KERN Et Al. Pedo-Geochemical Signatures of Archeological Sites, 2015

Research Article
Pedo-Geochemical Signatures of Archeological Sites in the

Tapirape-Aquiri
National Forest in Maraba,
Amazonia, Brazil
Dirse Clara Kern,1 Jucilene Amorim Costa,2 ,* Maura Imazio da Silveira,1 Elisangela Regina de Oliveira,1
4
Francisco J. Lima Frazao,
1 Jose Francisco Berredo,1 Marcondes Lima da Costa,3 and Nestor Kampf
Departamento de Ciencia
da Terra e Ecologia, Museu Paraense Emlio Goeldi, Belem-Pa,
Brazil
de Geograa, Universidade Federal do Amapa,
Macapa-Ap,
Coordenacao
Brazil
3
Belem Pa, Brazil

Instituto de Geociencias,
Universidade Federal do Para,
4
Departamento de Solos, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil
2
Correspondence
author: E-mail:
jucilene22@bol.com.br
* Corresponding
Received
20 May 2013
Revised
5 February 2015
Accepted
10 February 2015
Scientic editing by Astolfo Araujo
Published online in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com).
The present study aims to interpret the occupation of terra firme (nonflooded
uplands) archeological sites located at Tapirape-Aquiri

National Forest in the
through an integrated analysis of pedological, archeBrazilian state of Para,
ological, and geochemical data. We focus on seven archaeological sites, selected among 22 identified in the region. Radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating indicate distinct periods of occupation over the past 6000 years,
and the pedo-geochemical data identify intra- and inter-site differences in soil.
Archaeological, chronometric, and pedo-geochemical data provide a basis for
the functional classification of archeological sites found in the region and help
to identify specific human activity areas. The results lead us to infer that many
of the archeological sites were the result of multiple occupations that left a
C 2015 Wiley Periodicals,
persistent pedological signature on the landscape.
Inc.
doi 10.1002/gea.21528
INTRODUCTION
Geochemical analyses have been used to identify archeological sites, define the extent of past human activities,
and aid in the interpretation of the use of space (Griffith, 1981; Costa & Kern, 1999; Wells et al., 2000; Terry
et al., 2004; Eberl et al., 2012). However, interpretations of chemical distributional patterns in archeological
soils may be hindered by site-use complexity and post
depositional pedogenic processes (Kern & Kampf,
2005).
Impacts to soil resulting from human activities may be
derived from multiple re-occupations of the site, and
include the remains of constructions, food-preparation
sites, fires, garbage pits, the production of lithic or ceramic utensils, agriculture, irrigation practices, and other
activities (Smith, 1980, Heckenberger et al., 2003; Kipnis, Caldarelli, & Oliveira, 2005; Neves, 2008; Machado,
2009; Sanchez-P
erez
et al., 2013). Common chemical elements added to soil by these human activities include C,
N, P, Ca, and in smaller quantities, K, Mg, S, Cu, Mn, and
Zn (Holliday, 2004:298303).
Addition of organic material to soil derived from plant
and animal remains as a result of past human activities
430
is commonly recognized by dark coloration (dark brown

to black) in the uppermost horizons. Indian Dark Earth
or Archeological Dark Earth (ADE) is the most notable
example of this feature in the Amazon Basin. Dark coloration, derived from the presence of organic material,
has been used to identify archeological sites. In addition to their elevated carbon content, Amazonian ADE
soils commonly contain archeological remains, primarily
in the form of ceramic fragments, and high concentrations of P and C, contrasting considerably with surrounding natural soils. High concentrations of P, Ca, Zn, Cu,
and Mg are commonly associated with deposits of charcoal residues, bones, and feces, associated with habitations, fires for food preparation, and garbage pits. In this
sense, the ADEs are habitation sites at which the depth
and extent of the area occupied are related to the time
span of occupation, the type of past human activities, and
the size of the local population (number of individuals inhabiting the site).
This anthro-pedogenic process may be associated with
or occur within extensive areas of more lightly-colored
soil, which may also have relatively high concentrations
of organic material, but lower levels of P and Ca, as well
C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451 Copyright
KERN ET AL.
GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA
as lower artifact densities. These soils, known as Terra

Mulata (TM), are thought to be the result of past agricultural activities, in particular the frequent use of fires
to clear vegetation resulting in the production of pyrogenic charcoal (Sombroek, 1966; Mora et al., 1991;
Woods, McCann, & Meyer, 2000; McCann, Woods, &
Meyer, 2001). Smaller sites with low density archeological remains, and lower concentrations of the chemical
elements mentioned above, have been interpreted as
campsites associated with temporary habitation of short
duration (Silveira et al., 2008, 2009).
A recurring theme in the discussion of prehistoric
human occupation of the Amazon Basin has been the
mobility, origin, population density, and the social and
political complexity of indigenous residents. According
to Meggers (1996), scarcity of natural resources is the
limiting factor for subsistence and thus to the expansion of indigenous populations, hindering their evolution toward more complex and stratified societies. Archeological research over the past few decades has nevertheless demonstrated diverse human subsistence strategies beginning with mobile Paleoindian foragers and
culminating in the Pre-Colonial Period with relatively
densely populated and complex indigenous societies,
(Roosevelt, 1994,
such as those of Marajo and Santarem
2002).
Current research that integrates ethnoarchaeological,
zooarchaeological, paleobotanical (e.g., charcoal, phytoliths, starch grains, diatoms, pollen, and other microvestiges), pedological, and geochemical data indicate
not only a systematic human adaptation to the tropical
environment, but also the management and even domestication of cultigens, confirming more dynamic interactions and cultural exchanges between these ancient
groups than previously assumed (Roosevelt, 2002; Heckenberger et al., 2003; Kipnis, Caldarelli, & Oliveira, 2005;
Almeida, 2008; Neves, 2008; Silveira et al., 2008, 2009;
Oliveira & Silveira 2009a; Machado, 2009; Caromano,
2010; Cascon, 2010; among others). As a contribution
to this ongoing debate, the present study analyzes the
occupation patterns of terra firme archeological sites in
the Tapirape-Aquiri
National Forest based on the spatial
distribution of chemical elements in the soil. We integrate pedological, archeological, and geochemical data to
demonstrate human contributions to the pedogenic mosaic of the Amazon Basin and what it means with respect
to past human settlement.
municipality of Maraba (MC 51 coordinates between

