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Greekmythology
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Greekmythologyisthebodyofmythsandteachingsthatbelongtotheancient
Greeks,concerningtheirgodsandheroes,thenatureoftheworld,andtheorigins
andsignificanceoftheirowncultandritualpractices.Itwasapartofthereligion
inancientGreece.Modernscholarsrefertoandstudythemythsinanattemptto
shedlightonthereligiousandpoliticalinstitutionsofAncientGreeceandits
civilization,andtogainunderstandingofthenatureofmythmakingitself.[1]
Greekmythologyisexplicitlyembodiedinalargecollectionofnarratives,and
implicitlyinGreekrepresentationalarts,suchasvasepaintingsandvotivegifts.
Greekmythattemptstoexplaintheoriginsoftheworld,anddetailsthelivesand
adventuresofawidevarietyofgods,goddesses,heroes,heroinesandmythological
creatures.Theseaccountsinitiallyweredisseminatedinanoralpoetictradition
todaytheGreekmythsareknownprimarilyfromGreekliterature.Theoldest
knownGreekliterarysources,Homer'sepicpoemsIliadandOdyssey,focusonthe
TrojanWaranditsaftermath.TwopoemsbyHomer'snearcontemporaryHesiod,
BustofZeus,Otricoli(Sala
theTheogonyandtheWorksandDays,containaccountsofthegenesisofthe
Rotonda,MuseoPio
world,thesuccessionofdivinerulers,thesuccessionofhumanages,theoriginof
Clementino,Vatican).
humanwoes,andtheoriginofsacrificialpractices.Mythsarealsopreservedinthe
HomericHymns,infragmentsofepicpoemsoftheEpicCycle,inlyricpoems,in
theworksofthetragediansandcomediansofthefifthcenturyBC,inwritingsofscholarsandpoetsofthe
HellenisticAge,andintextsfromthetimeoftheRomanEmpirebywriterssuchasPlutarchandPausanias.
ArchaeologicalfindingsprovideaprincipalsourceofdetailaboutGreekmythology,withgodsandheroesfeatured
prominentlyinthedecorationofmanyartifacts.GeometricdesignsonpotteryoftheeighthcenturyBCdepict
scenesfromtheTrojancycleaswellastheadventuresofHeracles.InthesucceedingArchaic,Classical,and
Hellenisticperiods,Homericandvariousothermythologicalscenesappear,supplementingtheexistingliterary
evidence.[2]Greekmythologyhashadanextensiveinfluenceontheculture,arts,andliteratureofWestern
civilizationandremainspartofWesternheritageandlanguage.Poetsandartistsfromancienttimestothepresent
havederivedinspirationfromGreekmythologyandhavediscoveredcontemporarysignificanceandrelevancein
thethemes.[3]

Contents
1 Sources
1.1 Literarysources
1.2 Archaeologicalsources
2 Surveyofmythichistory
2.1 Originsoftheworldandthegods
2.1.1 Greekpantheon
2.2 Ageofgodsandmortals
2.3 Heroicage
2.3.1 HeraclesandtheHeracleidae
2.3.2 Argonauts
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4
5
6
7
8

2.3.2 Argonauts
2.3.3 HouseofAtreusandThebanCycle
2.3.4 TrojanWarandaftermath
GreekandRomanconceptionsofmyth
3.1 Philosophyandmyth
3.2 HellenisticandRomanrationalism
3.3 Syncretizingtrends
Moderninterpretations
4.1 Comparativeandpsychoanalyticapproaches
4.2 Origintheories
MotifsinWesternartandliterature
References
6.1 Primarysources(GreekandRoman)
6.2 Secondarysources
Furtherreading
Externallinks

Sources
GreekmythologyisknowntodayprimarilyfromGreekliteratureandrepresentationsonvisualmediadatingfrom
theGeometricperiodfromc.900800BConward.[4]Infact,literaryandarchaeologicalsourcesintegrate,
sometimesmutuallysupportiveandsometimesinconflicthowever,inmanycases,theexistenceofthiscorpusof
dataisastrongindicationthatmanyelementsofGreekmythologyhavestrongfactualandhistoricalroots.[5]

Literarysources
MythicalnarrationplaysanimportantroleinnearlyeverygenreofGreekliterature.Nevertheless,theonlygeneral
mythographicalhandbooktosurvivefromGreekantiquitywastheLibraryofPseudoApollodorus.Thiswork
attemptstoreconcilethecontradictorytalesofthepoetsandprovidesagrandsummaryoftraditionalGreek
mythologyandheroiclegends.[6]ApollodorusofAthenslivedfromc.180125BCandwroteonmanyofthese
topics.Hiswritingsmayhaveformedthebasisforthecollectionhoweverthe"Library"discusseseventsthat
occurredlongafterhisdeath,hencethenamePseudoApollodorus.
AmongtheearliestliterarysourcesareHomer'stwoepicpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey.Otherpoetscompleted
the"epiccycle",buttheselaterandlesserpoemsnowarelostalmostentirely.Despitetheirtraditionalname,the
"HomericHymns"havenodirectconnectionwithHomer.Theyarechoralhymnsfromtheearlierpartoftheso
calledLyricage.[7]Hesiod,apossiblecontemporarywithHomer,offersinhisTheogony(OriginoftheGods)the
fullestaccountoftheearliestGreekmyths,dealingwiththecreationoftheworldtheoriginofthegods,Titans,
andGiantsaswellaselaborategenealogies,folktales,andetiologicalmyths.Hesiod'sWorksandDays,adidactic
poemaboutfarminglife,alsoincludesthemythsofPrometheus,Pandora,andtheFiveAges.Thepoetgives
adviceonthebestwaytosucceedinadangerousworld,renderedyetmoredangerousbyitsgods.[2]
Lyricalpoetsoftentooktheirsubjectsfrommyth,buttheirtreatmentbecamegraduallylessnarrativeandmore
allusive.GreeklyricpoetsincludingPindar,Bacchylides,Simonides,andbucolicpoetssuchasTheocritusand
Bion,relateindividualmythologicalincidents.[8]Additionally,mythwascentraltoclassicalAtheniandrama.The
tragicplaywrightsAeschylus,Sophocles,andEuripidestookmostoftheirplotsfrommythsoftheageofheroes
andtheTrojanWar.Manyofthegreattragicstories(e.g.Agamemnonandhischildren,Oedipus,Jason,Medea,
etc.)tookontheirclassicforminthesetragedies.ThecomicplaywrightAristophanesalsousedmyths,inThe
BirdsandTheFrogs.[9]
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HistoriansHerodotusandDiodorusSiculus,andgeographersPausaniasandStrabo,
whotraveledthroughouttheGreekworldandnotedthestoriestheyheard,supplied
numerouslocalmythsandlegends,oftengivinglittleknownalternativeversions.[8]
Herodotusinparticular,searchedthevarioustraditionspresentedhimandfound
thehistoricalormythologicalrootsintheconfrontationbetweenGreeceandthe
East.[10]Herodotusattemptedtoreconcileoriginsandtheblendingofdiffering
culturalconcepts.
ThepoetryoftheHellenisticandRomanageswasprimarilycomposedasaliterary
ratherthanculticexercise.Nevertheless,itcontainsmanyimportantdetailsthat
wouldotherwisebelost.Thiscategoryincludestheworksof:
1.TheRomanpoetsOvid,Statius,ValeriusFlaccus,SenecaandVirgilwith
Servius'scommentary.
2.TheGreekpoetsoftheLateAntiqueperiod:Nonnus,AntoninusLiberalis,
andQuintusSmyrnaeus.
3.TheGreekpoetsoftheHellenisticperiod:ApolloniusofRhodes,
Callimachus,PseudoEratosthenes,andParthenius.
Prosewritersfromthesameperiodswhomakereferencetomythsinclude
Apuleius,Petronius,Lollianus,andHeliodorus.Twootherimportantnonpoetical
sourcesaretheFabulaeandAstronomicaoftheRomanwriterstyledasPseudo
Hyginus,theImaginesofPhilostratustheElderandPhilostratustheYounger,and
theDescriptionsofCallistratus.
Finally,anumberofByzantineGreekwritersprovideimportantdetailsofmyth,
muchderivedfromearliernowlostGreekworks.Thesepreserversofmythinclude
Arnobius,Hesychius,theauthoroftheSuda,JohnTzetzes,andEustathius.They
oftentreatmythologyfromaChristianmoralizingperspective.[11]

Prometheus(1868by
GustaveMoreau).Themyth
ofPrometheusfirstwas
attestedbyHesiodandthen
constitutedthebasisfora
tragictrilogyofplays,
possiblybyAeschylus,
consistingofPrometheus
Bound,Prometheus
Unbound,andPrometheus
Pyrphoros.

