Inhibiting commutation failure of the inverter by limiting the rate of rise of current during
commutation in one bridge (the transfer of current from one valve to another in the same row, in
the bridge) and during collapse of voltage in another bridge.
Reducing, in conjunction with the dc filters, harmonics in the dc overhead lines to comply with TIF
requirements.
Providing a high impedance to the flow of harmonics in HVDC schemes utilizing a cable link.
Reducing the rate of rise of current when failures occur on the dc system.
Limiting the current from the capacitive discharge of terminal equipment and the transmission line
during bypass conditions in the inverter bridge.
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smoothing reactor, but without dc filter, connected to an overhead dc line. The overhead line ends at a dc
cable, which completes the circuit to the inverter. During normal operation at Udn, a flashover to ground
occurs at the cable terminal at the inverter end. This will result in a traveling wave, with amplitude Udn, in
the cable. When the wave reaches the overhead line, which has a much higher surge impedance, a reflection
determined by the open-ended line capacitance will occur. This results in a traveling wave with amplitude
of 2 Udn on the overhead line. The smoothing reactor at the rectifier end of the line has a much higher
impedance than the overhead line at the frequency of interest. Therefore, an additional reflection
determined by open ended line conditions occurs across the smoothing reactor and is of potential
magnitude of 4 Udn. However, the arresters will limit the amplitude and the resulting switching surge will
have an amplitude, Udn, plus the switching impulse protective level. The switching surge will also be
damped, so it will have a slower front than a lightning surge. A rectifier or an inverter can reverse voltage
quickly during disturbances such as commutation failures and faults. Consequently, there is the possibility
to inject a surge of two times the dc voltage of opposite polarity into the dc system, although it is very
seldom of the full potential amplitude. In addition, overshoots have to be considered. This preceding is the
background for the high switching impulse insulation level specified across a smoothing reactor.
A.2.3 Frequent operating conditions that define voltage stress across a smoothing reactor
Some of the more frequent operating conditions that define the transient voltage stress across a smoothing
reactor include the following:
During a ground fault at the rectifier, the voltage stress across the smoothing reactor will rapidly
rise to the prefault dc voltage, plus some overshoot. The rise time is on the order of 1.5 s. The
duration of the dc voltage component will be several milliseconds since the voltage is defined by
the rectifier operating mode, which follows a half sine wave to a voltage of opposite polarity to
inverter operation for the purpose of extinguishing the fault current. This results in a dc voltage
across the smoothing reactor of opposite polarity and of duration of about 10 ms until the dc
current is extinguished.
During an emergency stop, the rectifier is immediately forced to inverter operation. As the dc line
capacitance is charged to the prefault voltage, the voltage across the smoothing reactor will be
about twice the prefault dc voltage. The rise time is 5 ms to 7 ms and the duration is 10 ms to
15 ms.
During a commutation failure and the ensuing inverter blocking, the dc line or dc cable will be
discharged through the smoothing reactor. The voltage stress across the reactor will rise within a
few microseconds to the prefault dc voltage. The voltage will then follow a sine wave to the
prefault dc voltage of the opposite polarity. The oscillation frequency may be as low as 10 Hz in
schemes with a long dc cable.
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transients and it is recommended that a chopped-wave test be specified as a routine test for such smoothing
reactors.
Light
Medium
Heavy
Extra heavy
Typical environments
Mountainous areas.
Areas that are not exposed to sea winds or located near the sea.
Areas with industries not producing highly polluting smoke and/or average
density of emission producing residential heating systems.
Areas with high industrial and/or residential density, but subject to frequent
winds and/or precipitation.
Areas with high industrial density and large city suburbs with a high density
of emission producing residential heating systems.
Small coastal areas exposed to very strong and polluting sea winds.
The steady-state operating voltage across HVDC smoothing reactors is quite low (the voltage drop due to
ripple current is typically on the order of 10 kV to 40 kV). However, the full system dc potential is seen
across the bushings of oil-immersed reactors and the support insulators of air-core reactors. Therefore,
where pollution levels are significant, appropriate creepage requirements for bushings and insulators should
be determined.