552 49.592 S, 5041 34.251 W and 541 57.514 S,
region, approximately 600 km
5025 19.278 W), Carajas
south of the city of Belem,

capital of the Brazilian
state of Para (Figure 1). The reserve covers a total area
of approximately 80,000 km, which is drained mainly
by the Salobo, Mirim, and Cinzento Rivers, all tributaries of the Itacaiunas
River (Figure 2; Silveira et al.,
2009).
Recent paleoenvironmental studies from the Carajas

region (Hermanowski et al., 2012; Hermanowski, Costa,
& Behling, 2014) indicate that stable and extremely humid conditions at the beginning of the Holocene led
to rainforest expansion. Subsequently, during the midHolocene, the Amazon Basin was affected by much
warmer and drier climate which shifted plant community
boundaries over the past 3400 years to form the tropical rainforest as it is known today. Witness to this late
Holocene biogeographic reorganization were prehistoric
ceramist peoples, thus complicating the discrimination
between natural and cultural environmental changes.
The ADEs developed within this cultural and climatic
regime. Today the local climate is typical of the humid
tropics, with high temperatures and humidity, consistent
with the Awi category of the Koppen

classification system, that is, humid tropical with annual precipitation of
20002400 mm. Mean monthly temperatures vary between 24.3C and 28.3C (Rolim et al., 2006). There are
two well-defined seasonsa dry season between June
and November, and a rainy season between December
and May. Geologically, the area is part of the Amazo Mineral Province, characterized by the heavnian Carajas
ily folded and faulted Precambrian rocks of the Serra
massif, with a mean altitude of around 700
dos Carajas
m above sea level (asl), which is composed of flattened
residual hilltops dissected by deep valleys (IBGE, 1974).
Soils are dominated by Ferralsols (Latosols) and Acrisols,
also known as Argisols (IUSS Working Group WRB,
2006), over which human-altered soils (Anthrosols) have
developed.
The study area is dominated by different environment types, including open submontane rainforest with
palms, dense submontane rainforest, and alluvial rainforest. The predominant tree species include the Brazilnut (Bertholletia excelsa) and the horse-eye bean tree
(Ormosia paraensis), as well as the andiroba (Carapa guianensis), copaba (Copaifera multijuga), and the babacu palm
(Orbignya speciosa). Fauna are diverse, with many mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, and fish species, as well as
insects. These species tend to concentrate in the alluvial
forests and hillsides, rather than the hilltops (Brandt Meio
Ambiente, 1998, 2003). This presumably accounts for the
concentration of archeological sites in the former areas,
STUDY AREA
The study area is located in the eastern portion of
the Tapirape-Aquiri
National Forest (FLONATA) in the
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451

Copyright
431
KERN ET AL.
Figure 1 Location of the Salobo study area in northern Brazil.
that is, greater biodiversity provides more favorable conditions for human subsistence.
Overall, the study area encompasses an extensive hydrographic network dominated by forests with heterogenous local microclimates supporting a diversity of plant
and animal life. These factors favored the establishment of human settlements over at least the past 3400
years.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND

MATERIALS
Twenty-two archeological sites were identified within the
study area, located within three separate hydrological
basins of the Salobo, Mirim, and Cinzento Rivers. Twelve
sites were identified in an area of 11 km2 within the Salobo River Basin, whereas five sites were identified in an
area of 7 km2 and 3 km2 within the Cinzento and Mirim
River Basins, respectively (Figure 2). Archaeological sites
are located primarily in low elevation areas and alluvial
deposits along the margins of rivers and streams at altitudes below 170 m asl. Exceptions include sites 4 Alfa and
P32 which are found on hilly terrain at altitudes of 175
300 m asl. All the sites are delimited by natural features,
such as hill slopes, springs, and bends and meanders in
water courses (Silveira & Rodrigues, 2009; Silveira et al.,
2009).
432
During initial fieldwork (Silveira et al., 2007,

2008, 2009; Oliveira & Silveira 2009a; Silveira &
Rodrigues, 2009), it was possible to establish a functional
classification system for the settlements, based on their
size, depth, and other evidence such as soil color and the
abundance and distribution of archaeological remains.
According to this system, all sites were classified as habitation or camp sites. Habitation sites are characterized
by large boundaries (26,00086,000+ m), thick (60
150 cm) archaeological layers, patches of ADE (Munsell
values 4 and color categories black, very dark brown,
very dark grayish brown, and very dark reddish brown),
and large quantities of ceramics and other archeological
remains, both at and below the surface, concentrated in
specific areas of the settlement. Camp sites also contain
ceramics but are smaller in area (<25,000 m) with
thinner (2030 cm) archaeological layers, much lower
densities of cultural remains, and no ADEs (soil only
slightly darker than that of the surrounding area). At
some of these sites, such as Barfi, a number of polished
stone axe blades, in different styles and sizes, have been
found.
We identified eight habitation sites and 14 camp sites
within the study area (Silveira et al., 2007, 2008, 2009;
Oliveira & Silveira, 2009a), although for the present
study, only seven sites were selected for detailed analysis (Table I, Figure 3). These include three habitation sites
with ADE, two without ADE, and two camp sites.

KERN ET AL.
Figure 2 Topographic map of archeological sites and other features within the Salobo study area.
METHODS
Fieldwork
Fieldwork was conducted in a series of stages, starting with the identification of each archeological site and
recording UTM coordinates using a handheld GPS, georeferenced to the South America 69 datum (Silveira
& Rodrigues, 2009). Experimental probes1 were dug
in selected areas, including marginal sites, in order to
probes were small excavations of 50 cm 50 cm or 1 m
1 m, which in some cases were placed over pre-existing holes
made by animals or trees to minimize impact.
1 These
document stratigraphy and occurrence of in situ remains

as well as better determine site boundaries.
Based on site and topographic surveys, a 1 m 1 m
grid was established in each area, and units were selected
for excavation (trenches, sections, probes, and/or profiles,
as required) in such a way as to provide the most representative sample and help define the distribution and
density of the archeological remains. The selection of areas for excavation was based on the presence or absence
of patches of darker soil and the density of archeological remains, both on the surface and at depth. In areas of
ADE or darker soil, the melanized patches were counted

