Virtual.

Lab Motion Advanced Training

Tire Forces

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Presenter name presenter job title (to be altered on title master)

Tire Force Element

Models a vehicle tire interacting with a road profile.

No bodies or constraints added by this element
Forces calculated in the tire/ground plane
Transformed to the global coordinate system when applied to the tire body
Three components of force are calculated:
normal
longitudinal
lateral

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Tire Components

Steer Angle
Camber Angle
Aligning Coefficient

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Ride & Handling Definitions

Ride analysis

Vehicle analysis wherein the forces generated on vehicle components, and in

particular on the passenger, are of primary importance.

Handling analysis

Vehicle analysis wherein the overall performance of the vehicle (directional

response, lateral acceleration, etc.) is of primary importance.

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Tire Models

4 different models available with the Standard Tire license

Simple Tire
Complex Tire
STI Tire
Magic Tire
6 Different versions of the TNO Tire, separately licensed
TNO MF-Tyre Express, Standard, Supreme
TNO MF-Swift Express, Standard, Supreme
CD Tire, separately licensed

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Simple Tire

Road is fixed to global origin (no Road.Body)

Minimal number of parameters needed
Longitudinal forces calculated from simple curve only
Lateral forces calculated from cornering stiffness only
Longitudinal forces calculated by friction coefficient.
Constant vertical damping only

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Complex Tire

Curve Damping
Entry should include the name of the curve that defines the tire normal damping
rate as a function of the chassis fore/aft speed.
Trans.Damp.Defl
When non-zero this value is used to attenuate the normal damping force for
small tire deflections. If a value of zero is entered the nominal damping rate is
used
Rolling.Radius
This value is found by dividing the distance traveled during one rotation by 2. If
a value of zero is entered, the deflected radius found in the tire normal force
calculation will be used.
Carcass effects
2nd order effects due to the tire carcass can be included in the vertical, lateral,
and longitudinal directions

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STI Tire

Standard Tire Interface to bring in users tire code in standard format

Values to be defined within the STI formfill:

File .STI : File containing input information describing the STI tire
IDROAD : Road type identification number
File.ROAD: File containing information describing the STI road
ISWTCH : Set to 0 for static analysis, 1 for dynamic analysis
NOTE: Setting ISWTCH = -1 in the STI menu will cause DADS to automatically
set the ISWTCH flag to 0 or 1 depending on the type of analysis encountered
by DADS3D
WRKARR 1-10: These are real work array values

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Magic Tire

Based on The Magic Formula Tyre Model by Hans Pacejka & Egbert Bakker, 1991
This version of the Pacejka formulation is very good for motorcycle tires
File.Magic

Curve-fitted test results consistent with the Magic Formula formulation

Describe the lateral force, aligning moment, and/or longitudinal force.

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Three Tire Types Simple & Complex

BASIC
Ignores the rotational inertia of the wheel
Tire body must be constrained to the chassis so no rotation occurs
Steer angle is defined directly as a user input
Camber is assumed to be zero
INTERMEDIATE
Ignores the rotational inertia of the wheel
Tire body must be constrained to the knuckle so no rotation occurs
Steer and camber angles calculated from the model
FULL - Recommended
Steer and camber angles calculated from the model
Accounts for the rotational inertia of the wheel

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Tire Connection Information

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Tire Connection Information

Tire Body and Chassis Body must be defined

These can be the same for BASIC and INTERMEDIATE.

Axis on Chassis Body

X-axis defines the vehicle direction of travel

Z-axis defines up for the vehicle

Axis on Tire Body

origin at the center of the tire circle

Z-axis along axis of rotation

Z-axis should point in same quadrant as Chassis Y-axis

Axis on Road Body

Used to assign road to moving body

Vehicle on shaker platform
Vehicle on trailer

Used as option to position/orient road profile

Surface is defined as height (z) versus x (spline curve) or x
and y (spline surface)
If no Road.Body, the road profile is assumed to be defined
with respect to the global origin.

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Normal Force Calculation Methods

Point contact

Valid if radius of curvature of road profile feature is much larger that tire radius

1) Road height and tangent line to road

surface based on x, y coordinates of
tire center in road reference frame.

2) Perpendicular distance from wheel

center to road tangent line defines
direction, point of application and
tire deflection

X
Road Reference
Frame

Normal Force

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Normal Force Calculation Methods

Distributed contact
Tire divided into a user-defined number of vertical slices
Each area of intersection is found
Equivalent normal deflection, d, is found by equating the intersected area with
that for the tire on a flat surface
The point of application of the tire force, Cp, is found through a weighted average
of the centroids of the partial intersected areas

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Normal Force Calculation Methods

Distributed contact continued

The direction of the force is found through a weighted average of the terrain gradient
vectors, gi, associated with the partial intersected areas

Includes adjustments to account for sharp features

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Road Profile

4 Different Options
Define in ROAD element
Can be 2-D or 3-D
If the same profile or surface is sufficient for all tires
Define in the TIRE element
If different profiles or exist for some or all tires
Will override curve in ROAD element if both defined
In ROAD.F user-defined subroutine
User-defined analytic or tabular surfaces
Otherwise, the road is assumed flat in the global X-Y plane and located at Z=0