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Insulators, bushings, and conducting and insulating surfaces on equipment at high dc potential (including
the outer surface of air-core smoothing reactors) tend to act as electrostatic precipitators by attracting
charged or polarizable particles.
Special coatings can be used to mitigate the effects of pollution build-up and shields can be employed on
air-core reactors to reduce the rate and ultimate level of pollution deposition on the reactor surfaces.
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Annex B
(informative)
Construction and installation of dry-type air-core smoothing reactors for
HVDC application
B.1 General description
Dry-type air-core smoothing reactors, as the descriptor implies, employ a solid insulation system as
opposed to liquid-based insulation systems such as an oil-and-Kraft-paper system. The main feature of this
design approach is that the windings are at line potential, and the major insulation to ground is supplied by
the supporting insulators. Windings are normally groups of fully encapsulated concentric annuli separated
by vertical cooling ducts to provide cooling by natural convective air flow. The live encapsulated windings
are directly exposed to the environment, and thus, care shall be taken in selecting encapsulation materials
and coatings.
B.2 Transportation
The location of many HVDC projects has resulted in long and difficult transport for the equipment. The
transport of very large heavy power equipment is a particular challenge and dry-type air-core SMRs are not
an exception. Special braced crate designs with built-in inspection points and shock absorbing capability
have been developed to minimize stresses in critical components (insulation system, winding end
mechanical fixation, and tie systems) during transport. Special lifting systems have also been developed,
especially for large smoothing reactors. These include multipoint lifts using special shackles or beam
structures. The structural integrity of the SMR itself has been improved, based on experience.
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B.4 Safety
Since the major insulation to ground is provided by the support insulators, they are at live potential.
Typically, personnel clearance can be provided by either mounting the insulators on a grounded structure of
sufficient height, or more simply, by providing a fence around the area in which the smoothing reactor(s) is
located.
B.5 Installation
Smoothing reactors for HVDC application are classified as heavy electrical equipment. Dry-type air-core
smoothing reactors for HVDC application are typically 25 000 kg to 50 000 kg in weight. Consequently, it
is imperative that lifting instructions be followed explicitly. Due to the high weight, a 4-point lift is usually
the recommended method of lifting the unit into position. Therefore, dry-type air-core smoothing reactors
are designed to facilitate lifting and are usually supplied with lifting eyes to facilitate rapid installation and
replacement.
In general terms, verification at the site of the integrity of a newly delivered unit can be best achieved
through a detailed visual inspection per the manufacturers instructions. This could include checks for
damage to the crate, the unit itself, impact recorder readings if utilized, etc.
Since dry-type air-core smoothing reactors are cooled by natural air convection, and as a consequence of
their large power rating, there are a large number of cooling ducts. As part of the visual inspection that
should be carried out after installation, it is important to verify that nothing has become lodged in a cooling
duct that could either block air flow or create a dielectric problem.
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B.10 Connection
Most smoothing reactors for high-voltage dc application are high-current devices. Since most of the current
is dc, eddy current losses are not usually a concern. Therefore, the primary focus of the connection is to
provide a good high-current connection, and therefore, practices commensurate with such a connection
should be utilized. In addition, due to the high dc voltage potential, corona screening of the connections
should be considered.
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Annex C
(informative)
Short-circuit capability
C.1 Introduction
At the time of writing of this standard, and based on inputs from major test laboratories, indications are that
required (specified) short-circuit peak currents may not be achievable for high-inductance SMR.
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current through the reactor. Thereafter, S1 is re-opened and the power supply becomes disconnected at the
first or second zero of the current through S1.
The achievable peak current is the same as for a normal power frequency short-circuit test.
The time constant of the current decay depends on the resistance of the reactor and the external losses of
the current measuring shunt, the shorting bar and the shorting switch S2. Typically the time constant is in
the order of several hundreds of milliseconds.
Zs
L
RL
is source impedance
is reactance of the smoothing reactor
is resistance of the smoothing reactor
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Based on Table C.1, it can be seen that for large SMRs, the performance of an actual short-circuit test may
not be meaningful. Keep in mind that short-circuit forces (stresses) are proportional to current squared.