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KERN ET AL.
Table I Sites selected for the present study including presence/absence

of Archaeological Dark Earth.
in the surrounding area (between patches), as shown in

the case of excavation 1 (Figure 5). In the case of patch A,
for example, eight sectors (E1S1E1S8) were excavated
within a total area measuring 14 m 9 m. Sectors E1S1,
E1S2, and E1S3, located outside the ADE, were characterized by lighter colored soil, with few archeological remains. In sectors E1S4, E1S5, E1S6, and E1S7, located in
the transition zone, more cultural remains were found,
and the soil is slightly darker. Sector E1S8, located in the
ADE patch, was characterized by the largest quantity of
archeological remains (Figure 6).
In addition to excavations by sector, trenches of varying sizes (1.0 m 0.50 m, 1 m 3 m, 1 m 5 m, and
so on) were dug at selected sites, and were identified by
T (Trench). These trenches were established in order to
obtain a better understanding of the pattern of occupation and define areas of ADE or darker soil, as well as
complementary samples of archeological remains. Some
of these trenches were excavated contiguously, following
the archeological layers defined in the principal excavations (Figure 7). Areas peripheral to the settlement sites
were also excavated.
During the delimitation of ADE patches, profiles were
drawn, on which the color of the soil and the occurrence
of archeological remainsverified using boreholes2 at
1 m intervals following the cardinal compass points
were noted. The excavation of sectors, probes, and
trenches was conducted by stripping down the natural
layers (Kneip et al., 1991) following the stratigraphy of
the terrain, which permitted the identification of changes
in the archeological levels. The natural levels are defined
by sediments whereas archaeological levels are indicated
by changes in cultural material. Each level was numbered
and named accorded to its most prominent characteristic.
In the excavations (sectors and trenches), subdata were
established in order to more accurately measure the
Area (ha)
Archeological
Site
Site Type
Maximum
Depth (m)
Presence
of ADE
Total
ADEs
Bitoca 1
Bitoca 2
Cachorro Cego
Alex
Mirim
Bar
4 Alfa
Habitation
Habitation
Habitation
Habitation
Habitation
Camp site
Camp site
1.50
0.70
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.30
0.30
Yes
Yes
Yes
Noa
Noa
No
No
9.00
6.25
20.62
24.00
12.50
0.24
0.48
0.17
0.05
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
ADE: Archeological Dark Earth.

a
Contain patches of darker soil, which do not satisfy the color criteria of
the dark ADE soils, associated with high concentrations of archeological
remains.
and measured, as were areas between the patches and

boundaries of each archeological site.
Topographic survey of the sites was based on orthophotomaps with 1 m contours. This approach was complemented using a TOPCON total station for the identification of reference points for each site, such as streams,
springs, rocky outcrops, stands of Brazil-nut and acai
palm, and archaeological excavations. Subdata were established in relation to the topography of the surface in
order to provide better control of the stratigraphy and location of the archeological remains (Silveira & Rodrigues,
2009).
The excavation sites, labeled E, were plotted with a
1 m 1 m grid, with each cell considered to be a sector (S). The surface layer of these sites was searched systematically and sectors were selected for excavation. Excavated areas were referenced by the excavation site (E)
identified by its respective number, followed by the sector
(S) number. For example, 13 patches of ADE were found
at site Bitoca 1 and were coded A through M for excavation (Figure 4). In order to ensure a conclusive understanding of the characteristics of each ADE patch, excavations were conducted within and around each patch, and
2 Initially, a simple articulated auger was used to dig the boreholes, but during later fieldwork, an Eijkelcamp soil core sampler
(04.06.06 mineral gouge auger, 13 mm diameter, total length
110 cm, graduation of 5 cm) was used.
Figure 3 Excavation units and examples of soils. (a) Bitoca 1habitation site with Archaeological Dark Earth; (b) Alexhabitation site without ArchaeoC Maura I Silveira.
logical Dark Earth; (c) Barcamp site without Archaeological Dark Earth. Photography
434

KERN ET AL.
Figure 4 Distribution of Archaeological Dark Earth patches found the Bitoca 1 site.
depth and configuration of the layers, and the material

found in situ. Assessment of the vertical (temporal) and
horizontal (spatial) parameters and the resulting archeological evidence (depth and location) is fundamentally
important for the contextualization of the archeological
samples. The excavation of different sectors within each
site permitted the definition of areas used for specific activities, trails, and peripheral zones.
Archeological strata were identified, described, and
drawn based on stratigraphic profiles and excavations,
that is, sedimentary characteristics and the incidence
and distribution of archeological remains. This procedure
helped provide a detailed understanding of occupational
history at each site.
A Munsell (1964) chart was used to document soil
color. The layers were excavated and defined according
soil characteristics (e.g., color, compaction, moisture content, etc.) and the archeological evidence they contained
(e.g., presence/absence of remains, increase/decrease in
remains, specific features, and structures). In addition to
the archeological material, soil samples were collected by
level in a vertical column, and horizontally from the center of the patch outwards. Archaeological remains were
maintained in situ, as long as possible for documentation.
All excavated sediments were sieved ( and 1/8 mm) and
the material recovered was stored separately from the remains found in situ.
All data were recorded on standard data forms (boreholes, probes, excavation, sector or trench, level, polishers), and combined with photographic and illustrated
documentation. The latter included drawings of specific
features or structures, with each object or group of objects

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KERN ET AL.
C Maura I Silveira.
Figure 5 Excavations within Archaeological Dark Earth Patch A at the Bitoca 1 site Photography
extracted from these soil patches numbered and stored

separately (Silveira & Rodrigues, 2009).
Chemical Analysis and Dating

Soil samples were air dried, crushed, divided into four
subsamples, ground in an agate mortar, and passed
through a <0.125 mm sieve. Inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to determine concentrations of Al2 O3 , Fe2 O3 , P2 O5 , CaO, MgO, K2 O,
Na2 O, Mn, Cu, and Zn. The samples were first digested in
a multiacid medium (fluorhydric, nitric, and hydrochloric
acid, and drops of perchloric acid), for subsequent analysis by ICP-MS at the laboratories of Lakefield Geosol
C Maura I Silveira.
Figure 6 Post holes (a) and high density of archeological material (b) at the Bitoca 1 site. Photography
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KERN ET AL.
C Maura I Silveira.
Figure 7 Trenches excavated at the Bitoca 2 site. Photography
Ltd. (Geosol, 2013; also see Holliday & Gartner, 2007;

Hutson et al., 2009). The mean concentrations of P2 O5 ,
CaO, MgO, K2 O, Cu, Mn, and Zn are much higher in
the ADEs, and represent a geochemical signature as recognized by Kern (1996), Costa and Kern (1999), Goffer (2007), and Costa, Costa, and Kern (2013). Statistical
procedures (scatter plot and cluster analysis) were conducted in Statistica (version 6.0).
Archaeological sites were dated using 14 C and thermoluminescence (TL) methods. Charcoal collected from
archeological sites was submitted to Beta Analytic, Inc.
and dated using a particle accelerator coupled to a mass
spectrometer. Dates were calibrated with the INTCAL04
radiocarbon age calibration database (Talma & Vogel,
1993). Quartz-grain TL dating of ceramics was performed
Comercio
de
by the laboratory at Datacao,
& Prestacao
Servico Ltda., using the accumulated and annual dose
methods (Aitken, 1985, 1990).
RESULTS
Archeology and Chronology
In general terms, the most common ceramic material
found at the sites was hand-built by the coiling method
with crushed rock used as temper. The use of black, red,
and white pigments for the decoration of the vessels was

less common than the application of plastic decoration
alterations of the still-pliable surface using either tools
and/or handsof which the most common types were
incisions, brushing, scraping, nail marks fingernail punctate, stippling punctate, roll-marks coiled, and stamps
(Figure 8). A number of items were found in addition to
fragments of vessels, such as spindle whorls, balls of clay,
(zoomorphic and anthropomorphic) used
and appliques
to decorate utensils or function as inhalers.
The technological, morphological, and stylistic characteristics of the ceramic material were generally consistent with the Tupiguarani tradition (Figueiredo, 1965;
Brochado, 1981; Prous, 1992). However, a number of
the ceramic artifacts present production techniques and
decorationssuch as modeled zoomorphic and anthro
pomorphic appliquesthat
are similar to those observed
on objects commonly found in the region of the Tapajos

