Important Kerala Herbs

IbRCtJb.
tFO
Some Important
Medicinal Plants of the
Western Ghats, India: a Profile
P.K. Warner
V.P.K. Nambiar
P.M. Ganapathy
VaidyaratnamP.S. VarriersARYA VAIDYASALA

Kottakkal, Kerala State, India
The Medicinal and AromaticPlants Program in Asia (MAPPA)

International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada
South Asia Regional Office (SARO), New Delhi, India
2001
j\\J 3
International
Development Research Centre, 2000
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronicor mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any
information storage and retrieval system, withoutpermission in writing fromthe publisher.
Thepresentation ofmaterial inthis publication doesnotimply theexpression ofany opinion
on the part of MAPPA or IDRCconcerning thelegal status ofanycountry, orthe delineation
of frontiers or boundaries.
Production: Artstock, NewDelhi, India
Medicinal andAromatic Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA)

IDRC/SARO
208, Jor Bagh
New Delhi I 10003
India
CONTENTS
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Preface
Introduction
1.
Aegle marmelos
2.
Asparagus racemosus
33
3.
Bacopamonnieri
51
4.
Baliospermummontanum
69
5.
Celastrus paniculatus
85
6.
Coscinium fenestratum
103
7.
Crateva magna
121
8.
Embelia ribes
139
9.
Hemidesmus indicus
157
10.
Holarrhenapubescens
175
11.
Holostemmada-kodien
197
12.
Kaempferia rotunda
217
13.
Limonia acidissima
235
14.
Neiviiiaaragoana
255
15.
Oroxylum indicum
271
16.
Plumbago indica
291
17.
Rotulaaquatica
309
18.
Rubia cordifolia
327
19.
Saraca asoca
343
20. Trichosanthes lobata
361
Sustainable use and biodiversity conservation: issuesand opportunities
377
References
381
Appendices
Appendix 1. Notes in NurseryTerms
389
Appendix 2. Glossary
i. Medicinal Terms
ii. BotanicalTerms
397
391
FOREWORD
The ever-increasing interest in usage of plant-based curatives, not only in India, but all over the
world has led to a quantum jump in the volumes of plant material extractedand tradedwithin the
countryand exported abroad. Conservative estimates place theeconomic valueofmedicinal plants

related trade in India to beto the tune of Rs. 100 billion a year, leading to sharpincrease in demand
for medicinal plants and supplies dwindling rapidly. This in turn has led to suppliers providing
adulterated or incorrect plantmaterial tothe unsuspecting public. It has therefore become imperative
to provide scientificbackground to establish correct identity of plants and document diagnostic
features to help identify and sort out spurious plant parts, as well as enlarge the resource base
(through in-situand ex-situconservation) to meet the growingdemand.
This publication is theoutputofthe International Development Research Centre (IDRC) sponsored
research project implemented between October1993 and March 1999 by AryaVaidyaSala(AVS),
Kottakkal, KeralaState, India. Twentyspeciesof medicinal plants growing predominantly in the
Western Ghats ofSouthernIndia wereselected for an in-depth study. Thesespecies wereselected
because ofthe highdemand on them, borne out by information on the numberofformulations they
are used in (especiallyAyurveda)and/or status of threat to their natural population in Southern
India. Information on distribution, parts ofplantextensively used in medicines, well known ayurvedic
preparations in which employed and a comprehensive taxonomicdescription are given. The results
of intensive pharmacognostic study are provided to serve as a reference material for checking
adulteration.Along with this, results ofnursery study are alsogiven to provide informationon cultivation
methods for each species.
It is hoped that the exhaustive information of pharmacognostic features provided in respect of the
twentyspecies selected forthe studywill go a longway in providing an impetus forfurtherscientific
research and documentation of other medicinal plant species and help combat adulteration and
encourage efforts to increase the resource base.
Roger Finan
Madhav Karki
Regional Director
IDRC, Canada
SARO, NewDelhi
Regional Program Coordinator, (MAPPA)

IDRC, Canada
SARO, New Delhi
PREFACE
This treatise is the output ofthe InternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre (IDRC)sponsored
research project (92-8302) implemented between October 1993 and March 1999 by Arya
Vaidyasala (AVS), Kottakkal, Kerala, India. The researchwas carried out under the guidance
of Dr. P.K.Warrier by Prof. V P K Nambiar, Principal Scientist in the project, assisted by a
team of research and other staff.
Project Organisation
Project Leader
P.K. Warrier*
Principal Scientist
V.P.K. Nambiar*
Research Assistants
M. Sindu
P. Vidhyadharan
Laboratory Assistants
A. Jayanthi*
A. Reetha
P.K. Thilakan
K. Vineetha
Field Assistants
M.K. Harinarayanan
P.H. MustafaAhmed
K. Rajendra Kumar
T.K. Sabu*
Administrative Assistants:
Consultants
P.V.Jayachandran
V.K. Uthaman*
K.K. Nair
V.V. Sivarajan
B. Ravindranath
P.M. Ganapathy
IDRC Program Officer
Cherla Sastry (1992-1 997)

Madhav Karki (1997-2000)
* Attached throughout the project period. Others during part of the period only
Background
This study addresses some of the core issues raised in various fora in the context of global
attention medicinal plants are receiving at present, viz.,
Extant location specific distribution not documentedadequately.
Live collections depicting intra-specific variations are wanting in the absence of which
authoritative establishmentof identity of some plants is difficult.
Taxonomic descriptions, taking intra-specific variations into consideration are not fully
documented.
Scarcity of plants has led to adulteration of plant parts of medicinal value, the
consequences of which are hazardous. In the absence of pharmacognostic data,
identification and separation of spurious parts are not authentic.
Overexploitationand destructionof natural habitats of widely used taxa have resultedin

their supplies dwindling. Only solution is their ex situ conservation by raising them in
forests and farms. In the absenceof information on propagation by seed and/orvegetative
means and convincingdata on the economicviability oftheir cultivation,efforts on growing
medicinal plants in forest and farms are very few.
Keeping these issues in the background, this study was undertaken with the following
objectives:
Objectives
i.
General objective
Development of pilot scalesustainablesystem to augmentdwindlingresource of medicinal
plants.
ii.
Specific objectives(in respectof 20 selectedspecies)

a) Preparation of local distribution maps
b) Establishmentofgermplasmbanks and documentationof morphologicaldescription
covering provenancesin the region
c)
Documentationof pharmacognosticfeatures of plant parts of medicinal value
d)
Developmentof techniques to raise healthy seedlings in nurseries
e)
Standardization of planting methods and training farmers, housewives, personnel

of corporate bodies etc., in planting and upkeep of nursery raised plants
f)
Establishment of permanent self sustaining facilities for production of planting

material seedlings and their distribution to users
Selection of Species for the Study

It is estimated thatabout 1200 speciesof higher plants are used for healing in organized and
codified systems of medicinesin Indiaviz., Ayurveda, Siddha,Unani, Homeopathyand Amchi.
About 7500 species of higher plants aresaid to be used in the unorganizedsector by rural and
tribal people. Thus about half of the vascular plants in the Indian flora is claimed to be of
medicinalvalue and nearlythree-fourthof all drugs mentioned in pharmacopiasfound in natural
state, is stated to be spread over different parts of the country. The study area, Western
Ghats (Fig.1) is consideredto be an extremely important region, both in terms ofdiversity and
utilization of medicinal plants. It is reckoned that about 900 species used in Ayurveda and
Siddha systems, apart from several hundreds in unorganizedfolk medicines are found in the
area. Due to over-exploitation and destruction of forests, 112 species in the South Indian
region are considered to be endangered, near-threatenedor vulnerable, requiring immediate
attention (Thothadri, 1986; Pushpangadanet al, 1994; Nambiar, 1995; GOI, 1997). Out of
many species requiring attention, 20 were selected for this study based on following criteria:
Large scale usage (Embelia ribes for example is used in 75 ayurvedic preparations).
Because of high demand and over exploitation, species have become nearly threatened
(eg: Embelia ribes) or highly vulnerable (almost all the rest).
In view of difficulty in obtaining sustained supplies from natural habitats, plant parts are
Species have become critically endangered globally (e.g. Coscinium fenestratum or

regionally like Saraca asoca).
adulterated with morphologicallysimilar plant parts of other species of unknownmedicinal

value (as in Embelia ribes adulterated with other species of Embelia) and Saraca asoca
with Polya!thiaIongifolia).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to record their sincere thanks to the International Development Research
Centre (IDRC) for funding the research and providing logistic support. They are particularly
grateful to Dr. C.B. Sastry for initiating the project, Mr. Roger Finan, Regional Director, IDRC
for his overall support, Dr. Madhav B. Karki for technical backstoppingand encouragement,
and they want to gratefully acknowledgehelp and assistancereceived from:
1.
The Director and staff of Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore in providing information
on distribution and help in collection
2.
Dr. P.J. Mathew, Scientist, Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute, Palode in
collection and field study

3.
Messrs. A.V. George and Mathew Thomas of A.V. George and Company, Kottayam in
collections
4.
Drs. N. Ssidharan, C. Renuka, K.K.N. Nair and K.K. Seethalakshmi,Scientists, Kerala

Forest Research Institute, Peechi in providing taxonomic information and assisting in
conducting training programmes
5.
Late Dr. V.V. Sivarajan, Dept. of Botany, CalicutUniversity in guidancein pharmacognostic

studies
6.
Dr. P. Haridas, Deputy General Manager (R&D), Tata Tea Ltd., Munnar in large scale
planting of medicinal plants
They owea deepdebt of gratitudeto all their colleagues in AVS for help and assistancereceived
from them.
Last but not the least, the authors express their sincere acknowledgementto the significant
contribution made by Dr. Madhav Karki of IDRC in formatting, proof reading and writing the
cover pages of this book. Without his inputs the publication of this volume would not have
been possible.
INTRODUCTION
Study area
TheWestern Ghats in Southern India (Fig.1) are a series of hill ranges lying between 8-22
and 73'-77' E, stretchingfrom MaharashtraState in the north to Tamilnadu in the south (Fig.2).
This land mass, characterised by one of the most varied tropical and sub tropical climates,
altitudinal ranges and edaphic features is unique in its forest composition which ranges from
tropical dry deciduous type to tropical wet evergreen as well as montane wet temperate type
(Fig.2). It covers an area of about 0.14M square kilometers,traversing over a length of nearly
1300 km. An estimated 38.2M people live in about 16,000 settlements of varying sizes, the
density ranging from 77 persons per square kilometer in Goa to 382 in Kerala. Apart from
being the source of all major rivers of peninsular India, it is the natural home of some of the
best known timbers of the world viz., teak (Tectona grandis), rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia)
and mahogany(Swieteniamacrophylla)as also the renowned sandalwood(Santa/urnalbum).
About 7000speciesof floweringplants have been recorded, out ofwhichover 1500 are endemic
(Nair, 1986). Several of these species, with their intra specific variation representa chemical
and medicinal goldmine, as evident from the strong traditions of plant based drug use in both
the Western and Eastern sides of the ghats. The natural forests of the Western Chats region
are the sourceof 900 plants used in Ayurvedaand Siddha.Besides,various tribal communities
inhabiting the forests make useof about 2500 species (Pushpangadan,1994). On account of
destruction of forests for raising plantations of coffee, tea, rubber, cashew as well as teak,
eucalypts, etc.,clearance for agriculture, over exploitation for timber, and non wood forest
productslike bamboo, rattan, etc., and indiscriminatedestructivecollectionof medicinal plants,
the availability of the healing plants has dwindled - some species having become scarce.
Importance
of medicinal plants In India and current status
As observed by Vogel (1970), Indianshave believed from time immemorialthat natureprovides

cures for all illnesses and the curatives are derived from plants. Over a million practitioners of
the traditionalsystemof medicinesin India, use around 7500speciesof plants in the preventive
and curative applications, in the codified and oral streams. In addition, millions of households
use medicinal plants in a self-help mode. It is estimatedthatabout 300M people in India
depend
solely on traditional systems for their health care and another 200M partially. It is estimated
that about I .2M people are engaged in activities like gathering medicinal plants
(mostly from
their natural habitats, processing them, manufacturingmedicines out of them and
marketing
Some Important MedicinalPlants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile
the same; which includes about 0.6 million licensed, registered medical practitioners of the
codified systems of Indian medicine. A recent trend which is becoming more and more
discernible is the interest shown in not only India, but elsewhere(including the West) by those
associatedwith modernmedicine,in plant basedcuratives. A cumulativeeffect ofthese trends
has beena quantumjumpin volumesof plant materialsextracted and traded within the country
and exported outside. Conservative estimates place the economic value of medicinal plant
related trade in India to be.of the order of Rs.100 billion a year. Apprehensions are being
expressedthattrends are pointingtowards an inexorable monetisationand commercialization
of medicinal plants economy (GOl, 1997). The demand on medicinalplants, on the one hand,
is increasing sharply and supplies on the other hand, are dwindling rapidly. Two serious
consequences of the widening gap between demand and supply are: (a) suppliers taking
advantageof gaps in understandingcorrect identity of plants and making available incorrect
plants and (b) suppliers resorting to adulteration of medicinal plant parts by similar looking
to
plant parts which are not known to be of medicinal value. It is therefore essential provide
scientificbackgroundto establish correctidentityof plantsand to documentdiagnosticfeatures
to identify and sort out spurious plant parts.
Measures adopted/proposed
The action programmes initiated/contemplatedare to address two main issues:
Prevent unintentionalusage of wrong taxa and/or deliberateadulteration

Enlarge resource base to meet growing demand
Prevention of using incorrect taxa

It is knownthatSanskrit names of medicinalplants in classical works areidentified as different
taxa in different regions, leading to unintentional usage of incorrect plants. Some examples
are:
The plant mentioned as murva in sanskrit is identified variously as Clemdtis triloba,

Sansevieria zeylanica, Helicteres isora and Chonemorpha macrophylla. The plant by
the nameof rasna in sanskrit is variouslyidentifiedas Pluchealanceolata, Alpinia galanga
and even Vandaroxburghii.
The herb referred to as parpata in sanskrit is considered to be as Fumaria parviflora,
Oldenlandiaumbellataand Rungia parviflora.
These are just a few examples. To prevent this, it is essential that germplasm banks are
established in which intra specific variations are represented. This will not only help in
for comparison
strengtheninggene banks, but also in providing authentic reference sources
of
in
and in establishing correct identity as well as documenting comprehensive description
species covering the entire gamut of variations.
The Departmentof Biotechnology,Govt. of India has taken steps to establish 3 germplasms
or gene banks in the country. This project has made a positive contribution to this initiative by
which due emphasis is
establiishing a germplasmbank of 20 species selectedfor the study in
Introduction
on intra specific variations. These acquisitions have been used to document exhaustive
descriptions of individual species in which variations have been given due attention.
The destruction of natural habitats, depletion of populations and restrictions imposed on
collections have led to adulteration of plant parts by suppliers. The intimate knowledge of
personnel in the drug manufacturing units about the plant parts based on their experience is
the onlytoolavailable in separating spuriousplant parts. While skills ofsuch personnelcannot
be discounted,it does not provide a reliableinsuranceagainstentry of morphologicallysimilar,
but entirelydifferent plant parts into the mainstream. This trend can be checkedby documenting
pharmacognosticfeatures especially of medicinal parts. The National Botanical Garden and
Research Institute (NBGRI) and Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI)
have taken initiatives in this regard. In this project, exhaustiveinformationon pharmacognostic
features have been provided in respect of 20 species selected for the study, which will go a
long way in providing scientific information to check adulteration. In a few cases where
adulterationis known in respect ofthese species,such adulterantsare identifiedand diagnostic
information to identify the adulterants is provided.
Enlargement of resource base

Two approachesto enlarge the resource base are:
In situ conservation
Ex situ conservation
In Situ conservation
It is in Naturethatplant diversity can be conserved on a long term. Apart from the action taken
to establish protected areas (PAs) to ensure this, some initiatives with particular referenceto
medicinal plants have been taken recently. In the States of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamilnadu, the forest departments,in collaborationwith the Foundationfor Revitalization
of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore have established a network of 33 Medicinal
Plants ConservationAreas (MPCA5) across the entire attitudinal range of South India, from
15m to more than 2000m above MSL covering different vegetation zones. Each of these
conservation areas is around 200 ha in extent. Based on the detailed ecological and threat
assessment studies carried out in the natural habitats of 20 species in this project,
recommendations have been made to appropriate authorities in Kerala State to constitute
immediately MPCAs in the habitats of following species to save them from extinction:
Coscinium fenestratum
Embelia ribes
Limonia acidissima
Some Important MedicinalPlants of WesternGhats, India: A Profile
ExSituconservation
Two issues require to be addressed while considering ox situ conservation. One is the
conservation of genetic stock, and second is large scale cultivation to meet the existing and
growing demand. As regards the former, establishment of medicinal plants gardens is the
answer. It is stated that there are about 50 gardens in the country ranging from 0.5 to 15 ha
each in extent. Some such gardens are set up by an NGO active in the field and another 15
throughthe initiative of FRLHT.A numberofAgriculturalUniversities, State Forest Departments
and the Directorates of Indian Systems of Medicine havejoined handsto strengthenthis initiative
(GOI, 1997). This project has made valuable contribution in this venture by adding over 300
accessions to the MedicinalPlants garden maintainedby AVS to make these gardens, best of
their kind in the country. While such gardens have an important role to play in ex situ
conservation, it is by undertaking large scale cultivation thatthe problems discussed earlier,
i.e., checkingadulterationand bridgingthe gap between demand and supply, can be addressed.
Cultivation of medicinalplants
Projections of demand and trade in medicinalplant species globally indicate a steep upward
trend. According to a World Bank Study (1996), world trade in medicinal plants and related
products is expected to reach US$ 5 trillion by 2050 (GOI, 1997). This calls for urgent policy
intervention to encourageand facilitate commercial cultivation of medicinal plants. At present
cultivation is restricted to homesteads and scattered and ventures by farmers, Forest
Departments and Forest DevelopmentCorporations in a few States (largely as a result of
initiatives by individuals). Some symbolic efforts to initiate cultivation have been made by
industries involved in manufacturingdrugs also. But raw material from farms directly owned
or sponsored by industry forms a very small fraction of their actual requirement. Most of it is
gathered from the wild - depleting the already diminished stock.
The main reasons, apart from policy intervention, for little interest, in cultivation of medicinal
plants are:
Lack of tested techniques to raise and tend medicinal plant crops

Absence of information on economics of raising these crops
Lack of motivation and tie up between growers and users
Lack of institutionalarrangementsfor growingand marketing medicinalplants/plantparts
Some laboratories of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and Agricultural
Universitieshave developed agrotechnologiesfor cultivation of some 40 species. The species
selected, however, were aromaticplantsand those used in the modernpharmaceuticalindustry
and notthose used bythe traditionalstream. An institutional initiativeof considerable significance
in this regard is thatthe National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development(NABARD)has
formulated schemes for financing cultivation and processing of medicinal plants. Another
development of considerable significance is that the World Bank is considering investments
on medicinal plants as a special sub-sector in its agricultural programmes.
Introduction
It is in addressing problems in cultivation of medicinal plants thatthe project has made useful
contributions. These are:
Developing simple technologies for raising 20 species of medicinal plants in nurseries

and planting out them
Training farmers and others in planting and maintaining nursery raised plants in their
farms/commercialcrop plantations, etc.
Creating awareness about economic benefits of growing medicinal plants
Working out memoranda of understanding between growers (farmers, tea/rubber
plantation companies) in which buy back arrangementis provided
Establishingfacilities to supply about a million plants annually for sale to users
Producing leaflets and bulletins in local language in which description of each of the 20
species is given and propagation techniques explained
While promoting large scale cultivation as the answerto overcomethe problem of rawmaterial
scarcity, it must be recognizedthat there is a strong beliefthat medicinal properties of plants
are mainlydue to the presenceof what are referredto as secondary metabolics,which express
themselves only when the plants grow in their natural environments under conditions of
association, competition and stress. Doubt is therefore expressed as to whether cultivated
plantswould possessthe medicinalpropertiesas in nature. Veryfew studies have beencarried
out about the ecological and biological mechanisms responsiblefor expression of medicinal
properties. Given the fast growing demand on medicinal plants and shrinking of their natural
habitats, cultivation efforts cannot be deferred till these doubts are cleared.
Selection of species
It is important that immediate attention is given to produce authentic information (including
agro-technologies) on about 400 species commonly used in Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani
medicines(GOl, 1997). A beginning has been made by intensively treating 20 species. These
species were selected because of high demand on them as borne out by information on the
number of formulations they are used (especially Ayurveda) and/or status of threat to their
naturalpopulations in southern India.
Species selectedfor the study
Some Important Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile
CR: Critically endangered EN: EndangeredG: Global NT: Near threatened R: Regional/local
VU: Vulnerable dueto high demand and large scale exploitation
In the chaptersthatfollow, afterprovidinginformationon distribution (with particular reference
to Kerala region of the Western Ghats), parts of the plant extensively used in medicines and
well known ayurvedic preparationsin which they are employed, a comprehensive taxonomic
description (covering known variations) is given. The results of intensive pharmacognostic
study are provided to serve as reference material for checking adulteration. This includes
such powerfuldiagnostictools as stomatal index, palisaderatio, vein-islet numbersand powder
microscopy.Chemicalcharacteristicsand propertiesare given in some detail which is followed
by a brief account of known medicinal properties and uses. The results of nursery studies are
thereafter given to provide informationto cultivate the plant. To help prospective cultivatorsto
organizea nursery, some background information on the same is given in Appendix 1. Additional
information like economicsofcultivationis givenfor a few species.The textis liberally illustrated
to enhance its reference value. A glossary of medicinal and botanical terms is appended
(Appendix2).
Introduction
.0.
s.
0
i0 Okm
32'
.B.
24'
20'
16
12'
r
72
16'
840
Fig.1: Western Ghats: Location
920
94.
Figs 2: Western Ghats: Forest types
CHAPTER 1
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.

(Rutaceae)
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Rutaceae)
11
1
AEGLE MARMELOS(L.) CORR.
(Rutaceae)
Aegie marmelos(L.) Corr. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 5 : 223.1800;Roxb. Cor. PI.t. 143; Fl.lnd.t.
161; wall. Cat. 6379; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Flor.31; Brandis For FIor.57. Crateva marmelos L.,
Sp.P1.444. 1753.
English
Hindi
The bael tree, Holy fruit tree

Bel, Sirphal
Malayalam
Sanskrit
Tamil
Kulakam, Kuvvalam
Vilvah, Sriphalah,Sivadrumah
Kuvilam, Vilvam
Distribution (Fig.3)
Throughout India, cultivated as well as wild. In Kerala region of Western Ghats, it occurs in
Attappady, Mangalamdam area, Dhoni and Thavalam of Palghat district, Kannothof Kannur
district and Palapally of Thrissur district.
Formulations
Used in over 75 preparations. Chief among them are: Danthyarishta, Dasamoolarishta,
Dhanwanthararishta, Mrithasanjeevani, Anuthaila,Arimedasthaila(small), Asanavilwadithaila,

Asanamanjishtadithaila, Asanaeladithaila, Karnasoolanthakathaila, ChemparuthyadiCoconut
Oil, Narayana thaila, Prabhanjana vimardanam kuzhampu, Mahakukkuda mamsa thaila,
Mahamasha thaila, Maharajaprasarani thaila, Rasnadi thaila, Rasna dasamooladi thaila,
Vilwapathradi thaila, Vilvam pachottyadi thaila, Sahacharadi thaila, Agragrahyadi kashaya,
Amrithadasamooladi kashaya, Amrapallavadi kashaya, Indukantham kashaya, Dasamoola
baladi kwatha, Dasamoola baladi mahakashaya, Dasamoola panchakoladi kashaya,
Darunagaradi kashaya, Dusparsakadi kashaya, Dhanwanthara kashaya, Balajeerakadi
kashaya, Bhargyadi kashaya, Bhoonimbadi kashaya, Musthakaranjadi kashaya, Varanadi
kashaya, Vilvadi kashaya,Sapthasaramkashaya, Manasamithra vatakam,Yakaritpleehodarari
vatika,Vilwadi gudika,Suvarnamukthadigudika,Selthubandhamgudika,Indukanthamghritha,
Khadirasaradi ghritha, Chargeryadi ghritha, Thylwaka ghritha, Dadhika ghritha,

Dehaposhanayamaka,Dhanwantharaghritha, Panchagavyaghritha (big), Pippalyadighritha,
Brihachagaladi ghritha, Mahabhootharava ghritha, Mahasneha ghritha, Lasuna ghritha, Varanadi
12
ghritha, Varahyadighritha(big),Sarvamayanthaka ghritha, Sukumaraghritha, Sooranadi ghritha,
Hingupadaghritha, Kapithashtakachoorna, Pushyanugachoorna, Abhra bhasma, Chinchadi

leha, Agasthya rasayanam, Chyavanaprasam, Dasamoola rasayana, Dasamoola harithaki
leha, Mahavilwadileha, Vasishtarasayanam,Vilwadi leha, Sukumara leha, Aranyadi coconut
oil, Brahmeedrakshadi kashaya, Bhadradarvyadi kashaya, Karnasoolanthaka thaila (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts (Fig.4 and Plate 2)

Roots, Leaves, Fruits
Description (Plates 1-3; Figs.5, 6)

A deciduous, medium sized armed tree 8 to lOm high with innumerable thorny branches,
thorns straight, sharp and axillary; bark yellowish brown with ridges and furrows; leaves
alternate, trifoliate; leaflets ovate, lanceolate, characteristically gland-dotted; lateral leaflets
subsessile, terminal long petioled. Flowers in axillary panicles, fairly large, greenish white,
sweet scented. Fruits globose woody berry with yellowish brown sweet gummy pulp. The
cultivated variety of North India has longer leaves and fruits and more predominant growth.
Flowers3-4 cm in diameter, regular, bisexual,occasionallypolygamous, greenish-white;sepals

five, rounded, small, deciduous,valvate; petals five longer than sepals, free, thickand fleshy,
gland dotted, imbricate; stamens many, inserted around an insignificant disc, filaments free,
subulate, anthers elongate and apiculate; ovary superior, multi locular with 10-20 chambers,
ovules many, central axis thick and stout, style short, stigma capitate.
Floral vasculature (Fig.7)

Calyx lobe
Each lobe is supplied by a single vascular strand which gets divided into three branches,from
the base itself. These branches in turn go on branching and rebranching irregularly and form
a network (Fig.7a).
Petal
Each petal is supplied with five vascular strands. Of these, the middle one gets branched into
two, nearabout the centre of the petal. The two laterals on either sides of the median, branch
into three from the base itself. Each branch again gets abruptly branched. The two peripheral
ones get simply branched into four from base itself giving rise to laterals (Fig.7b).
Stamen
Each stamen is supplied with a single vascular strand which traverses through the connective
and reaches upto the tip without anybranching (Fig.7c).
13
Gynoecium
Elevenbundlesenter into the ovary. Each one branchesinto two. Peripheralbranchestraverse
through the ovary wall and the central one forms the ventral bundle and supplies the ovules.
So eleven peripheral bundles and eleven central bundles which supply the ovules are seen in
cross section ofthe ovary. The two branches of each bundle again join at the top of the ovary
and enter into the stigma. Thus eleven bundles are seen in the stigma. Further each bundle
gets feebly branched (Fig.7d).
Pharmacognostic features
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.8)
Transverse section of the stem shows the presence of
i) Well developed periderm consisting of cork, phellogen and phelloderm
ii)
Distinct patches of stone cells above the phloem region
iii)
Several layers of cambium
iv) Conspicuous xylem with large vessels and uniseriate medullary rays and
v)
Parenchymatous pith
Root (Fig.9)
The T.S. of root shows the presence of
i)
Outer zone of cork which gets peeled off after secondary growth
ii)
This is followed by phellogen and secondary cortex whose cellscontain abundant starch
grains
iii) Interior to the cortex is the characteristic concentric patches of sclerenchyma

iv) Phloem is considerably broad and consists of concentrically arranged phloem cells
alternating with narrow strip of sclerenchyma
v) Medullaryrays, distinct ring of cambium;wood consisting of large vessels, tracheidsand
fibers, uniseriate and biseriate medullary rays filled with starch grains, and pentarch
primary xylem are other features
Leaf (Fig.1O)
In T.S., (Fig.1O), petiole is broad 'c' shaped in outline with a single layer of schizogenous
cavity and a conspicuousbroad 'c' shaped vascular bundle in the centre. Epidermis is single
layered, occasionally interrupted with sunken stomata on both surfaces and overlaid by a
thick layer of cuticle. Interior to the epidermisis a many layered palisadetissue which consists
of closely packed oval cells without much intercellular spaces. The chloroplasts are more
abundant in the palisade cells and less in the spongy tissue. Each stoma has two guard cells
and two subsidiary cells and they correspond to rubiaceoustype.
14
The numericalvalues like stomatal index, palisaderatio and vein-islet numberareofsignificant

diagnostic value. These are:
Stomatal index
5.2
upper epidermis
6.7
lower epidermis
Palisade ratio
2.0
Vein-islet number
4.4
Fruit (Fig.1 1)
The CS. of fruit shows an outer rind and an inner pulp region in which seeds are embedded.
The outermost layer of the rind is single layered epidermis followed by 14-16 layers of
chlorenchymatous tissue. Schizogenous cavities are seen arranged in a ring towards the
outer region of the chlorenchymatouszone. Interior to the chiorenchymatous layer, a broad
zone of compactly packed stone cells is distinctly visible. At intervals, the stone cell region is
the
interrupted by two senate transversely elongated parenchyma cells which extend from
upper chiorenchymatouszone to the inner pulp. Stone cells are followed by a broad zone of
pulp region, composed of loosely arranged parenchymacells. Gum deposits are seen freely
and
among the pulp cells in spaces formed due to disintegration of the gum throughout pulp
stone cell region. (Fig.1 I a & b)
Seed (Fig.11)
The CS. of seed shows an outer testa and an inner tegmen which in turn enclose the
cotyledons.The outermostlayer oftesta is sclerotic and ornamentedwith unicellular elongated
thick walled epidermal hairs. Interior to the epidermis, 3-6 layers are parenchymatous and
containoil globules. Belowthese layers there aretwo schlerenchymatouslayers which delimit
the testa. Outer layer of tegmen is thick walled. Followingthis 6-8layers are parenchymatous
and the cells are polygonal in shape. These cells also contain oil globules. Belowthese layers
3-4 layers are thin walled.The cellsare oval in shapeand packed with oil globules.(Fig.1 I c & d)
PowderMicroscopy(Fig.12)
Part studied
Fluorescence :
root (25 samples)

Dirtywhite
Fibres
Stone cells
Schlerenchyma
Parenchyma
Crystals
94
116
89
252
153
3
12
6
15
Chemical characteristics and properties

Fruit Pulp
Colour
Light brown
Moisture
10.0%
TLC Data
Hexane extract
Colour
:
Test
Light yellow
Noot spots
Visible light
none
UV (254 nm)
Result
Rfvalue
violet
0.72
yellow
0.05
green
0.93
Ferric chloride
I
I
Iodine vapour
yellow
0.83
Test
No.ofspots
Result
Rfvalue
Visible light
none
UV (254 nm)
violet
0.74; 0.79; 0.92
UV (366 nm)
0.10; 0.46; 0.54
Ferric chloride
yellow
dark green
Iodine vapour
yellow
0.97
No.ofspots
Result
Rfvalue
UV (366 nm)
Dichloromethane extract
Colourless
0.97
Methanol extract
Colour
:
Yellow
Test
Visible light
none
UV (25 nm)
violet
0.95
UV (366 nm)
yellow
0.13
Ferric chloride
none
lodinevapour
yellow
0.13;0.66;0.95
Root
Colour
Greenishbrown
Moisture
8%
TLC Data
Hexaneextract
Colour
LightYellow
Visible light
none
UV (254 nm)
violet
UV (366 nm)
bluish
Ferric chloride
3
4
dark green
Iodine vapour
deepyellow
0.47; 0.68; 0.87; 0.95.