Table C.1Short-circuit test capabilities versus SMR short-circuit requirements
for typical HVDC project
SMR Inductance
(mH)
60
21.9
31.0
100
17.0
200
12.0
225
11.3
240
11.0
300
9.8
16.0
16.5
A test at 80% of rated short circuit only produces 64% of rated mechanical stresses. This would appear to
be a reasonable transition point for utilizing calculations versus performing a short-circuit test.
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Annex D
(informative)
In-service overloading of HVDC smoothing reactors
D.1 Introduction
The smoothing reactor loading conditions are quite different from those of an ac current limiting reactor
(see also 10.1). For an ac current limiting reactor, the load current is mainly a power frequency current
(60 Hz), normally cycling continuously from a few percentage points of its rated current to rated current or
beyond in case of overload conditions. The smoothing reactor current is mainly a dc current ( 95%)
superimposed on even harmonic order currents (2nd, 6th, 12th, 24th, etc) normally representing less than
5% of the dc current. The loading may be cycling as well but smoothing reactors are typically loaded close
to their maximum rated conditions for long periods of time. They may also be operated in long-term
planned or emergency overloads.
High-frequency currents and related magnetic flux introduce additional eddy losses in the conductors, in
the clamping structure of air-core smoothing reactors or in the core or magnetic circuit and associated
clamping devices of oil-immersed reactors.
The distribution of eddy losses in the winding of a smoothing reactor subjected to an harmonic content may
be more non-uniform than in an ac current limiting reactor due to the high-frequency components of the
eddy losses. Therefore, for smoothing reactors, the temperature gradient between the hot-spot temperature
rise and the winding average temperature rise may be higher and the location of the hot spot(s) may be in
different parts of the winding when compared to the location in ac current limiting reactors under normal ac
operating conditions.
The direct consequence of this fact is a failure to generate the hottest spot temperature by simulating the
converter operation with an equivalent dc current of increased magnitude for simulating the total harmonic
current losses. Such a current of increased magnitude will result in correct value of the average temperature
rise of the winding, but the hottest spot will have lower temperature than under operational conditions.
All necessary information to calculate harmonic losses shall be given to the smoothing reactor
manufacturer and should include the amplitude of all harmonic currents.
Planned overloads
b) Emergency overloads
c)
Failure of equipment (auxiliary cooling equipment of the unit, or the converter station)
All types of loading beyond nameplate can result in significant reduction of the insulation life, ultimately
leading to an increased risk of the smoothing reactors failure. Other harmful effects resulting from
overloading include the following.
For oil-immersed smoothing reactors:
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Mechanical stresses in the active part and construction (thermal expansion and reduced mechanical
strength)
Mechanical stresses (thermal expansion) in the winding and winding clamping systems (including
cooling duct spacers)
Aging of the primary insulation system is largely determined by the total hot spot temperature. In the case
of oil-immersed smoothing reactors using non-upgraded paper, a difference of 6C corresponds to a factor
of 2 regarding the insulation system life. In the case of dry-type smoothing reactors, a difference of
typically 8C to 10C corresponds to a factor of 2 regarding the insulation system life.
Accelerated ageing of the winding insulation system of a smoothing reactor is especially critical because
the hottest spot temperature may increase beyond the thermal limits of the insulation system used and,
combined with high electrical stress, will give rise to dielectric failure. Therefore, the user should address,
in the technical specification, the various possible loading conditions of the smoothing reactor, especially,
if planned overloading conditions such as an overload profile during low ambient temperature or limited
duration overload capability are required.
It is usual that the smoothing reactor is designed to have a power rating compatible with the overload
capacity of the whole converter station.
The overload specification shall contain the following data for each overload case if necessary:
Ambient temperature
Duration of overload
Preload (pu)
Permissible over-temperatures for oil (if oil-immersed), winding and hot spot
The data should be given in form of tables and/or diagrams as shown in Table D.1 and Figure D.1.