River basin (Roosevelt, 1987; Gomes, 2008). This is in addition to certain types of decoration (incisions and punc culture of
tated) and dating consistent with the Santarem
the 10th and 11th centuries A.D., indicating a relationship with this culture.
The most common chipped stone artifacts were flakes
and scrapers made of quartz, quartzite, and silexite. The
polished material consists of axe blades, diggers, and

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KERN ET AL.
(c: Bitoca 1 site).

Figure 8 Ceramic artifacts from study area include modeled zoomorphic (a: 4 Alfa site; b: Mirim site) and anthropomorphic appliques
C Maura I Silveira.
Photography
adornments (Figure 9). In addition to these artifacts, partially made stone beads and pendants representing various stages of the production process (Figure 9) were
found at the ADE habitation sites (Rodet et al., 2014).
In the habitation sites, the irregular distribution of
archeological material associated with variations in soil
color allowed for the identification of distinct activity areas, with different functions or uses. As mentioned, these
sites present patches of ADE or darker soils of variable
dimensions (the smallest at the Cachorro Cego site measuring 3 m 3 m and the largest at Bitoca 1 site measuring 20 m 15 m), and differences in the age and thickness of the cultural layer. Within archaeological sites, 80
ADE patches were identified and most of them were excavated. Archaeological refuse is more abundant in the
center of each patch, where the ADE is deeper, becoming shallower on the borders. The ADE patches tend to
have a large and diverse assemblage of ceramics and lithic
materials, the latter including polished axe blades and
adornos, quartz, quartzite and silexite and Scrapers, and
iron oxide probably used for red pigments. Also present
are large amounts of charcoal, post holes, and bonfires remains (concentration of burned clay and stones, ceramics, ashes, carbonized seeds, animal bones, and teeth).
Archaeological remains suggest that the ADE patches

were ancient houses/habitation structures, where people
executed diverse daily activities such as food preparation,
craft production (lithic, ceramic, and organic artifacts),
among others (Silveira et al., 2007, 2008, 2009; Pereira
et al., 2008; Silveira & Oliveira, 2010a,b, 2011; Oliveira
& Silveira, 2010, 2011). The soil is lighter and more compact in areas between different ADE patches. In these areas, the archaeological layer is thinner with lower density
archaeological remains. At the sites Bitoca 1 and 2, both
located at the bank of Salobo River, polishing areas were
recorded in basaltic rocks.
Archeological remains and chronometric evidence indicate that the overlap of dark soil or ADE patches are
the result of relocating huts or re-occupation of the sites
(Table II). The habitation sites were established by sedentary groups that subsisted by hunting, fishing, the gathering of fruit, and probably some agriculture. Natural resources were gathered from strategic areas, where the
archeological evidence indicates a less intense pattern of
occupation over shorter periods, with these areas being
referred to here as camp sites.
While the ceramics encountered during the present
study are generally consistent with the Tupiguarani
Figure 9 Stone artifacts from study area include (a) axe blades (shown in situ) at the Bar Site, (b) pendant and (c) unnished stone beads, both from the
C Maura I Silveira.
Bitoca 1 Site. Photography
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KERN ET AL.
Table II Chronological summary of archeological site occupations analyzed in the present study, based on thermoluminescence and 14 C dating (source:
Silveira et al., 2008). See Supplemental Table S1 for full list of numerical ages.
Site
Occupations
Calibrated 14 C Agesa (Beta no.)
Thermoluminescence Agesb (FATEC no.)
Bar (campsite)
Oldest
Intermediate
Youngest
Oldest
Intermediate
Youngest
Oldest
Intermediate
Intermediate
Youngest
Oldest
Intermediate
Intermediate
Youngest
Oldest
Intermediate
Youngest
Oldest
Intermediate
Youngest
Oldest
Intermediate
Intermediate
Intermediate
Youngest
13201240 cal. yr B.P. (217608)

650520 cal. yr B.P. (217609)
12501050 cal. yr B.P. (195709)
1060920 cal. yr B.P. (195708)
670489 cal. yr B.P. (227305)
490300 cal. yr B.P. (195707)
540440 and 350340 cal. yr B.P. (227308)

640590 and 560500 cal. yr B.P. (227309)
510310 cal. yr B.P. (227307)
53105040 cal. yr B.P. (243652)
15601390 cal. yr B.P. (243666)
490290 cal. yr B.P. (243657)
27302360 cal. yr B.P. (217593)
16201480 and 14701430 cal. yr B.P. (217592)
12901060 cal. yr B.P. (227303)
67106430 cal. yr B.P. (217602)
42503970 cal. yr B.P. (217599)
13201170 cal. yr B.P. (217601)
12901060 cal. yr B.P. (227303)
910670 cal. yr B.P. (217600)
1150 127 (LVD 1258)
600 50 (LVD 1257)

2450 300 (LVD 1487)
1300 170 (LVD 1259)
4 Alfa (campsite)
Bitoca 1 (habitation)
Bitoca 2 (habitation)
Cachorro Cego (habitation)
Alex (habitation)
Mirim (habitation)
a
b
Calibrated 14 C ages are years before A.D. 1950 and provided at two sigma; provide calibration dataset reference (e.g., INTCAL04; Talma & Vogel, 1993).
Thermoluminescence ages are years before year of analysis.
tradition, the diversity of material culture indicates a relatively complex scenario for the region. Contemporary
dating, as well as the technological and decorative aspects of some ceramic artifacts are consistent with the
incised-dotted tradition of the ceramic industries found
and Trombetas (Guapindaia,
in the regions of Santarem
1993, 2008; Gomes, 2002; Pereira et al., 2008; Silveira &
Oliveira, 2010b; Oliveira & Silveira, 2009b, 2010, 2011).
Radiocarbon and TL results indicate 6000 years of occupation within the study area (Table II). Most sites date
to the ceramic period. However, four sitesMirim, Marinaldo, Cachorro Cego, and Abrahambelong to a much
older period contemporary with cave sites in the Carajas

region, farther south, where some of the earliest dates
for colonization of the Amazon basin have been recorded
(Hilbert & Barreto, 1988; Lopes, Silveira, & Magalhaes,