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Terrain Tangent Plane

Plane tangent to the terrain profile at the point of contact
between tire and terrain
Longitudinal and lateral forces are computed and act in this plane
Normal Force act perpendicular to this plane
Z-axis of the terrain tangent plane coordinate system is normal to the
tangent plane, directed upwards

X-axis is the intersection of the terrain tangent plane and the plane of
the tire disk

The Y-axis is in the terrain tangent

plane, perpendicular to the X-axis

Resulting coordinate system of Terrain Tangent Plane

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Normal Force Effects

Vertical.stiff
When tire normal force is a linear function of displacement.
Overridden when Curve.vertical is used.
Curve.vertical
When tire normal force is a non-linear function of displacement.
Damping.coeff
When normal force damping constant is independent of forward speed.
Overridden when Curve.damping is used.
Curve.damping
When normal force damping coefficient is a function of chassis forward speed, NOT
VERTICAL VELOCITY.

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Normal Force Effects

Num.Divisions
Used with distributed contact normal force model
Number of vertical slices into which the tire is divided.
Zero for simple point-contact normal force model
Use distributed contact model when road profile contains abrupt changes.
Set high enough so that each slice is smaller than the smallest road profile feature.
Trans.Damp.Defl
When normal damping force is to be attenuated for small tire deflections.
Avoids slap of damping force after lift-off

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Longitudinal Calculation Methods

Rolling resistance
For any type (Basic, Intermediate, or Full)
Parasitic longitudinal force due to carcass deformation losses, bearing friction, etc.
Approximated as constant fraction of the normal force

Frr -Crr Fn sign(Vc long )

Crr = Coefficient of Rolling Resistance

Fn = normal force
Vclong = wheel center forward velocity
Applied directly at wheel center, not tire patch

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Longitudinal Calculation Methods

For Type BASIC or INTERM, the longitudinal force is computed from an explicit torque. If
a torque is specified (Curve.torque), the longitudinal force is simply:

Flong

T
Rd

T = Time based torque curve (Curve.torque)

Rd = Deflected radius

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Longitudinal Calculation Methods

For type FULL, the ratio of the longitudinal force to the normal force (the longitudinal force
coefficient) is normally a function of rotational slip, S:

S-

Vp
Vc

long

Equation for Longitudinal Force

sign(Vp )

Vp = Tire patch forward velocity

Vclong = Wheel center forward
velocity

Flong long Fn sign(S)

Choice of 5 approaches for long

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Longitudinal Calculation Methods

The 5 approaches for long to choose from are:

Set Soil type to SIMPLE, the following curve of long vs. S applies

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Longitudinal Calculation Methods

The 5 approaches for long continued

Set Soil type to HARD, the following equation applies

long

1- e

k = rubber hardness = 60psi

b = tire section width

bd
S
Fn

- k

C
rr

d = tire section diameter

= Friction coefficient

Set Soil type to SOFT, the following equations apply

long 1 - e -0.1Bn 1 - e -7.5S C rr

CI b d
h

Fn 1 3 b

Bn

= friction coefficient
CI = Cone Index
b = tire section width
d = tire section diameter
h= tire section carcass height

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Longitudinal Calculation Methods

The 5 approaches for long continued

(S) User defined non-linear curve as function of longitudinal slip
(Vp) User defined non-linear curve as function of tire patch forward velocity

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Soil Types

Determines long
Surface.type - SIMPLE
When operating on hard surfaces, where longitudinal friction coefficient is to be
based upon a simple function of rotational slip.
Surface.type - HARD
When operating on hard surfaces, where longitudinal friction coefficient is based
upon rotational slip, rubber hardness, tire undeflected radius, and section width.
The equations governing hard surface tire forces are detailed in ASAE publication
No. 79-1046
Surface.type - SOIL
When operating on soft soils. The equations governing soil surface tire forces are
detailed in ASAE publication No. 87-1622.

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Soil Parameters

Cone.index

Required when Surface.type HARD or SOIL is used. Otherwise unused. With

Surface.type SOIL, this variable represents the cone index; with Surface.type HARD,
it represents rubber hardness.

Section.height

Required when Surface.type SOIL is used. Otherwise unused.

Section.width

Required when Surface.type HARD or SOIL is used. Otherwise unused.

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Longitudinal Calculation Methods

Alternatively, the longitudinal force may be generated by a longitudinal springdamper force

Flong K long (R r p long p long0 ) Clong Vp

Rr is the rolling radius of the tire

plong is the longitudinal position of the tire center

plong0 represents the equilibrium position of the spring

plong0 is kept constant until such time as the longitudinal force generated by the
spring-damper is greater than that available through friction, at which time plong0
slides until such time as the spring-damper force is less than the friction force

Note & Warnings

This method is only recommended for types of analysis where the vehicle is
stationary

If carcass effects are activated, this method is over ridden

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Longitudinal Force Effects

Rolling.Radius

Defines constant radius for the tire force application point.