Archaeologicalsources
ThediscoveryoftheMycenaeancivilizationbytheGermanamateur
archaeologistHeinrichSchliemanninthenineteenthcentury,andthe
discoveryoftheMinoancivilizationinCretebytheBritisharchaeologist
SirArthurEvansinthetwentiethcentury,helpedtoexplainmanyexisting
questionsaboutHomer'sepicsandprovidedarchaeologicalevidencefor
manyofthemythologicaldetailsaboutgodsandheroes.Unfortunately,the
evidenceaboutmythsandritualsatMycenaeanandMinoansitesisentirely
monumental,astheLinearBscript(anancientformofGreekfoundinboth
CreteandmainlandGreece)wasusedmainlytorecordinventories,
althoughcertainnamesofgodsandheroeshavebeententatively
identified.[2]
GeometricdesignsonpotteryoftheeighthcenturyBCdepictscenesfrom
theTrojancycle,aswellastheadventuresofHeracles.[2]Thesevisual
representationsofmythsareimportantfortworeasons.Firstly,manyGreek
mythsareattestedonvasesearlierthaninliterarysources:ofthetwelve
laborsofHeracles,forexample,onlytheCerberusadventureoccursina
contemporaryliterarytext.[12]Secondly,visualsourcessometimes
representmythsormythicalscenesthatarenotattestedinanyextant
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TheRomanpoetVirgil,heredepicted
inthefifthcenturymanuscript,the
VergiliusRomanus,preserveddetails
ofGreekmythologyinmanyofhis
writings.

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literarysource.Insomecases,thefirstknownrepresentationofamythingeometricartpredatesitsfirstknown
representationinlatearchaicpoetry,byseveralcenturies.[4]IntheArchaic(c.750c.500BC),Classical(c.480
323BC),andHellenistic(323146BC)periods,Homericandvariousothermythologicalscenesappear,
supplementingtheexistingliteraryevidence.[2]

Surveyofmythichistory
Greekmythologyhaschangedovertimetoaccommodatetheevolutionoftheirculture,ofwhichmythology,both
overtlyandinitsunspokenassumptions,isanindexofthechanges.InGreekmythology'ssurvivingliteraryforms,
asfoundmostlyattheendoftheprogressivechanges,itisinherentlypolitical,asGilbertCuthbertsonhas
argued.[13]
TheearlierinhabitantsoftheBalkanPeninsulawereanagriculturalpeoplewho,usingAnimism,assignedaspirit
toeveryaspectofnature.Eventually,thesevaguespiritsassumedhumanformsandenteredthelocalmythologyas
gods.[14]WhentribesfromthenorthoftheBalkanPeninsulainvaded,theybroughtwiththemanewpantheonof
gods,basedonconquest,force,prowessinbattle,andviolentheroism.Otheroldergodsoftheagriculturalworld
fusedwiththoseofthemorepowerfulinvadersorelsefadedintoinsignificance.[15]
AfterthemiddleoftheArchaicperiod,mythsaboutrelationshipsbetweenmalegodsandmaleheroesbecame
moreandmorefrequent,indicatingtheparalleldevelopmentofpedagogicpederasty(erospaidikos,
),thoughttohavebeenintroducedaround630BC.BytheendofthefifthcenturyBC,poetshadassignedat
leastoneeromenos,anadolescentboywhowastheirsexualcompanion,toeveryimportantgodexceptAresandto
manylegendaryfigures.[16]Previouslyexistingmyths,suchasthoseofAchillesandPatroclus,alsothenwerecast
inapederasticlight.[17]Alexandrianpoetsatfirst,thenmoregenerallyliterarymythographersintheearlyRoman
Empire,oftenreadaptedstoriesofGreekmythologicalcharactersinthisfashion.
Theachievementofepicpoetrywastocreatestorycyclesand,asaresult,todevelopanewsenseofmythological
chronology.ThusGreekmythologyunfoldsasaphaseinthedevelopmentoftheworldandofhumans.[18]While
selfcontradictionsinthesestoriesmakeanabsolutetimelineimpossible,anapproximatechronologymaybe
discerned.Theresultingmythological"historyoftheworld"maybedividedintothreeorfourbroaderperiods:
1.Themythsoforiginorageofgods(Theogonies,"birthsofgods"):mythsabouttheoriginsoftheworld,the
gods,andthehumanrace.
2.Theagewhengodsandmortalsmingledfreely:storiesoftheearlyinteractionsbetweengods,demigods,and
mortals.
3.Theageofheroes(heroicage),wheredivineactivitywasmorelimited.Thelastandgreatestoftheheroic
legendsisthestoryoftheTrojanWarandafter(whichisregardedbysomeresearchersasaseparatefourth
period).[19]
Whiletheageofgodsoftenhasbeenofmoreinteresttocontemporarystudentsofmyth,theGreekauthorsofthe
archaicandclassicalerashadaclearpreferencefortheageofheroes,establishingachronologyandrecordof
humanaccomplishmentsafterthequestionsofhowtheworldcameintobeingwereexplained.Forexample,the
heroicIliadandOdysseydwarfedthedivinefocusedTheogonyandHomericHymnsinbothsizeandpopularity.
UndertheinfluenceofHomerthe"herocult"leadstoarestructuringinspirituallife,expressedintheseparationof
therealmofthegodsfromtherealmofthedead(heroes),oftheChthonicfromtheOlympian.[20]IntheWorksand
Days,HesiodmakesuseofaschemeofFourAgesofMan(orRaces):Golden,Silver,Bronze,andIron.These
racesoragesareseparatecreationsofthegods,theGoldenAgebelongingtothereignofCronos,thesubsequent

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racesthecreationofZeus.ThepresenceofevilwasexplainedbythemythofPandora,whenallofthebestof
humancapabilities,savehope,hadbeenspilledoutofheroverturnedjar.[21]InMetamorphoses,Ovidfollows
Hesiod'sconceptofthefourages.[22]

Originsoftheworldandthegods
"Mythsoforigin"or"creationmyths"representanattempttoexplainthe
beginningsoftheuniverseinhumanlanguage.[23]Themostwidelyaccepted
versionatthetime,althoughaphilosophicalaccountofthebeginningofthings,is
reportedbyHesiod,inhisTheogony.HebeginswithChaos,ayawning
nothingness.OutofthevoidemergedGaia(theEarth)andsomeotherprimary
divinebeings:Eros(Love),theAbyss(theTartarus),andtheErebus.[24]Without
maleassistance,GaiagavebirthtoUranus(theSky)whothenfertilizedher.From
thatunionwerebornfirsttheTitanssixmales:Coeus,Crius,Cronus,Hyperion,
Iapetus,andOceanusandsixfemales:Mnemosyne,Phoebe,Rhea,Theia,Themis,
andTethys.AfterCronuswasborn,GaiaandUranusdecreednomoreTitanswere
tobeborn.TheywerefollowedbytheoneeyedCyclopesandtheHecatonchiresor
HundredHandedOnes,whowereboththrownintoTartarusbyUranus.Thismade
Gaiafurious.Cronus("thewily,youngestandmostterribleofGaia'schildren"[24]),
wasconvincedbyGaiatocastratehisfather.Hedidthis,andbecametherulerof
theTitanswithhissisterwifeRheaashisconsort,andtheotherTitansbecamehis
court.