1988; Silveira, 1994; Roosevelt et al., 1996).
Soil Geochemical Characteristics

Archaeological sites with ADE patches are characterized by higher concentrations of P, Ca, Mg, and Mn in
comparison with peripheral areas (Figure 10; Table III). In
addition, statistical analyses indicate a clear separation of

habitation sites with ADE, habitation sites without ADE,
and camps (Figure 11a). The three types of site are also
clearly separated when the full set of elements is analyzed (Figure 11b). In this analysis, Group 1, which represents the habitation sites with ADE, is isolated from the
other sites, while Group 2 (habitation sites without ADE)
and Group 3 (camps) are separate, but more closely related than either is to Group 1 (Figure 11b). The highest
and lowest levels of P were recorded in the ADEs of the
Bitoca 2 (B2) and Cachorro Cego (CC) sites, respectively.
In addition, the mean and minimum levels of P at the
sites without ADE (Barfi, 4 Alfa, Alex, and Mirim) were
higher than those of the ADE at the sites Bitoca 1 (B1)
and Cachorro Cego. The lowest Ca levels were recorded
in the peripheral areas of sites Bitoca 1 and 2, while the
lowest mean levels of K were found at Bitoca 1. Magnesium levels were irregular, with both the highest and
lowest concentrations recorded in the ADEs.
Campfires associated with the occupations generated
charcoal and ash, the latter containing high levels of P,
K, and Ca. Excavations in the ADE patches revealed areas of probable food preparation and consumption and

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439
KERN ET AL.
Figure 10 Mean concentrations of chemical elements at (a) sites with Archaeological Dark Earth (ADE) soils, and (b) sites without ADE soils.
disposal of waste. The analyzed samples of these areas presented high concentrations of P and Ca. Areas adjacent to the archaeological sites showed lower
concentrations of these elements, although these levels are still higher than those in the surrounding unoccupied areas (Middleton, 2004; Terry et al., 2004).
This indicates that the formation of ADEs at the habitation sites may have been related to the preparation (campfires) and processing of foods (remains of
fish or game, fruits, vessels, etc.), residues of ingested foodstuffs (excrement), and burials (human remains, urns, vestments, etc.), in addition to other activities (Neves et al., 2003). The processing of foods
and the continuous burning of refuse are probably an
440
important source of organic material resulting from incomplete combustion (pyrogenic carbon, charcoal). Leftovers such as fish and game bones are especially rich in P
and Ca (Lima et al., 2002; Lehmann et al., 2003). Cooking vessels often present high concentrations of P, derived
from the preparation of foods rich in this element, such
as fish (Costa et al., 2006). Palm leaves, which are used
to thatch shelters, and are renewed periodically, may also
be an important source of K, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Mn for the
ADEs (Kern et al., 1999).
Of all the elements analyzed in this study, the levels of
P and Ca (and to a lesser extent, Mg) are the most closely
related to human activities. In general, higher concentrations of the analyzed elements were found in the

8.30 1.14
7.309.50
4.10 0.34
3.704.40
843 353
3641410
2410 1700
8616697
576 217
280932
715 112
568926
459 147
318693
62 10
4477
43 6
3156
9.46 3.00
5.0017.30
4.40 1.20
2.807.14
1170 726
3183412
3968 3184
62013,243
761 232
3111242
737 98
547926
524 161
196798
69 12
51105
53 12
3476
Al2 O3 (%)

Copyright
ADE: Archeological Dark Earth; na: not analyzed.
Zn
Cu
Mn
K2 O
MgO
CaO
P2 O5
Fe2 O3 (%)
Bitoca 1
Periphery (13)
Bitoca 1 ADEs
(33)
Sites (Number
of Samples)
9.54 2.0
6.5314.63
5.60 1.25
2.717.73
3836 2313
3629517
2885 3476
53012,583
995 342
5911904
1321 359
6182261
430 173
235776
84 13
54107
49 9
3666
Bitoca 2 ADEs
(27)
12.53 3.26
8.7614.6
8.03 2.10
7.1010.4
2569 2560
4355409
1421 442
8612152
588 83
491641
1370 71
12951434
616 71
534659
110 19
80117
46 5
4150
Bitoca 2
Periphery (3)
na
20.50 7.30
12.0029.00
6.00 2.19
3.608.60
799 300
6001401
1301 1374
4004004
658 97
501802
1280 157
10961594
442 230
264768
na
Cachorro Cego
ADE (7)
na
16.50 6.00
6.3026.00
7.60 2.40
4.2011.00
769 94
7001000
592 1007
2003904
761 199
5011202
3013 1664
8304648
580 362
2401248
na
Cachorro Cego
Periphery (13)
10.86 2.85
7.2915.57
7.70 1.53
5.6811.41
1656 1088
7725182
2971 2581
7619790
873 84
5811363
1118 994
6315071
858 215
4281033
167 43
105262
46 5
3856
Alex (19)
Table III Geochemical signatures of the archeological sites in the Salobo study area. Units are milligram/kilogram unless otherwise noted.
6.52 1.20
3.878.96
7.72 1.18
4.851042
1198 350
6572045
3406 2319
91310,715
945 215
6661900
1606 227
11732315
3182 442
21714488
72 12
44101
96 13
75149
Mirim (56)
5.75 1.02
4.167.55
7.00 1.18
5.419.12
1493 266
10881791
3116 2885
5989074
1648 267
13092014
2813 276
22643121
2210 143
19742462
127 18
101158
76 10
6190
Bar (8)
7.2 0.931
5.88.5
11 2.1
5.113
1770 266
14312256
2329 2134
5447490
745 260
4961207
1063 158
9161517
2382 186
21252782
357 117
36463
20 13
1362
4 Alfa (12)
KERN ET AL.
441
KERN ET AL.
Figure 11 Multielemental analysis of the three archaeological site types: (a) ternary diagram displaying habitation sites with Archaeological Dark Earth
(ADE; Bitoca 2), habitation sites without ADE (Alex), and camp sites (Bar); (b) cluster analysis of habitation sites with ADE (B1Bitoca 1), habitation sites
without ADE (Mirim), and camp sites (4 Alfa).
upper solum or near-surface (anthropogenic soil layer),

decreasing down the soil profile, as shown in Figure 12a.
In this case, the highest levels of P and Ca were normally
442
associated with the highest concentrations of archeological remains, in particular ceramic fragments. The high
levels of Ca found in the exchangeable complexes of the

KERN ET AL.
Figure 12 Vertical distributions of (a) P and Ca in soil proles at Cachorro Cego, (b) Zn and Mn in soil proles at Bitoca 1, and (c) Mn and Cu in soil proles
at Alex.
ADEs may relate to the pronounced humification of these

soils, which favors biological activity, making the organic
material less soluble, and thus forming more stable aggregates (Lima et al., 2002).
Higher P levels were found in subsurface layers of
the ADEs at Bitoca 1 (3400 mg/kg) and Bitoca 2
(9500 mg/kg), as well as parts of Alex (5200 mg/kg),
whereas the concentrations in peripheral areas at all
sites ranged 10005400 mg/kg. The higher P levels were
generally associated with higher levels of Ca. Phospho-
rus levels varied irregularly with depth in the ADEs but

more systematically in peripheral areas. A similar pattern
was recorded in ADE profiles in Melgaco and Oriximina,
also in Para (Kern & Kampf,

1989, 2005; Kern, 1996).
The lower P levels recorded at Cachorro Cego may reflect a shorter or less intense occupation at this site. The
other Salobo sites have mean P levels higher than the
anones recorded in ADE at Manduquinha in Caxiuana,
where a mean level of 1000 mg/kg
other site in Para,
was recorded in the surface layer (Costa & Kern, 1999).