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Duration
1
2
3
4
5
6
Continuous
Continuous
2h
Continuous
2h
10 s
Overload
rating in pu
power
1.0
1.05
1.15
1.2
1.3
1.4
Redundant
cooling
(if applicable)
off
on
on
off
on
off
Ambient
temperature
(C)
40
40
40
0
0
40
IDC
(A)
Harmonic
spectrum no.
3600
3780
4140
4320
4680
5040
1
2
3
4
5
6
Overload in
p.u.
Overload curves
1,5
1,4
1,3
1,2
1,1
1
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
Temperature (C)
Without redundent cooling, continuous rating
With redundant cooling, continuous rating
With redundant cooling, 2 hours rating
10 seconds rating
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PDC ( pu ) + Pharmonics( pu )
PDC ( pu )
0.885 + 0.115
0.885
1.0
0.885
= 1.062
In the preceding example, the smoothing reactor winding is subjected to 106.2% overload in order to
produce the total losses corresponding to the operational losses of the smoothing reactor.
The same procedure applies to a heat run test on a dry-type smoothing reactor.
The smoothing reactor designer shall take the preceding parameters into account while designing the
winding. Any requirements for overload exceeding these limits shall be clearly specified by the
user/purchaser in the technical specification.
Short-duration overloads of less than 10 min do not normally need to be verified by an overload heat run
test.
When the overload rating is continuous (e.g., permanent overload rating below a certain ambient
temperature), the overload temperature-rise test should be performed with the same testing method as
described in 12.4 and it is normally performed immediately after the standardized heat run test for rated
conditions. The harmonic content shall be simulated in the same way. A different harmonic profile during
overload operation than during rated conditions is normally specified.
Otherwise, when the overload rating has a specific maximum duration limit, the test sequence should be
modified accordingly and agreed upon by user and manufacturer.
Unless otherwise specified, all cooling equipment, including redundancy (if provided), shall be in operation
during the overload heat run test.
It should be emphasized that during the overload test, the current carrying components will be subjected to
the increased temperature rise. The structural/fabricated parts may also experience an increased temperature
rise than normal depending of the amplitude of the dc harmonics superimposed to the dc test current
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produced by the dc power supply. It is highly recommended to measure the harmonic content prior to the
heat run test in order to determine if the smoothing reactor will be overloaded in excess of its rating.
Due to the fact that the harmonic currents at the overload test are low or not representative of service
conditions, such a test is not fully relevant regarding the hot spot phenomena result in both inside the
winding and in other structural parts of the smoothing reactor. The harmonics can also result in different
hot spot locations.
For oil-immersed smoothing reactors, thermocouples may also be installed within the tank for measuring
the metallic part temperatures not in contact with insulation material such as core clamps, tie plates or tie
rods, tank shields, etc., if applicable. Their number and locations should be agreed upon by the user and the
manufacturer. In addition, the hot spot, oil, and/or winding thermometers (if provided) shall be calibrated
before performing the overload test.
It can be problematic to perform, for example, a low temperature overload test in a normal ambient
temperature condition since the temperature rises will normally exceed the allowable limits applicable to
the standardized temperature-rise test. Such a deviation can be acceptable provided that the following
temperature limits are not exceeded during the overload tests.
For oil-immersed smoothing reactors, see Table D.2.
Table D.2Hot spot temperatures for oil-immersed smoothing reactors
Winding hot spot temperature (calculated by the manufacturers thermal model)
140C
Other hot spot temperatures in contact with insulating materials (estimated by the manufacturers
thermal model)
Other hot spot temperatures not in contact with insulating materials (verified by thermocouples)
140C
180C
Other hot spot temperatures in contact with insulating materials (estimated by the manufacturers
thermal model)
Other hot spot temperatures not in contact with insulating materials (verified by thermocouples)
Insulation
temperature
class +20C
Insulation
temperature
class +20C
According to
mechanical
material
properties.
NOTEThe temperatures in Table D.2 and Table D.3 are also the limits for emergency overload.
The temperature reached during the overload condition shall not decrease the mechanical strength of the
material involved below the value for which the equipment has been designed.
If, for the specified overload condition and actual ambient air temperature within the test bay, the previous
temperature limits are exceeded, then it is allowable to reduce the overload current in such a way that these
limits are not exceeded.