AmorVincitOmnia(Love
ConquersAll),adepictionof
thegodoflove,Eros.By
MichelangeloMerisida
Caravaggio,circa1601
1602.

AmotifoffatheragainstsonconflictwasrepeatedwhenCronuswasconfronted
byhisson,Zeus.BecauseCronushadbetrayedhisfather,hefearedthathis
offspringwoulddothesame,andsoeachtimeRheagavebirth,hesnatchedupthe
childandateit.RheahatedthisandtrickedhimbyhidingZeusandwrappingastoneinababy'sblanket,which
Cronusate.WhenZeuswasfullgrown,hefedCronusadruggeddrinkwhichcausedhimtovomit,throwingup
Rhea'sotherchildrenandthestone,whichhadbeensittinginCronus'sstomachallalong.Zeusthenchallenged
Cronustowarforthekingshipofthegods.Atlast,withthehelpoftheCyclopes(whomZeusfreedfrom
Tartarus),Zeusandhissiblingswerevictorious,whileCronusandtheTitanswerehurleddowntoimprisonmentin
Tartarus.[25]
Zeuswasplaguedbythesameconcernand,afteraprophecythattheoffspringofhisfirstwife,Metis,wouldgive
birthtoagod"greaterthanhe"Zeusswallowedher.[26]ShewasalreadypregnantwithAthena,however,andshe
burstforthfromhisheadfullygrownanddressedforwar.[27]
TheearliestGreekthoughtaboutpoetryconsideredthetheogoniestobetheprototypicalpoeticgenrethe
prototypicalmythosandimputedalmostmagicalpowerstoit.Orpheus,thearchetypalpoet,alsowasthe
archetypalsingeroftheogonies,whichheusestocalmseasandstormsinApollonius'Argonautica,andtomove
thestonyheartsoftheunderworldgodsinhisdescenttoHades.WhenHermesinventsthelyreintheHomeric
HymntoHermes,thefirstthinghedoesissingaboutthebirthofthegods.[28]Hesiod'sTheogonyisnotonlythe
fullestsurvivingaccountofthegods,butalsothefullestsurvivingaccountofthearchaicpoet'sfunction,withits
longpreliminaryinvocationtotheMuses.Theogonyalsowasthesubjectofmanylostpoems,includingthose
attributedtoOrpheus,Musaeus,Epimenides,Abaris,andotherlegendaryseers,whichwereusedinprivateritual
purificationsandmysteryrites.ThereareindicationsthatPlatowasfamiliarwithsomeversionoftheOrphic
theogony.[29]Asilencewouldhavebeenexpectedaboutreligiousritesandbeliefs,however,andthatnatureofthe

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culturewouldnothavebeenreportedbymembersofthesocietywhilethe
beliefswereheld.Aftertheyceasedtobecomereligiousbeliefs,fewwould
haveknowntheritesandrituals.Allusionsoftenexisted,however,to
aspectsthatwerequitepublic.
Imagesexistedonpotteryandreligiousartworkthatwereinterpretedand
morelikely,misinterpretedinmanydiversemythsandtales.Afew
fragmentsoftheseworkssurviveinquotationsbyNeoplatonist
philosophersandrecentlyunearthedpapyrusscraps.Oneofthesescraps,
theDerveniPapyrusnowprovesthatatleastinthefifthcenturyBCa
theogoniccosmogonicpoemofOrpheuswasinexistence.[30]
Atticblackfiguredamphora
depictingAthenabeing"reborn"from
theheadofZeus,whohadswallowed
hermotherMetis,ontheright,
Eileithyia,thegoddessofchildbirth,
assists,circa550525BC(Musedu
Louvre,Paris).

Thefirstphilosophicalcosmologistsreactedagainst,orsometimesbuilt
upon,popularmythicalconceptionsthathadexistedintheGreekworldfor
sometime.Someofthesepopularconceptionscanbegleanedfromthe
poetryofHomerandHesiod.InHomer,theEarthwasviewedasaflatdisk
afloatontheriverofOceanusandoverlookedbyahemisphericalskywith
sun,moon,andstars.TheSun(Helios)traversedtheheavensasa
charioteerandsailedaroundtheEarthinagoldenbowlatnight.Sun,earth,
heaven,rivers,andwindscouldbeaddressedinprayersandcalledto
witnessoaths.NaturalfissureswerepopularlyregardedasentrancestothesubterraneanhouseofHadesandhis
predecessors,homeofthedead.[31]Influencesfromotherculturesalwaysaffordednewthemes.
Greekpantheon
AccordingtoClassicaleramythology,aftertheoverthrowoftheTitans,the
newpantheonofgodsandgoddesseswasconfirmed.Amongtheprincipal
GreekgodsweretheOlympians,residingonMountOlympusundertheeye
ofZeus.(Thelimitationoftheirnumbertotwelveseemstohavebeena
comparativelymodernidea.)[32]BesidestheOlympians,theGreeks
worshippedvariousgodsofthecountryside,thesatyrgodPan,Nymphs
(spiritsofrivers),Naiads(whodwelledinsprings),Dryads(whowere
spiritsofthetrees),Nereids(whoinhabitedthesea),rivergods,Satyrs,and
others.Inaddition,therewerethedarkpowersoftheunderworld,suchas
theErinyes(orFuries),saidtopursuethoseguiltyofcrimesagainstblood
relatives.[33]InordertohonortheAncientGreekpantheon,poetscomposed
theHomericHymns(agroupofthirtythreesongs).[34]GregoryNagy
regards"thelargerHomericHymnsassimplepreludes(comparedwith
Theogony),eachofwhichinvokesonegod".[35]

Zeus,disguisedasaswan,seduces
Leda,theQueenofSparta.A
sixteenthcenturycopyofthelost
originalbyMichelangelo.

ThegodsofGreekmythologyaredescribedashavingessentiallycorporealbutidealbodies.AccordingtoWalter
Burkert,thedefiningcharacteristicofGreekanthropomorphismisthat"theGreekgodsarepersons,not
abstractions,ideasorconcepts".[36]Regardlessoftheirunderlyingforms,theAncientGreekgodshavemany
fantasticabilitiesmostsignificantly,thegodsarenotaffectedbydisease,andcanbewoundedonlyunderhighly
unusualcircumstances.TheGreeksconsideredimmortalityasthedistinctivecharacteristicoftheirgodsthis
immortality,aswellasunfadingyouth,wasinsuredbytheconstantuseofnectarandambrosia,bywhichthe
divinebloodwasrenewedintheirveins.[37]

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Eachgoddescendsfromhisorherowngenealogy,pursuesdifferinginterests,hasacertainareaofexpertise,andis
governedbyauniquepersonalityhowever,thesedescriptionsarisefromamultiplicityofarchaiclocalvariants,
whichdonotalwaysagreewithoneanother.Whenthesegodsarecalleduponinpoetry,prayerorcult,theyare
referredtobyacombinationoftheirnameandepithets,thatidentifythembythesedistinctionsfromother
manifestationsofthemselves(e.g.,ApolloMusagetesis"Apollo,[as]leaderoftheMuses").Alternativelythe
epithetmayidentifyaparticularandlocalizedaspectofthegod,sometimesthoughttobealreadyancientduring
theclassicalepochofGreece.
Mostgodswereassociatedwithspecificaspectsoflife.Forexample,Aphroditewasthegoddessofloveand
beauty,Areswasthegodofwar,Hadestheruleroftheunderworld,andAthenathegoddessofwisdomand
courage.[38]Somegods,suchasApolloandDionysus,revealedcomplexpersonalitiesandmixturesoffunctions,
whileothers,suchasHestia(literally"hearth")andHelios(literally"sun"),werelittlemorethanpersonifications.
Themostimpressivetemplestendedtobededicatedtoalimitednumberofgods,whowerethefocusoflargepan
Helleniccults.Itwas,however,commonforindividualregionsandvillagestodevotetheirowncultstominor
gods.Manycitiesalsohonoredthemorewellknowngodswithunusuallocalritesandassociatedstrangemyths
withthemthatwereunknownelsewhere.Duringtheheroicage,thecultofheroes(ordemigods)supplemented
thatofthegods.