0.37; 0.47; 0.79
0.68; 0.79; 0.95
0.68; 0.76; 0.87; 0.95
Dichioromethane extract
Colour
GoldenYellow
Visible light
none
UV (254 nm)
5
5
UV (366 nm)
Ferric chloride
Iodinevapour
violet
light blue
dark green
yellow
0.41; 0.51; 0.69; 0.82; 0.94

0.41; 0.51; 0.69; 0.82; 0.94
0.79; 0.95
0.41; 0.69; 0.82; 0.94
Methanol extract
Colour
Visible light
Brownish Orange
none
UV (254nm)
violet
UV (366 nm)
Ferric chloride
lightblue
2
4
dark green
Iodinevapour
yellow
0.29; 0.76; 0.82; 0.92

0.82; 0.92
0.82; 0.92
0.29; 0.76; 0.82; 0.92
16
17
Medicinal properties and uses

The roots are sweet, astringent and febrifuge. They are useful in diarrhoea, dysentery,
dyspepsia, stomachalgia, cardiopalmus, vitiated conditions of vata, seminal weakness,
uropathy, vomiting, intermittent fever, swelling and gastric irritability in infants (Warner et al,
1993; Kurup et al, 1979). The leaves are astringent, laxative, febrifuge and expectorant,and
areuseful in ophthalmia,deafness, inflammations, catarrh, diabetes and asthmaticcomplaints
(Warner et al, 1993; Kurup et al, 1979; Varma, 1981; Khanna et al, 1991). Stem bark is used in
treating fever (Khanna et al, 1991; Kurup et al, 1979). The unripe and ripe fruits are bitter,
acrid, sour, astringent, digestive, and stomachic, and are useful in diarrhoea, dysentery and
stomachalgia(Warner et al, 1993; Chopra et al, 1956; Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Watt, 1889-92;
Khannaet al, 1991). The ripe fruitsareastringent,sweet, aromatic, cooling, febrifuge, laxative
and tonic and used for heart and brain disorders and in dyspepsia (Warner et al,
1993). Fruits
are used in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysenteryand loss of appetite. It can be safely given to
children. It has also been used in the treatmentof constipation (WHO, 1990). Boiled fruit pulp
is taken orally by the kathodias (a tribe in Rajasthan) for treating diarrhoea and
dysentery
(Prabhakar Joshi, 1993).
Propagation (Plate 4)
Usually seeds are used for propagation. Ripe fruits are collected, seeds are squeezed out,
washed thoroughly, dried in shade and stored in airtight containers. 11,000 seeds make one
kilogram. Seeds are pretreated by soaking in cold water for 24 hours and sown on sandy
beds. Beds should be regularly watered. Germination commences on the 9th
day onwards
and completedwithin 20 days. The percentage ofgerminationis around 90. 4-leaved
seedlings
are transplantedto containers.Six months to one year old seedlings(Plate
are transplanted
3c)
in the field. After the sixth year, leaves can be harvestedand disposed. The tender fruits can
be harvested, the hard rind removed, the pulp cut into pieces and dried in shade. The dried
pulp has good market.
Sprouted root cuttings are also used for propagation.These areobtained by makingincisions
on lateral roots and taking root cuttings with sprouted portions, 9-12 months after
making
incisions. These are, however,difficult to store and transport. Hence
via the
raising
seedling
seed route as described above, is preferred.
Some ImportantMedicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
II.
12.
13.
14.
At
Thinjvanantflapuralr1
Kodam
Pathanamthttte
Alappuoha
Kottayam
tdukkl
Emakulam
Trlesur
Palakkad
Maleppuram
Koztrikode
Wayenad
Kannur
KusargOde
Attappadi
Dho. 050.11
(an. Kannoth
Meg. Mangelem dam

Pal. Paleppetty
ma. Thevetum
Wetevergreen
E:::J
Moist deciduous
Semi evergreen
IEEIIIIM) Drydeciduous
Stride
Plane
Scale:
1:9,00,000)lcm 9km)
Fig. 3: Aegle marmelos: Distribution in Kerala, Western Ghats
18
19
/ ',/
I
1/
,
/4
a
Fig. 4 a-c: Aeglemarmelos: parts used:

A
with
fruit
a) twig
b) A portionoffully matured root C) Root with branches
Some ImportantMedicinal Plants of Western Chats, India: A Profile
'3,
M
p.
.4
Ij
20
jail
Cl)
4-
IC
ci)
Ct
E
-9?
a)
4Ct
21
b
Plate 2: Aegle marmelos:
Fruits
in
cultivated
a)
variety b) Stack of semi-processed root
Plate 3: Aegle marme/os:
a) Plant aftershedding leaves b) Flower c) Heap of fruits
22
23
icmI
Fig. 5: Aeglemarmelos:
a) A twig with flowers b) Fruit
24
Sti
St
E
U
0
P
E
E
t I
Co
P
b
Sti
Sti.
St
0
CL
Fig. 6: Aegle marmelos:

a) Singleflower b) Calyx c) Petal d) Stamen e) Gynoecium f) Ovary C.S., g) Flower L.S
A: Anther; CL: Calyxiobe; F: Filament; 0: Ovary; OV: Ovule;
P: Petal; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; Sty:.Style
25
C.,'
-7v.s
v.S
---A
StE
----F
Fig. 7: Aegle marmelos: Floral vasculature

a) Calyx lobe b) Petal C) Stamen d) Gynoecium
A: Anther lobe; F: Filament; 0: Ovary; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; VS: Vascularsupply
26
jci
t
I
In

a) T.S. of stem-diagrammatic b) A portion of stem enlarged
C: Cambium; ChI: Chiorenchyma; Ck: Cork; M: Medullary ray; P: Pith;
P.Xy: Primary xylem; S.Cor: Secondary cortex; St.C: StoneCell; S.Xy: Secondary xylem
27
St
Sch. C
Ck
Phe
Sch. C
St
SCI)I
S. Xy
P. Xy
Fig. 9 Aegle marmelos:

T.S.
of
a)
root-diagrammatic b) A portionenlarged
C: Cambium; Ck: Cork; M: Medullary ray; Phe: Phellogen;
P.Xy: Primary xylem; Sch.C: Schizogenous cavity; Schi : Schierenchym;
S.ph. : Secondaryphloem; St: Stone cell; Stg: Starch grain
28
0
(7
3
3

a) T.S. of petiole-diagrammatic b) A portion of petioleshowingepidermis and cortex
c) T.S. of leaf throughmidrib-diagramatic d) Detailed T.S. of lamina,
e) Upper portionof midrib-cellular g) Upper epidermis h) Lowerepidermis
ChI: Chlorenchyma; Col: Collenchyma; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair; L.Epi.: Lower epidermis;
Pal: Palisade; Par: Parenchyma; Ph.: Phloem. S.C.: Subsidiary cell;
Sp.: Spongycell St. : Stomata
29
__H
Tes
- --
Teg
Cof
- - Epi
b
d
Fig. 11:Aegle marmelos: Fruit and seed anatomy

a) C.S. of fruit b) A portionoffruit wall enlarged c) C.S. of Seed
d) A Portion of seed coat enlarged
Chi: Chlorenchyma; Cot: Cotyledon; Epi: Epidermis; G: Gums; H: Hair; O.gl.: Oil globule
Par: Parenchyma; Pu: Pulp; Rin: Rind; S: Seeds; Schi: Schhizogenous; Sto: Stone cell
Tea:Testa; Teg: Tegmen; V.B.:Vascularbundle; Xy.v: Xylemvessel
30
iv
II
I''
000
00
0
vi
0Ioovii
V
Fig. 12: Aegle marmelos: Powdermicroscopy

I) Schlerenchyma ii)Vessel with pitted thickening iii) Crystals
iv) Parenchymawith brown content v) Fibres vi) Oil Globules vii) Starchgrains
31
b
Plate 4: Aegle marme/os:
root
a) Sprouted
cutting b) Sprouted root cutting c) Container plants in nursery
CHAPTER 2
Asparagus racemosus Wilid.

(Liliaceae)
Asparagus racemosus WilId. (Liliaceae)
35
2
ASPARAGUS RACEMOSUS WILLD.
(Liliaceae)
Asparagus racemosus willd; sp.pl 2: 152.l799Hooker f. Fl.Brit.Ind.6: 316.1892;
Rao,
Fl.Pl.Trav.41 2. 1914; Fischer in Gamble, Fl.Pres.Madr.3:1 517.1928.
Wild asparagus
English
Hindi
Malyalam
Satavar, Satamuli
Satavari, Satavali
Sanskrit
Satavari, Abhiru
Tamil
Kilavari, Satavali
Throughout India in areas upto 1400 m. elevation, and also cultivated. In Kerala region of
Western Ghats, it is abundantly seen in Moozhiyar of Pathanamthittadistrict, Kulamavu of
ldukki district, Padagiri, Nelliampathy and Panthanthodeof Palakkad district, Odapallam of
Calicut district and Tholpetty and Oonchavayalof Wayanad district.
Formulations
Used in around 67 preparations like Dhanwanthararishta, Saraswatharishta, Anuthaila,
Chandanaditaila, Jeevanthyadi taila, Dhanwantharataila, Narayanataila (small), Narayana
taila (big), Prabhanjana vimardanam kuzhambu, Prasarani taila, Bala dhathryadi taila,
Madhuyashtyadi taila, Mahakukudamamsataila, Mahabala taila, Maharajaprasarini taila,
Lakshaditaila, Vathasani thaila, Sahacharaditaila, Himasagarataila, Gopamganadikashaya,
Triphala marichadi mahakashaya, Dasamoolabaladi mahakashaya,Danwamtharamkashaya,
Mahathikthaka kashaya, Matsyakshyadi kashaya, Musaleekhadiradi kashaya, Mridweekadi
kashaya, Rasnadi kashaya, Maharasnadi kashaya, Varanadi kashaya, Varahyadi kashaya,
Sathavaryadi kashaya, Sukumara kashaya, Dravavarthi kuzhambu, Marma gudika,
Amrithaprasa ghritha, Asoka ghritha,Aswagandhadighritha, thrykantakaghritha, Dasaswarasa
ghritha, Dehaposhana yamaka, Dhatryadi ghritha, Nagabala sarpis, Phalasarpis, Brihachageladi
ghritha, Vasthyamyanthakaghritha, Varanadi ghritha, Varahyadi ghritha, Vidaryadi ghritha,
Sathavaryadighritha, Samalie ghritha, Sarvamayanthakaghritha, Sukumara ghritha, Abhra
bhasma, Narasimha rasayana, Brahmarasayana, Vasishtarasayana, Sathavarigula, Sukumara
leham, Brahmedrakshadikashayamand Ashtangaghritha (lyer, 1983).
Some Important Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India : A Profile
36
Officinal parts (Plate 6)

Tuberous roots
Description (Plates 5, 6; Figs.14, 15)

An armed climbing undershrub with profuse pretty spinybranches bearing sickle shaped onesegmented cladodes and clusters of fusiform succulent tuberous roots. Tender stems very
delicate, brittle and smooth, old ones hard with straight or recurved spines associated with
brown scales, which are modified leaves and in whose axils branches and branchlets arise,
ultimate branchlets being flat green cladodes in clusters of 2-6; flowers white, fragrant in
simple or branched racemes producedat the nodes of main branches or in the axils of thorns,
bracteate, pedicellate, perianth 6 lobed, easily deciduous in two whorls of 3 in each; stamen
6, filaments free, linear, incurved,arising from the base of the perianth lobes; ovary superior,
tricarpellary, syncarpous, style short ending in three stigmatic lobes, ovules 4-6 on axile
placentation;fruits three lobed pulpy berries, purplish black when ripe, seeds spherical with a
hard black testa.

Perianth consists of six lobes arranged in two whorls of three in each. Each lobe is supplied
with a single unbranched vascular strand extending up to 3/4th of the lobe.
Androeciumconsists of six stamens.Each stamen is suppliedwith a feebly developedvascular
strand.
Gynoeciumconsists of three carpels.Each carpel is suppliedwith a single unbranched vascular
strand which extends up to the stigma. Solitary ventral vascular strand supplies the ovules.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.17)
The stem is more or less circular in outline in cross section. The vascular bundles are closed,
many and irregularly scattered in the ground tissue. Epidermis is single layered with a thick
deposit of cuticle. 3-4 layers of ground tissue interior to the epidermis are chlorenchymatous
followed by 4-5 layers of schlerenchyma.The rest of the ground tissue is parenchymatous.
Peripheral vascular bundles are smaller as compared to the inner ones. Phloem is
conspicuously developed in between the two large metaxylemvessels.
Root (Fig.18)
In T.S. the root is somewhat circular in outline. Piliferous layer consists of rectangular cells.
Many of these are extendedas root hairs. Interiorto this is the 6-8 layered exodermisconsisting
of slightly radially elongatedand comparativelythick walled cells. The cells of the outer region
Asparagus racemosus Wilid. (Liliaceae)
37
are smaller than those in the inner region. Bundles of calcium oxalate (Raphides) are seen in
cells scattered throughout the cortex. The innermost two to three layers of the cortical cells
just above the endodermisare modified into elongatethick walled lignifiedcells with numerous
circular or oval pits on their walls. The endodermis consists of a single row. of narrow
rectangularthin walled cells. Justbelow the endodermisis the pericyclewhich is single layered,
composed of thin walled rectangular cells. The xylem and phloem arearranged alternately on
different radii around a central pith. Pith is composedof rounded, thin walled cells with large
intercellular spaces, with thickened peripheral cells.
Cladode (Fig.17)
In T.S. the cladode appears somewhat lens-shaped with a middle bulged portion gradually
tapering on both sides. Epidermis is single layered overlined with a thick cuticle. Palisade is
single layered devoid of intercellular spaces. Interior to this are seen several layers of
parenchymatouscells transversely arranged.A solitary vascular bundle is seen in the centre.
Two to three layers of polygonal parenchymatouscells devoid ofchloroplasts are seen around
the vascular bundles. Stomata are of Ranunculaceous type. The palisade ratio is 41.35.
stomatal index and vein-islet number are not applicable to this species.
Part analysed
Fluorescence
Tuberous root (25 samples)

cream
Xylem vessel segments
57
2.28
Fibres
48
1.92
Parenchyma cells
861
34.00
Raphide particles
134
5.36
Pitted parenchyma
61
2.44
Tracheids
66
2.64
Schlereids
145
6.00
Exodermal cells
305
12.00
95
4.00
Undifferentiatedcells
Some ImportantMedicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India : A Profile

Part investigated
Root
Colour
Chocolate brown
Moisture
8%
TLC data
Hexaneextract
Colour
Light yellow
Colourless
Colour
Methanol extract
Colour
Yellow
Visible light
UV (254 nm)
none
UV (366 nm)
none
Ferric chloride
lodlnevapour2
violet
dark green
yellow
0.82; 0.94
0.29; 0.74; 0.94
0.79;0.
38
39

Roots are bitter, sweet, emollient, cooling, nervine tonic, diuretic, aphrodisiac, rejuvenating
(Warner et al, 1993; Khanna et al, 1991; Narayana Iyer etal, 1963; Kurup et al, 1979), ophthalmic,
appetiser and useful in diarrhoea and rheumatic complaints (Warner et al, 1993; Narayana
lyer et al, 1963; Kurup et al, 1979). It is useful in dyspepsia, colic pain, inflammations,
nephropathy, hepatopathy, tumours (Warner et al, 1993; Narayana lyer et al, 1963) burning
sensation, hyperdipsia, strangury, throat infections, tuberculosis, cough, gleet, gonorrhoea,

Ieucorrhoea,leprosy, cardiac debility, haemorrhoidsand abortion (Warner et al, 1993). Tubers
promote lactation, appetite (Narayana Iyer et al, 1963; WHO, 1990) and provide nourishment
to children. It is also used in the treatment of acidity (WHO, 1990). Tubers are also
recommendedfor sexual vigour and for treating diabetes, uterine complaints and excessive
bleeding (Narayana lyer et al, 1963). Roots are used against menstruation disorders among
tribals of Koonjhar forest (Singh Uppendra Dhar, 1993). It is used in the drug formulations
prescribedfor diarrhoea, epilepsy, haemophiticdisorders, seminal weakness and threatened
abortion. The root is used as rubifacient in nervous and rheumatic complaints (Sarin, 1996).
Propagation (Plate 7; Fig.20)

Seed route is the best method for multiplication of the species. The hard and endospermic
seeds, after pre-treatmentby soaking for 24 hours in cold water aresown on beds. Germination
commencesafter two weeks. It is hypogeal. The radicle penetratesfirst, followed by emergence
of plumule after2 or 3 days. When the radicle is 2 to 3 cms long, a tuft of lateral roots develop
from its base. The first scale leaf appears on the stem when it attains a length ofabout 2 cms.
Cladodes and branch initials develop from the axils of the scale leaves towards the upper
portion of the stem. The axillary buds of some scale leaves towards the lower portion of the
stem remainundeveloped.Usuallytwo cladodesand a single branchinitial areseen developing
from the axils of each scale leaf. Around 24,527 seeds make a kg. The germination percent is
about 80.
After two weeks, the seedlings can be transplantedinto containers.2-3 months old seedlings
are ready to be planted out in the field. If soil is hard, planting should be done in pits of size
6Ocmx60cmx60cm (60 cubic cenimeters). Pit may be taken at an espacement of lxi m.
Harvestingcan be done after 2 years, but optimum yield will be onlyafter3 years. About 1000
kg dried tubers can be obtained from one ha.
Efficient regeneration of Asparagus by inducing developmentof roots from in vitro multiplied
shoot explants using gellan gum and glucose has been reported (Shigeta et al, 1996).
40
'ri
F
Plate 5: Asparagus racemosus:(in flower)
Asparagus racemosusWilId. (Liliaceae)
Plate 6: Asparagus racemosus:(Fibrous root)
41
1.
0.
DISTRICTS
2. KSn
4.
Psoa.antiSIa
S
7. EnuIsn
& Ttflt
10.
11.
12.
PsSckad
w.y.nad
i3. Karat
14. Kusagod.
CM Csioid
Kit Ktdnvo
Kst Ks,o
C
O dsm,
NM NsMysoShy
Oadsvoyl
Pat
Pan Ps4sIho&
en Tholpily
a
ci:
0
Wsosoo
DuydsdOS
OhS
P.m
OS:
l:9.OO.0(icm.Ohm)
Fig. 13: Asparagus racemosus:Distribution in Kerala, Western Ghats
42
43
Fig. 14: Asparagus racemosus:

a) Flowering twig b) Single flower c) Tuberous roots
44
0
a
b
C
P
Sti
sty
ov
Fig. 15: Asparagus racemosus: Flower

Perianth
lobe
b) Stamen C) Gynoecium d) Flower L.S. e) Ovary C.S.
a)
0: Ovary; Cv: Ovule; P: Perianth lobe; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
45
a
E
E
.s.
1E
Fig. 16: Asparagus racemosus: Floral vasculature

a Perianth lobe b - Stamen c - Gynoecium
A: Anther lobe; F: Filament; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Perianth lobe; Sti: Stigma;
Sty: Style; V.S: Vascular supply
46
b
Epi
Chi
Schi
Xy
Ph
Par

a) Detailed T.S. of cladode b) T.S. of stem-diagrammatic c) A portion of stem enlarged
d) Epidermis with stomata
ChI: Chlorenchyma; Epi: Epidermis; Ph: Phloem; Pal: Palisade; Par: Parenchyma
Schl: Schlerenchyma; St: Stomata; V: Vascular bundlq; Xy: Xylem
47
IE
H
Exo
Cor
Ph
Xy
P
End
3
3
End
Per
Ph
Pr. xy
M.xy

T.S.
of
tuberous
root-diagrammatic b) A portion enlarged
a)
Cor: Cortex; End: Endodermis; Epi: Epidermis; Exo: Exodermis; H: Hair;
M.Xy: Metaxylem; P: Pith; Per: Pericycle
Ph: Phloem; Pr.Xy: Protoxylem; R: Raphide; Xy: Xylem
48
E
E
U)
0
iv
II
Vii
Fig. 19: Powder microscopy of Asparagus racemosus:

I) Septate & non-septatefibres ii) Pitted parenchyma iii) Xylem tracheids
lv) Xylem vissels v) Schlereids vi) Exodermal cells
vii) Parenchymacells of the cortex
Asparagus racemosusWilId. (Liliaceae)
ft
a) Germination
Plate 7: Asparagus racemosus:

b) Outplantedseedlings c) Harvested root d) Young branch
e) Container plants in nursery
49
1'
()
vu
Vijj
Fig. 20: Asparagus racemosus: Stages in seed germination

Cl: Cladode; R: Root; S.L: Scale leaf; Sp: Spine
iii
Ip
iiII
ix
- -. Cl
CD
Cl)
-.
D)
C)
0.
CD
D)
CD
0
3
Cl)
CHAPTER 3
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell

(Scrophulariaceae)
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell (Scrophulariaceae)
53
3
BACOPA MONNIERI(L.) PENNELL
(Scrophulariaceae)
Bacopa monnieri(L.) Pennell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 98:94. 1946; Lysimachiarnonnieri
L. in Torner, cent. P1. 2:9. 1756; HerpestismonnieriaKunth in H.B.K Nov. gen. Sp. 2:366.1818
nom. Mg; Gratiola monnieri L., syst. Nat.ed.10:851.1759; Bramia indica Lamk., Enc'l.
1:459.1785.
English
Hindi
Malyalam
Thyme leaved gratiola

Brami, Jalnim
Brami, Nirbrahmi
Sanskrit
Brahmi, Sarasvati
Tamil
Nirpirami, Piramiyapundu
ThroughoutIndia, scattered in wet placesupto 1,200 m. In Keralaregion of the WesternGhats,
it is naturally found in Thannermukkamof Alappuzhadistrict, Ochira of Kollamdistrict, Ranni
of Pathanamthitta district, Vaikom of Kottayam district, Kovalam and Veil of Thiruvananthapuram
district, Pattikkad of Trichur district, Chinnar of ldukki district, Anakkatty of Palakkad district
and Kumbla of Kasargode district.
Formulations
It is known to be used in about 21 preparations viz., Saraswatharishta, Chandanadi taila,
Pamanthaka taila, Paranthyadi taila, Balasodhini taila, Brahmee taila, Thiktha kashaya,
Thrayanthyadikashaya, Patolamooladikashaya, Manjishtadikashaya, Mahathiktha kashaya,
Mustharishtadi kashaya, Manasamitra vadika, Thikthaka ghritha, Patoladi ghritha, Brahmi
ghritha, Mahathikthaka ghritha, Abrabhasma, Chinchadileha, Brahma rasayana,

Brahmeedrakshadikashayam,Asthangaghritham (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts (Plate 9)

Whole plant, fresh as well as dried.
54
Description (Plates8, 9; Figs.22, 23)

A succulent, spreading prostrate or creeping glabrous annual herb with numerous ascending
upright-branchesand adventitious roots at almost every node; stems and branches yellowish
green, dark green or pink with internodesofvarying length; leavessimple, opposite decussate,
almostsessile, spathulate,entire,fleshy,obscurelyveinedand dottedwith minutespots; flowers
pale blue or whitish, axillary, solitary on long slender pedicelsof varying lengths, usually longer
than the leaves; calyx with two lateral adnatebracteoles,glabrous, deeply 5-partite, with three
outer unequal ones and two inner linear ones; Corolla gamopetalous, pale blue or whitish,
about twice as long as the calyx, five lobed, slightly two lipped, the upper two emarginate or
two lobed and the lowerthree lobed; stamens four didynamous,included,filaments epipetalous,
free, anthers two celled; Ovary bicarpellary syncarpous two chambered with many ovules in
each cell on swollen placenta, style concave, dialated towards the top and ending in a two
lobed stigma. Fruits ovoid acute, 2-celled, 2-valved capsules, tipped with style base; seeds
minute, numerous.

The bracteole is linear and is supplied by a solitary median vascular strand. Of the three outer
lobes of the calyx, the median one is larger having seven vascular strands. Of these, the
median three arestouter and unbranchedup to near about the tip. The lateral ones repeatedly
branch and form a network. Of the two other sepals which are slightly smaller, the general
pattern of vascular supply is the same except the absence of network formation on one side in
one sepal. A single unbranchedvascular strand traverses from base to top in the other two
linear sepals.
Three conspicuousvascular strands ofeach corolla lobe give riseto branches at the region of
the union of the lobes, but the branches do not get interconnected.Each epipetalous stamen
is supplied with a distinct unbranchedvascular strand.
The pistil is suppliedwith two short and stoutvascular bundles which give rise to two branches
each at the base of the ovary. The outer branchtraverses through the ovary wall and abruptly
ends at the base of the style after giving rise to a lateral branch, and the inner one straightaway
supplies the style and stigma without producing branches.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.25)
In transverse section of the stem it is seen that
The section is circular in outline

2. The epidermis is uniseriate consisting of tabular cells
1.
55
3. Cortex is well developed and consists of 20-22 layers of parenchymatouscells with large
intercellular spaces
4. Endodermis is single layered and its cells contain plenty of starch grains
5. Endodermis is followed by 1-2 layered pericycle
6. Xylem and phloem are arranged collaterally with rather indistinct cambium in between,
probably consisting of one to two layers
7. A well developed parenchymatouspith having plenty of intercellular spaces
Root (Fig.26)
In cross section, the root is circularin outline encircled by a uniseriate epidermis devoid of
cuticle. The outer and inner cortex consists of two to three layers of parenchyma. They are
connected by uniseriate trabeculae of parenchyma with air chambers in between. The
innermost layer of the cortex is the endodermis whose cells are provided with casparian
thickenings on their radial walls. Following endodermisis a single layered pericycle.The root
is protostelicwith 6-7 protoxylemgroups alternated by radially arranged phloem patches.
Leaf (Fig.27)
In transverse section, the leaf shows typical dicotyledonous characters. The epidermis is
uniseriateoverlined by a thin layer ofcuticle. Sunkenspherical, multicellular,sessileglandular
trichomes filled with yellowish green contents and surroundedby radiating rows of eightcells
are seen in the epidermis. Stomata of the Ranunculaceoustype are present on surfaces of
both the epidermis,though more areseen on the lower epidermis.The palisadetissue consists
of two layers of columnar cells compactly arranged. The spongy tissue consists of oval or
spherical cells with plenty of intercellular spaces. There is a central solitary midrib vascular
bundledevoid ofanystrengtheninggirdles.The bundle is broadc-shapedwith poorly developed
vascular elements, xylem facing the adaxial surface and phloem the abaxial surface.
The stomatal index, palisaderatio and vein-isletnumber,arediagnosticfeatures of significance
in this species. The stomatal index of upper epidermis 4.71 and lower epidermis 11.84. The
palisade ratio is 1 .38 and the vein-islet number is 4.2.
Plant part studied
Fluorescence
:
:
whole plant (25 samples)

dark green
56

Plant part
Colour
Moisturecontent
: Whole plant
: Green
: 10.0%
TLC Data
Hexane extract
Colour
Lightgreen (yellowish orange in UV at 366 mm)
Colour
Dark green (UV, deep yellow at 254 nm; orange at 366 nm)
Visible light
yellow,green
0.59; 0.97
UV (254 nm)
brown
0.97
UV (366nm)
brown
0.97
Ferric chloride
I
I
dark green
0.97
Iodinevapour
yellow
0.24; 0.38;0.62; 0.84; 0.97
57
Methanol extract
Colour
:
Dark green (UV, dark brown at 254 nm; Orange red at 366 nm)

The plant is astringent, bitter, sweet, cooling, purgative, intellect promoting and is useful in
vitiatedconditionsofVata & Kapha, epilepsy, insanity,neuralgia(Warner et al, 1993; Narayana
lyer et al, 1964; Kurup et al, 1979), tumours and makes the voice clear (Narayana lyer et al,
1964; Kurup et al, 1979) promotes sleep (WHO, 1990; Kurup et al, 1979), it is digestive, and
useful in splenomegaly,skin diseases,fever, dyspnoea (Warner et al, 1993; Narayana lyeret
al, 1964) cure of convulsions (Warner et al, 1993; WHO, 1990) it is anodyne, carminative,
anti-inflammatory, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue,sudorific, febrifuge, tonic and is used
in biliousness, inflammations, amentia, ulcer, dyspepsia, flatulence, constipation, asthma,
leucoderma, erysipelas,syphilis,hoarseness, strangury,elephantiasis, dysmenorrhoea, sterility
and general debility (Warner et al, 1993). It cures diabetes,small pox, boils on the body, cough,
prurites, arthritis, anorexia, emaciation. It dispels poisonous affections, impurity of blood
(Narayanalyeret al, 1993). Oil preparedfrom fresh juice forexternal applicationfor blackening
the hairand to cool the brain (Kurup et al, 1979). It is also used as an antioxidant(Tripathi et al,
1995). The drug is used for enhancing the power of speech, arresting process of ageing and
overcoming conditions of stress (Sarin, 1996).
Propagation
The easiest method is by using stem cuttings. When planted in dry fields, regular watering is
needed. For varieties grown in wet fields, floodingthe area with water is essential. 15 cm. long
cuttings aredirectly planted in fields at an espacementof 50 cm. The field should be regularly
watered throughout. Within a week, new roots arise at the nodes. Within a month, the plants
become well establishedand the entire field is coveredby thick growth. Manuringwith cowdung
powdershould be done bimonthly.Weeding should be carried out once in two months.If there
is oily appearance over the water surface, lime powder should be applied to the field. The
plant can be easily grown in drums containing water, kept in the sun. The water level should
be regularlymaintained. Harvesting can be done every two months.It can be harvestedthrice
a year.
Plate 8: Bacopa monnieri: in flower
58
Plate 9: Bacopa monnieri:

a) & b) Cultivated in garden c) Semi-processed material
59
nfl
Tt4rwananthapuram
1.
2.
(aDam
pathanamtt4tta
AtappUZba
Koflayam
tdukku
Emakatam
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
9.
Trtaaar
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
patakkad
Matappuraln
Kozhitcoda
Wayanad
Kannur
Kaaarguda
Ma. Anakkatty
Cot. Ct4nnsr
Ran. Kovatam
KantKuntala
Mat. MaDy
NL
Nilambur
Pat.
PatokkadU
Dab. Ocbka
Ran. Ranni
Saa. Saathanikotta
ma. mannWmukm
Vai. Vaiktcam
Vet. Ve9
fl
flifihhfflulU
+
WetevergrW'
Semievergreen
Moistdecldaoua
Drydeciduous
SOS
QPana
Scate:
1:9.00000(lan 9km)
Fig. 21: Bacopamonnieri: Distribution, Kerala, WesternGhats
60
61
C.)
'I
1cm
Fig. 22: Bacopamonnieri:

a) Habit b) Singleflower
62
Er
E
csJ
E
E
e
Sti
St
f
P
Sti
Sty
St
ov

a) Bracteole b-e) Sepals f) Corolla with stamen
h) OvaryC.S. I) Flower L.S.
g) Gynoecium
0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petals; S: Sepal; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
63
v.s
v.s
-Sti
sty
v.s
P
St
cv
v.S
0
T
f
9
Fig. 24: Bacopamonnieri: Floral vasculature

a) Bracteole b-e) Sepals f) Petal with stamen g) Gynoecium
0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petals; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style;
T: Thalamus; V.S.:Vascularsupply

T.S.
of
a)
stem-diagrammatic b) A portionof stem enlarged
c) A portionofstele with prominent cabium-enlarged
A.S.: Air space; C: Cabium; Car: Cortex; End: Endodermis; Epi: Epidermis;
Hy: Hypodermis; P: Pith; Ph: Phloem; 5: Starchgrain; Xy - Xylem
64
65
Fig. 26: Bacopa monnieri:

a) T.S. of root-diagrammatic b) A portionof rootenlarged
A.C.: Air chamber; End: Endodermis; Epi: Epidermis
O.G:
Oil globule; Per: Pericycle; Ph: Phloem; Tr.: Trabeculae; Xy: Xylem
Hy: Hypodermis;
66
El
U. Epi
Xy
Ph
L. Epi

a) T.S. of leaf-diagrammatic b) T.S. of midrib of leaf-cellular
c) Detailed T.S. of lamina d) Lowerepidermis
Epi: Epidermis; H: Sunkensessileglandularhair; L.Epi: Lowerepidermis; Pal: Palisade
Ph: Phloem; Sp: Spongycells; St: Stomata; U.Epi: Upperepidermis; Xy: Xylem
fl
67
/
%
000
0
00
0
VIII
Vu
0'O
0oAO0o'
Oe
000'
'
erW#fl
IV
vi
Fig. 28: Powdermicroscopy of Bacopamonnieri:

i) Chiorenchyma cells ii) Xylem vessels iii) Thickwalled cell iv) Palisadecells
v) Starchgrains vi) Parenchyma vii) Oil globules viii) Spongycells ix) Tracheids
ix
CHAPTER 4
Baitiospermum montanum (Wilid.)