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During the overload heat run test, the metallic parts of the smoothing reactor tank for oil-immersed
smoothing reactors or constructional parts of dry-type reactors shall be monitored by means such as the
infrared camera technique (with appropriate precautions to provide accurate monitoring).
The overload temperature-rise test is considered successful if the following criteria are met:
No oil is discharged;
Gassing limits agreed to by the manufacturer and purchaser are not exceeded.
The gassing limits in Table D.4 and accompanying Notes are provided as guidance.
Table D.4Gaussing rate limits
Dissolved gas
CO
CO2
H2
CH4
C2H6
C2H4
C2H2
0.1
NOTE 1The gassing rate values given in Table D.4 come from the HVDC converter transformers standard
IEEE Std C57.129. They should not be taken as firm acceptable limit values but are typical values observed in 90% of
the HVDC converter transformers tested. Acceptable limit values (acceptance criteria) are outside the scope of this
document and should be agreed upon by the user and manufacturer. At the time of writing this standard, the gassing
rates and limits were deemed to be also applicable to HVDC oil-immersed smoothing reactors.
NOTE 2If the agreed to acceptance limits of maximum average rate of rise or maximum values of dissolved gases
are exceeded, there is a possibility that a thermal fault exists within the unit and a second oil sample shall be analyzed.
If the results obtained from the second oil sample are similar to the first one, additional tests and/or internal inspection
of the unit may be necessary to find the cause of such gas generation. In such cases, the need for performing additional
tests or an internal inspection should be discussed and agreed upon between the manufacturer and end user.
NOTE 3In no case shall a total increase > 0.1 ppm of C2H2 be detected since the presence of this gas is typically a
sign of arcing. Values below 0.05 ppm/h shall be treated with caution. Therefore no rate of rise level is given for C2H2.
It should be noted that C2H2 is a fairly heavy gas and thus could have been previously introduced with the oil for some
other reasons. Therefore a major portion of the C2H2 may have been present at the start of the overload test.
NOTE 4The sampling and gas analysis procedure may impact the calculated gassing rates. In order to determine the
gassing rate, several samples should be taken during the overload temperature-rise test. Only taking one sample before
and after the test may give misleading results. Therefore, a procedure for sampling should be agreed to by the
manufacturer and purchaser. Typically, several samples should be taken for analysis. One sample should always be
taken one-half hour after the start of the overload temperature-rise test. The average rate of rise is determined from the
average slope of the graphed sample results at stable conditions.
NOTE 5The gassing rate depends strongly on the winding and oil temperatures. These temperatures depend on the
applied current, cooling type, and ambient temperature.
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NOTE 6The gassing rate also depends on other parameters, some of which are not identical for the various
smoothing reactor designs that are available and may be required to undergo the overload temperature-rise test. Not
only does the design have an impact but also oil and paper type, oxygen in the oil, glues, paints and some other
materials, and the duration of the test and calculation method of the rates.
NOTE 7A consequence of the preceding facts is that it is impossible to state standard maximum permissible gassing
rates or acceptable limits, above which the smoothing reactor can be judged to have failed. Therefore the values in
Table D.4 are typical values that occur in a high percentage of cases for HVDC converter transformers. Gassing rates
have been also referred to a particular load case (or temperature value), especially to the current, e.g., 130% current. At
the time of writing this standard, the gassing rates and limits were deemed to be also applicable to HVDC smoothing
reactors.
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Annex E
(informative)
Smoothing reactors used in voltage source converters (VSC) HVDC
schemes
E.1 Introduction
IEEE Std 1277 applies primarily to HVDC smoothing reactors utilized with line commutated HVDC
converters (LCC).
Recently new HVDC converter schemes using voltage source converter (VSC) technologies have been put
in operation. The principle of operation of such converter technology is quite different from the usual
technologies using line commutated converters. However, for smoothing reactor applications,
IEEE Std 1277 is applicable also for VSC HVDC schemes, even if the ratings may be different. The
important thing is to be aware that new applications may result in special service conditions requiring
additional information in the specification by the purchaser.