If zero, the rolling radius is calculated dynamically based upon the undeflected radius and
the tire deflection.

Insures that x = Rrolling *

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Longitudinal Force Effects

Long.Stiff

If carcass effects are not activated, used by longitudinal spring damper model in
previous slide

If carcass force model activated, used by the carcass force calculation

Long.Damp

Used when the Long.Stiff variable is used.

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Lateral Force Calculation Methods

Function of the normal force and slip angle

Analogous to the longitudinal force with rotational slip

Slip angle is the angle between the tire center heading vector and the tire velocity vector
projection in the terrain tangent plane.

tan

Vclat
Vclong

sign Vc lat

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Lateral Force Calculation Methods

Lateral force typically varies with both the normal force and slip angle.
Data can be entered through:

Table.Lateral variable (Used primarily in handling analysis.)

Where no carpet plot data exists, the relationship is approximated by a cubic

polynomial determined from the following boundary conditions:

Flat 0 0

Flat
0 C
d

Flat n Fmax

C = cornering stiffness
Flat = maximum lateral side force coefficient

= saturated steer angle generally approximated by:

n 2.5

Fn
C

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Flat
n 0
d

Lateral Force Calculation Methods

A third type of lateral force: lateral spring-damper

Function of lateral translational displacement

Define horizontal line which intersects the center of the tire patch, and is
parallel to the forward velocity vector or Terrain Tangent plane X-axis.

Displacement & Velocity is the perpendicular distance from the tire patch to this
line

Reference line remains in the same place until the lateral force is greater than
that available through friction, line slides until force is less than the friction
force.

Used if Lateral.Stiff is not zero and carcass effects not activated

Note: This method is only recommended for types of analysis where the vehicle is
stationary

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Lateral Force Effects

Cornering.stiff

Used to approximate the lateral force carpet plot when Table.lateral is set to
NONE.

Expressed as (lateral force) divided by (sideslip angle).

Used primarily in handling analysis.

Roll.moment

If the roll moment generated by the tire normal force combined with the lateral
displacement of the tire patch is important, this flag should be set to TRUE.

Relax.length

When lateral force and aligning moment change abruptly, this parameter allows
a more realistic (attenuated) tracking of the actual lateral force and aligning
moment, due to carcass deformation

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Lateral Force Effects

Lateral.stiff

If carcass effects are not activated, used by lateral spring damper model in previous
slide

If carcass force model activated, used by the carcass force calculation

Units are lateral force divided by distance.

Lateral.damp

Used When the Lateral.stiff is used to generate lateral force.

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Carcass Effects

State equations added to improve tire response compared to test data from a customer

V
D

F

V

patch

( KD CV )

mcarcass

D is the displacement of the tire patch in the direction of interest

V is the velocity of the tire patch in the direction of interest
Fpatch is the force applied to the tire patch by the road surface in the direction
of interest
K is the tire carcass stiffness in the direction of interest
C is the tire carcass damping constant in the direction of interest
Mcarcass is the mass fo the deflected portion of the tire carcass

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Carcass Effect Starting values

Carcass mass of about 5% of the total tire+wheel mass.

For the vertical carcass effect, it just use the vertical stiffness value
For the longitudinal & lateral stiffness, start with a value equal to the vertical stiffness.
Transient data from a pulse steer or something like that, can give a starting point for trying
to tune the lateral stiffness.

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Other Tire Parameters

Steer.angle

Curve.Steer

Used with BASIC tires when steer angle of tire is constant.

Used with BASIC tires when the steer angle of the tire is known as a function of
time.

Align.Coeff

Represents the fore-aft displacement of the tire patch

Use if the yaw moment from the tire lateral force combined with the fore-aft
displacement of the tire patch is important

Curve.Utility

Used to access curve data inside user-modified tire routine.

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Modeling tips for tires

If there is unusual behavior at start of analysis, check:

Vertical stiffness
Set gravity to 0.0 (scale.gravity.coeff in System.data element) if tires are above
ground initially. Vehicle should stay at rest above ground
Only use the longitudinal & lateral spring damper models for stationary analysis
Use of basic and intermediate types not recommended
Table.Lateral most accurate for lateral force if data exists
Typical Values on next slide is minimum amount of data to generate vertical, longitudinal
& lateral forces

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Typical Values

Variable

Typical Values (SI)

Typical Values (English)

Vertical Stiffness

Car: 150K-300K N/m

Truck: 150K-1000K N/m

Car: 850-1700 lb/in

Truck: 850-6000 lb/in

Vertical Damping

Car: 1000-3500 N*s/m

Truck: 1700-15000 N*s/m
(10% critical damping)

Car: 6-20 lb*s/in

Truck: 10-85 lb*s/in
(10% critical damping)

Cornering Stiffness

Car: 350-900 N/deg

Truck: 900-3500 N/deg

Car: 80-200 lb/deg

Truck: 200-800 lb/deg

Rolling Resistance

0.005-0.04

Friction Coefficient

Dry Pavement: 0.8-1.0

Wet Pavement: 0.5-0.8

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Thank you

Event title (to be altered on title master)

Presenter name presenter job title (to be altered on title master)