MueII.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
Baliospermum montanum(Willd.) Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
71
4
BALIOSPERMUM MONTANUM(WILLD.)
MUELL.-ARG. (Euphorbiaceae)
Baliospermum montanum (WilId.) Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prodr.15(2): 1125. 1866; Gamble,
Fl.Pres.Madras 1342. 1925. Syn.B. axillare Blume, Bijdr. 604.1826; Hook,f., FI.Brit.India5:461.1887.
English
Danti
Hindi
Danti
Malyalam
Nagadanti, Danti
Sanskrit
Danti
Tamil
Nakatanti
B. montanum (Plate) is an importantmedicinal plantdistributedthroughoutIndia, Burma,Malaya
and Java, in hills as well as plains. In Kerala region of WesternGhats, it isfound in Vellanimala
of Thrissur district; Chindakki, Panthanthodeand Pottikkal of Palakkad district Vazhikkadavu
of Malappuramdistrictand kurisumala to Kodanaduof Ernakulam District.
Formulations
The roots are widely used in 21 Ayurvedic preparations like Kumaryasavam,Chavikasavam,
Danthyarishtam, Prabhanjanavimardanamkuzhampu, Dasamoolapanchakolamkashayam,
Chandraprabhagudika and Kalyanakaghritham.
Officinal parts
Roots, leaves and seeds
Description (Fig.30; Plate 10)

A stout undershrub,0.9 - I .8m in height with numerous erect shoots from the perennial roots.
Leaves simple, sinuate toothed and very variable in shape and size, the upper ones small 8-
12 cm long and long petioled. Lower ones large, 10 - 18cm long, sometimes palmately 3-5
lobed. Flowers numerous, small, unisexual, in axillary racemes with male flowers above and
a few female flowers below. Perianth in male globose, opening in 4-5 membranous,concave,
imbricate lobes, in female of 5-6 lanceolate toothed lobes sometimes persistent in fruit, disc
Some Important MedicinalPlants of WesternGhats, India: A Profile
72
in male of4-6 glands, in female annular. Stamens numerouson a central receptacle,filaments

slender, free, anthers terminal, the cells adnate to the broad connective. Ovary 3-celled,
syncarpous, ovule one in each cell. Styles 3, stout, forked with smooth stigmatic surface.
Fruit a 3-celled capsule of about 8-13mmlong, cells 2 valved; seeds ellipsoid, smooth,mottled.

Perianth
Each perianth lobe is supplied with a separate vascular strand which produces two branches
justbelow the region of union of the perianth and ultimately gets forked at tip ofthe lobe.
Stamen
Each stamen is supplied with a stout vascular strand which traverses through the filament
producing two branches just below the connective region. Each branch in turn repeatedly
produces several branchlets at the connective region which adjoins the two anther lobes.
Ovary
The ovary is tricarpellary and syncarpous. Each carpel is supplied with a dorsal bundle and a
ventral bundle. The dorsal bundle after traversing the wall enters into the style and supplies
the stigma branching thrice. The ventral bundle traverses through the axis and supplies the
ovule with profuse branchlets.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.32)
The cross section of a mature stem is circular in outline. The epidermis is uniseriate and
consists of tabular cells with thick deposit of cuticle. There is a predominant cortex composed
of 13-15 layers of parenchymatouscells. Many cells contain druses. In the middle portion 3-4
layers are collenchymatouswhich extend towards the periphery at certain points. There are a
few latex vessels and mucilage ducts. The outer layers of secondary phloem get lignified.
Druses are abundant in the secondary phloem tissue. The cambial layers are few and
conspicuous. The secondary xylem consists of vessels which are predominantly in linear
groups. The xylem fibers are conspicuous.The uniseriate medullary rays are devoid of starch
grains and is a distinct feature as compared to that of root. The pith is conspicuous and is
composed of parenchymatouscells, a few containing druses.
Root (Fig.32)
Cross section, of a mature root is circular in outline, and has conspicuous cork tissue towards
the exterior. Cork cells are tangentiallyelongated and thick walled. This is followed by phellogen
consisting of a few layers. The cortex is predominent, 12-14 layered and is characterised by
the presence of starch containing cells, latex vessels, stone cellsand cells containingdruses.
73
Baliospermum montanum(WilId.) Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
The cambium cuts of secondary phloem externally and secondary xylem internally, some of
the phloem cells contain starch grains. The medullary rays are often uniseriate or biseriate
containing starch grains in their cells. The xylem vessels are comparatively few in number.
The primary xylem is tetrarch.
Petiole (Fig.33)
Cross section of the petiole is oval in outline. Epidermis is single layered with thick deposit of
cuticle. Below the epidermis 3-5 layers of collenchyma are conspicuous. Beneath this
collenchymatouslayers, cells are largeand parenchymatous. Some of the cells containdruses.
Vascular bundles are numerous and arranged in a ring. There is a large cavity in the centre.
Leaf (Fig.33)
T.S. of leaf shows common dicotyledonous characters. The epidermis is single layered with
thick cuticle. Mesophyll tissue consists of compactly arranged single layered palisade and
loosely arranged, multilayered spongytissue. In the midrib region just beneath the upper and
lower epidermis 3-5 layers are collenchymatous. Bicollateral vascular bundle, is bounded
both on upper and lower sides by schlerenchymatousgirdles. In the midrib region, latex cells
are very conspicuous. Lower epidermis possesses unicellular trichomes. Stomata are of
rubiaceoustype.
The stomatal index is 19.46, palisade ratio is 7.9 and vein-islet number is 4.01.
Powder Microscopy
Parts studied
Root (25 samples)
Fluorescenceof coarse powder: Light brown
Tissue
Total No
Av No/unit area
76
3.00
Tracheids
82
3.30
Fibres
19
0.76
Stone cells
102
4.00
Parenchyma
110
4.40
Druses
15
0.60
Unidentified
15
0.60
74

TLC Data
0.7352
0.9264
_______
Dichloromethane
extract
0.1093
0.21875
0.5000
0.6562
0.7187
0.0281
0.7040
0.2112
0.3239
0.3943
0.7605
none
0.2297
0.2972
0.3918
0.4729
0.0675
0.1216
0.2297
0.3573
0.5675
0.2419
0.5322
0.6935
0.7580
0.9032
0.1613
0.4153
0.5846
0.6923
0.7384
0.8000
0.8769
0.9384
none
none
0.1000
0.1666
0.3333
0.4500
0.5666
0.6666
0.7833
0.81 66
0.9000
0.3809
0.4687
0.6875
0.8095
none
none
0.8281
0.8750
Methanolextract
0.0468
0.0937
0.1406
0.2656
0.3906
0.4375
0.4531
0.51 56
0.5625
0.5937
0.4181
0.7031
0.8437

Roots/leaves/fruits/seedsare used in about 27 preparations. Roots are acrid, thermogenic,
diuretic,diaphoretic,rubefacient, febrifuge and tonic. They are used to treat in anasarca, dropsy,
flatulence, constipation, jaundice, haemorrhoids, leprosy, skin diseases, strangury, vesical
calculi, wounds, splenomegaly, anaemia, leucoderma, fever and vitiated conditions of vata.
The leaves are good for asthma and bronchitis. The seeds are drastic purgative, rubifacient,
hydragogue and stimulant and are useful in vitiated conditions of vata, inflammations and
flatulence (Warner et al, 1993). Decoction of roots and fruits are used in oedema and stomach
colic (R.C.Srivastava, 1989). In cases of sprains, crushed leaves are fried with a little bit of
Baliospermum montanum (WilId.) Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
75
animal fat and allowed to cool. Then the preparation is applied externally over the affected
joints with the helpofa loose cottonbandage.Decoctionofleavesareused for treatingasthma;
seeds are purgative, stimulant, rubefacient(Chopra et al, 1956 & Watt, G.1972) and used for
snake bite (Chopra et al, 1956). Chemical components like fatty acid, axillarenic acid, etc.,
have been isolated and characterizedfrom the seed oil (Husain et al, 1980).
Propagation (Plates 10, 11, 12)

The average number of seeds in 1 kg is 21240, the weight of each seed being about 0.045
gms. The seeds were sown in nursery beds and covered with sand and regularly watered.
The germination commenced on the 6th day and completed on the 12th day. On an average,
the percentageof germinationwas 50.6. One month old seedlings were used for outplanting.
The plants can be raised from stem cuttings also. This vegetative mode of multiplication is
found to be more satisfactory. The pencil size stem cuttings were treated with IBA (10 mts),
NAA (20 mts) and Boric acid (12 hrs) of l000ppm, 500ppm, 25Oppm & lOOppm respectively,
and gave good results. In IBAand NAAtreatments, 100% sproutings were obtainedwhereas
in boric acid, it varied from 80 to 100%. The controls had a percentagesprouting varying from
40 to 60. It was found that IBA or NAAtreated cuttings sprouted and establishedwell. As the
species is shade tolerant, it established vell in coconut and even teak plantations.
Additional Information
Growth
The initial rate ofgrowth showed significant variation between provenances,i.e., from a low of
108 cms in height per year to a height of 162 cms.
Economics
Plantations raised by farmers have confirmedthatit is highly remunerative.A typical example
is given below.
Year I
Amount in Rs.
No. of plants in a ha of plantation 25,000
1.
Cost of 25,000 cuttings obtained from 100 kg

of material @ Rs 6/kg.
Cost of 12,500containers to plant25,000
cuttings 2 cuttings/container and chemicals
for pre treatment
600.00
6,500.00
Amount in Rs.
Amount in Rs.
2.
Cost of sand and farm yard manureto fill the

containers
2,875.00
Labour for filling sand and manurein

containers
1,500.00
Labour for planting out 25,000 seedlingson 6250

mounds 4 plants per mound and preparing
the moundswith dug up soil, and manure
3,750.00
2 weedings
7,500.00
Cost of harvesting and processing
Gross income per hectare :
Amount in Rs.
62,500.00
Realization by saleof 12,500 kg roots 500 gm

processed root from each plant @ Rs.l2IKg
Total
76
1,50,000.00
85,225.00
around Rs.65,000.00
1,50,000.00
Baliospermum montanum (Wilid.) Muell .-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
TBICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
ThiruvananthaPUram
Kollam
Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
ldukki
Emakulam
Trissur
Palakkad
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
KasargOde
LOCALITIES
Chi. Chindakki
Kur. Kurisumudi, Kodanad
Pal. Palode
Pat. Pathanthode
Pok. Pottikkal
Vaz. Vazhikkadvu
Vel. Veflanimala
EQRESTTYPES
Wet evergreen
_______
Semi evergreen
Dry deciduous
llhIIIllIIfflhI11I
Deciduous
FVfl++++1
If++++]
Shola
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm = 9km)
Fig. 29: Baliospermummontanum: Distribution
77
78
bc
a
Sti
PL
0
Ov
Fig. 30: (a-i) Ba!iospermummontanum:Habit and flower

Habit
a)
b) Femaleflower c) Male flower d) Perianth e) Stamen
f) Gynoeceum g) Ovary C.S. h) Male flower L.S. i) Female flower L.S.
0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P1: Perianth lobe; St: Stamen Sti - Stigma
Baliospermum montanum (Wilid.) Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
Plate 10: Baliospermummontanum: Erect Shoot in flower
79
80
Sti
AL
Sty
PL
Ov
V.S
a
b
Fig. 31: (a&b) Baliospermummontanum: FLoral vsculature

a) Stamen b) Female flower L.S. (xl 15)
Al: Anther lobe; F: Filament; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P1: Perianth lobe;
Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style; V.S.: Vascular supply
Baliospermum montanum(Wilid.) Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
81
Cu
S.PI,
S.Xy
P.Xy
Fig. 32: (a-d) Baliospermummontanum:

T.S.
of
a)
stem-diagrammatic(x50) b) A portion enlarged (xli5)
T.S
of
C)
root-digrammatic(x50) d) A portion enlarged (xli5)
C: Cambium; Chi: Chiorenchyma; Cor: Cortex; Cu: Cuticle; D: Druses; Epi: Epidermis;
L: Latex cell; MR: Medullary ray; P: Pith; P.Xy: Primary xylem; S: Strach grain;
Sch: Schlererichyma; S.Ph: Secondary phloem; S.Xy: Secondary xylem
82
Col
Schl.g
U.Epi
Pal
Sp
Schl.g
Col
St
e
L
SchLg
Col
Epi
Fig. 33: (a-h) Baliospermummontanum:

a) T.S. of petiole-diagrammatic(x50)
A
b) portion of petiole showing epiderms and cortex (xli 5)
c) T.S. of lamina through midrib-diagrammatic(xl 15) d) Detailed T.S. of lamina (x210)
e) Upper portion of midrib enlarged (x450) f) Lower portion of midrib enlarged (x450)
g) Surface view of upper epidermis (x210) h) Surface view of lower epidermis (x210)
Col: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; D: Druses; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair; L: Latex cell
L.Epi: Lower epidermis; Pal: Palisade; Ph.: Phloem; Schl.g: Schlerenchyma girdle
Sp: Spongy parenchyma; St: Stomata; U.Epi: Upper epidermis; Xy: Xylem
h
Baliospermum montanum (WilId.) Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
Plate 11: (a-d) Baliospermummontanum:
a) A mature plant in flower b) Conatiner plants ready for planting out

c&d) Container plants from stem cuttings ready for planting out
83
84
I-
a)
(I,
H
0
cij5
U)
a-
E
U)
CHAPTER 5
Celastrus paniculatus Wilid.
(Celastraceae)
Celastrus paniculatusWilId. (Celastraceae)
87
5
CELASTR US PANICULATUS WILLDI
(Celastraceae)
CelastruspaniculatusWilld., Sp. P1. 1:1125.1797;Wt. IC., t. 158. 1839; Laws in Hook.f, Fl.
Brit. India 1:617.1875; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 208.1918.
English
Climbing staff plant
Hindi
Malkangani, Malkunki
Malyalam
Cheruppunna,valuzhavam
Sanskrit
Jyotishmati, Pitataila
Tamil
Valuluvai,Siruvaluluvai
The species is distributed throughout hilly tracts of India upto an altitude of 1200m. In Kerala
region ofWesternGhats, it occurs in Kulamavuto ldukki and Munnarto Kumaliin Idukki district;
Peechi in Thrissur district; Walayar and Mandanpotty in Palakkad district; Odappalam to
Chudalethin Kozhikode districtand Chandanathodein Kannurdistrict.
Formulations
It is an important constituent in formulations like Nimbamrithasavam,Moolakadhyarishtam,
Cheriya Arimedastailamand Aranyatulasyadicoconut oil.
Officinal parts
Bark, leaves, seeds
Description (Plates 13 & 14; Figs.35 & 36)

Large climbing shrub. Leavessimple, alternate, exstipulate orwith very minute stipules; ovate
to orbicular, acute or acuminate at apex, pubescent below, reticulation raised on ventral side;
lamina 3-16cm x 2-7cm; petiole short, 0.2-0.6cm long, channelled on the adaxial surface
(Plate 14a,b,c). Young stem tomentose, creamy;bark warty, lenticellate, brown when mature.
88
Flowers polygamousin terminal panicles, calyx five-lobed, small, corolla five, spreading, disc
five-lobed, stamens five; ovary globose, three celled, style short, thick, stigma three, recurved;
ovuleserect, two in each cell on axile placenta.Fruits globose in bunches 1-3 celled loculicidal
capsules. Seeds endospermous,with fleshy orange red aril; testa chartaceous, dark brown;
embryo erect with pale green leafy cotyledons.

Sepal
Each sepal is supplied with a single vascular strand which gets branched into three. Each of
these again divides intothree branches.
Petal
Each petal is supplied with eight vascularstrands. Of these two in each peripheral side of the
petal are short and remain unbranched,while the others get irregularly branched. The median
strand repeatedly branches and runs upto the tip of the petal.
Stamen
A single vascular strand traverses through the filament and gets abruptly branched at the
region of the connective.
Gynoecium
Ovary is 3-celled. There are 2 ovules in each cell on axile placentum. Each carpel is supplied
with a single vascular strand which gets branched intodorsal and ventral strands. The ventral
branchenters into the ovarian chamberand supplies the ovules, while the dorsal branch runs
upwards and reaches to the stigma, where it produces several small branches.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.38)
T.S. of young stem is almost angular in outline while thatof mature stem is nearly circular. The
single layered epidermis in young stem shows a thin cuticle and unicellular as well as
multicellulartrichomes. In young stem, cortex is with 3-5parenchymatousouter layers followed
by a chlorenchymatous zone. These chlorenchymatoustissues extend towards the
parenchymatousinner cortex as uniseriate strands. 3-5 layered patches ofthese parenchyma

become schlerenchymatous when mature. lnclusicrns such as starch grains, oil globules,
etc., are very common in cortical cells. The cortex is delimited by a chlorenchymatous
endodermis.The prominent parenchymatouspith has cells with starch inclusions. The mature
stem is lenticellate. The cork consists of few, more or less spherical cells which are loosely
arranged. The cork cambium is 3-4 layered and produces few layered phelloderm internally.
The cambial ring formed during secondary growth produces secondary xylem internally and
89
secondary phloem externally. The medullary rays are thin walled. Maceration studies reveal
the presenceoffibers, fibertracheids and annular and spiral vessels in the conductivetissues.
Root (Fig.38)
T.S. of mature root is circular in outline and shows a narrow zone of cork, which is dark
coloured. Secondary cortex is very prominent with polygonal cells in 12-16 layers and they
contain starch and oil globules. A large zone of secondary vascular tissue is present with
prominent medullary rays containing starch grains. Pith is nearly obliterated in the secondary
structure.
Petiole (Fig.39)
The T.S. of petiole is shield shaped in outline. Epidermis is single layered with thick cuticle.
Cortex is conspicuous and is several layered.The cortical cells are almost circularin outline
and are parenchymatousand loosely arranged. The vascular strand is crescent shaped as in
lamina.
Leaf (Fig.39)
The transverse section of the leaf shows common dicotyledonouscharacters. The epidermis
possess three types of trichomes, i.e., unicellular, multicellular and uniseriate, rarely
multicellular unevenly branched. 2-3 layers of collenchymaare present below the epidermis
in the midrib region followed by conspicuousparenchymatoustissue. The leaftrace bundle is
'C' shaped which is surrounded by 3-5 layered schlerenchymatouszone. Mesophyllconsists
of palisade and spongy parenchyma. Oil cells are very common in the mesophyll region.
Stomataare of Ranunculaceoustype and are abundantlyfound on the lower epidermis,when
compared to the upper. Numerical values like stomatal index, palisade ratio and vein-islet
number are considered as diagnostic features of considerable importance. In this species,
stomatal index is only 0.84, palisade ratio is 3.68 and vein-islet number is 4.6.
Seed (Fig.40
The seed has a thickseed coat comprising an outer hard and conspicuoustesta and an inner
thinand softtegmen. The outermost layer oftesta consists of radially and compactlyarranged,
pigmented, enlarged cells whose walls are characteristicallythickened. This is followed by a
few layers of thin walled polygonal cells. The tegmen has an outer layerof uniseriate radially
elongated thin walled cells followed by a single parenchymatouspigmented inner layerThe
bulk of the seed is occupied by the endospermcells containing oil globules.
90
Powder Microscopy
Parts studied
Fluorescence of coarse powder
Seed (25 samples)
Brown
3.00
76
82
Trae.s
Fibres
Stone cells
3.30
0.76
19
4.00
4.40
102
110
Parenchyma
Druses
0.60
0.60
15
Unidentified
15

TLC Data
0 1000
00660
0 1587
0.2500
0.4660
0.6330
0.7833
0.8833
0.1330
0.2500
0.4330
0.6500
0.8000
0.9841
Dichloromethane
extract
Colour: orange
0 5322
0 5517
0.7419
0.8548
0.7758
Methanolextract
0.0307
0.0923
0.2307
0.5230
0.5692
Hexaneextract
none
none
0 6250
0 9531
0.8593
0.8965
0.9310
0.6000
0.6461
0.6923
07384
0 8307
0 9538
0.5538
0.5846
0.6153
0.6615
0.7384
0.8923
0.9692
none
0.2500
0.5781
0.7812
0.1406
0.6406
0.7812
0.8437
0.9687
91

The bark/leaf/seedsare used in about 15 preparations.Chemicalinvestigationshave revealed
the presence of acetic, benzoic and formic acid in addition to commonlyoccurring long chain
fatty acid in the seeds (Agarwal, 1989). The seed oil is reported to have tranquilizing effect
(Patel et al, 1957) and is characterized as a rubifacient (Patel & Trivedi, 1962). It is active
against both gram positive and gram negative micro organisms. The seed extract exhibits
antifertility and antispermatogenic effects in male rats (Wangoo, 1988), while Hakim (1964)
discovered that seeds have beneficial effects on psychiatric patients, Karanth et at (1981)
found thatthe seed oil administrationin rats improvedtheir learningand memoryconsiderably.
The bark is reportedto be abortifacient,depurativeand braintonic; the leafsap is emenagogue
and is used as an antidote for opium poisoning (Warner et al, 1994). Stem bark is crushed
with water and taken internallyfor snake bite(Govil, 1993). Leavesground into paste is applied
on the tumours and given internally for bleeding (Mathew et at, 1992).

Seeds are very small in size, the number per kg being 25,575. Approximate weight of each
seed is 0.039 gms. Pretreated (soaking in cold water for 24 hrs.) seeds showed no signs of
germination, 14 days aftersowing. Even aftera month of sowing, only about half the number
of seeds germinated, germination% being 52. Vegetativepropagation showed better results.
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Thiruvananthapuram
KoIlam
Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
Idukki
Emakulam
Trissur
Palakkad
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Cha. Chandanathode
Kul. Kulamavu to ldukki
Man. Mandanpotty
Mun. MunnartoKumali
Ota. Othappallam to Chudaleth
Pee. Peechi
wal. Walayar
FOREST TYPES
lI
::::::
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIIIIl
*++++++I
++++++
Wet evergreen
Semi evergreen
Deciduous
Drydeciduous
. oa
C
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm = 9km)
Fig. 34: Celastrus paniculatus: Distribution in Kerala, Western Ghats
92
Celastrus paniculatusWilid. (Celastraceae)
Fig. 35: (a&b) Celastrus paniculatus:

a) Habit b) Fruits
93
94
p.
L
2.
2.5mm
pi
St
-P
13
-----S
2mm
Fig. 36: (a-f) Celastrus paniculatus: Male flower

a) Single flower b) Sepal c) Petal d) Stamen e) Pistillode
- Pi: Pistillode; St: Stamen; P: Petal; 8:
Sepal
f) FlowerL.S.
Celastrus paniculatus Wilid. (Celastraceae)
Plate 13: Celastrus paniculatus: Climber with terminal panicle
95
96
d
C
Fig. 37 : (a-d) Celastrus paniculatus: Floral vasculature
a) Sepal (xl 15) b) Petal (xl 15) c) Gynoecium (x210) d) Stamen (x210)
Al: Anther lobe; F: Filament; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petal; S: Sepal; Sti: Stigma
Sty: Style; V.S:Vascularsupply
97
h
Fig. 38: (a-h) Celastrus paniculatus:
a) T.S of young stem-diagrammatic (x50 b) A portion enlarged (xl 00) c) T.S. of stem showing
secondary thickening-diagrammatic (x50) d) A potion enlarged (xli 5) e) A portion ofstem
showinglenticels (x3) f) T.S. of root-diagrammatic (x50) g) A portionenlarged (xl 00)
h) i -iv Xylem elements (x140) i - Vessel showing annular thickening ii - Vessel showing spiral
thickening iii - Tracheid iv - Fibre
C: Cambium; Chl: Chlorenchyma; Chl.s: Chlorenchyma strands; Cor: Cortex; Epi: Epidermis;
H: Hair; LC: Lenticel; Mi: Medullary ray; P: Pith; Par: Parenchyma; Per: Periderm;
P.xy: Primary xylem; SchI: Schlerenchyma; S.ph: Secondary phloem;
S.xy: Secondary xylem
Plate 14: Celastrus paniculatus:

a&b) Climbertrainedon support in homestead garden c) Fruits d-g) Seeds
98
Plate 15: (a-e) Celastrus panicu/atus: Veg. propagation by stem cuttings
99
100
Fig. 39: (a-d) Celastrus paniculatus:

a) Entire leaf (x.5) b) T.S of lamina through midrib enlarged (x150)
c) upperportionof midrib enlarged (xl 50) d-detailed T.S. of lamina (x-150)
T.S.
of
petiole - Diagrammatic (x75) f) A portion of petiole showingepidermis and cortex (xl 50)
e)
g) Surface view of lowerepidermis (xl 50) h) Surface view of upperepidermis (xl 50)
I) Epidermal hairs(x450) i) Unicellular ii) Multicellular unevenly branched
iii) Multicellular unbranched
ChI: Chlorenchyma; Col: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; Epi: Epidermis; H) Hair;
L.Epi: Lower epidermis; 0: Oil cells; Pal: Palisade; Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem;
Sp: Spongyparenchyma; St: Stomata; U.Epi: Upper epidermis; V.B: Vascularbundle
Fig. 40: Celastrus paniculatus: Detailed T.S. of seed(xl 00)

En: Endosperm; Oi: Oil globules; Teg: Tegmen; Tes: Testa
101
CHAPTER 6
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn)

CoIebr (Menispermaceae)
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr.(Menispermaceae)
105
6
COSCINIUMFENESTRL4TUM (GAERTN.)
COLEBR. (Menispermaceae)
Cosciniumfenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. Trans.L.Soc.London13:65. 1822; Hook & Thorns.
In Hook.f.Fl.Brit.India 1:99.1872;Dunn in Gamble, Fl.Pres. Madras 1:27.1915.
English
Tree turmeric
Hindi
Jhar-l-haldi
Malayalam:
Maramannal
Sanskrit
Darvi, Daruharidra
Tamil
Maramanchal,Manjalkkoti
Coscinium fenestratum (Plate 16) is an Indo-Mataysianspecies. In India, it is restricted to
Western Ghats. In Kerala, it occurs rather sparingly in the evergreen forests in central and
southern zones along the western slopes of the Western Ghats, mostly along water courses.
It is also found in crevices of rocks and trees (Plate 18). It is found in Thiruvananthapuram
district; Thirunelli of Wayanad district; Nilambur of Malappuramdistrict and in Chimini dam
area of Thrissur district.
Formulations
It is used in more than 62 Ayurvedic formulations like Aswagandharishtam,Khadirarishtam,
Anuthailam, Kathakakhadiradi kashayam, Elaneer kuzhampu, Mahapanchagavyam (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Bark and stem

A largewoodyclimberdioeciouswith distinctmale and femaleplants. Youngstem and branches
terete, distantly nodose, striated; bark yellow, corky, fissured and lenticellate, densely
106
pubescent,very rarely with slendertendrillarbranchlets. Leavessimple,alternate,thick, peltate,

deltoid,exstipulate; petiole upto 10cm long, angular, thickened both at base and apex, densely
adpressed,rustypubescent;lamina thick, broadly ovate, acute or acuminate at apex, rounded
or truncate at base, margin entire 13-30 x 12-23cm,chartaceous, green, densely white, silky
pubescenton both surfaceswhenyoung, green and glabrousabove and silky pubescentbelow
when mature, 5-7 nerved from base, nerves divergent, often forked and reticulation raised
and prominent below. Seeds 2 x 1.5cm, oblong, obtuse or reniform with a median longitudinal
ridge encircling the seed; testa hard and stony, greyish, glabrous with a waxy coating,
endospermous,endosperm white and ruminate.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.44)
Transverse section of the stem is circular in outline. The outermost zone is cork which is
composed of 15 or more rows of thick walled cells. Cortex is seen below this cork layer. It is
composed of rectangular and polyhedral, comparatively thin walled cells. Most of the cells
contain oil droplets. The inner boundary of the cortex forms a wavy band of several arches'
which is composed of yellow coloured elongated stone cells which form the major portion of
the band and few short sclerenchymatouscells. These sclerenchymatous cells are seen in
definite patches opposite to phloem. Below these arches, some crushed primary phloem
cells areseen. Secondary phloem forms a cup like structure above the secondary xylem. The
wood consists of large sized vessels, very little parenchymatouselements and thick walled
fibers. Medullary rays alternate the conductive tissues which is composed of multiseriate
radially elongated thick walled cells. In addition to the broad primary meciullaryrays, narrow
band of secondary medullary rays are seen. Pith is very prominent; the cells towards the
centre of the pith are large, polyhedral and fairly thickwalled. The outermost cells of the pith
are smaller with more thickened walls. Starch grains are smaller with more thickened walls
and are present throught the pith and medullary rays.
Root (Fig.44)
In transverse section the root is more or less circular in outline. The outermost zone is the
cork layer which is composed of 10-13 rows of thickwalled cells. Below this cork layer is the
cortex which is composed of rectangular and comparatively thin walled cells. In certain cells
oil drops are seen. The inner boundaryofthe cortex forms wavy band of several arches which
is composedof yellow coloured thick walled cells. The tissue is composed of longer, elongated
stone cells which form the major portion of the band and in addition a few short
schlerenchymatouscells. Below these arches some crushed primary phloem cells are seen.
This is followed by secondary phloem tissues. The wood consists of large sized vessels,
parenchymatous elementsand thick walled fibers. Medullaryrays consistof multiseriateradially
elongated thick waIled cells. In addition to the broad primary medullary rays narrow band of
secondary medullary rays are seen. Pith is not discriminable in old roots.
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.)Colebr. (Menispermaceae)
107
Petiole (Fig.45)
T.S. of petiole is somewhat circular in outline. Epidermis is single layered with thin cuticle and
have multicellular,uniseriate trichomes. Cortical region is parenchymatous.Vascular bundles
are seen in a ring and a schlerenchymatous bundle cap is seen above each bundle. In the
centre of the petiole parenchymatouscells are large and loosely arranged.
Leaf (Fig.45)
T.S. of leaf shows common dicotyledonous characters. In T.S. midrib portion appears in the
shape of invertedcone. Epidermisis single layered.Lowerepidermis possesseslarge number
of multicellular, uniseriate trichomes. Mesophyll consists of a single layered palisade and
multilayered spongy tissue with abundant intercellular spaces. In midrib portion collenchyma
is very prominentjust beneath the lower and upperepidermis. Vascular bundle is encircled by
a wavy ring of schlerenchymatous tissue. Stomata are of Ranunculaceoustype.
In this species, stomatal index is 29.31, palisade ratio is 3.81 and vein-islet number is 29.31.
Powder Microscopy
Part studied
Fluorescence of coarse powder (stem)
Fluorescence of coarse powder (leaf)
:
:
Stem (bark) and leaf (25 samples)

Goldenyellow
Dark brown
30
1.2
Tracheids
81
3.2
Fibres
35
1.4
Stone cells
100
4.0
Parenchyma
148
6.0
20
0.8
Unidentified
108

TLC Data
Rf value
UV 2541M60 mm
Iodine
Sulphuric acid!
Vanillin
0.425
active 254
+ve
new spots at
0.574
active 254
+ve
0.50, 0.89
0.620
active 360
-ye
rf values
0.960
active 254
-ye
Dichioromethaneextract
0.370
active 254
+ve
new spots at
0.670
active 254
+ve
0.80
0.880
active 254
+ve
Methanolicextract
No detection
No detection
Spots appeared at
0.78 and 0.88

Thestem is bitter,thermogenic,ophthalmic, anodyne, anti inflammatory,vulnerary, depurative,
stomachic, antiseptic, febrifuge, sudorific and tonic and are useful in vitiated conditions of
kapha and vata, ophthalmopathy,inflammations, wounds, ulcers, skin diseases, abdominal
disorders,jaundice, diabetes, fever and general debility (Warner et al, 1994). It is used as a
substitute for Calumba (Jateorhiza palmata (Lam. Miers).
Propagation (Plates 20, 21)

Both freshly collected seeds and those stored failed to germinate even after pretreatments
(like puncturing the testa, dipping in acid, hot water, cold water, etc.). The fresh stem cuttings
of pencil size were found suitable for vegetative propagation. Cuttings of about 15cm length
were dipped, in IAA 500ppm for 24 hours. Seed weight is 2.775 gms and 360 seeds make a
kg. The species response to vegetative propagation was encouraging. They produced
vegetative buds after 2 weeks. These buds gradually elongated and produced nodes and
109
internodes. The internodes were unusually long and the leaves at the nodes were small and
lanceolate. Within a month, the new vegetative branch attained a length of 45cm. After a
month's growth, the soil of the polythene cover was removed to observe the nature of the
rootings. 1-2 roots were seen which became sufficiently long producing lateral branches.
After two months, they were transplanted in containers and allowed to harden by gradual
exposureto light. After a period of one year when they startedto produce climbingshoots they
were ready for planting out.
In natural habitat seedlings are produced from seeds and root buds. These wildlings were
collected from the forest and domesticated. 75% of them survived. They were planted in
polythene bags for hardening,for a year. Theywere ready for plantingout in the field afterone
year by which time production of climbing shoots was noticed.
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Thiruvananthapuram
Kollam
Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
Idukki
Emakulam
Trissur
Palakkad
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kanriur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Chi.
Nil.
Thi.
Tvr.
Chimmny
Nilambur
Thirunelli
travancore
FOREST TYPES
Wetevergreen
IIIlIIIiIIIIIIIfflhI
lHl
lilIUIIIIlDIIIlIIl
I+++++++I
l+++*+++l
Semi evergreen
DecicJLIoIJs
Drydeciduous
I
oa
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm = 9km)
Fig. 41: Coscinium fenestratum: Distribution
110
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. (Menispermaceae)
Plate 16: Coscinium fenestratum: Habit
111
Fig. 42: Coscinium fenestratum: A twig with fruits
112
2mm
2rnza
113
1mm
2mm
1mm
Fig. 43: Coscinium fenestratum:

flower
Bract
Female
b)
c) Sepal d) Petal e) Pistil f) Carpel g) Carpel L.S.
a)
114
ci)
-Q
>
0
0
ci)
4-
0
C))
ci)
>
E
Cl)
ci)
115
U.-
d
Plate 18: Cosciniurn fenestraturn:
a - f) Occurence in natural forest g) Lenticellate stem surtace
116
Ck

(xY2) b) T.S. of mature stem-diagrammatic (x 10)
A
C) portion enlarged (xli 5) d) T.S. of mature root-diagrammatic (xl 0)
e) A portion enlarged (x 115)
Ck: Cork; Cor: Cortex; Mr: Medullary ray; P: Pith; P.Xy: Primary xylem; St: Stone cells;
S.Ph: Secondary phloem; S.Xy: Secondary xylem
a) twig with tendril
117

a) T.S. ofpetiole (x210) b) A portionof petioleenlarged (x450)
T.S.
of lamina throughmidrib (xli 5) d) Detailed T.S. of lamina (x450)
C)
e) Upperepidermis (xli5) f) Lowerepidermis (xli5)
Col: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; Cu: Cuticle; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair; L.Epi: Lowerepidermis;
Pal: Palisade; Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem; Schl: Schlerenchyma;
Sp: Spongyparenchyma; St: Stomata; U.Epi: Upper epidermis; Xy: Xyler
Plate 19: (a - g) Coscinium fenestratum: Plant and plant parts in natural habitat
118
119
Plate 20: (a - c) Coscinium fenestratum: Propagation by stem cutting
120
0)
0
0
4>
a)
0
0
Cl)
a)
U)
z
E
a)
Cl)
a)
E
C.)
U)
()
CJ
a)
Ct
-U-
CHAPTER 7
Crateva magna (Lour.) DC.