Different technologies regarding topologies and switching strategies may be used for voltage source dc
converters. In a two- or three-level topology the valves act like controllable switches connecting the stiff dc
voltage to the ac side, see Figure E.1. An alternative technology is that the valves are divided into modules,
each module with its own dc capacitor. In this case each module acts like a two-level controllable voltage
source, see Figure E.2. This is defined as a multi-level VSC.
It should be noted that any of the technologies, two-level or multi-level VSC, may be used in any of the
configurations. Thus, these figures show only typical examples of VSC schemes. Other schemes are also
feasible. Furthermore, depending on the specific conditions for each scheme, some of the equipment shown
in the figures may be omitted.
Ratings (the inductance value for example) and the technical requirements for smoothing reactors for VSC
HVDC may differ from those for classic HVDC with line commutated converters. However, the same
parameters have to be specified.
In VSC converter topology, smoothing reactors are normally used for damping of transients coming from
the dc line and/or for filtering high-frequency harmonics instead of smoothing the current, which is the
main purpose for smoothing reactors for line commutated converters. Therefore, the inductance values for
smoothing reactors for these VSC schemes are normally smaller than the ones for a scheme with line
commutated converters. Even if rating and requirement differs from traditional LCC HVDC schemes,
IEEE Std 1277 applies also the smoothing reactor in VSC schemes when the specification is adapted to the
operation conditions and stresses applicable for the scheme.
Figure E.1 shows a simplified VSC HVDC application circuit for two-level converter topology with the
locations for the smoothing reactors. The main purpose of the smoothing reactor is to limit the dc side
harmonics to the dc cable line.
The converter reactors in Figure E.1 are continually exposed to transient voltage stresses in form of
repetitive large voltage steps. Furthermore, the harmonic currents are significant. In these aspects the
operation conditions for the converter reactors in a two- and three-level VSC scheme differ significantly
from the operation condition for smoothing reactors in a LCC HVDC scheme. These specific stresses for
this application shall be considered and specified by the purchaser.
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a)
AC filter
b)
Converter reactor
c)
Converter valve
d)
DC capacitor
e)
Smoothing reactor
T)
Transformer
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a)
b)
Converter reactor
Smoothing reactor
T)
Transformer
Figure E.2Multi-level VSC HVDC converter station applied in a monopolar scheme with
dc overhead line transmission
NOTEFigure E.2 is simplified. A 20-level VSC converter requires 20 power modules.
E.2 Design
In VSC converter applications there are no commutation failures leading to the discharge of the complete
dc side capacitance. On the other hand, there is currently no possibility to reduce the dc side fault current
by control actions in case of a dc side short circuit. (However potential new technologies are in the research
stage.) Short-circuit current will be fed in from the ac network via the diodes of the valves, until cleared by
the ac side breakers, see Figure E.1 and Figure E.2. Furthermore, discharge currents from large dc side
capacitors have to be considered, when applicable, depending on circuit configuration. Consequently,
maximum fault currents shall be specified in accordance with 6.3.2 of this standard.
Since smoothing reactors used in VSC applications often are used for high-frequency filtering, one
important design parameter is the stray capacitance across the reactors.
It should be noted that the inductance value (L) of smoothing reactors for VSC HVDC may be significantly
lower than the inductance values seen for smoothing reactors in LCC HVDC applications, since the
commutation frequency is higher for VSC HVDC than for LCC HVDC. Consequently, the impedance
value ( L) is in the same order for a VSC smoothing reactor as for an LCC smoothing reactor for the
frequencies of concern. Thus, in both concepts, the smoothing reactor smoothes the transients of concern.
As for line commutated applications, the harmonic currents through smoothing reactors used in VSC
applications are low compared to the dc currents, but often in a higher frequency range. Especially for the
converter reactors in Figure E.1, the current harmonics are more significant. The current harmonic
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spectrum shall be specified by the purchaser. The frequencies of the harmonics should be considered in the
mechanical design in order to avoid resonances for those frequencies.
For all converter reactors the voltage waveform should also be carefully specified by the purchaser.