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443
KERN ET AL.
Calcium also occurs at high levels in Solobo (mean of

3968 mg/kg in the surface layer), showing a similar pattern to that observed in other places of the Amazonia,
such as 3000 mg/kg at ADE-2 in Juruti and even higher
levels on the order of 6300 mg/kg in the surface layer at
Manduquinha in Caxiuana (Kern, 1996; Costa & Kern,
1999; Costa, Costa, & Kern, 2013).
Phosphorus concentrations are irregularly distributed
in the soil profiles, whereas those of Ca and Mg decrease
regularly, and K varied little with depth. Given the low
mobility of P in soil, this irregular pattern appears to reflect temporal variation within the deposits, that is, organic material left during successive periods of occupation. Differences between sites in P and Ca levels are
probably a reflection of variations in the levels of human
activities, in terms of the intensity, type, and duration of
re-occupations. It is interesting to note that concentrations of these elements are also relatively high in the peripheral areas, often being higher than those recorded in
the patches of ADE. While archeological material is much
scarcer in these areas, the levels of these chemical elements suggest that the disposal of organic residues by
the local inhabitants may have been spread over a much
wider area. The geochemical signatures at the campsites
(Barfi and 4 Alfa) also indicate the disposal of significant
quantities of organic waste by indigenous residents, even
though archeological material is relatively scarce, and the
occupation layer is not deep (<30 cm). Whereas the occupation of these sites may have been temporary, the evidence indicates that re-occupation occurred over a period
of hundreds of years. This reinforces the need to conduct
excavations at sites other than those with patches of ADE.
While higher concentrations of certain chemical elements (and ceramic fragments) are characteristic of areas
with ADE, significant differences in these levels are found
among the ADE patches located within a given site (e.g.,
at Bitoca 1 and 2) as well as among sites. In general, concentrations tend to decrease from the center of the ADEs
to their periphery, with the lowest values recorded in areas adjacent to the ADEs, on the periphery of the archeological sites, and in external areas. There are a number of notable exceptions, however. Relatively high concentrations and considerable within-site variation were
recorded at Alex and Mirim, for example, where there is
no ADE. At Bitoca 1, one ADE patch is characterized by
a high P content at the center, together with relatively
low values, similar to those recorded in adjacent areas.
In another ADE patch at this same site, P levels were
lower than those recorded in the peripheral area of this
site. This suggests that human activity at this site was extremely variable, being concentrated in, but not confined
to the ADE area. Overall, the geochemical results reflect
the variation in anthropogenic impacts and the distribu-
tion of human influences both within and beyond the

limits of the archeological sites, which were defined initially by visual evidence (color and artifact density).
High levels of P and Ca in areas of human activity at
sites with no ADE have been recorded in other archeological studies (Sjoberg, 1976; Griffith, 1981; Tisdale,
Nelson, & Beaton, 1984; Woods, 1984; Freestone & Middleton, 1987; Loganathan & Sutton, 1987; Wells et al.,
2000; Holliday, 2004:298303; Middleton, 2004; Terry
et al., 2004). It is also well-established that the formation
of ADE demands a significant input of C, in the form
of organic and pyrogenic residues, which are derived
from activities typically conducted during relatively long
periods of occupation. Intense or long-term human
activities may contribute to an increase in the levels of
chemical elements such as P and Ca, without increasing
C levels, and thus not contribute to the melanization
process, resulting in the formation of anthropogenic soils
which lack the characteristic dark coloration of the ADEs,
or the features typical of TM.
Of the minor elements, Mn and Zn are found in higher
concentrations in the upper stratigraphic layers, and
decline systematically with increasing depth, indicating
a close relationship with human activities at Bitoca 1,
Bitoca 2, Cachorro Cego, and Alex (Figure 12b and c).
Zinc, Mn, and Cu all typically occur at relatively low
concentrations in Amazonian soils, ranging from 1 to
5 mg/kg, with levels increasing in the ADEs (Kern, 1988;
Rodrigues, 1996). In the archeological sites at Cachoeira
Porteira, for example, Zn, Mn, and Cu mean concentrations were 60, 1000, and 40 mg/kg, respectively, whereas
slightly lower levels were recorded (Zn =
at Caxiuana,
28 mg/kg, Mn = 445 mg/kg, Cu = 15 mg/kg). At 4 Alfa,
Mn levels were the highest found anywhere in the study
area, with maximum levels of 20602330 mg/kg. These
values are similar to those recorded at Barfi, but four
times higher than those found at the next highest site,
Bitoca 1 (mean of 500 mg/kg). At all other sites, Mn
concentrations were below 1000 mg/kg (Table III). The
increasing concentrations of these metals at deeper levels
in the profile indicate the influence of enriched natural
sources of these elements, specifically, Cu-Zn mineralizations in the Salobo area. In other words, local geological
anomalies, rather than anthropogenic factors, account
for the high levels of Mn at Mirim, Barfi, and 4 Alfa, of
Cu at Barfi and 4 Alfa, and of Zn at Mirim and Barfi.
444
Classication of Soils at the Archeological Sites

At each site, soils that satisfy the prerequisites for classification as ADE (dark coloration, presence of ceramic
fragments, increased fertility derived from human activity) were distinguished from those which were not dark