Ageofgodsandmortals
Bridgingtheagewhengodslivedaloneandtheagewhendivineinterferenceinhumanaffairswaslimitedwasa
transitionalageinwhichgodsandmortalsmovedtogether.Theseweretheearlydaysoftheworldwhenthe
groupsmingledmorefreelythantheydidlater.MostofthesetaleswerelatertoldbyOvid'sMetamorphosesand
theyareoftendividedintotwothematicgroups:talesoflove,andtalesofpunishment.[39]
Talesofloveofteninvolveincest,ortheseductionorrapeofamortal
womanbyamalegod,resultinginheroicoffspring.Thestoriesgenerally
suggestthatrelationshipsbetweengodsandmortalsaresomethingto
avoidevenconsentingrelationshipsrarelyhavehappyendings.[40]Inafew
cases,afemaledivinitymateswithamortalman,asintheHomericHymn
toAphrodite,wherethegoddesslieswithAnchisestoproduceAeneas.[41]
Thesecondtype(talesofpunishment)involvestheappropriationor
inventionofsomeimportantculturalartifact,aswhenPrometheussteals
firefromthegods,whenTantalusstealsnectarandambrosiafromZeus'
tableandgivesittohisownsubjectsrevealingtothemthesecretsofthe
gods,whenPrometheusorLycaoninventssacrifice,whenDemeterteaches
agricultureandtheMysteriestoTriptolemus,orwhenMarsyasinventsthe
Dionysuswithsatyrs.Interiorofa
aulosandentersintoamusicalcontestwithApollo.IanMorrisconsiders
cuppaintedbytheBrygosPainter,
Prometheus'adventuresas"aplacebetweenthehistoryofthegodsandthat
CabinetdesMdailles.
ofman".[42]Ananonymouspapyrusfragment,datedtothethirdcentury,
vividlyportraysDionysus'punishmentofthekingofThrace,Lycurgus,
whoserecognitionofthenewgodcametoolate,resultinginhorrificpenaltiesthatextendedintotheafterlife.[43]
ThestoryofthearrivalofDionysustoestablishhiscultinThracewasalsothesubjectofanAeschyleantrilogy.[44]
Inanothertragedy,Euripides'TheBacchae,thekingofThebes,Pentheus,ispunishedbyDionysus,becausehe
disrespectedthegodandspiedonhisMaenads,thefemaleworshippersofthegod.[45]
Inanotherstory,basedonanoldfolktalemotif,[46]andechoingasimilartheme,Demeterwassearchingforher
daughter,Persephone,havingtakentheformofanoldwomancalledDoso,andreceivedahospitablewelcome
fromCeleus,theKingofEleusisinAttica.AsagifttoCeleus,becauseofhishospitality,Demeterplannedtomake
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hissonDemophonagod,butshewasunabletocompletetheritualbecause
hismotherMetanirawalkedinandsawhersoninthefireandscreamedin
fright,whichangeredDemeter,wholamentedthatfoolishmortalsdonot
understandtheconceptandritual.[47]

Heroicage
Theageinwhichtheheroeslivedisknownastheheroicage.[48]Theepic
andgenealogicalpoetrycreatedcyclesofstoriesclusteredaroundparticular
heroesoreventsandestablishedthefamilyrelationshipsbetweenthe
heroesofdifferentstoriestheythusarrangedthestoriesinsequence.
AccordingtoKenDowden,"Thereisevenasagaeffect:Wecanfollowthe
fatesofsomefamiliesinsuccessivegenerations".[18]

DemeterandMetanirainadetailon
anApulianredfigurehydria,circa
340BC(AltesMuseum,Berlin).

Aftertheriseoftheherocult,godsandheroesconstitutethesacralsphere
andareinvokedtogetherinoathsandprayerswhichareaddressedtothem.[20]Burkertnotesthat"therosterof
heroes,againincontrasttothegods,isnevergivenfixedandfinalform.Greatgodsarenolongerborn,butnew
heroescanalwaysberaisedupfromthearmyofthedead."Anotherimportantdifferencebetweentheherocultand
thecultofgodsisthattheherobecomesthecentreoflocalgroupidentity.[49]
ThemonumentaleventsofHeraclesareregardedasthedawnoftheageofheroes.TotheHeroicAgearealso
ascribedthreegreatevents:theArgonauticexpedition,theThebanCycleandtheTrojanWar.[50]
HeraclesandtheHeracleidae
Somescholarsbelieve[51]thatbehindHeracles'complicatedmythologytherewas
probablyarealman,perhapsachieftainvassalofthekingdomofArgos.Some
scholarssuggestthestoryofHeraclesisanallegoryforthesun'syearlypassage
throughthetwelveconstellationsofthezodiac.[52]Otherspointtoearliermyths
fromothercultures,showingthestoryofHeraclesasalocaladaptationofhero
mythsalreadywellestablished.Traditionally,HeracleswasthesonofZeusand
Alcmene,granddaughterofPerseus.[53]Hisfantasticsolitaryexploits,withtheir
manyfolktalethemes,providedmuchmaterialforpopularlegend.Accordingto
Burkert,"Heisportrayedasasacrificer,mentionedasafounderofaltars,and
imaginedasavoraciouseaterhimselfitisinthisrolethatheappearsincomedy,
whilehistragicendprovidedmuchmaterialfortragedyHeraclesisregardedby
ThaliaPapadopoulouas"aplayofgreatsignificanceinexaminationofother
Euripideandramas".[54]InartandliteratureHeracleswasrepresentedasan
enormouslystrongmanofmoderateheighthischaracteristicweaponwasthebow
butfrequentlyalsotheclub.Vasepaintingsdemonstratetheunparalleledpopularity
ofHeracles,hisfightwiththelionbeingdepictedmanyhundredsoftimes.[55]
HeraclesalsoenteredEtruscanandRomanmythologyandcult,andthe
exclamation"mehercule"becameasfamiliartotheRomansas"Herakleis"wasto
theGreeks.[55]InItalyhewasworshippedasagodofmerchantsandtraders,
althoughothersalsoprayedtohimforhischaracteristicgiftsofgoodluckorrescue
fromdanger.[53]

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Heracleswithhisbaby
Telephus(LouvreMuseum,
Paris).