(Capparidaceae)
Crateva magna (Lour.) DC. (Capparidaceae)
123
7
CRATEVA MAGNA (LOUR.) DC.
(Capparidaceae)
Crateva magna(Lourliro) Decandolle Prod. Syst. Nat. Veg. 1:243. 1824. Syn. Capparismagna
Lourliro, Fl. Cochinchin. 1:331.1790. Crateva nurvala Hamilton in Trans. Linn.Soc. London
15:121.1827; Bourdillon,For. Trs. Travancore13.1908.Syn.:Cratevareligiosa sensu Gamble,
Fl. Pres. Madras 1:34.1957, Forster-Mal.:Neermathalam.
Three leaved caper
English
Hindi
Malayalam
Barun, Barna
Neermathalam
Sanskrit
Varunah
Tamil
Varanam,Mavilingam
Theplant (Plate 22) is distributed throughout India scattered along river banksand other moist
localities (Plate 23a, b, C). In Kerala region of Western Ghats, it is found in Adirapilly,
Thumbormuzhi river side, Chimminy and Poringalkuthu in Thrissur district; in Dhoni,
Thannimoodu and Bhavani river side in Palakkad district; Calicut University Campus in
Malappuramdistrict; and in Kuruva Island, Begur and Mananthavadyin Wayanaddistrict.
Formulations
It is used in about 13 Ayurvedic preparationslike varunadi kashayam, Chinchadi tailam (big),
Malathyadi tailam, Vathasanitailam, Chandraprabha gudika,Dhanwanthara ghritham,Varunadi
ghritham,etc. (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Stem, bark and leaves
Description (Fig.47, 48)

A mediumsized deciduous, unarmed much branched,tree (Plate 23a, b) with
yellowishwhite
wood. Leaves digitatively three foliated, alternate, exstipulate with long petioles, the petiole
9-10cm long, lamina about 18-20cm longand 5-8cm broad. Leafletsovate, lanceolate or
obovate,
124
glabrouson both surfaces, pale beneath; lateralleafletsobliqueat the base (Plate 23d). Flowers
large, greenish white, polygamous, in dense terminal corymbose cymes, 5-7cm in diameter,
tetramerous, pedicels stout, glabrous 2.5-3.5cm long. Sepals four, small, ovate, adnate to the
lobed disc. Petals four, long clawed, open in bud, ovate or oblong, obtuse or acute 3-9cm
long. Stamensvery numerous,inserted atthe base ofthe gynophore, filamentsfiliform, purplish,
longer than the petals, spreading; gynophoreabout 5cm long; ovary on a slender gynophore,
bicarpellarysyncarpous one celled or very occasionally 2 celled. Stigma sessile, ovules many
on 2 parietal placenta; berry fleshy with a hard rough rind, 2.5-5cm in diameter, yellowish
when ripe, sometimes divided by a longitudinal septa, thick, globose or ovate, attached to
thickened woody gynophore; seeds brown, embeddedin pulp and reniform.

Sepal
Seven vascularstrands enter intoeach sepaland producebranches.The medianthree strands
arethe longeststrands,the peripheral ones reach upto the middle ofthe sepal and get irregularly
branched. The other two bundles close to the median 3 strands reach upto 3/4th of the sepal
and get branched and at some regions the branches get united.
Petal
5 vascular strands enter into each petal. They traverse unbranched at the clawed portion of
the petal and get repeatedly branched and form a network throughout the petal.
Stamen
Each stamen has a long filament, traversed by a single unbranched vascular strand. At the
region of the connective this strand gets divided into two and supplies to each anther lobe.
Gynoecium
Ovary is bicarpellary,syncarpous one celled with manyovuleson 2 parietal placenta. 2 vascular
bundlesenter into the gynophore,traverse unbranched and enter into the ovarian chamber.At
the ovary they get repeatedly branched and supply the ovules. The main branches directly
enter into the stigma and get branched.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.50)
In T.S., the stem is circular in outline. Cork is 6-8 layered, composed of highly thick walled
tangentially elongated cells. Phellogen consists of 1-2 layers. Secondary cortex has 10-13
Cratevamagna(Lour.) DC. (Capparidaceae)
125
layers of thick walled parenchyma cells. Primary cortex is thin walled and some of the cells
contain starch grains. Beneath the primary cortex a wavy and continuous band of
schlerenchymaand stone cells are seen. Crushed primary phloem elements are seen below
the band. Secondary phloem elements are very distinct and some phloem cells contain starch
grains. Vascular cambium is 1-2 layered and distinct. Secondary xylem consists of vessels
and tracheids. Multi senate medullary rays are prominentand containstarch grains. Medullary
rays extend into phloem as phloem rays. Primary xylem is seen towards the centre. Pith is
very conspicuous and composed of thin walled parenchyma. Most of the pith cells contain
starch grains. A detailed histology of the bark is given below.
Bark (Fig.51)
Outermost tissue is the cork. It has a light cream colour and is composed of 20-25 rows of
rectangular tangentially elongated cells arranged in regular radial rows. In mature cork cells
the inner and side walls are thickened. Phellogen is distinct and consists of a single row of
narrow, thinwalled, tangentially elongated cells.
Inner to phellogen is a narrow zone of phelloderm consisting of 18-20 rows of thin walled
rectangularcells. The outermost phellodermcells arenarrower and innermostones are larger.
Some of the innermost cellscontain starch grains. Small group of stone cellsare also seen in
the phelloderm. The primary cortical cells are crushed, and small group of stone cells are
alsodistinct, Inner to secondary cortex phloem region consists of a large numberof stone cell
groups arranged in tangential series alternatingwith thinwalled phloem elements. In between
these groups large number of radially elongated medullary ray cells are seen. The primary
phloem cells areseen crushed. In some phloem cells, starch grains are abundant. Inner bast
region is devoid of stone cells. Medullary ray cells are thin walled and most of them contain
starch grains (Plate 24).
Root (Fig.50)
In transverse section, root is somewhat circular in outline. The outer most zone is cork,
composed of 8-10 rows of thin walled tangentially elongated cells arranged in regular radial
rows. Phellogen is composed of 1-2 rows, of narrow tangentially elongated cells. Next to
these layers is a thin region of phelloderm composedof4-8 rows of rectangular cells, some of
which contain starch grains. Inner to phelloderm cortical region is very distinct and consists of
10-15 layers. Almost all the cells are rich in starch grains. Scattered within the cortex are
several tangentially elongated groups of stone cells. Phloem region is very distinct. The
parenchymacells of the phloem are small, thin walled and polygonal. Medullary rays extend
into the phloem. Ray cells are thin walled and contain starch grains. A distinct cambium
composed of I or 2 rows of narrow rectangular thin walled cells is seen. Xylem consists of
vessels and trachieds. In the xylem region medullary rays are multiseriate.
Petiole (Fig.52)
In transverse section petiole is nearly circular in outline. Epidermis is single layered without
any trichomes. Cortex is composed of thin walled rectangular parenchyma cells.

Schlerenchymatousbundle caps arevery clear. Vascular bundles arecollateral and arranged
in the shape of 'C'.
126
Leaf (Fig.52)
In T.S., the leaf showscommondicotyledonouscharacters. Epidermis is single layered having
no trichomes. In the midrib portion, beneath the upper and lower epidermis collenchymatous
layersareseen. Mesophyllconsists of two layersof palisadeand multilayeredloosely arranged
spongy cells. Vascular bundles are collateral. Stomataare of Ranunculaceoustype.
The stomatal index, palisade ratio and vein-islet numberare 19.37, 8.1 and 1 .08 respectively.
Powder Microscopy
Parts studied
Bark (25 samples) (Plate 24)
Fluorescence of coarse powder: Black (leaf) Sandy white (bark)
Bark powder

TLC data
Crateva magna(Lour.) DC. (Capparidaceae)
127

The bark and leaves are astringent, bitter, acrid, thermogenic, carminative, anthelmintic,
digestive, stomachic, laxative, diuretic, lithontriptic, stimulant, detergent, expectorant,

demulcent,depurative,anti-periodic and tonic, and are useful in vitiated conditionsof vataand
kapha, dyspepsia, colic, flatulence, helminthiasis,strangury, renal and vesical calculi, cough,
asthma, bronchitis, pruritus, skin diseases, tubercular glands, pectoral diseases, intermittent
fevers, visceromegaly,scrofula, inflammationsand hepatopathy(Warner eta!, 1994). It cures
arthritis, abscess, dysuria, headache, certain heart diseases like angina pectoris and
vaginismus; the flowers are constipating and relieve rheumaticcomplaints, swelling in joints.
The fruits are laxative and sweet on digestion. Leaves are reported to be used for vesical or
renal calculus and vata (Narayana Iyer et a!, 1966). The bark possesses significant
antiinflammatoryactivity on the primary and secondary phases of adjuvant arthritis produced
by intradermalinjection of Freund's adjuvant. It also removes smallerstones from ureters and
urinary bladder. It controls a variery of urinary tract infections (Ramgilal, 1972).

Seeds are small, weighing about 0.093 gms. 10715 seeds make a kg. Germinationwas found
to be very poor even afterpretreatment. It commenced on 22nd day and continued beyond 50
days. Germination percent was 33 or less. Though ripe seeds germinate,the seedlingsfailed
to establish in the field. Vegetative propagation is a more dependable alternative. Both stem
and root cuttings responded satisfactorily.
Stem cuttings of pencil size 15cm in length were subjected to different treatments (IAA, IBA &
NAA)of varied concentrationsand durations. It was found that such treatmentsdid not facilitate
rooting and sprouting significantly. 97% of the untreated stem cuttings produce roots and
shoots in polythene bags containing potting mixture.
Root cuttings of 5cm length when buried undersoil horizontally 1cm deep, also producednew
plants from root buds. On an average two plants were producedfrom each cutting. 72% of the
cuttings established new plants. When they attained 30cm of height, the 2 seedlings were
separated by cutting in between them and planted out in the field.
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Thiruvananthapuram
KoIlam
Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
ldukki
Emakulam
Trissur
Palakkad
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Adi. Adirapilli
Beg. Begur
Bha. Bhavani river side
Chi. Chimminy
Cuc. CalicutUniversityCampus
Dho. DhoniR.F.
Kur. KuruvaIsland
Man. Mananthavadi
Por. Ponngalkuthu
Sas. Sasthamkotta
Tha. Thannimoodu
Thu. Thumbormuzhi river side
FORESTTYPES
Wetevergreen
thlIIlIlIIlIIIIIIII
Semi evergreen
IIIIIIIIIIlIIIIIII
Deciduous
IHHH1
Drydeciduous
I1
Shola
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm
9km)
Fig 46: Crateva magna: Distribution
128
Fig 47: Crateva magna: Habit
129
130
a)
0
-c
Crateva magma(Lour.) DC. (Capparidaceae)
Plate 23: Crateva magna:

a) Habit b) Typical habitat c) Veg. Propagation from root
131
132
).L)
a.
7an
sti
Figure 48: (a-i) Crateva magna:

Male
flower
c) Sepal d) Petal e) Stamen f) Pistil g) Ovary C.S
a) Bisexual flower b)
h) MaleflowerL.S. i) Bisexual flower L.S.
Sti: Stigma
Gy: Gynophore; 0: Ovary; P: Petal; S: Sepal; St: Stamen;
Crateva magna(Lour.) DC. (Capparidaceae)
133
Gy
Fig 49: (a-d) Crateva magna: Floral vasculature

a) Petal (x250) b) Sepal (xli5) c) Stamen (xl 00) d) Gynoecium (xl00)
Al: Anther lobe; F: Filament; Gy: Gynophore; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petal; S: Sepal;
Sti: Stigma; Vs: Vascularsupply
Plate 24: Crateva magna: Bark powderelements
134
Cratevamagna(Lour.) DC. (Capparidaceae)
135
d
b
Fig 50: (a-d) Crateva magna: (Lour.) DC.

a) T.S. of maturestem-diagrammatic (x50) b) A portion enlarged (xli5)
c)T.S. of mature root-diagrammatic(x50)d)Aportionenlarged (x115)
C: Cambium; Ck: Cork; Cor: Cortex; Mr: Medullary ray; P: Pith; Per: Periderm;
Phe: Phellogen; Ph.r: Phloem ray; P.xy: Primary xylem; S: Starchgrain;
S.ph: Secondary phloem; St: Stonecells; S.xy: Secondary xylem
Some Important MedicinalPlants of Western Ghats, India : A Profile
136
iii
b
Fig 51: (a-b) Crateva magna:
a)T.S. of stem bark enlarged (x210) b) Elements from bark powder

Ck: Cork; F.: Fiber; Mr: Medullary ray; Par: Parenchyma; Phe: Phellogen; 8: Starchgrain;
S.ph: Secondary pholem; St: Stone cell
137
------S.
',
Cor
Sch).
_____________xy
b?
.../
b
5
g
Co 1
Epi
Cu
Fig 52: Crateva magna:
a) T.S. of petiole b) A portion of petioleshowing epidermis and cortex

c) T.S. of laminathroughmidrib-diagrammatic (xli5) d) Detailed T.S. of lamina (x450)
e) Upper portion of midrib (x450) f) lower portion of midrib (x450) g) Upper epidermis (xii5)
h) Lowerepidermis (xii 5)
Col: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; Cu: Cuticle; Epi: Epidermis; L.Epi: Lowerepidermis;
Pal: Palisade; Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem; Sp: Spongyparenchyma; St: Stomata;
U.Epi: Upper epidermis; V.B:Vascularbundles; Xy: Xylem
Plate25: Crateva magna:

a) Seedling planted out in field b) Sprouted stem cuttings c) Established seedlings
d) Separating 2 seedlings
138
CHAPTER 8
Embelia ribes Burmi.

(Myrsinaceae)
141
Embelia ribes Burm.f. (Myrsinaceae)
8
EMBELIA RIBESBURM.f.
(Myrsinaceae)
Embelia ribes Burm. f. Fl. md. 62.t.23.1768;Wt.lc.t.1207.1848; Clarke, in Hook.f., Fl.Brit.lndia.

921.
3:513.1882;Gamble.FI.Pres.Madras.752.1
English
Embelia
Hindi
Vaividamg
Malayalam
Vizhal
Sanskrit
Vidangah
Tamil
: Vayu-vilamga
This species (Plate 26) is highly restricted in occurrence in the hilly parts of India upto I ,500m
elevation from outer Himalayas down to Western Ghats. It is also found in Sri Lanka and
Kadalar, Bodi to
Singapore. In Kerala region of Western Ghats, it is reported in Peermedu,
Kulamavu of Idukki district;
Munnar
and
in
Devikulam
to
Meenmutty
Devikulam, Lockhertgap,
in Kaikatty, MannarghattoMukkali, Kurukkankundu
in MudianparaSholayarofThrissurdistriCt;
and Pathanthode of Palakkad district; Nilambur of Malappuramdistrict; Chandanathode of
Kannur district in Ponmudi of Thiruvananthapuramdistrict, and in Pamba of Pathanamthitta
District.
Formulations
This plant is used in about 75 formulations. Fruits are used in Ayurvedic preparations like
Abhayarishtam,Ayaskrithi, Pippallyasavam,Anuthailam, Kachuradithailam(lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Fruits, roots and leaves
Description (Plates 26, 27; Fig.54)

A climbing shrub; leaves simple, alternate, entire, exstipulate,chartaceous, elliptic, acute, 5-
7.5cm long, 2.5cm broad, with scattered minute sunken glands. Petiole slender; flower small,
bisexual, white, in terminal panicles, bract small, calyx united, persistent, five lobed, corolla
greenish, tube short, lobes five, stamens five, sub-exserted; ovary globose, ribbed, ovules
142
few on a sub globose placentum, style short, stigma capitate; fruit a globose one seeded
drupe; seed globose, greenish black in colour with rough conical hard protuberances.

Calyx
Each calyx lobe is supplied with a separate vascular strand which is forked at the tip of the
lobe.
Corolla
Four vascular strands enter into each corolla lobe. Each one on the peripheral side remain
unbranchedwhile the other two in the middle get branched.
Stamen
Each stamen is supplied with a vascularstrand which is branched atthe region of the connective
and enters into anther lobe.
Gynoecium
Ovary is one celled with many ovules on sub-globose placentum. One dorsal bundle enters
into the ovary and it straight away supplies the style and stigma. On reaching the stigma it
gets branchedinto two. The ventral bundleenters into the ovary and gets branchedto supply
each ovule.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.56)
T.S. of mature stem is somewhat circular in outline. The epidermis is single layered and is
provided with unicellular glandular trichomes. Periderm is 5 to 6 layered which is followed by
distinguishable cortical region of parenchymatousand schlerenchymatous tissues. Tannin

cells are very prominent in parenchymatous region. Schizogenouscavities are also
characteristic. Schlerenchymatous strand arches into the secondary phloem tissue. The
secondary xylem and secondary phloem are produced by the cambium, as usual. Tannin
cells are very common in the phloem tissue. Vessels are characteristically of large lumen.
Medullary rays are thin walled and biseriate. Pith cells are parenchymatous.
Root (Fig. 56)

T.S. of mature root is somewhat circular in outline with single layered epidermis. Epidermis
possesses multicellular and unicellular glandular trichomes. In mature root cork is about 1517 layered having schizogenouscavities. Cork is followed by a wavy schlerenchymatousring.
Beneaththis, secondary vascular tissues are seen. Biseriate medullary rays with tannin cells
are very conspicuous.
143
Petiole (Fig.57)
T.S. of petiole is somewhat shield shaped in outline; vascular bundle is crescent shaped;
epidermis is single layered with thin cuticle. Corticalregion is parenchymatous.Schizogenous
cavities are few when compared to that of stem. Tannin cells are very common.
Leaf (Fig.57)
T.S. of leaf shows common dicotyledonous characters. Epidermis is single layered without
anytrichomes.Mesophyll consistsof a single layered palisade, and spongytissue with abundant
intercellular spaces. Most of these cells are rich in tannin. Characteristic oil glands are very
commonin mesophyllespeciallynear the midrib.Vascularbundle is broad 'C' shaped. Phloem
fibers are very prominent. Stomata are of Ranunculaceoustype.
Fruit (Fig. 56-e)

In T.S. of fruit, the epidermis is seen overlinedwith a wrinkled cuticle. The epicarp consists of
rounded cells and many of them contain tannin. Fibrovascular bundles occur in this region.
Endocarp has a single row of palisade like stone cells with several pyramidal protrusions.
Seeds are globose, hollowed at the base, testa membraneous, embryo trasverse and curved.
Endosperm is characteristicallythin walled.
In this species, stomatal index is 24.78, palisade ratio is 3.8 and vein-islet number is 1.38.
Powder Microscopy
Part studied
Fruit (25 samples)
Fluorescenceof coarse powder
Light chocolate brown
144

TLC data

The fruits are acrid, astringent, anthelmintic, depurative, digestive, diuretic, carminative and
contraceptive(Shah & Khanna, 1961; Warner etal, 1994).The rootsand leaves are astringent,
thermogenicand stomachic (Warner et al, 1994). The antifertility activity of the fruits has been
studied (Arora, R.B. et al, 1971). Embelin in alcoholic solution is used in helminthiasis and as
an antifungal agent in ring worm.

Seeds are very small, each weighing about 0.014 gm. A kg will have about 69150 seeds.
Germinationtakes a long time, commencementbeing around 65 days after sowing. After 85

days, no further germinationwas noticed. Germination being very poor, vegetativepropagation
was by layering and rooting of stem cuttings. The prostrate branches produce advantitious
roots at the region of their contact with soil and new plants are produced subsequently. In
nature, this is perhaps more prevalent than the seed route. Propagation by stem cuttings
were found to be reliable.
Embella ribes Burm.f. (Myrsinaceae)
145
3 noded stem cuttings of pencil size were found to be best suited. The cut ends were dipped
in Keradix and planted in polythene bags filled with sand. The containers were kept in the
shade and watered regularly. The rooting commenced after about 35-40 days. Within three
weeks thereafter, one or two axillary buds above the leaf scars developed and grew into
branches. By the time newlyformed branchstartedclimbing, a healthyrootsystem was formed.
The plants in the field have established well (Plate 29).
As the species has beccomevery scarce, its plant parts are commonlysubstituted by those
of E. tsjeriamcottam(Plate 27b, Figs.58, 59). To facilitate separation of adulterants,following
statement is given. The drug is often adulterated with the fruits of E. tsjeriamcottam. The
statementgiven below will serve to distinguish the right drug from the adulterant.
Statement showing distinction between E. ribes and E.tsjeriamcottam
Plate26: Embelia ribes: Plant in flower
146
147
Plate 27: Embelia ribes:

a, c) Plants established in the field b) Embelia tsjeriamcotlam d) Typical habitat e) E-ribes
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3;
Thiruvananthapuram
KoIlam
Pathanamthitta
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Alappuzha
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Kottayam
Idukki
Emakulam
Trlssur
Palakkad
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Bod. Bodi toDevikulam
Cha. Chandanathode
Dev. DevikulumtoMunner
Kad. Kadalar,Idukki
Kal. Kaikatty
Kuk. KurukkanKundu
Loc. Lockhertgap
Man. Manarkadto Mukkali
Mee. Meenmutty,Kulamavu
Mud. Mudianpara,Sholayer
Nil. Nilambur
Pam. Pamba
Pat. Pathanthode
Per. PeermedutoPambanar
Pori. Ponmudi
FORESTTYPES
Il
-
lIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
I+++++++I
i+++++++i
Wetevergreen
Semievergreen
Deciduous
Drydeciduous
ol.oa
I
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm= 9km)
Fig 53: Embelia ribes: Distribution map
148
149
11cm
12cm
d
C
Fig 54: (a-h) Embelia ribes:

with
fruits
and flowers (x 1) c) Singleflower (x 8) d) Calyx (x 10)
a) Habit (x ) b) A twig
e) Corolla with stamens (x 20) f) Gynoecium (x 20) g) Ovary C.S. (x 15) h) Flower L. S (x 15)
Plate 28: Embelia ribes: Propagation by stem cuttings

a-d) Sprouting of cuttings e) plant ready for outplanting
150
151
C1x.L
v.s
-- -
_.s
V.5
-Sty
/
-Ov
C
-Q
b
Fig 55: Embelia ribes:
a) Calyx (x15) b) Gynoecium (x 50) c) Corolla with stamen (x 115)
A.L.: Antherlobe; C.L.: Corolla lobe; Cl.xl.: Calyx lobe; F: Filament; 0: Ovule; OV: Ovary;
St: Stigma; Sty: Style; V.S.: Vascularsupply
152
._Schl
- Mr
1TI
st_V
--
End -
--.3,.
rL4J.
- Pi

T.S
of
mature
a)
stem-diagrammatic (x75) b) A portionenlarged (x200)
of
mature
c) T.S.
root-diagrammatic (x75) d) A portion enlarged(x200)
e)T.S. offruit wall enlarged (x200)
Ck: Cork; Cor: Cortex; Col: Collenchyma; Cu: Wrinkled cuticle; End: Endosperm;
F.V.B: Fibrovascular bundle; G.H: Glandular hair; Mr: Medullary ray; Pi: Pith;
SchI: Schlerenchyma; Schi: Schizogenous cavity; S.ph: Secondary phloem;
S.xy: Secondary xylem; St: Stomata; T: Tannincell
153
0:
V.B..,.
..o.
b

a) T.S of petiole-diagrammatic (xl50) b) A portionof petiole showing epidermis and cortex (x200)
c) T.S of lamina throughmidrib-diagrammatic (xl50) d) Detailed T.S. of lamina (x200)
e) A portionof midrib region enlarged (x 150) f) Upperepidermis (x200)
g) Lower epidermis (x200)
Col: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; Cu: Cuticle; Epi: Epidermis; 0: Oil gland; Pal: Palisade;
Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem; Ph.f: Pholem fibre; Schi: Schizogenous cavity;
Sp: Spongyparenchyma; St: Stomata; T: Tannincell; L.Epi: Lowerepidermis;
U.Epi: Upperepidermis; V.B:Vascularbundle; Xy: Xylem
Plate 29: Embelia ribes: A cultivated plant
154
155
Fig 58: (a-c) Embelia tsjeriamcottam:

T.S
of
mature
stem-diagrammatic (x75) b) A portion enlarged (x200)
a)
c) T.S. offruit wall-enlarged (x200)
Cor: Cortex; Cu: Cuticle; Ck: Cork; En: Endosperm; H: Hair; M: Medullary ray; 0: Oh gland;
Pi: Pith; S: Stone cell; Sch: Schierenchyma; Schi: Schizogenous cavity;
S.ph: Secondary; phloem; S.xy: Secondary xylem
156
Epi
- .-Cor
_st.
Fig 59: (a-d) Embelia tsjeriamcottam:

a) T.S of leafthroughthe midrib-diagrammatic (x 150) b) T.S. of petiole-diagrammatic (x 150)
c) Detailed T.S. of lamina (x 150) d) A portion of petiole showing epidermisand cortex (xl50)
Col: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair; Pal: Palisade; Ph: Phloem;
Sch: Schizogenous cavity; Sp: Spongy parenchyma; St: Stomata; L. Epi: Lower epidermis;
U.Epi: Upper epidermis; Xy: Xylem
CHAPTER 9
Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br.

(Asclepiadaceae)
Hemidesmusindicus (Linn.) R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae)
159
HEMIDESMUSINDICUS (LINN.) R. BR.

(Asclepiadaceae)
Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. Mem.Wern.Soc.1 :56.1809; Hooker f., Fl. Brit.lnd.4.: 24,
1883; Rao, Fl.Pl. Trav.258.1914; Gamble, Fl.Pres.Madras 2:836.1923. Periploea indica L.,
Sp.Pl.21 1.1753.
English
: Indian Sarasaparilla, Countrysarasaparilla
Hindi
: Anantamul
Kannada
Nannadaballi
Malayalam
Nannari, Naruninti
Tamil
Nannari, Saribam
Hemidesmus indicus (Plate 30) is found throughout India in forests as well as in open areas.
In Kerala region of Western Ghats, it occurs in Thiruvananthapuram,Tirumalai, Neyyar and
Ponmudiof Thiruvananthapuramdistrict; in Kulathupuzhaof Kollamdistrict; in Pathanamthitta
of Pathanamthittadistrict; in Pooyamkutty Pindimedu of ldukki district; Vazhachaland Peechi
of Thrissur district; in Dhoni of Palakkad district; in Kadalundi, and Arayad of Malappuram
district; in Vythiri of Wayanaddistrictand in Peruvannamoozhiand Kodancheryof Kozhikode
district. Although it is distributed widely and in abundance, because of very high demand for
its parts (particularly roots), it is a vulnerable species.
Formulations
The root itselfforms an important raw drug in more than 60 Ayurvedic preparations including
such highly popular ones like Dasamoolarishtam, Dhanwanthararishtam, Anuthailam,
Balamritham,etc. (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Roots mostly and occasionally stems and leaves
Description (Plate 30, Figs.61 and 62)

A perennial diffusely twining or prostrate undershrub (Plate 30a) having numerous slender,
wiry, laticiferous branches with purplish brown bark and woody root stalk and stems having
160
thickened nodes. Leavessimple,short petioled,exstipulate,opposite,decussateor in

apparent
whorls of four, polymorphous, entire, very variable from elliptic
to
linear
oblong
lanceolate,
variegatedwith white above, silverywhite and pubescentbelow.The leavesin the basal portion
of the plant are linear and dark bluish green with a white streak
along the midrib. At the base,
the leaves are 5-15cm long and about 1.25cm broad, where as those in the
upper branches
are shorter and broader without any variegation along the midrib
(Plate 30b). Flowers are in
axillary fascicle, greenish yellow to greenish purple outside, dull yellow to lightpurplish inside.
Bracts are persistent, ovate, acute to lanceolate and imbricating.
Calyx deeply five lobed,
imbricate,lobesovate, acute with minute scales alternatingthe lobesat the inner base. Corolla
gamopetalous twice longer than the calyx, greenish yellow outside and dull yellow to light
purple inside, rotate,five lobed with a very short tube having fleshy valvate lobes alternatewith
coronatescales. Stamensfive, conniventaround the style, filaments incurved, distinct,
pollinia
suberect, pollineal bags spherical, closely appressed to the brownish sheathy caudicle.
bicarpellary apocarpouspistil, ovary free, many ovuled with distinct styles which cohere at the
tip to form a flattened five lobed stigmatic surface. Fruit a narrowly cylindrical widely divergent
follicle (Plate 30c, e and f) 10-20cmlong and 0.5-0.6cmthick. Seeds many, flat, oblong having
white silky coma (Plate 30g).
Roots are very long and attain a length of 3.5m or more, hence the term 'Ananthamoola' and
0.5-1 cm thickness. Most often uniformly cylindrical though
irregularly bent, curved or slightly
twisted, slightly woody, rigid. Fresh roots are of brownish or puplish brown colour masked
with irregular patches of dull green. Surface generally smooth in young roots but in older and
thicker roots it appears rough due to the formation of lenticels.