KERN ET AL.
in color, and thus did not present the basic characteristic of an ADE. The latter soils not only failed to qualify as ADEs, but also as TM, given that they not only
lacked high concentrations of chemical elements (P, Ca,
etc.) and ceramic artifacts but also presented no evidence
of agricultural activities such as high concentrations of
bio-charcoal from swidden burn-off. Chronometric evidence indicates that these sites (both campsites and habitation sites) which lack ADE were re-occupied less frequently and for shorter periods (the last occupation was
in the 14th century) in comparison with the ADE sites,
where occupation was recorded up to the 1618th centuries. An alternative approach would be to consider all
the soils as ADEs, as proposed by Woods and McCann
(1999). However, this proves to be inadequate due to the
absence of darker coloration, even in soils with significant
amounts of archeological remains. In this case, dark coloration would not be an adequate criterion for the classification of all archeological soils in the Salobo region.
As an alternative, Kampf
et al. (2003, 2010) proposed a key to the classification of archeo-anthrosols,
which attempts to contemplate the full variety of soils
affected by past human activities, including ADEs and
other types of archeological soils. Based on morphological and geochemical data, we use this key to classify representative soil profiles at the Salobo archeological sites
(Table IV). Hortic-cultural ebonic archeo-anthrosols
present evidence of formation through the disposal of
domestic residues in residential areas (hortic); abundant
ceramic and stone artifacts indicate the cultural traditions of the occupants (cultural). In addition, the soils are
dark in color (ebonic) and have archeological layers >60
cm (cumulic), 3060 cm (mesic), or < 30 cm (leptic) in
depth. By contrast, the hortic-cultural chromic archeoanthrosols and the cultural chromic archeo-anthrosols
are much lighter in color (chromic), with an archeological layer of 3060 cm (mesic) or < 30 cm (leptic) in depth.
This classification provides greater detail for characterizing variability compared to the traditional ADE and TM
categories.
Increased levels of Ca, P, Mg, Zn, and Mn at the archeological sites with and without ADE demonstrate the usefulness of these geochemical signatures for the identification of past human activities. These elements tend to
be more concentrated in the center of the ADE patches
and decrease toward the edges. Considerable variation
was also observed within and between ADEs. In addition, there are significant depth-dependant chemical
differences between archaeological levels. This pattern
may result from the re-occupation of habitation sites and
changes in human activities through time. Apart from
one or two rare exceptions, the soils located between
ADE patches and in peripheral areas have significantly
lower concentrations of chemical elements, which vary
more systematically with soil depth. Even so, these elements are found in higher concentrations than those of
the natural soils, indicating that human activities have a
much wider area of influence beyond recognizable site
boundaries.
With the exception of the Alex and Mirim sites, human
activities at long-term habitation sites have led to the formation of a variety of ADE patches of variable sizes and
depths. These patches probably correspond to the habitation area, and in some cases, the houses themselves,
based on archeological evidence. The areas of ADE analyzed in the present study were not continuous. Patches
of darker soil of varying sizes were irregularly distributed
within each area, with no well-defined pattern, such as
circles or semicircles, as seen in present-day indigenous
villages. The lack of an easily identified pattern may nevertheless be the result of successive occupations by a small
number of habitations, which often overlapped, and thus
obscured the original arrangement of the settlement.
The irregular distribution of stratified archeological material (in particular ceramics) and geochemical signatures
suggests an ascending formation through the vertical accretion of organic and inorganic material, increasing anthropogenic soil depth over successive occupations. The
high concentrations of P and Ca in the ADEs reinforce the
hypothesis that these areas of habitation are relatively ancient, as confirmed by the archeological evidence at each
site. Nevertheless, the marked variation in the concentrations of these elements in the ADEs at different sites
indicates differing intensities and periods of occupation,
the latter confirmed by 14 C and TL dating.
The fact that the ADEs correspond to an extremely
small portion of each archeological site areaonly 1.9%
at Bitoca 1 and less than 0.1% at Bitoca 2 and Cachorro
Cego, and completely absent from Alex, Mirim, Barfi, and
4 Alfasuggests that the patches of ADE correspond to a
small number of widely distributed habitational nuclei,
with occupation and re-occupation dispersed over long
periods, as indicated by the variety of dates obtained at
DISCUSSION
Habitation sites within the Solobo area generally have
higher concentrations of calcium and phosphorus in comparison with camp sites and/or shorter term habitation sites. Zinc concentrations did not vary between the
two site types. The relatively high concentrations of Mn
recorded at Mirim, Barfi, and 4 Alfa were probably due to
the geological parent material from which the soil originated. Potassium concentrations did not appear to be affected by human activities.

Copyright
445
KERN ET AL.
Table IV Preliminary classication of representative soil proles from archeological sites in the study area, according to the Kampf
et al. (2003, 2010)
classication key for archeo-anthrosols.
Archeological Site
Bitoca 1
Bitoca 2
Cachorro Cego
Alex
Mirim
Bar
4 Alfa
Soils in Study Area
Soil Classication
ADE1.1, 2.1, and 3.1

ADE 2.2
ADE 1.2 and 3.2
Periphery 1.3
Periphery 2.3
ADE 3
ADE 5
ADE
Periphery
E1, E2, E3 and E4
E2, E3, E4, E5, E6 and E9
E1S8 and E3S1
E1S2, E1S8 and E2S3
Hortic-cultural ebonic cumulic archeo-anthrosol

Hortic-cultural ebonic mesic archeo-anthrosol
Hortic-cultural ebonic leptic archeo-anthrosol
Cultural chromic leptic archeo-anthrosol
Cultural chromic mesic archeo-anthrosol
Hortic-cultural ebonic cumulic archeo-anthrosol
Cultural chromic mesic archeo-anthrosol
(Hortic)-cultural chromic cumulative and mesic archeo-anthrosol
ADE: Archeological Dark Earth.
most sites. In addition, the pedo-geochemical signatures

indicate that the impact of human activities extends well
beyond the limits of the areas defined as ADEs, amplifying significantly the boundaries of the archeological sites.
The evidence supports the hypothesis that many of the
archeological sites of the FLONATA are the result of multiple occupations.
The absence of ADE at the Alex and Mirim habitation sites, which nevertheless have relatively high concentrations of P and Ca, appears to be related to the fact
that their most recent occupation was dated to the 9th
and 14th centuries, respectively (Silveira et al., 2008),
whereas the habitation sites with ADE were all dated to
the 1618th centuries. Neves et al. (2003) have shown
that, in general, the formation of ADEs ceased after A.D.
15001600, due to the rapid decline in indigenous populations resulting from epidemics and enslavement by the
European colonists. This suggests that ADE formation at
Alex and Mirim was interrupted due to the abandoning
of these sites, whereas re-occupation of the other sites
(Bitoca 1 and 2, and Cachorro Cego) continued over subsequent centuries (Silveira et al., 2008). This hypothesis
also implies that the ADEs at Salobo were formed later
than those at Lago Grande and Hatahara in the central
Amazon Basin, which have been dated to the 7th and
11th centuries, respectively (Neves & Petersen, 2006).
CONCLUSIONS
The Tapirape-Aquiri
National Forest in Para State was
inhabited for approximately 6000 years by preceramic
and ceramic cultures. The area was more intensively occupied between AD 500 and 1500 by ceramists when
446
environmental conditions were similar to today. These