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HeraclesattainedthehighestsocialprestigethroughhisappointmentasofficialancestoroftheDoriankings.This
probablyservedasalegitimationfortheDorianmigrationsintothePeloponnese.Hyllus,theeponymousheroof
oneDorianphyle,becamethesonofHeraclesandoneoftheHeracleidaeorHeraclids(thenumerousdescendants
ofHeracles,especiallythedescendantsofHyllusotherHeracleidaeincludedMacaria,Lamos,Manto,Bianor,
Tlepolemus,andTelephus).TheseHeraclidsconqueredthePeloponnesiankingdomsofMycenae,Spartaand
Argos,claiming,accordingtolegend,arighttorulethemthroughtheirancestor.Theirrisetodominanceis
frequentlycalledthe"Dorianinvasion".TheLydianandlatertheMacedoniankings,asrulersofthesamerank,
alsobecameHeracleidae.[56]
OthermembersofthisearliestgenerationofheroessuchasPerseus,Deucalion,TheseusandBellerophon,have
manytraitsincommonwithHeracles.Likehim,theirexploitsaresolitary,fantasticandborderonfairytale,as
theyslaymonsterssuchastheChimeraandMedusa.Bellerophon'sadventuresarecommonplacetypes,similarto
theadventuresofHeraclesandTheseus.Sendingaherotohispresumeddeathisalsoarecurrentthemeofthis
earlyheroictradition,usedinthecasesofPerseusandBellerophon.[57]
Argonauts
TheonlysurvivingHellenisticepic,theArgonauticaofApolloniusofRhodes(epicpoet,scholar,anddirectorof
theLibraryofAlexandria)tellsthemythofthevoyageofJasonandtheArgonautstoretrievetheGoldenFleece
fromthemythicallandofColchis.IntheArgonautica,JasonisimpelledonhisquestbykingPelias,whoreceives
aprophecythatamanwithonesandalwouldbehisnemesis.Jasonlosesasandalinariver,arrivesatthecourtof
Pelias,andtheepicissetinmotion.Nearlyeverymemberofthenextgenerationofheroes,aswellasHeracles,
wentwithJasonintheshipArgotofetchtheGoldenFleece.ThisgenerationalsoincludedTheseus,whowentto
CretetoslaytheMinotaurAtalanta,thefemaleheroine,andMeleager,whooncehadanepiccycleofhisownto
rivaltheIliadandOdyssey.Pindar,ApolloniusandtheBibliothecaendeavortogivefulllistsoftheArgonauts.[58]
AlthoughApolloniuswrotehispoeminthe3rdcenturyBC,thecompositionofthestoryoftheArgonautsis
earlierthanOdyssey,whichshowsfamiliaritywiththeexploitsofJason(thewanderingofOdysseusmayhave
beenpartlyfoundedonit).[59]Inancienttimestheexpeditionwasregardedasahistoricalfact,anincidentinthe
openingupoftheBlackSeatoGreekcommerceandcolonization.[60]Itwasalsoextremelypopular,forminga
cycletowhichanumberoflocallegendsbecameattached.ThestoryofMedea,inparticular,caughtthe
imaginationofthetragicpoets.[61]
HouseofAtreusandThebanCycle
InbetweentheArgoandtheTrojanWar,therewasagenerationknownchieflyforitshorrificcrimes.Thisincludes
thedoingsofAtreusandThyestesatArgos.BehindthemythofthehouseofAtreus(oneofthetwoprincipal
heroicdynastieswiththehouseofLabdacus)liestheproblemofthedevolutionofpowerandofthemodeof
accessiontosovereignty.ThetwinsAtreusandThyesteswiththeirdescendantsplayedtheleadingroleinthe
tragedyofthedevolutionofpowerinMycenae.[62]
TheThebanCycledealswitheventsassociatedespeciallywithCadmus,thecity'sfounder,andlaterwiththe
doingsofLaiusandOedipusatThebesaseriesofstoriesthatleadtotheeventualpillageofthatcityatthehands
oftheSevenAgainstThebesandEpigoni.[63](ItisnotknownwhethertheSevenAgainstThebesfiguredinearly
epic.)AsfarasOedipusisconcerned,earlyepicaccountsseemtohavehimcontinuingtoruleatThebesafterthe
revelationthatIokastewashismother,andsubsequentlymarryingasecondwifewhobecomesthemotherofhis
childrenmarkedlydifferentfromthetaleknowntousthroughtragedy(e.g.Sophocles'OedipustheKing)and
latermythologicalaccounts.[64]
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TrojanWarandaftermath
GreekmythologyculminatesintheTrojanWar,fought
betweenGreeceandTroy,anditsaftermath.In
Homer'sworks,suchastheIliad,thechiefstorieshave
alreadytakenshapeandsubstance,andindividual
themeswereelaboratedlater,especiallyinGreek
drama.TheTrojanWaralsoelicitedgreatinterestin
theRomanculturebecauseofthestoryofAeneas,a
TrojanherowhosejourneyfromTroyledtothe
foundingofthecitythatwouldonedaybecomeRome,
asrecountedinVirgil'sAeneid(BookIIofVirgil's
Aeneidcontainsthebestknownaccountofthesackof
Troy).[65]Finallytherearetwopseudochronicles
writteninLatinthatpassedunderthenamesofDictys
CretensisandDaresPhrygius.[66]

ElJuiciodeParisbyEnriqueSimonet,1904.Parisis
holdingthegoldenappleonhisrighthandwhilesurveying
thegoddessesinacalculativemanner.

TheTrojanWarcycle,acollectionofepicpoems,
startswiththeeventsleadinguptothewar:Erisand
thegoldenappleofKallisti,theJudgementofParis,the
abductionofHelen,thesacrificeofIphigeniaatAulis.TorecoverHelen,the
GreekslaunchedagreatexpeditionundertheoverallcommandofMenelaus'
brother,Agamemnon,kingofArgosorMycenae,buttheTrojansrefusedtoreturn
Helen.TheIliad,whichissetinthetenthyearofthewar,tellsofthequarrel
betweenAgamemnonandAchilles,whowasthefinestGreekwarrior,andthe
consequentdeathsinbattleofAchilles'belovedcomradePatroclusandPriam's
eldestson,Hector.AfterHector'sdeaththeTrojanswerejoinedbytwoexotic
allies,Penthesilea,queenoftheAmazons,andMemnon,kingoftheEthiopiansand
sonofthedawngoddessEos.[67]Achilleskilledbothofthese,butParisthen
managedtokillAchilleswithanarrowintheheel.Achilles'heelwastheonlypart
ofhisbodywhichwasnotinvulnerabletodamagebyhumanweaponry.Before
theycouldtakeTroy,theGreekshadtostealfromthecitadelthewoodenimageof
PallasAthena(thePalladium).Finally,withAthena'shelp,theybuilttheTrojan
Horse.DespitethewarningsofPriam'sdaughterCassandra,theTrojanswere
persuadedbySinon,aGreekwhofeigneddesertion,totakethehorseinsidethe
wallsofTroyasanofferingtoAthenathepriestLaocoon,whotriedtohavethe
horsedestroyed,waskilledbyseaserpents.AtnighttheGreekfleetreturned,and
theGreeksfromthehorseopenedthegatesofTroy.Inthetotalsackthatfollowed,
PriamandhisremainingsonswereslaughteredtheTrojanwomenpassedinto
slaveryinvariouscitiesofGreece.Theadventuroushomewardvoyagesofthe
Greekleaders(includingthewanderingsofOdysseusandAeneas(theAeneid),and
themurderofAgamemnon)weretoldintwoepics,theReturns(thelostNostoi)
andHomer'sOdyssey.[68]TheTrojancyclealsoincludestheadventuresofthe
childrenoftheTrojangeneration(e.g.,OrestesandTelemachus).[67]

InTheRageofAchillesby
GiovanniBattistaTiepolo
(1757,Fresco,300x300
cm,VillaValmarana,
Vicenza)Achillesisoutraged
thatAgamemnonwould
threatentoseizehis
warprize,Briseis,andhe
drawshisswordtokill
Agamemnon.Thesudden
appearanceofthegoddess
Athena,who,inthisfresco,
hasgrabbedAchillesbythe
hair,preventstheactof
violence.