Calyx
The calyx is gamosepalousconsistingoffive lobes. Each lobe is suppliedwith a well developed
vascular strand which branches into three just before entering into the lobe. In each lobe there
are thus three branches,the middle one being longer than the other two side ones.
Corolla
Each corolla lobe is supplied with a stout vascular strand which produces two side branches
at the region of base ofthe lobe. All these three strands repeatedly branch and rebranch and
form a network of branchiets in the corolla lobe. Each branchlet ultimately bifurcates at its
extremity.
Corallinecorona
Corolline corona has a reticulate vascular supply.
Stamen
Each stamen is supplied with a vascular strand which is unbranched except at the region of
its extremity.
Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae)
161
Gynoecium
Ovary is 2 celled, apocarpouswith many ovules. Each carpel is supplied with a dorsal and a
ventral vascular strand. From ventral strand a branch enter into the ovarian chamber and
supplies the ovules. In the stigmatic region, dorsal and ventral strands of each carpel get
united into single strand and get abruptly branched in the stigma.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.64)
T.S. of stem is somewhat circular in outline. Periderm is 10-12 layered. Cork is 4-6 layered,
consisting of rectangular, thick walled and tangentially elongated cells. Cork cambium is 1-2
layered which is followed by 3-4 layers of secondary cortex in which patches of stone cells
areseen. Stone cells have concentricwall thickenings. Latex cells are very prominentin cortex.
The phloem region is very prominent. Most of the phloem cells are filled with starch grains.
Belowthe phloem cambial ring is very clear which produces secondary xylem and secondary
phloem as usual. In xylem and phloem region, uniseriate medullary rays with starch grains
are very common. Pith is very conspicuousand their cells contain starch grains.
Root (Fig.64)
In T.S., the mature root is circularin outline. The outermost region is the cork which appears
dark red in colourand is composedof a few layers of narrowrectangulartangentiallyelongated
cells. The cork is followed by 2-3 layers of phellogen. A few lenticels are occasionally seen.
The phellodermis composedof 4-8 rows ofslightlythickwalledfairly large rectangular elongated
cells which contains conspicuousstarch grains. Just below the phelloderm is the cortex which
is composedof4-7 rows of very largethin walledtangentiallyelongated cells withoutintercellular
spaces. Almost all of the cortical cells are fully loaded with large sized spherical, oval or
oblong shaped starch grains. Just within the cortex is a narrow zone of phloem composedof
3-5 radial rows of thin walled phloem elements alternating with uniseriate medullary rays.
Latex tubes occur both in the cortexand phloem. A narrow distinct cambial ring is present in
between the phloem and xylem. In the secondary xylem, vessels of varying sizes and a large
numberof uniseriatemedullary rays arevery prominent.Ray cellsare narrow, oblong, radially
elongate and rich in starch grains. Pith is absent.
Petiole (Fig.65)
T.S. of petiole is somewhat broad 'C' shaped in outline. Epidermis is single layered with
unicellular trichomes. Cuticle is very thin. Cortical region is composed of collenchymatous
and parenchymatouscells with intercellular spaces. In the peripheral region of the cortex,
latex cells are very common. Vascular bundle is broken crescent shaped.
Leaf (Fig.65)
The leaf epidermis is single layered and devoid of any trichomes. Mesophyll consists of a
single layered palisade tissue and many layered spongy tissue. Vascular bundle is broad
162
crescent shaped. In the lower region of the midrib, cells are collenchymatous and druses are
present beneath the phloem cells. Stomata are of Ranunculaceoustype.
Powder Microscopy
Part studied
Root (25 samples)
Fluorescenceof coarse powder
Brown

TLC data
Hexane extract
0.550
Active 254
+ve
Solvent: Hexane - Acetone 80:20
New spots at 0.39,
0.590
Active 360
-ye
0.64, 0.91 rf vatues
Colour: Dark green
0.960
Active 254
+ve
0.460
Active 254
-ye
Solvent: Chlorofom -
0.600
Active 360
i-ye
Acetone 80:20
0.690
Active 360
-ye
Colour: Dark green
0.900
Active 254
+ve
0.950
Active 254
i-ye
New spots at 0.89, 0.86

The roots are bitter-sweet,astringent,refrigerant,aromatic,emollient, depurative,aphrodisiac,
carminative,diaphoretic,febrifuge, expectorantand tonic. They are useful in vitiated conditions
of pitta, burning sensation, leucoderma, leprosy, skin diseases, pruritus, asthma, bronchitis,
hyperdipsia, ophthalmopathy,hemicrania,epileptic fits, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, diarrhoea,
dysentry, haemorrhoids, strangury,leucorrhoea, syphillis, abscess,arthralgia,fever and general
163
debility. The leaves are useful in vomiting, wounds and leucoderma. The stems are bitter,
were
diaphoreticand laxative and are useful in inflammations(Warner et al, 1995). The roots as
reported to contain B-sitosterol (Chatterji and Bhattacharya, 1955) a new ester identified
lupeol octacosanoatein addition to known compoundslike lupeol, a-amyrin,B-amyrin, leupeol
acetate, B-amyrin acetate and hexatriocontane (Padhy et al, 1973). The flavonoid glycosides
identifiedin the flowers of the specieswere hyperosideand isoquercitinand rutin (Subramanian
et al, 1968). 2.5% tannin is present in leaves (Daniel, 1978).

The seeds are very small, each seed weighing only 0.0038 gm, 2,63,157 seeds making a kg.
In nursery studies, it was found that germination commenced from the 6th day onwards and
completed on the 12th day (Plate 31a). The percentage of germination was 95.33. It was
observedthatabout 1% of seeds produced albinoseedlings(Plate 31c) whichdied after growing
into 3 or 4 node lengths. It was observed that the rate of elongation of the root system was
faster than shoot system (Plate 31f) in the initial stages. The species did not respond
satisfactorily to vegetative propagation by stem/root cuttings (even after treatment).In large
scale cultivation, the practice involved is digging of the earth deeply for extracting the roots.
This not only resulted in heavy expenditure, but also loss due to unrecoverable broken root
bits. To overcomethis problem, following procedurehas been worked out.
Two metre long bamboo culms are split intoequal halves. Exceptingthe lowest node, all other
partitions (septa) at the nodes inside are mechanically removed. With a small nail, small
holes are made to the partition at the lowest node. The two halves are tied together with
plastic thread or steel wire, at top, middle and bottom. The bamboo culm is filled with a mixture
of one part sand + one part dry cowdung powder + one part garden soil, up to the top. Three
seedlings are then planted and the culms are burned in the soil to a depth of about 15cm. For
preventing attack oftermites, the bottom portion of the culm should be painted with coal tar or
suitably treated. Watering should be done regularly in the initial stages. A pandal should be
erecte above the culms with ropes to facilitate climbing of the plant. The initial rate of growth
varies from provenanceto provenanceand the average is about 160 cms in 15-18 months.
After 15-18 months of planting in culms, the roots can be extracted by separatingtwo halves
of the culms. It could be seen thatthe roots elongate rapidly and reach the bottom. The entire
root system can be extracted without breaking or losing the branches (Plate 31 b). About 250
gm roots can be obtained from each cuim containers.
Becauseof ready and widespread market, this species is popularfor cultivation in homesteads
and farms. The tap root grows deep sending out laterals. It is therefore expensiveto dig deep
for extraction of roots. It involves considerablewastage. Hencea de novo process of planting
in bamboo culms is worked out and described elsewhere, and economics are worked out
when this method of cultivation is adopted.
164
Number of plants raised In a ha. 37,500
Gross income:
Rs.38,625.OO
Adulteration
Since the demand for roots of this species is high, there is a knowntendency to adulterate or
substitute the roots by unscrupulous suppliers. The species commonly employed for
adulterationis Ichnocarpus frutescens. Importantcharacteristics by which the adulterant can
be differentiatedaregiven below.
Hemidesmusindicus
Ichnocarpusfrutescens
The root is woody, long,

slender,variously curved
or bent, purplish brown
and with very strong lateral
roots and rootlets.
The root is long, cylindrical with shallow transverse

constrictions rusty or
pinkish brown in colour
and lateral roots few or
absent.
165
2.
Surface is slightly exfoliating and often cracked

both longitudinallyand
transversely.
Surface fairly smooth, soft

and non-exfoliating. It
appears firmly, longitudiNally wrinkled in dry roots.
3.
The outer bark or rind is

thick, hard crustaceous and
easily peelable from the rest
of the root. Its inner
surface is deep purplish
and minutely papillose. The
rind is composed of several
rows of thick walled cells.
The surface skin is very

thin, soft and composed of
a limited number of thin
walled cells. It is not
easily peelable.
4.
The cork tissue consists of

several rows of narrow recttangular empty cells, with
thick brownish walls. Cortex
is composed of several rows
of thin walled cells and
richly loaded with starch
Cortical cells are scantly

loaded with starch. Several
secretory cells, latex tubes
and traces of mechanical
elements are also present.
grains.
5.
Phloem is a narrow zone of

thin walled elements and
narrow medullary rays.
The phloem is clearly differentiated as an annular zone

Composed mostly of thin
walled elements.
Mechanical elements are

completely absent in the bark.
Mechanicalelements are
7.
Wood is composed of vessels

of varying size and thick
walled parenchyma which is
alternate with narrow uniseriate
medullary rays.
Wood forms bulk of the root.

It is dull white or light
yellow and appears diffusely
porous in transverse section.
8.
Pith is absent.
A pith like central part
6.
present.
composed of thin walled cells

is present in older roots.
9.
Root has a characteristic

smell and sweetish warm
aromatic taste.
The bark is slightly

astringent and possess no
aromatic taste.
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Thiruvananthapuram
Kollam
Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
dukki
Ernakulam
Trissur
Palakkade
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Ara. Arayad, Nilambur

Cuc. Calicut UniversityCampus
Dho. Dhoni
Kid. Kadalundi
Kod. Kodanjeri
Kup. Kulathupuzha
Ney. Neyyar
PU. Pathanamthitta
Pee. Peechi
Per. Peruvannamoozhi
Poo. Pooyamkutty
Pon. Ponmudi
Tml. Tirumalal
Thr. Thiruvananthapuram
Vaz. Vazhachal
Vyt. Vythiri
FORESTTYPES
Wetevergreen
llltffllllIIIIIIIIII
Semi evergreen
IIIIIIIMMIIIIIIMI
Deciduous
IHHHl
Drydeciduous
i:::::::i
Shola
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm = 9km)
Fig. 60: Hemidesmus indicus: Distribution in Kerala, Western Ghats
166
Fig. 61: Hemidesmus indicus: Habit
167
168
169
Plate 31: Hemidesmus indicus:

a) Habit b) Leaves c,e,f) Fruits d) Whole plant g) Dehiscing fruits with comose seeds
Some ImportantMedicinal Plants of WesternGhats, India: A Profile
170
h
e
Fig. 62: (a-h) Hemidesmus indicus: Plant parts

a) Single flower b) Calyx split opened c) Corolla split opened d) OvaryT.S.
e) Gynoecium f) Flower L.S g) Single seed h) Fruit
171
Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae)
'.3
d
C
Fig. 63: (a-d) Hemidesmus idicus: Floral vasculaure

a) Calyx (xl 00) b) Petal (xli5) c) Gynoecium (xli5) d) Corollinecoronawith stamen (xli5)
Al: Antherlobe; Cc: Corollinecorona; Cl: Calyx lobe; F: Filament 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule;
P: Petal Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style; V.s: Vascularsupply
Some lmportat Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile
P.Xy
Fig. 64: (-d) Hemidesmus indicus:

a) T.S of mature stem-diagrammatic (x50) b) A portion enlarged (xl 50)
c) T.S. of root-diagrammatic (x50) d) A portionenlarged (xl50)
C: Cambium; Ck: Cork; Co: Cortex; L: Latex cell; M: Medullary ray; P: Pith;
P.xy: Primary xylem; S: Starchgrains; S.ph: Secondaryphloem; St: Stone cell;
S.xy: Secondary xylem
172
173
:t1JI
D
- - _st
Fig. 65: Hemidesmus indicus:

T.S.
of
lamina
a)
throughmidrib-diagrammatic (xl50) b) Detailed T.S. of lamina (x200)
c) A portion of mid rib region enlarged (x200) d) T.S. of petiole-diagrammatic (x 150)
e) A portionof petiole showingepidermis and cortex (x200) f) Upperepidermis (x200)
g) Lower epidermis (x200)
Col.: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; Cu: Cuticle; 0: Druces; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair;
L: Latexcell; L.epi: Lowerepidermis; Pal: Palisade; Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem;
Sp: Spongyparenchyma; St: Stomata; U.Epi: Upper epidermis; Xy: Xylem
174
Plate 32: (a-f) Hemidesmus indicus:

Just
a)
germinated seedlings b) Seedlings in bamboo culms c) Albino seedlings (marked green)
d) Seedlings planted out e) Dried roots f) Relative length of root and shoot
(.II\Pi'FR
Holarrhena pubescens (BuchHamj

Waihex Don (Apocynaceae)
Holarrhena pubescens(Buch.-Ham.) WalLex Don (Apocynaceae)
177
10
HOLARRHENA PUBESCENS(BUCH.-HAM.)
WALL.ex DON (Apocynaceae)

Holarrhenapubescens,(Buch.-Ham.) WalI.ex Don Gen. Syst. 4:78.1837, Echitespubescens
Buch.Ham.,Trans.Linn.Soc. London 13:524. 1821. Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roth) A.DC.

Prodr. 8:413, 1844. Hooker f., Fl. Brit.lnd. 3:644.1882; Rao, FI.PI.Trav. 254.1914; Gamble
Fl.Pres.Madr.2:811.1923.
English
Hindhi
Kurchi, Tellicherry bark

: Kurchi
Malayalam :
San
:
Kudakappala
Tam
Kutasappai,Veppalai
Kutajah
The species (Plate 32) is found scattered throughout India in deciduousforests upto 900 m. In
Keralaregion of WesternGhats, it is abundantlyseen in Kuthuparambu and Parappa of Kannur
district, Nilambur and Karad of Malappuramdistrict, Moolamattamand Vazhathope of ldukki

district, Puthukulam and Pambavalley of Pathanamthitta district, Anakkaranam, Dhoni and
Pulikkal of Palakkad district, Kodanad of Ernakulamdistrict, Peechi and Elanadu of Thrissur
district.
Formulations
The plant parts (especially bark is employed in 42 preparations, some of which are:
Amritharishtam,Ayaskrithi, Kutajarishtam,Chavikasava,Dasamoolarishta,Moolakadyarishta,
Lodhrasava, Thrithriphaladitaila, Mahakukkudamamsa taila, Lakshaditaila(big), Aragwadhadi
kashaya, Gulgulu thikthakamkashaya,Thikthaka kashaya, Darunagaradi kashaya, Bhoonimbadi
kashaya, Manjishtadi kashaya, Mahathiktha kashaya, Moolakadi kashaya, Musthakaranjadi
kashaya, Panchathikthamkashaya. Nimbamrithasavam,Aranyadi coconut oil, Shad dharana
choornam, Gopichandanadi gulika, Yogaraja guggulu vatika, Khadirasaradi ghritha,
Gulguluthikta ghritha, Thikthakaghritha, panchagavya ghritha(big), patoladighritha, Pippalyadi
ghritha, Bhootharavaghritha, Lasuna ghritha, Mahathikthaghritha, Mahabhootharavaghritha,
Varahyadighritha, Sooranadighritha, pushyanuga choorna, yogaraja choorna,Abhra bhasma,
kalyanagula, Kutajathwakadi leha, chinchadi leha, Punarnava mandoora, Vaisistarasayana (Iyer,
1983).
178
Officinal parts
Bark, seeds, leaves
Description (Plate 32; Figs.67 & 68)

A medium sized deciduous tree with thick grey bark having numerous raised perforations,
leaves 10-30 cms long and 4-14 cms broad, exstipulate, short petioled, glabrous or at times
pubescent, ovate, oblong, acute, veins prominent; flowers white puberulous in terminal or
axillary cymose clusters (Plate 33), calyx 5-lobed, lobes ovate, overlappingto the right; corolla
gamopetalous,tube slender, slightly dilated opposite to the stamen, limbs five; stamens five,
sagittate forming a cone over the stigma, inserted between the base and middle of the tube,
filament very short, slender, anthers lanceolate, fruits two slender pendulous follicles, 20-40
cms long, seeds linear, tipped at the apexwith a deciduouswhite tuft of silky hairs, seeds 1.25
cms long, narrow, elongated, light yellowish brown in colour.

Calyx
Single vascular strand enters each lobe of the calyx and remains unbranched aftergiving rise
to two lateral branches which again branch and rebranch repeatedly.
Corolla
Three vascular strands running through the corolla tube supply each lobe and each one
branches repeatedly several times in the lobe without any networkformation.
Stamen
A single vascular strand supplies each epipetalous stamen.

Pistil
Each carpel of the bicarpellary apocarpous pistil is supplied with one thick and prominent
unbrancheddorsal bundlewhich supplies the style and stigma and two ventral bundles which
supply the ovules. In addition to this there are six lateral strands supplying each carpellary
wall.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.70)
The stem is circularin outline in crosssection. The 6-8layered cork tissue forms the outermost
region. The cork cells are filled with yellowish contents. Interior to the cork tissue is the 1-2
layered phellogen followed by 2-4 layered thick walled cells containing starch and rhomboid
crystals. Latex cells are also met with frequently. The secondary phloem consists of bast
fibres with occasional latex cells. The xylem consists of vessels of large lumen, tracheids and
parenchyma. In between the xylem and phloem is the 1-2 layered cambium. The medullary
Holarrhena pubescens(Buch.-Ham.) WaII.ex Don (Apocynaceae)
179
rays are uniseriate containing plenty of starch grains. In the parenchymatous pith are seen
scattered several conspicuousschierenchymaaggregates. Starch grains are abundant in the
pith parenchyma.
Bark (Fig.71)
The outermost tissue is cork consisting of 10-12 layers of thick walled brown cells filled with
yellowish contents. The phellogen consists of few layers of thin walled colourless cells. The
phelloderm consists of thin walled rectangular cells, containingstarch grains and rhomboidal
calcium oxalate crystals. This is followed by a zone consisting of polygonal cells. Some of
them contain starch grains and calcium oxalate crystals. A number of large stone cells are
seen scatteredin this region. In the innerregionthe stone cell groupsform an almostcontinuous
band. Parenchymatouscells near the stone cell groups contain rhomboidal calcium oxalate
crystals. Latex cells are seen here and there in this region. In the outer phloem region, the
cells are very prominent. In the newlyformed phloem which forms the inner bark, the cells are
slightly smaller than those in the middle bark and are thin walled. Small-sized crystals occur
in very few cells. Laticiferous ducts in cross sections are also present. Medullary rays are
biseriate and extend up to the outer phloem. Their cells are also loaded with starch grains.
Root (Fig. 72)

In T.S. the root is circular in outline. The outer bark consists of 5-7 layers of thick walled cells
with brown content. Phellogen is single layered. Phelloderm consistsof 4-5 layersof tangentially
elongatedthin walled cells. Cells are rich in starch grains and some of them contain rhomboid
crystals. The cells of the outer cortex are large and polygonalwith a few tangentiallyelongated
ones. Most ofthe cells contain starch grain, but a few are filledwith dark reddish content along
with rhomboid crystals. Several stone cells of varying sizes are seen scattered in groups.
Some such groups get arranged almost as a continuous ring towards the central region of the
mid-rib bark. The inner bark consists of regular phloem elements with alternating rows of
stone cell groups. Medullary rays are uniseriate and extend upto the outer phloem region.
Latex ducts and starch grains are characteristicin this region. Some of the stone cell groups
contain rhomboidal crystals. Phloem cells are thin walled, some with red contents. They are
devoid of starch grains. The cambium is 2-4 layered. The xylem consists of few vessels and
tracheids.
Petiole (Fig.73)
The petiole is somewhatshield shaped in cross section. The epidermis is single layered. Multi
cellular and unicellular epidermal hairs are common. The cortex is made up of thick walled
cells with intercellular spaces. Towards the periphery some cells contain chlorophyll. The
outer 2-3 layers of cortex have brown contents in their cells. Some cells contain druses and
calcium oxalate crystals of varying shapes. Vascular bundle is c-shaped and few vascular
traces are seen in the cortex.
Lamina (Fig.74)
The T.S. of lamina shows common dicotyledonous characters. The epidermis is uniseriate
and is provided with unicellular and multicellular hairs. In the mid-rib region interior to the
180
epidermis there are 8-10 layers of collenchyma followed by parenchymatous tissue with
intercellular spaces. Brownish content, rhomboidal crystals and druses are metwith in some
of these cells. The vascular bundle is c-shaped. Schlerenchymatousgroups are present on
both sides ofthe vascular bundles.The palisadeconsists ofsingle layer of compactlyarranged
columnar cells having brown contents. The spongy tissue consists of several layers of cells
interior to the lowerepidermiswith brown contents in some. Stomataare of Rubiaceoustype.
PowderMicroscopy(Fig. 75)
Part studied
Bark (25 samples)
Fluorescence
Reddish brown

Part studied
Bark
Colour
Light brown
Moisture
6.0%
TLC data
Hexane extract
Colour
Yellow
Holarrhenapubescens(Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex Don (Apocynaceae)
181
Leaf green
Colour
Methanol extract
Colour
Light yellow

Bark and seeds are bitter, astringent, anthelmintic and useful in amoebic dysentery and
diarrhoea (Warner et al, 1995; WHO, 1990; Kurup et al, 1979; Khanna et al, 1991; Narayana
Iyer and Kolammal, 1960; Sarin, 1996). It is anthelmintic and used against piles (Narayana
lyer and Kolammal, 1960; Kurup et al, 1979; Khanna et al, 1991; Warner et al, 1995). It is
antiperiodic (Warner et al, 1995; Narayanalyerand Kolammal,1960; Dey, 1980) and useful in
rheumatism,feverand malaria (Warner et al, 1995; Dey, 1980). It is carminative, refrigerent,
digestive, febrifuge and useful in skin diseases (Kurup et aI, 1979; Warner et al, 1995), thirst,
leprosy(Narayanalyerand Kolammal,1960; Kurupetal, 1979), hepatosplenomegaly, general
haemorrhages,vomitting, uropathy (Warner et al, 1995; Narayana lyerand Kolammal,1960).
Leaves are used in chronic bronchitis (Warner et aI, 1995; Krishnamurthy, 1993). Bark and
seeds are aphrodisiac, expectorant, tonic and are useful in constipation, gastropathy,
hepatopathy,bronchopneumoniaand verminosis (Warner et al, 1995). It is also useful in heart
diseases, colic pains, phlegmatic tumours and pruritus (Narayana lyer and Kolammal).The
decoction of the seeds mixed with honey is used against diarrhoea and dysentry. Bark and
seeds are used as blood purifier (Krishnamurthy, 1990). Roots and bark are used against
dysentery and constipation by tribes of Koenjhar forest of Orissa (Singh and Uppendra Dhar,
1993). Roots mixed with Diospyros melanoxylon stem bark are used for treating malaria by
182
Kathodies (a monkey eating tribe in Rajasthan) (Prabhakar Joshi, 1993). Bark is used for
treating haemophilic disorders, loss of apetite, skin diseases. Seeds are used for treating
intermittent fever(Sarin, 1996).
Propagation
Propagation by both seed and vegetative means were found .to be feasible. When the fruits
(follicles) became brown in colour, they were collected, stored in polythene bags and kept in
the sun for drying. The fruits dehiscedwithin three days and the comose seeds were collected
in the bags. The hairs were removed from the seeds and stored in air tight containers. The
seeds were soaked in cold water for 6 hrs. and sown in nursery beds before the onset of
monsoon. The beds were watered regularly and partially shaded. Germination commenced
from 7th day onwards and completed in two weeks. The percentageof germinationwas about
60. Three weeks old seedlingswere transplantedin polythene bags containing potting mixture
containing sand, soil and farmyard manure in equal proportions (Plate 35). Seeds can be
harvestedfrom four year old trees and bark from 8th year onwards.
Holarrhena pubescens(Buch.-Ham.) Waltex Don (Apocynaceae)
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
Tltjvenstlepwem
Ko&n
5.
Kefleyem
S.
ldddd
7.
5.
Esnek&iem
4.
PethenwWMta
TSew
PUe*ad
10. %WEPUfWfl
11.
12. Wayened
13. Kwnut
14.
tS
9.
DIn Osni
St ESiedu
Kn Kwedu
Kot Kodenedu
Kos. K005iI*S*IT1JU
Ka KiMyedl
Mos.MooSifl
Myecormide
Net Nesyanipethy
Nt NIentu(
Pien.
PeISSdu
Pet Peethi
Pt
'an
Pttkal
=
c:..:.
Wideesren
Need dedduoos
Dcy deciduous
Shoe
flees
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm=9km)
Fig. 66: Holarrhena pubescens: Distribution
183
184
I
(I)
ci)
c.)
C))
ci)
ci)
Cci
0
CV)
C)
ci)
Cu
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) WalLex Don (Apocynaceae)
-u
CD
C)
0
CD
CD
CD
CD
C,)
C)
CD
CD
-I,
0
-'
CD
185
186
C)
d
C
Fig. 67: Ho!arrhena pubescens:

a) A twig with flowers b) Single flower c) Fruit d) Seed
Holarrhena pubescens(Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex Don (Apocynaceae)
b
a
ti
ty
T2mm
e
f
Fig. 68: (a-f)Holarrhena pubescens: Floral biology
flower
a) Single
b) Calyx C) Corolla tube split opened d) Gynoecium
e) Ovary C.S. f) Flower L.S.
Gy: Gynoecium; 0: Ovary; P: Petal; S: Sepal; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
187
188
4-'
0
c,)
C
C
4-a
U)
a-
0
U)
U)
>
a)
U)
C
C
U)
4-'
U)
I-
ci)
U)
4-
0
Cl)
ci)
C.)
Cl)
ci)
U)
ci)
U)
L()
c)
ci)
4cci
Ho!arrhena pubescens(Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex Don (Apocynaceae)
189
El
rE
El
,sty
.5
ET
El
Yes
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
C
Fig. 69: (a-c) Holarrhena pubescens: Floral vasculature

a) Corolla with stamens b) Gynoecium c) Sepals
0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petal; S: Sepal; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma;
Sty: Style; V.s.: Vascular supply
190
ET
El
u,'l
ET
('11
Oj
Fig. 70: (a-b) Ho!arrhena pubescens:

T.S.
of
a)
stem-diagrammatic b) A portionenlarged c) Cambium
Ck: Cork; Cr: Crystal; M.: Medullary ray; P: Pith; P.xy: Primary xylem; SchL: Schlerenchyma;
S.cor.:Secondary cortex; S: Starchgrain; Schd.: Sechieriedgroup;
S.ph: Secondary phloem; S.xy: Secondary xylem
Holarrhena pubescens(Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex Don (Apocynaceae)
191
Fig. 71: (a-b) Holarrhena pubescens: Stem bark
Cb: Cells with brown content; Ck: Cork; Ck.C: Cork cambium; Cr: Crystals;
Ld: Latex duct; M.: Medullaryray; S.: Starchgrain; St: Stone cells; S.ph: Secondary phloem
192
N
S.Xy
Fig. 72: (a-c) Holarrhena pubescens:

T.S.
of
a)
root-diagrammatic b&c) Portion of root-cellular
C: Cambium; C.b: Cells with brown content; Ck: Cork; Ck.c: Cork cambium; Cr: Crystal;
L.d.: Latex duct; M: Medullaryray; S: Starch grain; S.ph: Secondary phloem;
St: Stone cell; S.xy Secondary xylem
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex Don (Apocynaceae)
193
H
Epi
0.1mm
Epi
Xy
Ph
S.C
Cr
st
1:
0.1mm
E
U,
c'1.
Epi
Fig. 73: (a-c) Ho!arrhenapubescens:

a) T.S. of petiole-diagrammatic b) A portion of petiole showing epidermis and cortex
c) Lower epidermis d) Upper epidermis
Cb: Cells with brown content; Cr: Crystals; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair; Par: Parenchyma;
Ph: Phloem; S.c: Subsidiary cell; St: Stomata; Xy: Xylem
194
E
E
-C.b
L.Epi
-
St
E
E
Fig. 74: (a-d) Holarrhena pubescens:

a) T.S. of leafthrough midrib b) DetailedT.S. of lamina C) Upper portion of midrib-cellular
d) Lower portion of midrib-cellular
Cb: Cells with brown content; Col: Collenchyma; Cr: Crystal; D: Druses; H: Hair;
L.Epi: Lower epidermis; Pal: Palisade; Ph: Phloem; Schd: Schlereids; Sp: Spongy cells;
St: Stomata; U.Epi: Upper epidermis
Holarrhena pubescens(Buch.-Ham.) WaII.ex Don (Apocynaceae)
195
II
0
0
Ai1
iv
001
,ol OI
iii
Fig. 75: Holarrhena pubescens:

i) Stone cells ii) Crystals iii) Parenchyma iv) Cells with brown content
CHAPTER 11
Holostemma ada-kodien Schult.

(Asclepiadaceae)
Holostemma ada-kodien Schult.(Asclepiadaceae)
199
11
HOLOSTEMMA ADA-KODIEN SCHULT.
(Asclepiadaceae)
Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. InL., Syst. Veg.6: 95.1820.
Hindi
Chirvel, Charivel
Malayalam
Atapathien,Atapothien
Sanskrit
Tamil
Jivanthi
:
Palaikkirai
Holostemma ada-kodien (Plate 35) is scattered throughout India in open areas. In Kerala
region of the Western Ghats, it is abundantly found in Kothur reserve forest and Palode of
Thiruvananthapuram district; in ldukki of Idukki district; in Chalakudy to Athirapilli and
Kolathilamparaof Thrissur district; in Palakkad, Walayar, Dhoni,Akkampacheryand Pottasseri
of Palakkad district and in Calicut Universitycampus of Malappuramdistrict.
Formulations
The plantparts, particularlyroots, are used in some40 Ayurvedicformulations like Jeevanthyadi
ghritham, Aswagandhadi ghritham, Jeevanthyadiyamakam, Balarishtam, Anuthailam,

Punarnavabaladikashayam, Chandanadithailam, etc. (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Tuberous roots and flowers

A glabrous twining shrub, leaves simple, opposite, petiolate, ovate, entire, acuminate (Plates
36a,b; 37a,b), base deeply cordate, basal lobes rounded, incurved,meeting, glabrous above
and puberulus beneath especially on the nerves, 7.5-15cm long and 4.5-8cm broad. Midrib
prominent with a few small glands at its base above. Petiole 4.5-6.5cm long, stout, glabrous,
glandular at the base of the midrib above. Flowers large, regular, bisexual, subrotate,
subglobose in bud, creamy white to pale pink outside, reddish purple inside and fragrant
200
(Plate 38b). Calyx five lobed, eglandular, broadly ovate, obtuse and veined, about 0.4cm long
and 0.3cm wide. Corolla gamopetalous deeply five lobed subrotate 2.5-3.8cm in
diameter,
pinkish outside and purplish within, tube short, lobes thick, about 1.2cm long and 0.9-1cm
wide, lobes overlappingto the right. Corona fixed to the base of the staminal column, annular,
fleshy, truncate. Stamens five, adnateto the base ofthe corolla tube. The filaments connatein
a ten winged column; anthers large, horny, shining with membraneousinflexed tips; pollen
masses pendulous, clavate, elongate, compressed, attached by long caudicles to the hard
brown linear pollen carriers. Ovary bicarpellary apocarpous but with a common slender
style
ending in an oblong five winged included stigma containing numerous ovules on thickswollen
placenta. Fruitconsists oftwo thick lanceolatebroad follicular mericarps(Plates 36c and 37).
Seeds ovoid, flattened, winged, ending in a white silky coma (Plate 36e). The fruit exudes
milky white latex on puncturing (Plate 38d).
Roots are long attaining a length of one meter or more, irregularly bent, somewhat cylindrical
and gradually tapering towards the tip, yellowish brown in colour. Thickness ofthe root varies
according to age and amount of starch present. The surface is nearly smooth in texture,
except for the presence of a few scars of rootlets.