E.3 Tests
VSC HVDC transmission schemes are operated at fixed polarity, independent of the dc power direction.
Therefore the polarity-reversal test is not applicable to smoothing reactors used in VSC HVDC schemes.
Besides the polarity-reversal test, the test program should be similar as for line commutated HVDC
applications
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Annex F
(informative)
Smoothing reactors for 800 kV ultra high voltage direct current
F.1 Introduction
At the time of writing this annex, several schemes for 800 kV ultra high voltage direct current (UHVDC)
were in different stages of development and planning. While most of the main equipment has been
manufactured and type tested, still no 800 kV scheme was in operation. The 800 kV dc voltage level is
defined as ultra high voltage direct current to distinguish it from the traditional HVDC schemes with a
nominal dc voltage of 500 kV and below. However, the Itaipu HVDC transmission has been in operation at
a dc voltage level of 600 kV since 1985 with very good experience regarding the 600 kV voltage level.
Thus, the step to 800 kV dc voltage is not very drastic. It can be noted that the external insulation may be
of greater concern than the internal insulation at an increase of the dc voltage level.
The planned 800 kV projects are for very long bulk transportation from remote power resources, often
hydropower, to consumption centers. The rated current of the line is in the order of up to 5 000 A,
sometimes defined as continuous overload. The schemes are designed for power transportation in one
direction only, even if it may be possible to transmit a lower amount of power in the reverse direction as an
emergency.
The remote rectifier may be located at high altitude and due to the remote location the transport profile and
transportation weight may be much more critical than normally.
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depends on other criteria (which are project dependent) such as the commutation reactance, the
commutation overshoots, and the length of the electrode line. Consequently, the arrester protective levels
also differ correspondingly.
All actual UHVDC projects are intended for bulk power transmission over long overhead lines. Power
transmission by dc cables or power exchange between two power systems by back-to-back schemes are
currently not in the scope of UHVDC transmission technology. However, for those schemes the selection
of the dc voltage is of particular importance for cost optimization. The cost for a long cable is very
significant. In most cases, standard insulation levels will also result in increased cost for those applications.
F.2.2 Economical and technical aspects of increased insulation levels
Due to the nonlinearity of the air withstand capability at increased switching voltage, any increase will
significantly increase the air clearance distances leading to longer bushings and longer insulators. This is
especially significant when there is compensation for higher altitude, for equipment in the valve hall
combined with compensation for increase temperature. This leads to a significant increase in cost, both for
equipment and for the additional space needed. An additional consequence is that it increases the cost for
fulfilling seismic requirement.
Increased test levels will also increase the size of equipment, especially for oil-immersed equipment,
making the transport profile still more critical.
F.2.3 Conclusions
Standardized voltage test levels for dc equipment result in a stepwise cost increase for a variation in
condition parameters for an HVDC installation. This is especially true for 800 kV UHVDC, which is used
for bulk power transmission. The rectifier and inverter will have different rated dc voltages and thus
different arrester protection levels. Thus, standardized test voltage should not be used for HVDC, especially
not for 800 kV UHVDC. Instead standard insulation margins shall be used.
If it is an advantage to have a common spare, an additional unit designed for the station with the highest
voltage rating can be used as spare.
F.3 Design
Compared with smoothing reactors for traditional HVDC schemes, smoothing reactors for UHVDC have to
be rated for higher current and higher insulation levels. The smoothing reactor for UHVDC may be split in
two or more units, located on both the neutral and pole side of the converter, not necessarily with the same
inductance.
For dry-type reactors the ratio between the switching impulse levels across the reactor related to the reactor
height may be lower for smoothing reactors for UHVDC than for smoothing reactors for traditional HVDC.
F.4 Tests
The test code in IEEE Std 1277 is also applicable to smoothing reactors applied for 800 kV UHVDC. Test
levels are to be defined by purchaser.
It should be noted that the difficulty in obtaining a switching impulse reasonably close to the standard
requirements is more pronounced for UHVDC smoothing reactors; see 12.6.4.1.
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Annex G
(informative)
Bibliography
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14
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15
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Engineers, Incorporated.
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