TheTrojanWarprovidedavarietyofthemesandbecameamainsourceof
inspirationforAncientGreekartists(e.g.metopesontheParthenondepictingthe
sackofTroy)thisartisticpreferenceforthemesderivingfromtheTrojanCycle
indicatesitsimportancetotheAncientGreekcivilization.[68]Thesamemythologicalcyclealsoinspiredaseriesof
posteriorEuropeanliterarywritings.Forinstance,TrojanMedievalEuropeanwriters,unacquaintedwithHomerat
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firsthand,foundintheTroylegendarichsourceofheroicandromanticstorytellingandaconvenientframework
intowhichtofittheirowncourtlyandchivalricideals.Twelfthcenturyauthors,suchasBenotdeSainteMaure
(RomandeTroie[RomanceofTroy,115460])andJosephofExeter(DeBelloTroiano[OntheTrojanWar,1183])
describethewarwhilerewritingthestandardversiontheyfoundinDictysandDares.TheythusfollowHorace's
adviceandVirgil'sexample:theyrewriteapoemofTroyinsteadoftellingsomethingcompletelynew.[69]
SomeofthemorefamousheroesnotedfortheirinclusionintheTrojanWarwere:
OntheTrojanside:
Aeneas
Hector
Paris
OntheGreekside:
Ajax(thereweretwoAjaxes)
Achilles
KingAgamemnon
Menelaus
Odysseus

GreekandRomanconceptionsofmyth
MythologywasattheheartofeverydaylifeinAncientGreece.[70]Greeksregardedmythologyasapartoftheir
history.Theyusedmythtoexplainnaturalphenomena,culturalvariations,traditionalenmitiesandfriendships.It
wasasourceofpridetobeabletotracethedescentofone'sleadersfromamythologicalherooragod.Fewever
doubtedthattherewastruthbehindtheaccountoftheTrojanWarintheIliadandOdyssey.AccordingtoVictor
DavisHanson,amilitaryhistorian,columnist,politicalessayistandformerclassicsprofessor,andJohnHeath,a
classicsprofessor,theprofoundknowledgeoftheHomericeposwasdeemedbytheGreeksthebasisoftheir
acculturation.Homerwasthe"educationofGreece"(),andhispoetry"theBook".[71]

Philosophyandmyth
Aftertheriseofphilosophy,history,proseandrationalisminthelate5thcenturyBC,thefateofmythbecame
uncertain,andmythologicalgenealogiesgaveplacetoaconceptionofhistorywhichtriedtoexcludethe
supernatural(suchastheThucydideanhistory).[72]Whilepoetsanddramatistswerereworkingthemyths,Greek
historiansandphilosopherswerebeginningtocriticizethem.[7]
AfewradicalphilosopherslikeXenophanesofColophonwerealreadybeginningtolabelthepoets'talesas
blasphemousliesinthe6thcenturyBCXenophaneshadcomplainedthatHomerandHesiodattributedtothegods
"allthatisshamefulanddisgracefulamongmentheysteal,commitadultery,anddeceiveoneanother".[73]This
lineofthoughtfounditsmostsweepingexpressioninPlato'sRepublicandLaws.Platocreatedhisownallegorical
myths(suchasthevisionofErintheRepublic),attackedthetraditionaltalesofthegods'tricks,theftsand
adulteriesasimmoral,andobjectedtotheircentralroleinliterature.[7]Plato'scriticismwasthefirstserious
challengetotheHomericmythologicaltradition,[71]referringtothemythsas"oldwives'chatter".[74]Forhispart
AristotlecriticizedthePresocraticquasimythicalphilosophicalapproachandunderscoredthat"Hesiodandthe
theologicalwriterswereconcernedonlywithwhatseemedplausibletothemselves,andhadnorespectforus...
Butitisnotworthtakingseriouslywriterswhoshowoffinthemythicalstyleasforthosewhodoproceedby
provingtheirassertions,wemustcrossexaminethem".[72]
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Nevertheless,evenPlatodidnotmanagetoweanhimselfandhissociety
fromtheinfluenceofmythhisowncharacterizationforSocratesisbased
onthetraditionalHomericandtragicpatterns,usedbythephilosopherto
praisetherighteouslifeofhisteacher:[75]

Raphael'sPlatoinTheSchoolof
Athensfresco(probablyinthe
likenessofLeonardodaVinci).The
philosopherexpelledthestudyof
Homer,ofthetragediesandofthe
relatedmythologicaltraditionsfrom
hisutopianRepublic.

Butperhapssomeonemightsay:"Areyouthennotashamed,
Socrates,ofhavingfollowedsuchapursuit,thatyouarenow
indangerofbeingputtodeathasaresult?"ButIshouldmake
tohimajustreply:"Youdonotspeakwell,Sir,ifyouthinka
maninwhomthereisevenalittlemeritoughttoconsider
dangeroflifeordeath,andnotratherregardthisonly,whenhe
doesthings,whetherthethingshedoesarerightorwrongand
theactsofagoodorabadman.Foraccordingtoyour
argumentallthedemigodswouldbebadwhodiedatTroy,
includingthesonofThetis,whosodespiseddanger,in
comparisonwithenduringanydisgrace,thatwhenhismother
(andshewasagoddess)saidtohim,ashewaseagertoslay
Hector,somethinglikethis,Ibelieve,
Myson,ifyouavengethedeathofyourfriendPatroclus
andkillHector,youyourselfshalldieforstraightway,
afterHector,isdeathappointeduntoyou.(Hom.Il.
18.96)
he,whenheheardthis,madelightofdeathanddanger,and
fearedmuchmoretoliveasacowardandnottoavengehis
friends,andsaid,
StraightwaymayIdie,afterdoingvengeanceuponthe
wrongdoer,thatImaynotstayhere,jeeredatbesidethe
curvedships,aburdenoftheearth.

HansonandHeathestimatethatPlato'srejectionoftheHomerictraditionwasnotfavorablyreceivedbythe
grassrootsGreekcivilization.[71]Theoldmythswerekeptaliveinlocalcultstheycontinuedtoinfluencepoetry
andtoformthemainsubjectofpaintingandsculpture.[72]
Moresportingly,the5thcenturyBCtragedianEuripidesoftenplayedwiththeoldtraditions,mockingthem,and
throughthevoiceofhischaractersinjectingnotesofdoubt.Yetthesubjectsofhisplaysweretaken,without
exception,frommyth.Manyoftheseplayswerewritteninanswertoapredecessor'sversionofthesameorsimilar
myth.Euripidesmainlyimpugnsthemythsaboutthegodsandbeginshiscritiquewithanobjectionsimilartothe
onepreviouslyexpressedbyXenocrates:thegods,astraditionallyrepresented,arefartoocrassly
anthropomorphic.[73]

HellenisticandRomanrationalism
DuringtheHellenisticperiod,mythologytookontheprestigeofeliteknowledgethatmarksitspossessorsas
belongingtoacertainclass.Atthesametime,theskepticalturnoftheClassicalagebecameevenmore
pronounced.[76]GreekmythographerEuhemerusestablishedthetraditionofseekinganactualhistoricalbasisfor

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mythicalbeingsandevents.[77]Althoughhisoriginalwork(SacredScriptures)is
lost,muchisknownaboutitfromwhatisrecordedbyDiodorusandLactantius.[78]

Cicerosawhimselfasthe
defenderoftheestablished
order,despitehispersonal
skepticismwithregardto
mythandhisinclination
towardsmorephilosophical
conceptionsofdivinity.

RationalizinghermeneuticsofmythbecameevenmorepopularundertheRoman
Empire,thankstothephysicalisttheoriesofStoicandEpicureanphilosophy.Stoics
presentedexplanationsofthegodsandheroesasphysicalphenomena,whilethe
Euhemeristsrationalizedthemashistoricalfigures.Atthesametime,theStoics
andtheNeoplatonistspromotedthemoralsignificationsofthemythological
tradition,oftenbasedonGreeketymologies.[79]ThroughhisEpicureanmessage,
Lucretiushadsoughttoexpelsuperstitiousfearsfromthemindsofhisfellow
citizens.[80]Livy,too,isskepticalaboutthemythologicaltraditionandclaimsthat
hedoesnotintendtopassjudgementonsuchlegends(fabulae).[81]Thechallenge
forRomanswithastrongandapologeticsenseofreligioustraditionwastodefend
thattraditionwhileconcedingthatitwasoftenabreedinggroundforsuperstition.
TheantiquarianVarro,whoregardedreligionasahumaninstitutionwithgreat
importanceforthepreservationofgoodinsociety,devotedrigorousstudytothe
originsofreligiouscults.InhisAntiquitatesRerumDivinarum(whichhasnot
survived,butAugustine'sCityofGodindicatesitsgeneralapproach)Varroargues
thatwhereasthesuperstitiousmanfearsthegods,thetrulyreligiousperson
veneratesthemasparents.[80]Inhisworkhedistinguishedthreekindsofgods:

1.Thegodsofnature:personificationsofphenomenalikerainandfire.
2.Thegodsofthepoets:inventedbyunscrupulousbardstostirthepassions.
3.Thegodsofthecity:inventedbywiselegislatorstosootheandenlightenthepopulace.
RomanAcademicCottaridiculesbothliteralandallegoricalacceptanceofmyth,declaringroundlythatmyths
havenoplaceinphilosophy.[82]Ciceroisalsogenerallydisdainfulofmyth,but,likeVarro,heisemphaticinhis
supportforthestatereligionanditsinstitutions.Itisdifficulttoknowhowfardownthesocialscalethis
rationalismextended.[81]Ciceroassertsthatnoone(notevenoldwomenandboys)issofoolishastobelieveinthe
terrorsofHadesortheexistenceofScyllas,centaursorothercompositecreatures,[83]but,ontheotherhand,the
oratorelsewherecomplainsofthesuperstitiousandcredulouscharacterofthepeople.[84]DeNaturaDeorumisthe
mostcomprehensivesummaryofCicero'slineofthought.[85]

Syncretizingtrends
InAncientRomantimes,anewRomanmythologywasbornthroughsyncretizationofnumerousGreekandother
foreigngods.ThisoccurredbecausetheRomanshadlittlemythologyoftheirownandinheritanceoftheGreek
mythologicaltraditioncausedthemajorRomangodstoadoptcharacteristicsoftheirGreekequivalents.[81]The
godsZeusandJupiterareanexampleofthismythologicaloverlap.Inadditiontothecombinationofthetwo
mythologicaltraditions,theassociationoftheRomanswitheasternreligionsledtofurthersyncretizations.[86]For
instance,thecultofSunwasintroducedinRomeafterAurelian'ssuccessfulcampaignsinSyria.TheAsiatic
divinitiesMithras(thatistosay,theSun)andBa'alwerecombinedwithApolloandHeliosintooneSolInvictus,
withconglomeratedritesandcompoundattributes.[87]Apollomightbeincreasinglyidentifiedinreligionwith
HeliosorevenDionysus,buttextsretellinghismythsseldomreflectedsuchdevelopments.Thetraditionalliterary
mythologywasincreasinglydissociatedfromactualreligiouspractice.TheworshipofSolasspecialprotectorof
theemperorsandoftheempireremainedthechiefimperialreligionuntilitwasreplacedbyChristianity.

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Thesurviving2ndcenturycollectionofOrphicHymns(secondcenturyAD)and
theSaturnaliaofMacrobiusAmbrosiusTheodosius(fifthcentury)areinfluenced
bythetheoriesofrationalismandthesyncretizingtrendsaswell.TheOrphic
Hymnsareasetofpreclassicalpoeticcompositions,attributedtoOrpheus,himself
thesubjectofarenownedmyth.Inreality,thesepoemswereprobablycomposed
byseveraldifferentpoets,andcontainarichsetofcluesaboutprehistoric
Europeanmythology.[88]ThestatedpurposeoftheSaturnaliaistotransmitthe
HelleniccultureMacrobiushasderivedfromhisreading,eventhoughmuchofhis
treatmentofgodsiscoloredbyEgyptianandNorthAfricanmythologyand
theology(whichalsoaffecttheinterpretationofVirgil).InSaturnaliareappear
mythographicalcommentsinfluencedbytheEuhemerists,theStoicsandthe
Neoplatonists.[79]

Moderninterpretations
ThegenesisofmodernunderstandingofGreekmythologyisregardedbysome
scholarsasadoublereactionattheendoftheeighteenthcenturyagainst"the
traditionalattitudeofChristiananimosity",inwhichtheChristianreinterpretation
ofmythasa"lie"orfablehadbeenretained.[89]InGermany,byabout1795,there
wasagrowinginterestinHomerandGreekmythology.InGttingen,Johann
MatthiasGesnerbegantoreviveGreekstudies,whilehissuccessor,Christian
GottlobHeyne,workedwithJohannJoachimWinckelmann,andlaidthe
foundationsformythologicalresearchbothinGermanyandelsewhere.[90]

Comparativeandpsychoanalyticapproaches
Thedevelopmentofcomparativephilologyinthe19thcentury,togetherwith
ethnologicaldiscoveriesinthe20thcentury,establishedthescienceofmyth.Since
theRomantics,allstudyofmythhasbeencomparative.WilhelmMannhardt,James
Frazer,andStithThompsonemployedthecomparativeapproachtocollectand
classifythethemesoffolkloreandmythology.[91]In1871EdwardBurnettTylor
publishedhisPrimitiveCulture,inwhichheappliedthecomparativemethodand
triedtoexplaintheoriginandevolutionofreligion.[92]Tylor'sprocedureof
drawingtogethermaterialculture,ritualandmythofwidelyseparatedcultures
influencedbothCarlJungandJosephCampbell.MaxMllerappliedthenew
scienceofcomparativemythologytothestudyofmyth,inwhichhedetectedthe
distortedremainsofAryannatureworship.BronisawMalinowskiemphasizedthe
waysmythfulfillscommonsocialfunctions.ClaudeLviStraussandother
structuralistshavecomparedtheformalrelationsandpatternsinmythsthroughout
theworld.[91]

Apollo(earlyImperial
Romancopyofafourth
centuryGreekoriginal,
LouvreMuseum).

MaxMllerisregardedas
oneofthefoundersof
comparativemythology.In
hisComparativeMythology
(1867)Mlleranalysedthe
"disturbing"similarity
betweenthemythologiesof
"savageraces"withthoseof
theearlyEuropeans.

SigmundFreudintroducedatranshistoricalandbiologicalconceptionofmananda
viewofmythasanexpressionofrepressedideas.Dreaminterpretationisthebasis
ofFreudianmythinterpretationandFreud'sconceptofdreamworkrecognizesthe
importanceofcontextualrelationshipsfortheinterpretationofanyindividual
elementinadream.Thissuggestionwouldfindanimportantpointof
rapprochmentbetweenthestructuralistandpsychoanalyticapproachestomythin
Freud'sthought.[93]CarlJungextendedthetranshistorical,psychologicalapproach
withhistheoryofthe"collectiveunconscious"andthearchetypes(inherited"archaic"patterns),oftenencodedin
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myth,thatariseoutofit.[2]AccordingtoJung,"mythformingstructuralelementsmustbepresentinthe
unconsciouspsyche".[94]ComparingJung'smethodologywithJosephCampbell'stheory,RobertA.Segal
concludesthat"tointerpretamythCampbellsimplyidentifiesthearchetypesinit.Aninterpretationofthe
Odyssey,forexample,wouldshowhowOdysseus'slifeconformstoaheroicpattern.Jung,bycontrast,considers
theidentificationofarchetypesmerelythefirststepintheinterpretationofamyth".[95]KarlKernyi,oneofthe
foundersofmodernstudiesinGreekmythology,gaveuphisearlyviewsofmyth,inordertoapplyJung'stheories
ofarchetypestoGreekmyth.[96]