Calyx
Each calyx lobe is supplied with three vascular strands which are repeatedly branched.
Corolla
5 vascular strands enter into each corolla lobe. Each one of these is highly branched forming
a network. The median strand branches only near its extremity. The four branches produced
(two on either sides) repeatedly rebranch and ultimately unite with the branches of the
neighbouring strands on both sides.
Staminal corona
There arefive fleshy staminal corona which are united to form a central column. Each corona
is supplied with 2 vascular strands. Of these one towards the periphery is short, branched
and they supplythe basal and middle portionsofthe corona. The inner coronarystrand remains
unbranched and traverses the entire length of the staminal corona, taking a very sharp 180
bend turns back towards the inside.
Gynostegium
Ovary is 2 celled, apocarpous and many ovuled. The ovaries and their styles are free but the
stigmas are united to form a pentagonal structure, the corners of which carry the pollinia.
Each carpet is supplied with a dorsal and ventral vascular strand. From the ventral strand, a
branch enters into the ovarian chamberand supplies the ovules. In the stigmatic region dorsal
and ventral standsofeach carpel get united to form a singlestrand whichgets abruptlybranched
in the stigma. At the stigmatic region several isolated obliquely oriented vascular traces are
seen which probably supply the pollen chambers.
Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. (Asclepiadaceae)
201
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.80)
In T.S., mature stem is oval in outline, due to the anomalous secondary thickening, i.e.,
secondary vascular development is mostly concentratedon the two opposite sides only. The
epidermis is single layered with thin cuticle. Cork is composed of 5 to 7 layers of tangentially
elongatedsuberised cells. Primary cortical region is composedof 15-17 layers of thin walled
polygonal cells. The upper 2-4 layers are chlorenchymatous.Below this chlorenchymatous
region, patches of stone cells are seen in a ring. Primary and secondary phloem are distinct.
Beneaththe phloem region many layered, distinct, wavy, cambial ring is seen. In this species
cambial activity is abnormal, i.e.,secondary xylem vessels are produced abundantly only on
two opposite sides and on other sides only trachieds are produced. Xylem vessels are of
large lumen. Uniseriate medullary rays are distinct in the secondary vascular region. Primary
xylem is very prominent. Pith is very large and consists of thin walled parenchymatouscells.
In the pith region druses are present in some of the cells and some of the parenchymatous
cells undergo disintegration leaving cavities of varying shapes.
Root (Fig.80)
In T.S., mature root is circular in outline and 1-2cm in diameter. Cork is composed of 4-5
layers of thin walled tangentially elongatedcells and having no contents.Wall ofthe outermost
row of cells are light brown in colour. A distinct cork cambium is not observed. Phellodermis
composed of 3-5 layers of thin walled tangentially elongated cells. Most of the cells contain
starch grains. Calcium oxalate crystals are very prominent in some outermost cells of the
phelloderm. 2 or 3 celled schiereids group are seen in the innermost layers of phelloderm.
The schlereid cells are much large, thick walled and show several pits or pit cavities. Inner to
the periderm five to seven layers of cortical cells are observed. Most of these cells are rich in
starch grains. Following the cortex a narrow zone of phloem is present, in phloem radially
extended uniseriatephloem rays are very important;the ray cells of phloemare no longer than
the neighbouring cells of phloem and are filled with starch grains. Inner to the phloem 2 or 3
layers of cambiumis present. In cross sectional view major portion of the root is composed of
central core of xylem, which extents to the 2/3 of the radius. The wood is not very hard due to
the poordevelopmentof thick walled lignified elements, major portions ofthe xylem is composed
of thin walled parenchymathat extends as broad radial strand. So the xylem region appears
as ridges and furrows. The primary xylem is diarch which is surrounded by secondary xylem.
Uniseriate medullary rays are very prominent.
Petiole (Fig.81)
T.S. of petiole is shallow 'C' - shaped in outline. The outermost is a single layered epidermis
with multicellular trichomes. The outer cortex is composed of 2 or more layers of
collenchymatous cells. The inner cortex is parenchymatous and is characterized by the
presenceof the latex cell and cells containingdruses. The vascular bundle is crescent shaped.
202
Leaf (Fig.81)
T.S. ofthe leafshows the upperand lowerepidermiswith the mesophyllin between. Mesophyll
consists of a single layered palisade tissue and many layered spongytissue. Vascular bundle
is crescent shaped. A thick deposit of cuticle is present on the outer epidermis and this is
comparatively thin on the lower epidermis. The lower epidermis is provided with multicellular
trichomes. The walls of the lower epidermis are seen in peeled off tissue, appears more wavy
than those ofthe upper.At the midrib regionadjoiningand innerto the upperand lowerepidermis
are wide zone of collenchymacells. Some of the cells in the parenchymatouslayer situated
between the upper and lower zone of collenchyma and the vascular strand at the middle
contains druses and latex. Stomata are of Rubiaceous type.
In this species, stomatal index is 23.5), palisade ratio is 3.79, vein-islet number is 3.63.
PowderMicroscopy
Part studied
Fluorescence
Root (25 samples)

Milky white
Xylem vessel Segments

Tracheids
37
1.5
46
1.8
Fibres
44
1.8
Stone cells
125
5.0
Parenchyma
260
10.4
15
0.6
Unidentified
203

TLC data

The root is sweet refrigerant, ophthalmic, emollient, alterant, tonic, stimulant, aphrodisiac,
expectorantand galactagogue.It is useful in ophthalmopathy, orchitis, cough, burning sensation,
stomachalgia, fever and tridosa. The leaves, flowersand fruits areeaten as a vegetable(Warner
et al, 1995). Systematicinvestigation of root revealed the presence of 3 principles, a-amyrin,
lupeol and B-sitosterol and 6 amino acids viz., alanine, aspartic acid, glycene, serine and
threonin and valine which are identified chromatographically(Ramiah et al, 1981).
204
Propagation (Plates 38, 39 & 40)

Propagationby seeds and vegetative interventionshave given satisfactory results. The seeds
are very small, flat, more or less dark brown in colour, oval or obconical in shape with a
protruding centre and membraneousperiphery.One seed weighs 0.005973 gm. About 167420
seeds weigh 1kg. On an average, a healthy fruit will contain 370-390 seeds. Germination
commenced in about 10 days and completed in 20 days accounting for 75% germination.
Germination is epigeal. Occasionallythree cotyledonaryleaves arealsoseen (Plate 39 d,f). 4
leaved seedlings are polythene bagged and 6-8 leaved seedlings are ready for transplanting
in the field (Plates 38c, 39e and 40).
The root buds are also capable of becoming active normally at the onset of the rains.
Propagationcan be done through 4cm long root cuttings which were buried horizontally in the
sandy beds quarter of a centimetredeep and on watering. 2-3 buds became active and grew
into new plantlets. When the plants became2 leaved, the mother root was cut in between and
subsequently planted in polythene bags. After3 weeks, they were ready for transplanting in
the field (Plates 38a and 39a-c).
Holostomma ada-kodien Schult.(Asclepiadaceae)
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Thiruvananthapuram
KolIam
Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
Idukki
Emakulam
Trissur
Palakkade
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Akk.
Chk.
Cuc.
Dho.
Idu.
Kol.
Kot.
Pkd.
Pal.
Wal.
Akkampachery,Pottassery
Chalakkudi to Adirapilli
Calicut UniversityCampus
Dhoni
Idukki
Kolathilam para
Kothur R. F
Palakkad
Palode
Walayar
FOREST TYPES
II
IIIIIUIIIUIIIIIIII
++++++1
1+
i++++++i
Wetevergreen
evergreen
Deciduous
Drydeciduous
iioua
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm = 9km)
Fig. 76: Holostemma ada-kodien:Distribution in Kerala, Western Ghats
205
Fig. 77: (a-f) Holostemmaada-kodien: Schult.

Fruit
Habit
A
a)
b)
c) piece of mature root d) Germinating seed e) Seed
206
f) Seedlings
207
T
C
b
a
Fig. 78: (a-g) Holostemmaada-kodien: Schult.

a) Single flower b) Calyx c) Corolla split opened d) Translator
f) Gynostegiumwith corona g) Flower L.S.
0: Ovary;
e) Ovary C.S.
P: Petal; P0: Pollinium; S.c: Staminal corona; S: Sepal; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
Plate 36: Holostemma ada-kodien: Twig with flower
208
Plate 37: Ho/ostemmaada-kodien:

Habit
a,b)
c) Leaves and fruits d) Ripe fruits e) Seeds
209
V.5
Fig. 79: (a-c) Holostemmaada-kodien: Floral vasculature
a) Sepal (x115) b) Gynostegiumwith staminal corona (x50) c) Petal (xl 15)

0: Ovary; P: Petal; Po: Pollinia; 5: Sepal; Sc: Staminal corona; Sti: Stigma;
Sty: Style; Vs.: Vascular supply
210
211
Holostemma ada-kodien Schult.(Asclepiadaceae)
Fig. 80: (a-d) Holostemma ada-kodien

a) T.S. of mature stem-diagrammatic(x50) b) A portion enlarged (xl 15)
c) T.S. of mature root-diagrammatic(x50) d) A portion enlarged (xli5).
C: Cambium; Chi: Chlorenchyma; Cor: Cortex; D: Druses; Mr.: Medullary ray; P: Pith;
Per: periderm; Ph.r: Phloem ray; P.xy: Primary xylem; S: Starch grains;
Schid: Schlereides; S.ph: Secondary phloem; St: Stone cells; S.xy: Secondary xylem
Plate 38: Holostemmaada-kodien:

a) Fruit b) Adult plant in fruit
212
Plate 39: Holostemma ada-kodien:
a & c) Seedlings in container b) Flower bunch d) Latex from fruit

e) Seedlings ready for outplanting
213
214
Epi
U.Epi
Pal
St
Sp
L.Epi
.0
Xy
-H
h
9
Fig. 81: Holostemmaada-kodien:

a) T.S.ofpetiole-diagrammatic (xli5) b)A portion of petiole showingepidermis and cortex(x210)
c) T.S. of lamina through midrib-diagrammatic (x115) d) DetailedT.S of lamina (x210)
e) Lower portion of midrib (x210) f) Druses g) Upper epidermis (x210)
h) Single multicellular hair (x450) I) Lowerepidermis (x210)
Col: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; Cu: Cuticle; D: Druses; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair;
L.Epi: Lowerepidermis; Lt: Leaf trace bundle; P01: Palisade; Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem
Sp: Spongyparenchyma; St: Stomata; U.epi: Upper epidermis; Xy: Xylem
Plate 40: (a - f) Holostemmaada-kodien:Propagationby seed
215
Plate 41: Holostemma ada-kodien:Container seedlings ready for outplanting
216
CHAPTER 12
Kaempferia rotunda Linn.

(Zingiberaceae)
219
Kaempferia rotundaLinn.(Zingiberaceae)
12
KAEMPFERIA ROTUNDA LINN.
(Zingiberaceae)
Kaempferiarotunda Linn. Sp. P1.3.1753; Roxb. In Asiat.Res.X1.327; Hort.Beng. 1; FI.Ind.1-16,
Rosc. Scit. PI.t.97; Bot. Mag.t.920 and 6054; wight IC.t.2029; Grah.Cat.PI.Bomb. 208;
Jacq.Hort.Schoeub.t.317; Red.Lit.t.49.K. versicolor,salis in Trans. Hort.Soci. 1.286.-Rhoede

Hort.MaI.X1.t.9.
English
Hindi
:
:
indian Crocus
Bhuyi champa
Malayalam : Chengazhinirkizhangu,Chengazhinirkuva
Sanskrit
Bhumichampaka,Bhuchampaka
Tamil
Nerppicin
This species (Plate 41) is found scattered throughout India in moist localities and is also
cultivated. In Kerala region of Western Ghats, it is seen naturally growing in Silent valley and
Nelliampathyof Palakkad District, Begur, Kalpettaand ThirunelliofWynadDistrict and Mala &
Peechi of Thrissur District.
Formulations
The tuber is used in about 21 preparationswhich include Asokarishta, Anuthaila, Amrithadi
taila (small), Chandanadi taila (small), Chandanadi taila, Thungadrumadi taila, Thriphaladi
taila, Pancha valkadi taila, prapundareekadi taila, Baladhatryadi taila, Manjishtadi taila,
Gopanganadikashaya, Mustharishtadi kashaya, Sathavaryadi kashaya, Kalyanaka ghritha,
Chandanadi nethratharpana sarpis, Chargeriyadi ghritha, Mahakalyanaka ghritha, Mahatriphala
ghritha, Vasthyamayanthakaghritha, Sathavaryadighritha, Chyavanaprasa(lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Undergroundtubers
Description (Plates 41, 42; Figs.83, 84)

Perennial herbs with tuberous rhizomes which produce numerous tuberous roots; leaves
simple, ligulate, few, erect, lanceolate, acute, variegated green above and tinged with purple
220
below; upto 45 cm long and 10 cmswide, petiole shortchannelled, leafbase sheathing,flowers

on a short crowded spike, appearing before the leaves, bracteolate, bisexual and trimerous;
calyx short cylindric splitting down on one side, greenish white, corolla tube long, petals 5,
equal; androecium consists of 6 stamens in two whorls of three in each. The two laterals of
the outer whorl get transformed into petaloid staminodes which are pinkish white in colour.
The laterals of the inner whorl are united to form the posterior labellum which is pinkish white
in colour. The anterior odd one is fertile, which has a long filament and the tv, anther lobes;
ovary inferior, tricarpellary, syncarpouswith many ovules on axile placentation, style terminal
passing through the groove in between the anther lobes, stigma funnel shaped.

About twenty vascular strands supply the calyx tube and they get interconnected often by
transverse or oblique branches.
The corolla tube is also supplied with about twenty vascular bundles which furtherenter into
the petals, each are having six to ten bundles. These 12 to 14 bundles frequently branchand
rebranchand often get interconnected.Similartype of vascularsupply is evident in the labellum
also.
The fertile stamen is supplied with three vascular strands which run parallel to each other
through the filament. The middle one passes through the connective tissue in between the
anther lobes and get branched at the tip, while the laterals after supplying the anther lobes
continue into the protruded connective and get branched.
Ovary is supplied with 3 vascular bundles. Each one branches into two giving rise to a dorsal
branch and ventral branch. Ventral branch suppliesthe ovules; dorsal branchestraversethrough
the style and enter into stigma without any branching.
Anatomy
Rhizome (Fig.86)
The cross section is circular in outline with a conspicuousbrowncoloured exodermisconsisting
of 7-10 layers of cells. Interior to this is a large zone of ground tissue composed of thin walled
cellswith abundance of intercellular spaces. Most of the cells contain plenty of starch grains
where as a few contain oil globules. Many collateral and closed vascular bundles are seen
scattered in the cortex. Each bundle contains 3-4 xylem vessels and scanty phloem. Each
bundle is surrounded by a single layer of parenchymatouscells which are devoid of starch
grains. In the middle region, numerousvascular bundles are seen indiscriminately scattered.
Root (Fig.87)
The root is circular in outline in cross section. Outer 4-6 layers of cells in the cortex are
polygonaland regularly arranged.In the inner region of the cortexcells are irregularlyarranged
Kaempferia rotundaLinn. (Zingiberaceae)
221
with intercellularspaces. Some of the cortical cells contain oil globules.The cortex is delimited
by a single layered epidermis. The radial and inner tangential walls of the endodermal cells
are prominently thickened. Pericycle is single layered. Numerous xylem groups alternating
the phloem patches are arranged in the form of a ring. Pith is parenchymatous.
Tuberous root (Fig.87)
In T.S. tuberous root is circularin outline. Outer 4-6 layers constitute the brown epidermis.
Interiorto this is a largezone ofparenchymatous cortexcontainingstarchgrain and oil globules.
Stelar region is same as that of the normal root.
Leaf
Petiole (Fig.88)
Petiole in cross section is closed 'c' shaped in outline. Epidermis is single layered followed by
1-2 layers of parenchymatous cells. Most of the vascular bundles are arranged along the
periphery. Alternating with these bundles are conspicuous air cavities. Each air cavity is
surrounded by 2-3 layers of chlorenchymatouscells. Vascular bundles are closed and have
2-4 xylem vessels and a small patch of phloem. Schlerenchymatousgirdles are present on
both sides of the bundle. The ground tissue is parenchymatousin which small bundles are
seen scattered.
Lamina (Fig.88)
The epidermis is single layered followed by single layered large parenchymatoushypodermis.
Mesophyll is undifferentiated and contain plenty of chloroplasts. Vascular bundles are seen
developed in the mesophyll region. In the mid-rib region air cavities are conspicuous in the
mesophyll tissue. Vascular bundles are closed and contain 3-4 xylem vessels and scanty
phloem. Schierenchymatousgirdles arepresent on both upper and lower sidesofthe bundle.
Stomata are of Rubiaceous type (paracytic). Stomatal index is 8.73 (lower epidermis) and
1.96 (upper epidermis).
POWDER MICROSCOPY (Fig.89)

Partstudied
Fluorescence
Tuber (25 samples)

Cream
Chmical chracteristics and properties

Plant part
Colour
Root tubers
Moisture
10%
Light yellow
TLC data
Hexane extract
Colour
Lightyellow (lemonyellow in UV)
Dichloromethaneextract
Colour
:
yellow
222
Methanolextract
Colour
223
Yellow (lemon yellow in UV)
ar
Thetubers
acrid, thermogenic,aromatic,stomachic,anti-inflammatory,sialagogue,emetic
and vulnerary. They are useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, gastropathy,dropsy,
inflammations, wound, ulcers, blood clots, tumours and cancerous swellings (Warner et al,
1995).

Vegetative propagation employing rhizomes is simple. After harvesting the tubers, rhizomes
were stored in dry sand. Sprouts arose from the rhizomes in a few weeks. Each bit having a
single sprout was used for planting. As in the case of ginger and turmeric, they were planted
in pits dug in the planting area. After planting the tubers were covered with dry leafy twigs.
Weeding and manuringwere done twice. Tubers were ready for harvesting in about 6 months.
150-200 gms of new tubers were obtained from each plant. This is an ideal species for
underplantingin coconut plantations.
DI9TRICTS
1.
2.
KoIw
9.
Ps99ad
3 PwniI
4. Apuzh.
8 Kcy.m
e. uwi
7. Enn
8
10.
11.
12. WsySi*d
13.
14. KisOdS
Kai,
9
K Bt
KKs
0
N
Nsywip.94
PS.
PSSCN
09. Sasi4Vsy
S.
FO0TflP0
Js
l.00,0(lau*m)
Fig. 82: Kaempferiarotun Ia: Distribution in Kerala
224
Kaempferia rotunda Linn. (Zingiberaceae)
Plate 42: Kaempferia rotunda: Habit
225
E
C)
Fig. 83: Kaempferiarotunda: Habit
226
227
Kaempferia rotunda Linn. (Zingiberaceae)
,1,
a
P.S
4co
Sti
L
-A
Sty
e
g
Fig. 84: Kaempferiarotunda:

a) Single flower b) Calyx tube c) Corolla tube d) Petaloid staminode e) Labellum
f) Gynoeciumwith anthers g) Flower L.S.
A: Fertile anther; B: Bract; C: Calyx tube; Co: Protruded connective; L: Labellum;
0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petal; P.s.: Petaloid staminode; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
Plate 43: Kaempferia rotunda:

Plant
with
inflorescence
a)
(a typical) b) Tubers with sprouts c) Flower
d) Young tubers e) Harvestedtubers
228
229
Sn
v.s
----Sty
rE
J,E
v.s
D.B
--0
V.B
f
d
C
Fig. 85: (a-e) Kaempferia rotunda: Floral vasculature

Corolla
tube opened b) Labellum C) Calyx tube opened
a)
d) Fertile anther e) Petaloid staminode.
A: Anther; Co: Protruded connective; D.b: Dorsal bundle; 0: Ovary; Sti: Stigma;
Sty: Style; V.b: Ventral bundle; V.s: Vascular supply
.
.
AW -J
.
*.:.
-
..
.
.k
- ;b;.*;
.,
......,
-...,*ts,.
.
.
,.' #
.....
c'? '. .
.'4':.
-.
,.. 1.
'i'
'
...,,
k
r;
_,tql
..
I,
:-
,.
-'
230
:
. .l'
/'.
I.
Jj7
O.
Xy
d
Fig. 86: (a-d) Kaempferiarotunda:
T.S
of
rhizome-diagrammatic
b&c) portion of rhizome-cellular
a)
vascular
bundle
d) Single
Cor: Cortex; Ex: Exodermis; O.g: Oil globule; Ph: Phloem; S: Starch grain;
V.b: Vascularbundle; Xy: Xylem
-1
CD
tlCD
-'
CD
n) 0)
CD
22CD
0)
(0(0
-' -5
coCp
Cl)
0)0)
CD
C,
C)
CD
UCD
-' 0.
-, -'
CD
-ua
CDQ)
-I
i:i -'(0
-u
CT,
CD
CO
(DC C- 0
BcD
(0
D
o 0
xQ
o0
-h-IQ
-'
CD
-'
C).
(/)CD
y 0a-
0(/)
-h
-'
-9
00
o 0 m
5 I
0
0.
a-
m (DH
C-
a- C __
m 0
-4'
C)
01
C-)
0
-S
C)
CD
0)
CD
C)
CD
C-
CO
a
I-
232
Ej1
Fig. 88: (a-f) Kaempferiarotunda:

T.S
of
a)
petiole-diagrammatic b) A portion of petiole enlarged
c) T.S. of leaf through midrib-diagrammatic d) Detailed T.S. of mid rib of leaf
e) Lower epidermis f) Detailed T.S. of lamina
A.C.: Air chamber; Cor: Cortex; Chi: Chlorenchyma; Epi: Epidermis; Hy: Hypodermis;
L. Epi: Lower epidermis; Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem; S.g: Schlerenchymatousgirdle;
Sp: Spongy tissue; St: Stomata; U.Epi: Upper epidermis
V.b: Vascularbundle; Xy: Xylem
Kaempferia rotundaLinn. (Zingiberaceae)
233
o.i flfr
mm
I0.1 I
1--J
00
,o
LOOO
oOo
o 000
ii
iii
O.25mm
Fig. 89: (i-vi) Powder microscopyof Kaempferiarotunda:
I) Brown content cells ii) Starch grains iii) Parenchymawith oil globules iv) Fiber
v) Vessels with scalariform & pitted thickenings
CHAPTER 13
Limonia acidissima Linn.

(Rutaceae)
Limoniaacidissima Linn. (Rutaceae)
237
13
LIMONIA A CIDISSIMA LINN.
(Rutaceae)
Limonia acidissima Linn. sp. PI.Id.2:554. 1762 excl. Rheed edt.; DC.Prodr. I, 576; W&A.
Prodr.92; Grah.Cat.Bomb. P1.23; DaIz. & gibs.Bomb. Fl.29; Bedd.For. FIor.AnaI.Gen.XIV.
L. crenulata, Roxb. Cor.PI.t.86;Fl.lnd.1 1.381 ;DC.Le.;wall.Cat.6364.
English
Hindi
:
:
Elephant apple, wood apple, Monkeyfruit

Katbel, karvita
Malayalam
Vilarmaram,Vilavu
Sanskrit
Kapitthah
Tamil
Vilankay maram
This species (Plate 43)is found throughout India, in the warmer and drier parts upto 450 m.
elevation. In Kerala region of Western Ghats, it is seen in Sulthanbatheryof Wynad district,
Kannoth and Parappa of Kannur district, Nilambur of Malappuramdistrict, Dhoni and Agali of
Palakkaddistrict and Peechi and Vadakkancheryof Thrissur district.
Formulations
It is used in a few preparations, which are, however, in great demand. The most popular
among them are Abhayarishta, Dasamoolarishta,Varahyadi ghritha, Kapithashtakachoorna,
Abhrabhasma,Neerooryadigudika (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Bark, leaves, fruit, pulp and gum (Plate 44)
Description (Plates 43 & 44, Figs.91 & 92)

A medium sized to fairly large much branched glabrous deciduous tree with a crown of dark
green leaves, armed with strong straight axillary spines; tree trunk dark grey in colour,
longitudinallyfurrowed and wrinkled; leavescompound, alternate, exstipulate and imparipinnate,

petiole and rachis narrowly winged, leaflets 3-7, opposite, dark green, obovate, top notched,
gland dotted;flowersbisexual, in terminalor lateral racemesor panicles;calyx small, 5-toothed,
238
deciduous;lobes five, imbricate,spreading, pubescentatthe tip, disc short; stamens 5 inserted

round the disc; anthers linear-oblong; ovary 5 celled, style absent, stigma oblong, fusiform,
deciduous; ovules numerous, many senate, arranged on parietal placentas; fruits large,
globose, woody, rough, grey coloured berry, fruit pulp aromatic, slightly sweetish, seeds nonendospermic, compressed,embedded in the pulp; embryo thick and fleshy.

Petal
Three mainvascularstrands enter into each petal. Ofthese the middle one gets feebly branched
towards both sides. The lateral ones branchintothree and each branchagain gets irregularly,
repeatedly branched.
Stamen
Each stamen is supplied with a single vascular strand, which traverses through the filament
and reaches upto 3/4 of the connective without any branching.
Gynoecium
Five vascular bundles enter intothe ovary. Each one branchedintotwo. The central branches
supply the ovules and the peripheral branches traverse through the ovary wall and enter into
the stigma.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.94)
In cross section, stem is more or less circular in outline. Cork tissue forms the outermost
region consisting of numerous layers of narrow, thick walled, rectangular cells. Cork cells are
dark brown in colour. Inner to the cork is 2-3 layered phellogen. Phellogen is followed by a
narrow dark zone of 1-2 layers of stone cells. This in turn is followed by 6-7 layered
chlorenchymatousregion. Lysigenouscavities are seen in this chlorenchymatousregion. The
remaining part of the cortex is parenchymatousexcepting the patches of stone cells. They
arelocatedjust abovethe phloem regionand the phloem raysarevery conspicuous.In between
the xylem and phloem is the two layered cambium. Both uniseriate and biseriate medullary
rays are very prominent. Cells of medullary rays contain starch grains, xylem consists of
vessels and tracheids. Pith is composed of loosely arranged parenchyma cells and some of
them contain starch grains.
Root (Fig.94)
The root is circular in outline in cross section. The outermost cork is brown in colour and
consists of narrowtangentiallyelongated cells. Phellogenis 4-5 layered. Inner to the phellogen
is a clearzone of 3-4 layers of rectangulartangentially elongated, large cells. This is followed
by a broad zone of large polygonal parenchymatouscells with plenty of starch grains. Small
Limonia acidissima Linn. (Rutaceae)
239
groups of schlerenchymaand a few lysigenouscavities are seen embedded in the region. In

between xylem and phloem cambium is very prominent. Above the secondary phloem,
schlerenchyma patches are seen. Xylem rays extend into the cortex. Cells of the medullary
rays are radially elongated and very large at the distal end. Cells also contain starch grains.
There is poorly developed pith with thick walled cells in the centre. In mature root, concentric
strips of schlerenchymaare seen in the secondary phloem.
Fruit (Fig.95)
In transverse section, the fruit shows an outer very hard stony rind and an inner soft rind
embedding the yellowish brown pulp containing seeds. Epidermis is single layered which is
broken at intervals where conspicuous opening similar to lenticels are developed. Following
the epidermisthe outer rind is composedof stone cells, schlerenchymacells and parenchyma.
Cells towards the periphery contain chlorophyll pigments. The inner rind portion consists of
loosely arranged parenchyma cells, traces of vascular elements and gum containing cells.
The pulp consists of gum cells and parenchymacells.
Seed (Fig.95)
In cross section the seed is lens shaped. Seed coat is composed of testa and tegmen. Testa
comprises an outer single layered pillar shaped sclerotic cells and multilayered
parenchymatouscells. The epidermis is providedwith unicellular, thickwalled and long hairs.
Tegmen consists of single layered thick walled cellstowards the outer side, and multilayered
tangentiallyelongatedcells towardsthe innerside. 3-4 layersof parenchyma cells in the middle
contain starch grains. Cotyledonary cells are parenchymatousand rich in starch grains.
Petiole (Fig.96)
In T.S. the petiole is somewhatcircular in outline. Epidermis is single layered with thin cuticle.
Small unicellular hairs are seen on the upperside. In the broad parenchymatouscortex, cells
are loosely arranged. Some cells contain rhomboid crystals. Vascular bundle is surrounded
by a schlerenchymatousring. Xylem vessels arearranged in a ring which in turn is surrounded
by phloem. In the centre, there is a small schlerenchymatouspith like region.
Lamina(Fig.96)
Single layered epidermis on the adaxial surface is followed by single hypodermal layer in
which cells are very large. Below the hypodermis palisade tissue is 2-3 layered. Lysigenous
cavities are seen both on the upper and lower sides of the leaf. In the lysigenous cavities oil
globules are very prominent. There is a multilayered spongy tissue with large intercellular
spaces. Stomataareseen both on upperand lower epidermis.Stomataareof Ranunculaceous
type.
In the mid-rib region also, the upper epidermisis followed by single layered hypodermisin the
centre of which there is a 'c' shaped schierenchymatouspatch. On either side of this, xylem
vessels are arranged radially which in turn is surrounded by phloem. Schlerenchymatous
patches of bundle sheath are seen surrounding the vascular bundle. The rest of the cells in
the mid-rib are chlorenchymatous.A few cells contain rhomboid crystals.
240
Stomatal index in the upper epidermis is 0.10 and in the lower epidermis is 6.46. The palisade
ratio is 1.3 and vein-islet numberis 2.58.
Powder Microscopy(Fig.97)
Part studied
Fruit (25 samples)
Fluorescence
Reddish yellow

Part studied
Fruit pulp
Yellowish brown
6.0%
Colour
Moisture
TLC data
Hexane extract
Colour
Light yellow (UV, mild fluorescence at 366 nm)
Visible light
none
UV (254 nm)
none
UV (366 nm)
none
Ferric chloride
dark green
O.70;O.78;O.84
Iodinevapour
yellow
O.30;O.38;O.70
0.84
241
Colour
Light brown
Methanolextract
Colour
:
Brown

The leaves are aromatic, carminative (Khanna et al, 1991; Warner et at, 1995) astringent,
constipating, cardiotonic and are useful in gastropathy, anorexia, diarrhoea, bronchitis and
vitiated conditions ofvata. The bark is aromaticand cooling and is useful in vitiated conditions
of pitha. Ripe fruits are aromatic, astringent, bitter, refrigerant and are useful in diarrhoea,
vomiting, hyperdipsia (Warner et at, 1993; Narayana Iyer et at, 1976). The leaves are
anthelmentic, expectorant, and are useful in vomiting, cough, hycup, cardiac debility. The
unripe fruits are sour, aromatic, astringent, constipating and are useful in diarrhoea, pruritus,
the ripe fruits are sweet, sour, aromatic, anodyne, constipating, aphrodisiac, antiscorbutic,
alexipharmic. Theyareuseful in dysentery, hyperdipsia, hiccup, pharyngodynia, cough, asthma,
ophthalmia, cephalalgia, leucorrhoea,wounds, ulcers, dyspepsia, cardiac debility. The gum
is demulcentand constipatingand is useful in diarrhoea, dysentery,gastropathy,haemorrhoids
and diabetes (Warner et al, 1995). Fruits are edible, stimulant, stomachic and cooling. The
pulp of fruitis applied to insect bites. Wood is used for various purposes (Khanna et at, 1991).
Also the bark is reportedto be used locally in the treatmentofvenerealdiseases(Krishnamurthy,
1993). Fruits are useful in cough, hiccough, dysnoea, vomiting, exhaustion, inertia and
erysipelas (Sarin, 1996).
Some ImportantMedicinal Plants of WesternGhats, India: A Profile
242
Propagation (Plate 44; Fig.98)

Seeds are normally used for propagation.Ripe fruits, when they start emitting fragrance were
collected and seeds squeezed out of them. They were washed thoroughly several times for
removingthe sticky pulp. Seedswere then dried in the shadeand stored in airtight containers.
About 61,000 seeds make one kilogram, each seed weighing about 0.0164 gm. They were
soakedin cold water for 24 hrs., before sowing in nursery beds. The bed was regularly watered
and partial shade was provided. Germination commenced on the 7th day onwards and
completed within two weeks (Fig.98). Percentage of germination was only 47. 4-leaved
seedlings were transplanted into polythene bags containing potting mixture. As the tap root
penetratesdeep into the soil very fast, care should be taken of its breakingduring plantingout.
6 months old seedlings were planted out in the field. 45 x 45 x 45 cm pits were dug and filled
with cow dung powder, sand and top soil. The pits were dug at an espacement of 3-4 metres.
Soil with good drainage is suggested for cultivation. Watering during summer months and
weedingonce a year were found to be advantageous.Nearlymature fruits were collected, the
rind was brokenand the pulp scooped out. The pulpwas dried shadeand packedfor marketing.
The ripe fruits are edible and they have good market for this purpose also.
DISTRICTS
1.
Thiruvananthapuram
2. Kullam
3.
Pathanamthitta
4. Atappuzha
S.
Kottayam
6.
ldukki
7.
Emakulam
S.
Trisour
9
Palakkad
10. Malappurem
11. Kozhikode
12. Wayanad
13. Kannur
14. Kasargude
LOCAUTIE5
'ga. Agali
Dho. Dhoni
DII. Dillinoiu fort
Kay. kannottr
Nil. Nilambur
Pee. Peechi
Sul. Suuhanbahery
Vad. Vadakkanctrery
FOREST TYPES
c:
0
Wetevergreen
Semi evergreen
Moistdeciduous
Drydeciduous
Shola
Plane
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm
=9km)
Fig. 90: Limonia acidissima: Distribution
243
Fig. 91: Limonia acidissima:

a) A twig b) Fruit C) Embryo
244.
245
E
E
E
E
IT
b
Ej
'1
e
C
f
E
E
ti
ov
C
Fig. 92: Limonia acidissima:

a) Single flower b) Calyx c) Gynoecium d) Petal e) Stamen
f) Ovary CS. g) Flower L.S.
A: Anther lobe; C: Calyx lobe; D: Disc; F: Filament; G: Gynoecium; H: Hairs; 0: Ovary;
Ov: Ovule; P: Petal; S: Stamen; Sti: Stigma
246
v.s
E
E
E
E
v.s
F
b
a
sti
V.3
E
E
Fig. 93: (a-c) Limonia acidissima: Floral vasculature
a) Petal
b) Stamen
c) Gynoecium
0: Ovary; Sti: Stigma; V.S.: Vascular supply; A: Anther lobe; F: Filament
247
'
Ly
.S.Ph
S.Xy
Schi
'
a
C
Phe
Par
"3
Ly
St
.Ph
i__S.Xy
d
Fig. 94: (a-d) Limonia acidissima:
a) T.S. of stem-diagrammatic b) A portion of stem enlarged
c) T.S. of root-diagrammatic d) A portion of root enlarged
C: Cambium; Ck: Cork; Ly: Lysigenouscavity; M: Medullary ray; P: Pith;
Par: Parenchymacells; Phe: Phellogen; P.xy: Primary xylem; S: Starch grains;
St: Stone cells; S.ph: Secondary phloem; S.xy: Secondary xylem;
SchI: Schlerenchymacells
248
El
01
b
Fig. 95: (a-c) Limonia acidissima:
a) TS. offruit-diagrammatic b) T.S. of fruit-enlarged c) T.S. of seed coat-enlarged

Epi: Epidermis; Fi: Fibers; G: Gum cells; H: Hair; l.r: Inner rind; O.r: Outer rind;
Par: Parenchyma cells; Pu: Pulp; S: Starch grains; St: Stone cells; Sd: Seeds;
Tes: Testa; Teg: Tegmen; V.S: Vascular Strand
LimoniaacidissimaLinn. (Rutaceae)
249
ET
0I
t,1I
El
El
e
d
Epi
St
Fig. 96: (a-g) Limonia acidissima:
a) T.S. of petiole-diagrammatic b) A portion of petiole enlarged

c) T.S. of lamina-diagrammatic d) T.S. of lamina-enlarged
e) T.S. of midrib-enlarged f) Lower epidedrmis g) Upper epidermis
Chi: Chiorenchyma cells; Cor: Cortex; Cr1: Rhomboid crystals; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair;
Hy: Hypodermis; L. Epi: Lower epidermis; Ly: Lysigenous cavity; Pal: Palisade tissue;
Ph: Phloem; Schl: Schlerenchymacells; Sp: Spongy tissue; St: Stomata;
U.Epi: Upper epidermis
250
t\4
7!
Plate 44: Limonia acidissima: Habit
251
Limonia acidissima Linn. (Rutaceae)
Plate 45: Limonia acidissima

a) Branch with fruit b&c) Seedlings d) T.S of fruit e) Crevices in bark f) Mature fruits
g) Semi processed pulp
252
II
iv
Fig. 97: (i-iv) Powder microscopyof Limonia acidissima:

Stone
cells ii) Vessels with spiral thickening iii) Gum cells
i)
iv) Fiber fragment
253
f
e
h
g
Fig. 98: Limonia acidissima. Different stages in germination
-S
CHAPTER 14
Nervilia aragoana Gaud.