groups were sedentary and related to the Tupiguarani archaeological tradition. They lived along riverbanks (habitation sites), and their economy was based on hunting,
fishing, gathering, and possibly agriculture. Habitation areas were placed in strategic locations, with less intense or
short-term occupations occurring at camp sites.
Several of the archaeological sites contain patches of
ADE. The ADE sites reflect long periods of occupation
and/or high population density. Variation in the distribution of artifacts inside some of the archaeological
sites may relate to the location of houses in the village. According to early naturalists reports and ethnographic studies, Amazonian villages can have quite different patterns of house spatial distributions, such as circular
or semicircular, communal, aligned along the riverbank,
communal houses, or random (Costa & Malhano, 1987;
Kern, 1996).
Areas adjacent to houses were used for several daily activities, several of which generated a high amount of organic matter input into soil. Examples include the highly
perishable palm leaves still used today to build houses,
hammocks, and basketry. Human and animal waste was
usually disposed in areas peripheral to dwellings. Other
sources of organic matter include food animal remains
(bones, teeth, carapaces, entrails, etc.). Ethnographic research demonstrates that organic residues and other trash
are thrown into adjacent yards, and, in some cases, inside
the houses. Campfires usually occur in the central common area and/or around the houses, where people developed their daily routines (Baldus, 1942; Bates, 1944;
Roquette Pinto, 1950; Diniz, 1966; Ramos, 1980). The
episodic accumulation of these plants and animal organic
residues over centuries to thousands of years, combined

KERN ET AL.
with charcoal and ash from fires, and inorganic debris

such as ceramic fragments result in the ascending formation of these dark soil patches and/or ADEs.
Profound inter- and intra-site biogeochemical transformations (both vertical and horizontal) occur during anthropogenic soil formation. Higher levels of Ca, Mg, P,
Zn, Mn, and C occur inside the Salabo ADE areas compared to adjacent soils. Pedoarchaeological evidence indicated that the high levels of C, P, and Mg strongly relate
to the deposition of ashes, animal bones residues (fishing and hunting), human waste, and other organic compounds, whereas Zn and Mn are more closely correlated
with vegetable residues (Kern & Kampf,

2005).
In the Salobo region, anthropic horizons tend to contain several occupational levels with significant variations
in chemistry. The upper stratigraphic/occupational layers (Anthropic A Horizon) have higher concentrations of
Ca, P, Mg, Zn, and Mn that decrease into lower (archaeologically sterile) layers, a common pattern with ADE
soils. The Salobo ADE patches exhibit a diversity of archaeological remains. Post and stake holes, evidence for
artifact manufacturing, and higher concentrations of
chemical elements suggest that these patches likely reflect ancient household areas. The center of the patches
tends to contain an increase of both artifacts and levels of
P, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, and C, decreasing toward the edges
of the patches. The larger ADE patches have irregular
borders and multiple occupational layers, which suggests
episodes of reoccupation. Episodic occupation, confirmed
by 14 C and TL dating, helps explain the irregular chemical
composition with depth. According to Meggers and Miller
(2006), environmental and food constraints limit village
size, such that ADE soils are more likely to result from
multiple and small sized occupations through time. Despite evidence for reoccupations in the Salobo region, we
identified archaeological evidence for large villages indicating abundant food resources that could support a large
number of individuals. This relates to creative solutions of
environmental management in ancient Amazonia (Roosevelt, 1987, 1994; Denevan, 2001; Heckenberger et al.,
2003). Thus, Salobo ADEs are the product of repeated occupations, commonly within large settlements.
Soils are clearly lighter in color and more compact
between the ADE patches and beyond archaeological
site boundaries. Outside ADE patches, the archaeological
layer is thinner with fewer cultural materials and lower
levels of P, Ca. Mg, Zn, Mn, and C. Nonetheless, elemental concentrations were higher compared to soils outside
the archaeological sites. We interpret this pattern to reflect the spatial distribution and organization of dwelling
structures and how they relate to patterns of human activity and input of archaeological material and chemical
elements to the soil.
In sum, soil geochemical signatures in the Salabo region show a gradient of human activity over the past
6000 years. The amount of P, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, and C
in soil progressively decreases between ADE habitation
sites, non-ADE habitation sites, camp sites, and areas outside archaeological sites. This coincides with archaeological site feature and artifact densities, that is, habitation
sites have more archaeological remains than camp sites.
This study provides additional evidence for the persistent pedological imprint of indigenous societies on the
Amazon.
This research was developed through an agreement between Museu Paraense Emlio Goeldi (MPEG), Salobo Metais
S.A./Vale, and the Amazonian Development Foundation
(FIDESA). It was also funded by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development CNPq (no. 57.3862/20087). We thank Louis Martin Losier and Arlete Silva de Almeida for
the maps, Helena Lima and Francisca Alves Cardoso for the English revision, Feranada de Araujo Costa, Gary Huckleberry, and
Jamie Woodward for their valuable contributions, as well as the
anonymous reviewers.
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Research Article

Pedo-Geochemical Signatures of Archeological Sites in the

Belem Pa, Brazil

uplands) archeological sites located at Tapirape-Aquiri

is commonly recognized by dark coloration (dark brown

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

as lower artifact densities. These soils, known as Terra

municipality of Maraba (MC 51 coordinates between

south of the city of Belem,

Recent paleoenvironmental studies from the Carajas

with the Awi category of the Koppen

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

Figure 1 Location of the Salobo study area in northern Brazil.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND

During initial fieldwork (Silveira et al., 2007,

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451

document stratigraphy and occurrence of in situ remains

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

Table I Sites selected for the present study including presence/absence

in the surrounding area (between patches), as shown in

ADE: Archeological Dark Earth.

and measured, as were areas between the patches and

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

depth and configuration of the layers, and the material

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

extracted from these soil patches numbered and stored

Chemical Analysis and Dating

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

Ltd. (Geosol, 2013; also see Holliday & Gartner, 2007;

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451

and white pigments for the decoration of the vessels was

on objects commonly found in the region of the Tapajos

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

(c: Bitoca 1 site).

Archaeological remains suggest that the ADE patches

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA

Calibrated 14 C Agesa (Beta no.)

Thermoluminescence Agesb (FATEC no.)

13201240 cal. yr B.P. (217608)

540440 and 350340 cal. yr B.P. (227308)

1150 127 (LVD 1258)

600 50 (LVD 1257)

1300 170 (LVD 1259)

Cachorro Cego (habitation)

older period contemporary with cave sites in the Carajas

(Hilbert & Barreto, 1988; Lopes, Silveira, & Magalhaes,

Soil Geochemical Characteristics

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 30 (2015) 430451

addition, statistical analyses indicate a clear separation of

C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN AMAZONIA