Origintheories
MaxMllerattemptedtounderstandanIndoEuropeanreligiousformbytracingit
backtoitsIndoEuropean(or,inMller'stime,"Aryan")"original"manifestation.
In1891,heclaimedthat"themostimportantdiscoverywhichhasbeenmade
duringthenineteenthcenturywithrespecttotheancienthistoryofmankind...was
thissampleequation:SanskritDyauspitar=GreekZeus=LatinJupiter=Old
NorseTyr".[98]ThequestionofGreekmythology'splaceinIndoEuropeanstudies
hasgeneratedmuchscholarshipsinceMller'stime.Forexample,philologist
GeorgesDumzildrawsacomparisonbetweentheGreekOuranosandtheSanskrit
Varuna,althoughthereisnohintthathebelievesthemtobeoriginally
connected.[99]Inothercases,closeparallelsincharacterandfunctionsuggesta
commonheritage,yetlackoflinguisticevidencemakesitdifficulttoprove,asin
thecaseoftheGreekMoiraiandtheNornsofNorsemythology.[100]
Archaeologyandmythography,ontheotherhand,haverevealedthattheGreeks
werealsoinspiredbysomeofthecivilizationsofAsiaMinorandtheNearEast.
AdonisseemstobetheGreekcounterpartmoreclearlyincultthaninmyth
ofaNearEastern"dyinggod".CybeleisrootedinAnatolianculturewhilemuchof
Aphrodite'siconographymayspringfromSemiticgoddesses.Therearealso
possibleparallelsbetweentheearliestdivinegenerations(Chaosanditschildren)
andTiamatintheEnumaElish.[101]AccordingtoMeyerReinhold,"nearEastern
theogonicconcepts,involvingdivinesuccessionthroughviolenceandgenerational
conflictsforpower,foundtheirway...intoGreekmythology".[102]Inadditionto
IndoEuropeanandNearEasternorigins,somescholarshavespeculatedonthe
furtherreshaping". [97]
debtsofGreekmythologytothepreHellenicsocieties:Crete,Mycenae,Pylos,
ThebesandOrchomenus.[103]Historiansofreligionwerefascinatedbyanumberof
apparentlyancientconfigurationsofmythconnectedwithCrete(thegodasbull,ZeusandEuropa,Pasiphawho
yieldstothebullandgivesbirthtotheMinotauretc.)MartinP.NilssonconcludedthatallgreatclassicalGreek
mythsweretiedtoMycenaencentresandwereanchoredinprehistorictimes.[104]Nevertheless,accordingto
Burkert,theiconographyoftheCretanPalacePeriodhasprovidedalmostnoconfirmationforthesetheories.[105]
ForKarlKernyimythology
is"abodyofmaterial
containedintalesaboutgods
andgodlikebeings,heroic
battlesandjourneystothe
Underworldmythologemis
thebestGreekwordfor
themtalesalreadywell
knownbutnotamenableto

MotifsinWesternartandliterature
ThewidespreadadoptionofChristianitydidnotcurbthepopularityofthemyths.Withtherediscoveryofclassical
antiquityintheRenaissance,thepoetryofOvidbecameamajorinfluenceontheimaginationofpoets,dramatists,
musiciansandartists.[106]FromtheearlyyearsofRenaissance,artistssuchasLeonardodaVinci,Michelangelo,

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andRaphael,portrayedthePagansubjectsofGreekmythologyalongside
moreconventionalChristianthemes.[106]ThroughthemediumofLatinand
theworksofOvid,GreekmythinfluencedmedievalandRenaissancepoets
suchasPetrarch,BoccaccioandDanteinItaly.[2]
InNorthernEurope,Greekmythology
nevertookthesameholdofthevisualarts,
butitseffectwasveryobviousonliterature.
Botticelli'sTheBirthofVenus(c.
TheEnglishimaginationwasfiredby
14851486,oiloncanvas,Uffizi,
GreekmythologystartingwithChaucerand
Florence)arevivedVenusPudica
JohnMiltonandcontinuingthrough
foranewviewofpaganAntiquity
ShakespearetoRobertBridgesinthe20th
isoftensaidtoepitomizeformodern
century.RacineinFranceandGoethein
viewersthespiritofthe
GermanyrevivedGreekdrama,reworking
Renaissance. [2]
theancientmyths.[106]Althoughduringthe
Enlightenmentofthe18thcenturyreaction
againstGreekmythspreadthroughoutEurope,themythscontinuedtoprovidean
TheLamentforIcarusby
importantsourceofrawmaterialfordramatists,includingthosewhowrotethe
HerbertJamesDraper,1898.
librettiformanyofHandel'sandMozart'soperas.[107]Bytheendofthe18th
century,RomanticisminitiatedasurgeofenthusiasmforallthingsGreek,
includingGreekmythology.InBritain,newtranslationsofGreektragediesandHomerinspiredcontemporary
poets(suchasAlfredLordTennyson,Keats,ByronandShelley)andpainters(suchasLordLeightonand
LawrenceAlmaTadema).[108]ChristophGluck,RichardStrauss,JacquesOffenbachandmanyotherssetGreek
mythologicalthemestomusic.[2]Americanauthorsofthe19thcentury,suchasThomasBulfinchandNathaniel
Hawthorne,heldthatthestudyoftheclassicalmythswasessentialtotheunderstandingofEnglishandAmerican
literature.[109]Inmorerecenttimes,classicalthemeshavebeenreinterpretedbydramatistsJeanAnouilh,Jean
Cocteau,andJeanGiraudouxinFrance,EugeneO'NeillinAmerica,andT.S.EliotinBritainandbynovelists
suchasJamesJoyceandAndrGide.[2]

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Furtherreading
Gantz,Timothy(1993).EarlyGreekMyth:AGuidetoLiteraryandArtisticSources.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.
ISBN080184410X.
Graves,Robert(1993)[1955].TheGreekMyths(Cmb/Reped.).Penguin(NonClassics).ISBN0140171991.
Hamilton,Edith(1998)[1942].Mythology(Newed.).BackBayBooks.ISBN0316341517.
Kerenyi,Karl(1980)[1951].TheGodsoftheGreeks(Reissueed.).Thames&Hudson.ISBN0500270481.
Kerenyi,Karl(1978)[1959].TheHeroesoftheGreeks(Reissueed.).Thames&Hudson.ISBN050027049X.
Luchte,James(2011).EarlyGreekThought:BeforetheDawn.Bloomsbury.ISBN0567353311.
MorfordM.P.O.,LenardonL.J.(2006).ClassicalMythology.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0195308050.
Pinsent,John(1972).GreekMythology.Bantam.ISBN9780448008486.
Pinsent,John(1991).MythsandLegendsofAncientGreece.LibraryoftheWorld'sMythsandLegends.PeterBedrick
Books.ISBN9780872262508.
Powell,Barry(2008).ClassicalMyth(6thed.).PrenticeHall.ISBN9780136061717.
Powell,Barry(2001).AShortIntroductiontoClassicalMyth.PrenticeHall.ISBN9780130258397.
RuckCarl,StaplesBlaiseDaniel(1994).TheWorldofClassicalMyth.CarolinaAcademicPress.ISBN0890895759.
Smith,William(1870),DictionaryofGreekandRomanBiographyandMythology(http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith
bio/).
Veyne,Paul(1988).DidtheGreeksBelieveinTheirMyths?AnEssayonConstitutiveImagination.(translatedbyPaula
Wissing).UniversityofChicago.ISBN0226854345.
Woodward,RogerD.(editor)(2007).TheCambridgeCompaniontoGreekMythology.CambridgeNewYork:
CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521845203.

Externallinks
MediarelatedtoGreekmythologyatWikimediaCommons
GreekMyths(http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0093z1k)onInOurTimeattheBBC.(listennow(http://
www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b0093z1k/In_Our_Time_Greek_Myths))
LibraryofClassicalMythologyTexts(http://www.library.theoi.com/)translationsofworksofclassical
literature
LIMCFrance(http://www.limcfrance.fr)providesdatabasesdedicatedtoGraecoRomanmythologyandits
iconography.
TheoiProject,GuidetoGreekMythology(http://www.theoi.com/)biographiesofcharactersfrommythwith
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology

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GreekmythologyWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

quotesfromoriginalsourcesandimagesfromclassicalart
MartinP.Nilsson,TheMycenaeanOriginofGreekMythology(https://books.google.com/books?id=xQzlzY
EUm2QC&pg=PA11&dq=mycenaeans+chronology&hl=en&ei=TDQbTPixEon94Aba58mwCg&sa=X&oi=
book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q&f=false),onGooglebooks
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greek_mythology&oldid=722970210"
Categories: AncientGreekreligion Europeanmythology AncientGreekliterature Greekmythology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology

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