(Orchidaceae)
Nerviliaaragoana Gaud. (Orchidaceae)
257
14
NERVILlA ARAGOANA GAUD.
(Orchidaceae)
Nervilia aragoana Gaud. Bot. Voy. Freyc. 422.t.36. 1826, PogoniaflabelliformisWall. Ex Lindl.
Gen.Sp. Orchid. 415. 1835, F.B.I. VI. 121; Duthie Ann. Calc.lX.t.125. P. carinata,
Wt.IC.t.1 720.1852.
Sthalapadma,Sthalakamal
Hindi
Malayalam
Orilathamara, Kalthamara
Padmacharini
Orilathamarai
Sanskrit
Tamil
An endangered plant (Plate 45) highly restricted in occurrence in the plainsand in loweraltitudes.
In Kerala region of Western ghats, its natural distribution is confined to Elanadu, Peechi, and
Iranikulam of Thrissur district, Dhoni of Palakkad district, Nedumpoil and Chandanathodeof
Wynad district and Mukkam of Kozhikodedistrict.
Formulations
Thepreparations include such importantoneslike Matsyakshyadi kashaya, Vasthyamayanthaka
ghritha and Sathavaryadighritha (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Tubers (Plate 46c)
Description (Plate 45 & 46; Figs.100 & 101)

A terrestrial single leaved tuberous herb with lotus-like lamina spread on a long stalk and a
fleshy white starchy corm with annulations and having roots; leaves simple, orbicular, base
cordate, 13 or more ribbed, marginwavy almost coarselydentate, 8-20 cm. in diameter,petiole
10-18 cms long; runners arise from base of the petiole; inflorescenceracemose emerges up
afterthe leaves disappear, flowers bisexual, epigynous,trimerous, outer three perianth lobes
(calyx) equal and pale green, linear lanceolate, acute; inner three (petals) smaller than the
outer ones, labellum white, three lobed about the middle, veined, purple tinged with yellow
near the base, middle lobe ovate, acute, crisped, inner surface hairy; androeciumconsists of
258
single fertile stamen which on union with gynoeciumforms the gynostegium, pollen in pollinia;
ovary inferior, tricarpellary,syncarpousbut unilocularwith three bifid parietal placentas;column
with three stigmatic lobes, of which two are fertile and the third sterile rostellum;fruit a dehiscent
capsule, seeds microscopic, powdery.

The sepal is supplied with three vascular strands running from the base to the tip, giving rise
to branches alternating to the right and left. The petals also have the same pattern of
vasculature. The labellum is suppliedwith seven vascular bundles. The median one reaches
the top without giving rise to any branch. All the other six bundles branch and rebranch on a
symmetricalpattern on both sides. Six vascular bundles supplythe ovary. Of these, the dorsal
one gets divided into two, traverse through the column and enters into the staminal glands
where it gets feebly divided. Anothertwo get divided into two at the region of ovary. One branch
of each supplies the stigma and the other branchsupplies the ovary wall. The remainingthree
get divided into two, only at the tip and then supply the placentum.
Anatomy
Corm (Fig.103)
The cross section is nearly circularwith wavy outline. The epidermis is uniseriateoccasionally
provided with unicellular hairy absorptive extension. The ground tissue is parenchymatous
and the cells are packed with starch grains. A few cells contain bundles of calcium oxalate
crystals. Mycorrhizal associations are characteristically evident in some of the cells of the
ground tissue. The vascular bundles are scattered and some of them supply the roots. Each
bundle consists of only one or two xylem vessels and a small group of phloem cells.
Runner(Fig. 103)
Transverse section is circular in outline. Interiorto the single layered epidermisis a predominent
parenchymatous ground tissue consisting of a peripheral mycorrhizal zone and several

vascular bundles scattered in the central portion. Each vascular strand is highly reduced as in
the case of the rhizome and consists of 2-3 xylem vessels and a group of phloem cells. The
parenchymatouscells of the ground tissue contain plenty of starch grains while a few of them
possess calcium oxalate crystals (raphides).
Petiole (Fig.104)
The cross section is nearlycircular in outlinewith a depressionon the adaxial surface. Beneath
the single layered epidermis there is 4-5 layered chlorenchymatouszone. Vascular bundles
aredistributed in a single layer along the peripherywith 3-4 bundles in the central portion. The
vascular bundles are provided with schierenchymatousgirdles on both sides.
259
Lamina (Fig.104)
The epidermisis single layered.Interior to this is a single layer of compactlyarrangedcolumnar
cells, containing plenty of chloroplasts constituting the palisade tissue. The spongy tissue
consists of irregularlyarrangedchloroplastcontainingcellswith plenty of inter cellular spaces.
Each bundle is girdled on each side. The stomata are nearer to crucifer type with subsidiary
cells varying in number and shape. The stomata are characteristically raised above the
epidermal surface. The stomatal index is 12.06 and the palisade ratio is 1.68 (Fig.140 and
141).
Partstudied
Corm (25 samples)
Fluorescence
Straw coloured

Corm
Straw colour
80%
Part studied
Colour
Moisture
TLC data
Hexane extract
Colour
Light yellow
260
Colour
: Light yellow
Visible light
none
UV (254 nm)
UV (366 nm)
none
Ferric chloride
none
Iodine vapour
Methanolextract
Colour
Visible light
UV (254 nm)
UV (366 nm)
Ferric chloride
Iodine vapour
violet
0.97
yellow
0.46;0.56;0.72;0.85;0.97
Brown (whitish yellow fluorescence in UV)
None
I
none
I
3
violet
0.92
dark green
yellow
0.92
0.05;0.14;0.92

The plant is bitter, acrid, cooling, galactagogue, diuretic and tonic. It is useful in uropathy,
lithiasis, colic, agalactia,mental instability, epilepticfits, haemoptysis, diarrhoea,asthma,cough,

vomitting and vitiated conditionsof pitta (Warner et al, 1995). In Malayathe decoctionof leaves
is used as a protective medicine after child birth.
Propagation (Plate 46ft Fig.106)

Propagation is mainly through seeds which are extremely small in size. The survival of plants
multiplied through vegetative means was very low. A series of stages in the growth of the
seedlings is presented in Plate 46f and Fig.106. A solitary short root-like underground stem
arose from the seed and gave rise to one or two laterals. By then, a single leaf is differentiated
subtended by a scale leaf. Subsequently,the leafgot unfolded, its marginsgot undulatedand
the petiole becamemore elongated. The mainas well as the lateral branchesofthe underground
stem further grew and became differentiated into nodes and internodes. The tip of the main
downwardly growing undergroundstem became swollen with storage of starch. A fully grown
tuber was eitheroval or sphericalin outlinewith annulations representingnodes and internodes.
A numberof roots arose from such tubers. In addition to this, occasionally one or two laterals
also developed tubers at their extremities. New buds arose from these tubers which gave rise
to new young ones.
Neiviliaaragoana Gaud. (Orchidaceae)
DISTRICTS
1. Thiruvananthgpuram
2.
2.
4.
Kollarn
Pathanatthitta
Alappuoha
5.
Kotlayam
6. Idukki
7,
Emakulam
8. Trissur
9. Palakkad
IS. MSappuram
11. Kozhikode
12. Wayanad
13. Kannur
14. Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Beg. Begur
Cha. Chanthanafticde
Dhn. Dheni
Elasadu
Kay. Kannanam
Kah. Kenhireppuzha
kur. Kuruva hiand
Muk. Mukkam
Pee. peechi
St
fl+
REMflPES
Welevergreen
Semi evwgeen
Molaldeciduous
Drgdeciduous
Shale
Qnane
Scale:
1:6,50,500(1cm Sloe)
Fig. 99: Nervilia aragoana: Distribution
261
262
CL
c,L
Fig. 100: Nervilia aragoana: Habit

a) Leafy plant b) Plant with fruits c) Plant with inflorescence
B: Bract; C: Corm: F: Fruit; Fl: Flow r; L: Leaf L.s.: Leafy shoot; R.: Rumer
263
La
Gy
E
E
to
C-)
h
Fig. 101: (a-h) Neivilia aragoana:
flower
b) Calyx lobe c) Corolla lobe d) Labellum e) Gynostegium
a) Single
f) Ovary C.S. g) Flower L.S. h) Fruit
C: Column Co: Corolla lobe; Cx: Calyx lobe; Gy: Gynostegium; La: Labellum; 0: Ovary;
Ov: Ovule; Po: Pollinium; Ro: Rostellum; Sti: Stigmatic surface
264
I
-o
Ct
Ct
Ct
0
Ct
Ct
L.
Ct
Co
Ct
Ct
Nervilia aragoana Gaud. (Orchidaceae)
Plate 47: Nervilia aragoana:

Plant
with corm C) Harvestedcorms d) Plants in flower
a) Cultivated plant b)
e) Inflorescence f) Stages in germination
265
266
- - - -p
----K
B
E
E
.s
0
C
0:
Fig. 102: (a-c) Nervilia aragoana: Floral vasculature

Labellum
a)
b) Calyx lobe C) Corolla lobe d) Gynoecium
Ovary; P: Pollinia R: Rostellum; S.g: Staminalgland; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style;
V.s: Vascularsupply
267
E
E
:..
a
d
Fig. 103: (a-d) Nervilia aragoana:
a) T.S. of runner-diagrammatic b) A portion of runner enlarged

c) T.S. of corm-diagrammatic d) A portion of corm enlarged
Epi: Epidermis; H: Unicellular hair; M: Micorrhizalassociation; Ph: Phloem;
R.M: Region of micorrhizal association; R: Calcium oxalate crystals; S: Starch grain;
V.b: Vascular bundle; Xy: Xylem
268
U.Epi
Epl.C
Fig. 104: (a-g) Nervilia aragoana:

a) T.S. leafthrough midrib-diagrammatic b) Detailed T.S. of midrib
C) Detailed T.S. of lamina d) T.S. of petiole-diagrammatic
A
e) portion of petiole enlarged f) Upper epidermis g) Lower epidermis
ChI: Chlorenchyma; Col: Collenchyma; Epi: Epidermis; Epi.c: Epidermal cell;
L.Epi: Lower epidermis; Pal: Palisade; Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem;
S.g: Schlerenchymatousgirdle; Sp: Spongy cells; St: Stomata; U.epi: Upper epidermis;
Xy.: Xylem
Nerviia aragoana Gaud. (Orchidaceae)
269
OO
.0
'V
III
II
Fig. 105: (i-x) Powdermicroscopy of Nervilia aragoana:

Fibers
i)
ii) Starch iii) Raphides iv) Xylem vessels v) Parenchymacells
vu,
ix
Fig. 106: Nervilia aragana: Stages in growth through seeds
L: Leaf; Pe: Petiole; Ru: Runner; Co: Corm; R: Root
VII
- - .Co
-Ru
Pe
U)
0)
0)
C)
0.
CD
0)
B
V
0
CD
C,)
CHAPTER 15
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent.

(Bignoniaceae)
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. (Bignoniaceae)
273
15
OROXYLUMINDICUM(L) VENT.
(Bignoniaceae)
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Dec. Gen. Nov. 8. 1808; Kurz Fbr. F1.ii.237. Bignonia indica,
Linn. Sp. p1. 871; Lamk. Diet. 1.423; Roxb.F1.lnd.iii. 110; wall. Cat.6514; Bedd. For.Man. 148.
B. pentandra, Lour. Fl. Cochin ch.379. Spathodeaindica L., sp.pl.625. 1753. Calosanthes
indica Blume Bijid. 760. 1826; DC.Prodr.IX.1 77; Wight IC. t. 1337; Dalz & Gibs. Bomb.Fl.161:
BureauMonogr,Bign. T.9; Brand.
English
Hindi
: Indiantrumpet tree
: Sonapatha
Malayalam : palakappayyani, Palakappayyana

Sanskrit
: Syonakah
Tamil
: Palaiyudachi
Distribution (Fig. 107)

This species (Plate 47) is found scattered in the moist deciduousforests in peninsular India.
In Western Ghats region of Kerala, it is found in Kannoth, Iritty and Alakodu of Kannurdistrict,
Dhoni, Kanhirappuzha,Mukkaliand Attappadyof Palakkad district and Peechi and Palappilly

of Thrissur district.
Formulations
A species in high demand used in about 50 preparationslike Amritharishtam, Dantyarishta,
Dasamoolarishta, Dhanwanthararishta, Mrithasanjeevani, Lodhrasava, Dhanwantharam
kuzhambu, Dhanwantharam taila, Narayana taila, Prabhanjana vimardanam kuzhampu,
Baladhatryaditaila, Mahakukkudamamsa taila, Mahabala taila, Mahamashataila, Maharaja
prasaranitaila, Rasnadasamooladitaila, Lakshaditaila, Sahacharaditaila (big), Agragrahyadi
kashaya,Amritha dasamooladikashaya,Ambashtadikashaya, Indukanthamkashya,Triphala
marichadi mahakashaya, Dasamoola katuthrayadi kashaya, Dasamoola-baladF kwatha,
Dasamoola baladi maha kashaya, (big), Dadhika ghritha, Dehaposhana yamaka,
Dhanwantharaghritha, Panchagavya ghritha, Brihachagaladi ghritha, mahasneha, Lasuna
ghritha, Varahyadi ghritha veeratharadi ghritha, Soolari ghritha, Sarvamayanthakaghritha,
Sukumaraghritha, pushyanuga choorna,Abrabhasma,Agasthyarasayanam,Chyavanaprasa,
Dasamoolarasayana,Dasamoolaharithaki, Brahmarasayana,Vasishta rasayana,Sathavari
gula, Sthanya janana rasayana, Sukumara leha, brahmee drakshadi kashayam, Bhadra darvyadi
kashayam(lyer, 1983).
274
Officinal parts
Roots, leaves, fruits, seeds
Description (Plates 47 & 48, Figs. 108 & 109)
A medium sixed deciduous tree, trunk tall and straight covered with thick, soft, somewhat
greyish, spongy bark, branches few, decussate, horizontal ; large, broadly elliptic, smooth,
slightly sunken scars of fallen leaves are seen on the bark. Leaves very large, oppsite, 2-3
pinnate with five or more pairs of primary pinnae; exstipulate, entire, leaflets many,
broadly
ovate, entire, rounded at the base, obtuse at the apex, glabrous, dark green above and
paler
beneath with prominent nerves, inflorescenceterminal raceme up to four feet
halfof the
long,
length at base is nearly quadrangularand flowerless, bracts partially fused with the pedicels.
Flowers large and fleshy, dark lurid reddish purple outside, dull or pale pinkish
yellow within;
calyx large, leathery,oblong, campanulate, truncate,persistent, five lobed; corolla large,whitish
to purple, campanulate,tube short, two lipped and five lobed, lobes
sub-equal, round, crisped
much crumpled in bud and thickly covered on both sides with papillose
hairs; stamens five,
unequalfour large, posterior one smaller, filaments free, inserted near the base of the tube,
anthersglabrous, two-celledcells oblong, parallel, pendulousfrom the top ot
surroundedby a large fleshy, cushion-like somewhatpentagonaldisc at its connective,ovary
base, sub-sessile,
glabrous, oblong two-celled with many ovules in each cell, style about the length of the
filaments, opening as funnel shaped mouth between the membraneous slightly incurved
semicircular lobes ofthe stigma; fruita very large, woody sword-shaped
strongly compressed
two-valved septifragal capsule.
Floral vasculature (Fig. 110)

Calyx
Calyx is supplied with five main vascular bundles which produce numerous lateral branches
which run parallelly upwards.
Corolla
Five main vascular bundles enter intothe corolla and give riseto lateral branches. In between
these five main bundles five thin vascular strands are also seen which in turn produce lateral
branches. Thus, a total of 30 vascular bundles are seen in cross section.
Stamen
Each stamen is supplied with two vascular bundles which traverse through the filament and
supply the anther lobes.
Gynoecium
In cross section of the ovary 14 vascularbundlesareseen. Ofthese, two aredorsal in
position.
Thesedorsal bundlesdirectlysupplythe stigma withoutgetting branched. Six peripheralbundles
(2 groups of three each on either sides of the ovary) produce lateral branches and supply the
ovary wall. There are six ventral bundles which get united to form two bigger bundles, supply
275
the ovules and enter into the style. There they get separated into 6 bundles again. These
bundles traverse through the style and enter into the stigma where they get branched.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig. 111)
In T.S. the stem is circular in outline consisting of 5-6 layers of cork cells which are thick
walled and tangentially elongated. Phellogen consists of 3-4 layers of rectangular cells. This
is followed by a broad zone of cortex whose outer 7-8 layers are polygonal and
chlorenchymatous.Belowthis region, patches of schlereids are prominent.In the inner region
of the cortex cells are thinwalled polygonal without any inclusions. Small groups of schiereids
are seen at the phloem region. This region is narrowand cambiumconsists of only 4-6 layers.
Secondaryxylem consists of xylem tracheids, vessels and parenchyma. Uniseriatemedullary
rays containingstarch grains are very prominent. Medullaryrays extend into phloem as phloem
rays. In this region ray cells are larger and contain calcium crystals. Primary Xylem is
conspicuous towards the pith. Pith cells are thin walled and have inter cellular spaces.
Root (Fig. 112)

In T.S. root is circular in outline. The cork tissue is composed of 6-13 rows of tangentially
elongated, narrow, rectangular thin walled cells. Peripheral rows are dark brown while inner
rows are brownish in colour. Broad wedges sometimes extend into innermost rows, cutting
up the cork tissue into a numberoftruncate pyramidalprojection.Phellogenis not very distinct.
Phelloderm consists of 3-4 layers of broadly rectangular tangentially elongated, thin walled
cells. In between the peridermand wood a large zone consisting of polygonal cells is evident.
Outer 10-13 layers are comparativelylarge, thin walled without any inclusions or mechanical
cells. Inner to this is a large zone of phtoem in which transverse strips of chlorenchymaare
seen. In the inner bast portion the schlerenchymastrips are arranged in somewhatconcentric
rings and are broken at intervals by medullary rays. Cambium is distinct and consists of two
layers of tangentially elongated cells. Xylem consists of vessels, parenchyma and feebly
developed schlerenchymawhich appear as small concentrically arranged patches near the
xylem parenchyma. Medullary rays are both uniseriate and multiseriate. Most of them extend
up to the bark. Ray cellsare rectangular, radially elongatedwith thick pitted walls and without
any inclusions. The cells in the distal portion of the rays are thinwalled larger and tangentially
elongated. In the centre, there is a pith composed of round thick walled cells.
Rachis (Fig.113)
is somewhatoval in outline with a shallow groove on the upper side. Epidermis
is single layered with unicellular hairs. Below the epidermis 3-4 layers are colle.nchymatous,
followed by a zone of chlorenchyma.In between phloem and parenchyma,small patches of
schlerenchyma are seen. Vascular tissue is seen as continuous ring after secondary
thickening. In the centre, large parenchymatouspith is seen.
In T.S. rachis
276
Petiolule (Fig. 113)

In T.S. petiolule is oval in shape with a shallow groove on the adaxial side. Epidermis is single
layered with unicellular hairs. Below the epidermis 4-5 layers are collenchymatous.Beneath
these layers3-4layersof parenchymatous patchesare seen. Secondaryphloem and secondary
xylem are seen in continuous ring. In the centre large parenchymatouspith is present.
Lamina (Fig. 114)

In T.S. lamina showscommondicotyledonous characters.Epidermisis single layered overlined
by a thick deposit of cuticle. This is followed by single layered palisade tissue on the upper
side. Spongytissue is multilayeredwith intercellular spaces. In the mid-rib region epidermis is
followed by 2-3 layers of collenchyma. Rest of the cells are parenchymatous. In the upper
portion 5-7 layers are chlorenchymatous. Vascular bundle is collateral. Stomata are of
Ranunculaceoustype.
Stomatal index, palisade ratio and vein-islet numberare 20.66, 5.51 and2.04 respectively.
Powder Microscopy(Fig. 115)

Part studied
Fluorescence :
Root
Yellowishgreen

Part studied
Colour
Moisture
Root
Brown
4.7%
TLC Data
Hexane extract
Colour
Lightyellow
Dichlomethaneextract
Colour
:
Orange brown
Methanolextract
Colour
Brown
277
278

The roots are astringent, bitter, and are useful in curing fever, cough, diarrhoea, anorexia and
rheumatism(Warner et al, 1995; Kurup et al, 1979; Narayana lyer and Kolammal, 1978). It is
digestive, cooling, aphrodisiac and anthelmintic (Warner et at, 1995; Narayana iyer and
Kolammal,1978), carminative,diuretic, diaphoretic (kurup et at, 1979and Warner et al, 1995)
and useful in vomiting, leucoderma, skin diseases (Narayana lyer et al, 1978), abdominal
pains, thirst, piles, respiratorydisorders, urinogenitaldisorders and as purgative (Kurup et at,
1979). The roots are sweet, acrid, anti-inflammatory,anodyne, expectorant, anti arthritic and
tonic. They are useful in dropsy, sprains, neuralgia, hiccough, asthma, bronchitis, dyspepsia,
flatulance, colic, strangury, gout, wounds and rheumatoid arthritis. The leaves are stomachic
and anodyne and are useful in stomachalgia,flatulance, cephalalgia, ulcers, splenomegaly.
The tenderfruits are expectorantcarminative and stomachicand are useful in cough, bronchitis,
dyspepsia, flatulance, cephalalgia, ulcers, splenomegaly. The tender fruits are expectorant
carminative and stomachic and are useful in cough, bronchitis, dyspepsia, flatutance and
leucoderma.The mature fruits are acrid, sweet, anthelminticand stomachic. They are useful
in pharyngodynia,cardiacdisorders,helminthiasis,gastropathy,bronchitis and haemorrhoids.
The seeds are purgative (Warner et al, 1995). The tender fruits are astringent, sweet, light,
promotestaste and digestive fire and destroys piles and worms (Narayana lyer et al, 1978).
Young shoots and unripe fruits are also used in vegetables. Stem bark and fruitsare employed
as mordants in tanning and dyeing industries (Krishnamurthy, 1993). The root bark is also
useful in troubles of bile, cough, dropsy, diarrhoeaand dysentery (Sarin, 1996).

Seeds are used for propagation.When the fruits ripen, dehiscence starts along their sutures.
The fruitswere collected at thatstage and kept in polybags and exposed to sun. Within two to
three days, the fruits dehisce, liberating the thin winged seeds. These seeds were stored in
airtight containers.Theywere sown in nurserybeds whichwere regularlywateredand partially
shaded. Germination commenced on the 8th day and completedwithin 20 days. The percentage
of germination was around 87. 4-leaved seedlingswere transplanted into containers.
After two months, the seedlings were planted out in the field. They can be cultivated either as
pure crop or as intercrop in between Aegle marmelosor Premna serratifolia. 30 x 30 x 30 cms
pits were filled with green manure and cowdung and covered with top soil. Other than initial
weeding, no cultual operations were required. Four year old plants can be used as excellent
support for pepper vine. Harvesting can be done from sixth year onwards.
Oroxylum indicum(L.) Vent. (Bignoniaceae)
QIIfflQIS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
6.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
ThiruvananthapUram
Kollam
Pathanaflithitta
Atappuzha
Kottayam
ldukki
Ervakulam
Triseur
Palakkad
Malappuram
Koohikode
Wayenad
Kenvur
KasargOds
LQQALWE
Dho. Dhonl
fry. lrytty
Kay. Kannoth
Kall. KanhiraappUZha
Nil. Nilambur
Pal. Peleppilly
Pal. Pettlkked
a
0
FORESTTYPES
Wet evergreen
Semievergreen
Moistdeciduous
Drydeciduous
Shola
Plane
Scale:
1:9,00,000(lcm9km)
Fig. 107: Oroxylum indicum: Distribution in Kerala
279
280
4-
I
-o
'A
281
Plate 49: Oroxylum indicum:

Fruits
in
a)
sympodial branches b) Flower buds and fruits
c) Trees employed as support for pepper vine d) Seedlings ready for planting out
Fig. 108: (a-c) Oroxylum indicum: Habit

a) A twig with fruits b) Inflorescence c) Root
282
283
01
E
C.)
'"
(%J
ti
C)
g
e
Fig. 109: (a-h) Oroxylum indicum: Flower

a) Flower bud b) Single flower c) Calyx d) Corolla tube opened
e) Single stamen f) Gynoecium g) Ovary C.S. h) Flower L.S.
C: Calyx; Go: Corolla; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; St: Stamen Sti : Stigma; Sty: Style
284
V S
Iti
Sty
M.V.S.
A
b
R.B
V.B
VS
P.B
d
C
Fig. 110: (a-d) Oroxylumindicum: Floral vasculature

a) Calyx split opened b) Corolla split opened C) Stamen d) Gynoecium
A: Anther lobe; D.b: Dorsal bundle; F.: Filament; M.v.s.: Main vascular supply;
0: Ovary; P.B.: Peripheral bundle; Sti.: Stigma; Sty.: Style; V.s.: Vascular supply
285
Fig. 111: (a-c) Oroxylum indicum:
a) T.S. of stem-diagrammatic b & c) A portion of stem-enlarged

C: Cambium; Chl: Chiorenchyma; Ck: Cork; Cr: Calcium oxalate crystal;
M.: Medullary ray; P.: Pith; P.Xy.: Primary xylem; S.: Starch grain; SchI: Schiereids;
S.Ph: Secondary phloem; S.Xy: Secondary xylem
286
Ck
Phel
ar
Ph
C
Xy.V
xy.P
a
Fig. 112: (a&b) Oroxylum indicum:
a) T.S. of root-diagrammatic b) A portion of root-enlarged

C) Cambium; Ck: Cork; M: Medullaryray; P: Pith; Par: Parenchymacell; Ph: Phloem;
Phel: Phelloderm; SchI: Schlerenchyma; T: Trachied; Xy: Xylem
Xy.p: Xylem parenchyma; Xy.v: Xylem vessel
287
0j
Fig. 113: (a-d) Oroxylum indicum:

T.S.
of
rachis-diagrammatic b) A portion of rachis enlarged
a)
c) T.S of petiolule-diagrammatic d) A portion of petiolule enlarged
Col: Collenchyma; ChI: Chiorenchyma; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair; P: Pith;
Par: Parenchyma; Ph: Phloem; Schie: Schiereids; Xy: Xylem
Fig.114: (a-e) Oroxylum indicum:

a) T.S of lamina through midrib-diagrammatic b) Midrib portion-enlarged
c) Lamina portion-enlarged d) Upper epidermis e) Lower epidermis
Chi: Chlorenchyma; Col: Collenchyma; Cu: cuticle; Epi.c: Epidermal cell; H: Hair;
L.epi: Lower epidermis; Pal: Palisade cell; Ph: phloem; Sp: Spongy cells;
St: Stomata; Xy: Xylem
288
Omxyium indicum(L.) Vent. (Bignoniaceae)
289
0.1 mm
0.25mm
.4
vi
vjjj
Fig. 115: (i-viii) Powder microscopyof Oroxylum indicum:

Branched
fiber ii) Raphideparticles iii) Pitted vessel iv) Parenchyma
i)
v) Rhomboidcrystals vi) Schlerenchyma vii) Trachieds viii) Periderm cells
CHAPTER 16
Plumbago indica Linn.

(Plumbaginaceae)
Plumbago indica Linn. (Plumbaginaceae)
293
16
FLUMBAGOINDICALFNN.
(Plumbaginaceae)
Plumbago indica L. in stickman, Herb. Amboin in 24-1754, P. rosea L., sp.pl.ed.2. : 215.1762
nom.illeg.; P. coccinia Salisb., Prodr. 122.1796nom.illeg.
English
Hindi
Malayalam
Tamil
Rosy-floweredleadwort, Fire plant

Laichitra, Raktachitra
Koduveli,Chethikkoduveli,Chuvannakoduveli
Senkotiveli, Chithramulam

This species (Plate50)is distributedthroughoutpeninsularand eastern India in moist locations.
It is cultivated in these areas. In Kerala region of Western Ghats, it occurs in Kannoth of
Kannur district, Nilambur of Malappuramdistrict, Peechi of Thrissur district, Nellimukal and
Adoor of Pathanamthittadistrict, PulimathofThiruvananthapuram districtand Marayurof ldukki
district.
Formulations
The root is employed in overhundred preparations.Some ofthem are: Ayaskrithi,Aswagandharishta,
Kumaryasava, Chithrakasava, Chavikasava, Danthyarishta, Dasamoolarishta, Duralabharishta,
Pippalyasava, Poothinkaranjasava, Mustharishta, Mridweekarishta,Roheethakarishta, Lodhrasava,
Lohasava, Viswamritham, Sreekhandasava, Gandharvahasthyadi castoroil, Thrithriphaladi castor
oil, Thrithriphaladi taila, Nagaradi taila, Prabhanjana vimardanam kuzhambu, Mahamasha taila,
malathyadi taila, Vajrakataila, Amrithadasamooladi kashaya, Aragwadhadi kashaya, Indukantham
kashaya, Gandharvahasthyadi kashaya, Gulguluthikthakam kashaya, Dasamoola baladi kwatha,
Dasamoola panchakoladi kashaya, Deepyakadi kashaya, Panchakolam kashaya, Manjishtadi
kashaya, Musthakaranjadi kashaya, Lesuna barbaradi kashaya, Varanadi kashaya, Varadi kashaya,
Kankayana gudika, Kaivishaparihari gudika, Navayasam gudika, Nirgundyadi gudika,
Patupanchakadi gudika, Bhukthamanjari gudika, Mandoora vadakam, Yogaraja gulgulu vatika,

Swethagunjadigudika, Hinguwadigudika, Chandraprobhagudika,Ardraka ghritha, Indukanthaghritha,
Khadirasaradi ghritha, Gulguluthikthakaghritha, Grahanyanthaka ghritha, Chargeryadi ghritha,
Dadimadi ghritha, Dadhikaghritha, Mahabhootharava ghritha, Maha shatpala ghritha, Rohithaka
ghritha, Lasuna ghritha, Varanadi ghritha, Shatpala ghritha, Sarvamayanthaka ghritha, Sooranadi
ghritha, Hingupadighritha, Ajayuyadi choorna, Kapithashtakachoorna, Deepyakadichoorna,
294
Navayasachoorna, Kalakachoorna,Narachaka choorna (big), Panchakota choorna,Yogaraja
choorna, Vaiswanara choorna, Hinguvachadi choorna, Huthabhugadi choorna,
Kalyanakakshara,Agasthya rasayanam, Kalyana gula, Chinchadi leha (big), Chitraka leha,

Dantheehareethakjleha, Narasimha rasayana, puli leha, Punarnava mandoora, Madhusnuhi
rasayana(small), Madhusnuhi rasayana(big), Mahavilwadi leha,Vasishta rasayana, Vyaghryadi
leha, Sooranadileha, Nimbamrjthasavam,Dhanadanayanadikashayam,Brahmeedrakshadi
kashyam, Shaddharanachoornam (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Roots
Description (Plate 50; Figs. 117 & 118)

A perennial pretty scandentshrub, 1.11,4 m high, stems woody, straight with flexible branches;
leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate,entire, membraneous, wavy, short, cuneate at the base
passing into a very short amplexicaul,auriculate, red petiole;roots long, cylindrical, rigid, bent
or curved, fairly stout, 1-2 cm. thick, 120-1 8Gcm. long. Lateral branches few, light yellowish
brown externally,reddish white internally;flowers scarlet or bright red coloured in
longterminal
spikes, bracts and bracteoles ovate, nearly equal in size, much shorter than the calyx; calyx
greenish red, sub-sessile,shortcylindric, acutelyfive toothed,five ribbed,coveredwith stipitate,

bifarious and sub-sessile glands; corolla scarlet, corolla tube slender, much longer than the
calyx 5-lobed, stamens five, filaments united at the base forming a nectariferous disc
surroundingthe ovary, anthers linear, two-cleftat the base, ovary superior,ovate, single-celled
and single-ovuled, style filiform, hairy with five stigmatic branches bearing many rows of
glands.

Calyx
From a basal circularvascular strands-complexof the calyx, five bundles supply each lobe of
the calyx. The three central ones run parallel and supply the mid portion, whereas the two
peripheral ones supply the glandular hairs; of the three median strands, the central one runs
up to the tip of the calyx lobe, whereas the two side ones get united with the vascular strands
supplyingthe glands at region below the tip ofthe calyx lobe.
Corolla
Fifteenvascular strands run through the corolla tube, three supplyingeach lobe of the corolla.
In each lQbe the central vascular strand is thick and prominent and the two laterals are very
thin.
Stamen
In each stamen, a single vascular strand runs through the filament and ends in the
connective.
295
Pistil
The ovary wall is supplied with five prominentvascularstrands which remain unbranched until
belowthe regionofthestigmaticlobes, whereall ofthembifurcate. Ofthe bifurcations, one supplies
the stigmaticlobewhereas the otherstopsat the region ofthe baseofthe lobe,ofthefive vascular
strands supplying the ovary wall, a branchofone supplies the solitary ovule.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig. 120)
The transverse section reveals the following organization of tissues.
The single layered epidermis is outlined by a thick layer of cuticle.
The cortex comprises collenchyma, schierenchymaand chlorenchyma. The

cortex is dilimited by a continuous schlerenchymatousring of two to three
layers. The chlorenchyma region is seen as isolated patches surrounded by
collenchyma as well as schlerenchyma.
Phloem, cambium and xylem regions are very distinct.
Wood region is composed of alternate bands of tracheids and vessels with
multiseriate medullary rays.
The centre is occupied by a large parenchymatouspith.
Root (Fig. 120)

The T.S. of root is nearly circularin outline with 5-6 layered cork tissue consisting of cubical to
rectangular cells with their walls light yellow to yellowish brown in colour. A verywide cortex
consisting of cells with yellowish brown content forms the major part of the root. The greater
part of the cortex consists of thin walled rounded, polygonal tangentially elongate cells with
well defined intercellular space. The cells arenormally deviod ofstarch grains. The innermost
rows of cortical cells are nearly regualr and rounded. There is no cleardemarcation between
the cortex and bast. The phloem parenchymacells arevery small, thin walled and polygonal.
Most of the cells have yellow contents. No mechanical elements are seen in the bast. The
cambiumconsists of one or two layers. The xylem vessels are arranged mostly in single file
in radial rows and are surrounded by mechanical cells. The medullary rays are multiseriate.
The root is triarch and protostelic.
Leaf (Fig. 121)

T.S. of leaf reveals usual dicotyledonouscharacters. Unicellular hairs mainly confined to the
midrib region are present on both lower and upper epidermis. Stomata are of cruciferous
type. Mesophyllconsists of 2 layered palisade and multilayeredspongy tissue. Six to seven
scattered vascular bundles of the midrib region arestrengthened by collenchymatousgirdles
on the adaxial surface.
296
The T.S. of petiole is shield shaped and is providedwith a single layered epidermis devoid of
any trichomes. Interior to the epidermis are the 3-4 layers of collenchyma followed by 10-12
layers of parenchymawith plenty of intercellular spaces. The vascular bundles in the petiole
are many and scattered.
The stomatal index is 16.7, the palisade ratio is 5.6 and the vein-islet number is 1.49.
Part studied
Fluorescence
Root
Reddishyellow

Part studied
Colour
Root
Moisture
10.0%
Dark brown
TLC Data
Hexane extract
Colour
yellow
297
Colour
:
yellow
Methanolextract
Colour
Brown

The roots are acrid, astringent, theromgenic, anthelmintic, digestive, gastric, sudorific and it
is useful in fever, cough, worms, leucoderma, dyspepsia, skin diseases, scabies, vitiated
conditions of vata, pitta, and kapha and anaemia (Warner et al, 1995; Narayana lyer and
Kolammal, 1960). It is narcotic, carminative,antiperiodic, nervous stimulant and rejuvenating
and is useful in colic, inflammations, bronchitis, helminthiasis, haemorrhoids,elephantiasis,
hepatosplenomegaly, amenorrhoea, odontalgia (Warner et al, 1995), piles, diabetes and
diarrhoea (NarayanaIyer et al, 1960).
298
Propagation (Plates 50 & 51)

Stem cuttings are used for propagation. They were obtained at the time of harvest of the
roots. Three noded cuttings were selected, the leaves at the lower two nodes were severed
and the lowest nodewas burned in the pottingmixture containedin polythenebags. 2-4 cuttings
were planted in each container. The bags were kept in shade and regularly watered. The
sprouting commenced within a week's time. One month old rooted cuttings were used for
outplanting. Direct planting in the field was also done with fresh cuttings. In this case, there
was up to 30% casuality. Root cuttings of 3 cm length when planted in containers sprouted to
form seedlings from the margin of the upper cut ends.
The beds in the field for planting should be prepared before onset of monsoon by digging pits
or ploughing the ground. Rooted or fresh cuttings can be planted at an espacement of 15-30
cms in this bed. Cuttings can be planted on mounds also. 3-4 cuttings can be planted in each
mound. No watering is needed if the plantingis done at the onset of monsoon.Weedingshould
be done regularly. Chemicals in the roots cause burns on the hand at the time of harvesting.
Hence precaution shoud be taken by using glouse or by applying cocont oil on the hand. After
harvesting,the roots should be thoroughly washed in clear lime water which will turn red after
some time. This is an economically viable species for cultivtion (Plate 52) as undercrop in
plantation of commercial plantations like rubber.
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Thiruvananthapuram
KoIIam
Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
Idukki
Emakulam
Trissur
Palakkad
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
LOCALITIES
Ado. Adoor
Chi. Chinnar
Ira. Iranikulam
Kan. Kannoth
Mal. Mata
Nil. Nilambur
Pee. Peechi
______ FOREST TYPES
II!IIIII!tI Wet
evergreen
I::::::::::I
IllIUhlIllIllIll
1+++ +++
1+++++++
Semievergreen
Moistdeciduous
Dry deciduous
Shola
Plane
Scale:
1:9,00,000 (1cm = 9km)
Fig. 116: Plumbagoindica: Distribution
299
Fig. 117: (a-c) Plumbago indica:

a) A flowering twig b) Single flower c) Useful part: root
300
301
Plumbago indicaLinn. (Plumbaginaceae)
ti
ty
ti
ty
Fig. 118 : (a-f) Plumbagoindica:

a) Calyx b) Corolla tube split opened c) Stamen d) Gynoecium e) Ovary C.S.
f) Flower L.S.
0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petal; 5: Sepal; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
302
E
0
E
0
Fig. 119: (a-d) Plumbago indica: Floral vasculature

a) Corolla tube split opened b) Stamen c) Gynoecium d) Calyx lobe
A: Anther lobe; C: Calyx lobe; F: Filament; G.H: Glandular hair; 0:
Ovary; Ov: Ovule;
P: Petal; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style; V.s: Vascular supply
Piumbago indica Linn. (P1umbaginaceae)
Plate 50: Plumbagoindica:

Branches
with flowers b) Cultivated plants
a)
303
304
$
E
0
.Ph
..Xy
Fig. 120: (a-d) Plumbago indica:

T.S
of
a)
stem-diagrammatic b) A portion-enlarged C) T.S of root-diagrammatic
d) A portion-enlarged
C: Cambium; Chl: Chiorenchyma; Ck: Cork; Col: Collenchyma; Epi: Epidermis;
M: Medullary ray; P: Pith; P.xy: Primary xylem; S.cor: Secondary cortex;
SchI.: Schlerenchyma; S.ph: Secondary phloem; S.xy: Secondary xylem
305
L.
Fig. 121: (a-h) Plumbagoindica:
a) Petiole-diagrammatic b) DetailedT.S of petiole showing epidermis and cortex

c) T.S of leafthrough midrib-diagrammatic d) Detailed T.S of lamina
e) Upper portion of midrib-cellular; f) Lower portion of midrib-cellular
g) Upper epidermis h) Lower epidermis
C: Cambium; Col: Collenchyma; Epi: Epidermis; Epi.c: Epidermal cell; H: Hair;
L.epi: Lower epidenrmis; Par: parenchyma; Pal: Palisade; Ph: Phloem;
S.c.: Subsidiary cell; Sp: Spongy cells; St: Stomata; U.epi: Upper epidermis;
V.b.: Vascularbundle; Xy.: Xylem
Plate 51: Plumbagoindica:

from
a) Propagules
cutting b) Harvestedroot c) Semi processed root
306
Plumbago indicaLinn. (Plumbaginaceae)
Plate 52: Plumbagoindica: Underplantingin rubber plantation
307
308
vi
/
II
VII
''I
iv
Fig. 122: (i-vu) Powdermicroscopyof plumbago indica:

Fiber
I)
ii) Xylem vessels iii) Medullary ray cells iv) Parenchyma cells v) Tracheids
vi) Cork cells vii) Colour containing cells
CHAPTER 17
Rotula aquatica Lour.

(Boraginaceae)
311
Rotulaaquatica Lour. (Boraginaceae)
17
ROTULAAQUATICA LOURS
(Boraginaceae)
Rotula aquatica Lour., Fl. Cochinch. 121. 1790; Robins. In philipp. J.Sc. IV. 693. Rhabdia
Iycioidessensu Clarke in F.B.I. IV. liv 145, 1883 (non Mart.) Ehretia cuneataWt. IC. t. 1385.
Malayalam
Kallurvanchi
Sanskrit
Pashanabhedah
Tamil
Seppuneringi

This small shrub (Plate 53) is scattered throughout peninsular and eastern India in the sandy
and rocky beds of streams and rivers. In Kerala region of Western Ghats, the plant occurs
attached to rocks along runningwaters in Parappa, Payyanur, Kannoth, Mattanurand Aralam
of Kannur district, Vazhachal, Chalakkudy and Athirappilly of Thrissur district, Mukkali,
Parambikulam, Poovancholaand Bhavaniriver of Pallakaddistrict, NilamburandNedumkayam
of Malappuram district, Cheruthoni,Pooyamkuttyand Panamkuttyof ldukki district, Adukkalam
of Kottayam district, Mannarapparaand Ranni of Pathanamthittadistrict, PeruntenaruviKollam
and Achankovil of Kollam district and Bottuvara of Ernakulam district.
Formulations
The roots are important constituents in about 10 preparations like Poothikaranjasava,
Matsyakshyadi kashaya, Veeratharadi Kashaya,Vrikshadanyadi Kashaya, Dadhika ghritha,
Vasthyamayanthakaghritha,Varahyadi ghritha(big), Veeratharadighritha (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Roots
Description (Plates 53 & 54; Figs.124 & 125)

A small branchedvillous shrub growing up to 150 cm in heightwith numerousshort branchlets
often producing adventitious roots which help in the vegetative propagation; leaves small,
simple, alternate, obtuse, short-petioled, spathulate,tomentose beneath; flowers pink, short
pedicellate,single or 3-4, producedat the tip ofthe lateral branchlets;calyx 5-partite, united at
the base, hairy, lobes lanceolate, imbricate; corolla gamopetalous,five partite; stamens five,
312
epipetalous; ovary ovoid, 4-celled with one ovule in each chamber, style
long, thin, stigma
capitate; fruits sub-globose, orange red drupes.

Calyx
Each calyx lobe is supplied with a single vascular strand which branches into three
right from
the base. Each brach again braches irregularly and
rejoin to form a network throughout the
lobe.
Corolla
Each corolla lobe is supplied with a single vascular bundle. Two lateral branches arise from it
at different levels near the base. Again these lateral branches
get dichotomously branched.
The middle one traverses through the centre and simply get branched
only at the tip.
Stamen
A single vascular strand enters into each stamen. Each bundle divides intotwo. The inner one
forms the ventral bundle and supplies the ovules. The outer branch passes
through the ovary
wall and enter intothe stigma through the style without any
branching.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig. 127)
The important anatomical features of the stem are as follows:
The outermost zone is cork consisting of 4-6 layers of rectangular cells, of

which the innermost 2-3 layers contain a yellow pigment
The narrow zone of secondary cortex consists of polygonal cells
containing
starch grains and druses
Small groups of stone cells are distinctly seen above the phloem. The
phloem
bells are thick walled and contain yellow pigment
Cambium is two layered
Xylem consists of vessels with small lumen, fibres and parenchyma
Med ullary rays are uniseriate and these cells and pith cells contain abundant
starch grains
Root (Fig. 127)

Cork consisting of 8-10 layers of tangentially elongated cells, two
layered phellogen,
prosenchymatouscortex, 2-4 layered cambiumand predominantwood are the characteristic
parts of the root.
313
Petiole (Fig. 128)

In T.S the petiole is somewhatheart shapedwith a broad c-shapedvascular bundle. Epidermis
is single layered with unicellular trichomes. Cortex is composed of prosenchymatouscells.
Some of these cells contain druses.
Lamina (Fig. 128)

Epidermis is single layered provided with unicellular trichomes. Mesophyll consists of 2-3
layered palisadetissue and multilayeredspongytissue. Palisadeextends to the midrib portion.

The midrib vascular bundle has distinct patch of phloem fibers on the adaxial side. The cells
around the veinlets are uniformly large and devoid of chloroplasts. Cystoliths and druses are
very prominent and seen throughout the leaf. Stomataare of Ranunculaceoustype.
The stomatal index is 13.08 (lowerepidermis) 12.58 (upper epidermis, Palisade ratio 5.11 and
vein-islet number 6.4.
Powder Microscopy(Fig. 129)

Part studied
Fluorescence
Root
Yellowishred
Chemical characteristics and properfies

Plant part
Colour
Moisture
Root
yellowish brown
:
10%

TLC Data
Hexane extract
Colour
Light yellow
Colour
Yellow (UV golden yellow at 254 nm; Yellowishwhite at 366 nm)
Methanolextract
Colour
Dark brown (UV black at 254 nm; Yellowish brown at 366 nm)
314
Rotula aquatica Lour. (Boraginaceae)
315

The roots are bitter, astringent, cooling, diuretic and laxative and are useful in haemorrhoids,
renal and vesical calculi, diabetes and venereal diseases (Warner et al, 1996).

It was found that propagation by seed as well as vegetative means were possible. The seeds
are very small and should be carefully collected from mature fruits when they are orange red
in colour(Plate. 54c). After repeatedwashings, seeds were dried in shadefortwo days. These
seeds were sown in pots filled with sand or on sterilised sponge. Regularwatering was found
to be essentialfor germination.Germination commenced from 6th dayonwards and completed
in 16 days. The percentage of germination was around 67. Four leaved seedlings were
transplantedinto polythene bags containingpotting mixture (Plate.55c). the survivalpercentage
was, however,30 only.
The stem cuttings made in summer (i.e., in the months of April-May)gave better results. Four
noded cuttings of 15 cm length were used for propagation.Cuttings were planted directly in
polythene bags containing potting mixture and kept undershade. Regular watering was found
to be essential.
In nature new plants were found to arise from horizontalbrancheswhich producedadventitious
roots at the region of contact with the soil (Plate 55a):
The roots of two year old plants were collected, washed thoroughly, cut into 2.5 cm long
pieces, dried in the shade for two weeks and stored in gunny bag (Plate 55b, d).
316
c'j
cj
4-
0
c)
L()
Cu
Plate 54: Rotula aquatica:

a) Natural growth on river bank b) A branch with flower C) A branch with fruits
d) Seedlings in containers ready for planting out
317
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
Thfruvanwfr%apur
Kolam
3.
Pathanamthltta
4.
Alappuzha
Kottayapi
5.
6.
7.
6.
Idukki
Emakulam
Trlasur
Palakkad
Malappuvam
KOZhIkOde
Wayanad
tram
9.
10.
11.
12.
13. Kannur
14. Kasargoda
LOCALITIES
Mn. Achankovil
Mu. Mukkam
Art Arelam
Bha. Bhavani
Sho. Bhotuvara
CR. Chalakkudy
Ken. Kannoth
Kol. Kolam
Mat. Mattannur
Muk. Mukkali
Ned. Nedumgayem
Nil. Nuambur
Par. Parambikulam
Pay. Peyyavoor
per. Penjnthananavt
Poonthota
Pan. Poovanchefl
Pay. Pooyan4wtty
Ran. Renni
Vazhachal
po
Va
n
II
II
FORSflflPES
Wetevergreen
Seodevergreen
B Motetdeddumm
Thydedduoue
L.J
0
Shule
Pane
SSe:
1:9,00,000(lan =9km)
Fig. 123: Rotula aquatica: Distribution in Kerala
318
319
Fig. 124: Rotula aquatica:

a) Habit b) Root
Some ImportantMedicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India A Profile
320
E
E
c..1
E
E
L()
Fig.125: (a-g) Rotula aquatica:

a) Single flower b) Bracts c) Calyx d) Gynoecium e) Ovary c.s.
f) Corolla with stamens g) Flower L.S
C: Calyx;
0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule;
P: Petal; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
321
E
E
a
E
v.s
d
C
Fig. 126: (a-d) Rotula aquatica: Floral vasculature

a) Calyx lobe b) Corolla lobe C) Stamen d) Gynoecium
A: Anther lobe; F: Filament; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; Sti: Stigma
Sty: Style; V.s: Vascular supply
322
Fig. 127: (a-d) Rotula aquatica:

a) T.S of stem-diagrammatic b) A portion of stem-enlarged
c) T.S of Root-diagrammatic d) A Portion of root-enlarged
C: Cambium; Ck: Cork; 0: Druses; M: Medullary ray; P: Pith; Phe.: Phellogen;
P.xy: Primary xylem; S.cor: Secondary cortex; S.ph: Secondary phloem; St.c: Stone cell;
St.g: Starch grain; S.xy: Secondary xylem
323
Fig. 128: (a-g) Rotula aquatica:
a) T.S. of petiole-diagrammatic b) A portion of petiole-cellular

c) T.S of leaf through midrib-diagrammatic d) Detailed T.S of lamina
e) Detailed T.S of midrib f) Lower epidermis g) Upper epidermis
Cor: Cortex; D: Druses; Epi: Epidermis; Epi.c: Epidermal cells; H: Hair;
L.epi: Lowerepidermis; Ph: Phloem; Par: Parenchyma; Pal: Palisade; St: Stomata
Stl: Systolith; U.epi: Upper epidermis; V.b: Vascular bundle; Xy: Xylem
324
vii
iv
000
O0O
O00
0
VIII
II
Fig. 129: (i-viii) Powdermicroscopyof Rotula aquatica:

vessels
i) Xylem
ii) Fiber iii) Medullary ray cells iv) Tracheids v) Starch grains
vi) Colour containing cells vii) Parenchymacell viii) Cork cells
Plate 55: Rotula aquatica:
a) Rooting of branches in nature b) Harvested root
c) Seedlings in germination tray d) Semi processed roots
325
a-
CHAPTER 18
Rubia cordifolia Linn.
(Rubiaceae)
Rubia cordifolia Linri. (Rubiaceae)
329
18
RUBIA CORDIFOLIA LINN.
(Rubiaceae)
Rubia cordifolia Linn. Maut. 1997; Hook.f., Fl. Brit. India 202. 1881; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras
655.1921. R. munjista Roxb., Fl, md. 1:383. 1820; 25., IC. t. 187. 1839.
English
Hindi
Kannada
Indian madder
Malayalam
Manjith, Majith
Manjusta,Cittavalli
Manjatti, Sivolikkodi
Sanskrit
Tamil
Manjishta,Yoganavalli
Sevvelli,Manjitti

Rubia cordifolia (Plate 56)is distributed in hilly tracts of India upto 3.750m. In Kerala region of
WesternGhats, it is seen in kattappana, Thekkadito Kumali, Peermedu, Kadalar,Kozhikkanam
and Munnar of Idukki district Parambikulam, ChimminyNelliampathyand Kaikattyof Palakkad
district. In Vazhahal of Thrissur District, Kodanchery of Kozhikode District and Lakkidi,
Kuppachi, Pambra Estate of Wynad District.
Formulations
An essential raw drug used in more than 60 preparations like Aswagandharishtam,
Useerasavam, Chavikasavam, Dasamoolarishtam, Dhanwanthararishtam, Cheriya
Arimedastailam,Kumkumaditailam, Manjishtaditailam, etc. (lyer. 1983).
Officinal parts
Stolons and roots
Description (Plates 56 & 57 Fig. 131)

Perennial, prickly or scabrous, climbing herb. Stems slender, rough, four angled with sharp
recurved prickles on the ridges. Leaves very variable, 2-8 in whorl, often only four, cordate-
ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 5-7 nerved, scabrous above, base slightly cordate, petiole very
long, provided with long, sharp recurved prickleson the ridges. Stipules absent. Flowersvery
small, white, greenish,yellowish or reddish,sweet scented,terminal panicled glabrouscymes,
330
bracteolate, pedicels articulate below the ovary, calyx tube globose without limbs. Corolla
rotate,five lobed, valvate, stamens five, alternatewith the corolla lobes,filaments short,anthers
oblong. Ovary inferior, 2 celled with single ovule in each cell on axile, placentation. Styles-2,
stigmas capitate. Fruit small, smooth, fleshy, 2 celled or globose by the suppression of one
carpel, purplish black when ripe. Seeds 1-2, small suberect, adnate to the pericarp. Stolon
reddish brown and cylindricalwith nodes and internodes.Root long. cylindric,flexuose, smooth,
reddish.

Calyx
Five vascular strands enter into the calyx tube and each of these immediatelydivide into two.
Henceten vascular strands are seen in the calyx tube. Of these the peripheral branchof each
strand supplies the calyx tube, white the inner branch traverses through the calyx tube and
enters intothe corolla.
Corolla
Corolla is gamopetalous and five lobed. Each lobe is supplied with a single strand which gets
branchedfrom the base into three. The middle one traverses through the entire length, white
the side branches reach nearabout the tip.
Stamen
Stamens five, epipetalous and alternate with corolla lobes. Each stamen is supplied with a
single unbranched vascular strand. At the region of the connective this strand gets branched
and they supply the anther lobes.
Pistil
The ovary is bicarpallery syncarpouswith 2 ovules on axile placentation.Two vascular strands
enter into the ovary. They traverse through the ovary wall and get divided into two near the
style. The inner branch supplies the ovules and the other one supplies the stigma passing
through the style.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig. 133)
In T.S. stem is somewhat rectangular in outline. Epidermis is single layered with thin cuticle
and possesses pyramidal hair. At the region of the corners, below the epidermis 4-6 layers
are schierenchymatous.Cortex is chtorenchymatousand the cells are thin walled, polygonal
and elongated. The phloem region is very conspicuous, and consists of 4-6 layers. Cambial
ring is distinctly two layered. In the scondary xylem, vessels are of large lumen. Medullary
rays are uniseriate and extent towards the phloem. Primary xylem is very prominent. Pith is
large and chiorenchymatous.
RubiacordifoliaLinn. (Rubiaceae)
331
Stolon (Fig. 134)

In crosssection stolon is circular in outline. Cork consistsof6-8layers of tangentiallyelongated
thick walled cells. Some of the cells in inner layer contain tannin. Inner to this, 12-14 layers
form the secondary cortex. Cortical cells are prosenchymatous.Some cells contain tannin.
Phloemcells arethick walled and are devoid of any inclusions. 2-3 layers of cambial cellsare
distinct. Secondaryxylem consists ofmany xylem vesselsand tracheids. Uniseriate medullary
rays are conspicuous. Primary xylem is seen towards the pith region. Pith consists of thin
walled parenchyma.
Root (Fig. 134)

In T.S., root is circular in outline. Outer 5-7 layers of cells form the cork tissue, occasionally
containingtannin. Phellogen is not very distinct. Secondary cortical cells are thin walled and
polygonal in shape. Many of these cells containtannin. Phloemcells arethinwalled and some
of them contain tannin. 2-3 layered cambium is distinct. Secondary xylem consists of vessels
and tracheids. Medullary rays are not distinct. Primary xylem is triarch.
Petiole (Fig. 135)

In T.S., petiole is 'V' shaped with a median groove. Epidermisis single layered having pyramidal
hairs. Below the epidermis at the lobes and base, 3-4 layers are schlerenchymatous.The
cortical cells are thin walled, elongated and polygonal and contain chlorenchyma. Vascular
bundle is broad 'C' - shaped.
Leaf (Fig. 135)
In T.S., the leaf shows common dicotyledonous characters. Epidermis is single layered and
possessespyramidalhairs. Mesophyllconsistsofsingle layered palisadeand loosely arranged

spongycells. In the lowerportionofthe midrib 2-4 layersarecollenchymatous.Vascularbundle
is collateral and closed. Stomata are of Rubiaceoustype.
The stomatal index, vein-islet numberand the palisade ratio are23.23, 1.29, 3.9 respectively.
Powder Microscopy
Part studied
Fluorescence
Stolon
Reddish brown
Some Important Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India A Profile

TLC Data
332
Rubia cordifolia Linn. (Rubiaceae)
333

The stolon and roots are sweet on first chewing and bitter thereafter, astringent, themogenic,
anti-inflammatory, anodyne, antiseptic, digestive, carminative, constipating, antidysenteric,
anthelmintic, depurative, vulnerary, emmenagogue, diuretic, galacto-purifier, alterant,
ophthalmic, febrifuge, rejuvenating and tonic. They are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha
and pitta, rheumatoidarthritis, neuralgia, cephalalgia,dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea,
dysentery, helminthiasis, leprosy, skin diseases, leucoderma, pruritus, wounds, ulcers,
amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, strangury, ophthalmopathy, intermittent fevers, pharyngitis
cough, diabetes,discolourationofthe skin, slow healingof brokenbones, tubercularconditions
of the skin and mucoustissue, otopathy, urethrorrhea, haemorrhoids,jaundice, hepatopathy,
splenopathy, arthralgia, leucorrhoea, pectoral diseases and general debility (Warner et al,
1996). 1-2 cm long piece of root is groundedand mixed with the powder of 4-5 black pepper.
It is given for treating oedema.

Propagation by seeds did not give satisfactory results. Seeds are very small, weighing about
0.015 gm. Around 65, 789 seeds make one kg. Both untreated and treated (soakingfor 12 hrs
in cold water) seeds germinated sparely. Germination percent was below 25. The tender
branches having 4 nodes are the best for proporgation.The best season for raising plants
thorugh cuttings is July-August. The polybags are filled with potting mixture.4 noded cuttings
are burned in the poly bag with the lowest node in the soil. They are kept in shade for at least
3 weeks and regularly watered. New shoots and roots will develop in the third week. After
keeping exposed in the sun for about a months,they can be transplanted in the field. Proper
support has to be given for facilitating climbing.
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Thiruvananthapuram
KoIlam
Pathanamthjtta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
Idukki
Ernakulam
Trissur
Palakkade
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Chd.
Chi.
Cuc.
Kad.
Kai.
Chindakki
Chimmini
CalicutUniversity Campus
Kadalar
Kaikatty
Kat. Kattappana, ldukki
Kod. Kodanjeri
Koz. Kozhikkapan, Idukki
Kup. Kuppadi Suithan Bathery
Lak. Lakkidi, Wayanad
Man. Mandan potty
Mun. Munnar
Muk. Mukkali
Nel. Nelliampathy
Pes. Pambarb Estate, Tholpetty
Pat. Pathanthode
Par. Parambikkulam
Pee. Peermedu
The. Thekkadj to Kumali
Vaz. Vazhachal
FOREST TYPES
Wet evergreen
Semi evergreen
IIIIIllllIlIllllI Deciduous
IIIIlIIllhTFIIIil
I1
I+++++++I
Dry deciduous
iioia
Scale:
1:9,00,000 (1cm= 9km)
Fig. 130: Rubia cordifolia: Distribution in Kerala
334
335
Ov
C
4
e
d
Sti
a
Fig. 131: (a-g) Rubia cordifolia:

a) Habit b) Flower LS C) Ovary C.S d) Bracteole
e) Calyx cup f) Corolla with stamen g) Gynoecium
C: Calyx cup; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petal; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
Plate 56: Rubia cordifolia: Habit
336
Plate 57: Rubia cordifolia:

from
stolon cuttings b) Seedlings ready for planting out
New
leaves
a)
emerging
337
Fig. 132: (a-c) Rubia cordifolia: Floral vascular supply

a) Calyx Cup (xli5) b) Gynoecium(xli5) c) Corolla with stamen (xli 5)
C: Calyx cup 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule; P: Petal; St: Stamen;
Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style; V.s: Vascular supply
338
339
Fig. 133: (a-b) Rubia cordifolia:

T.S
of
stem-diagrammatic(x50) b) A portion-enlarged(xli 5)
a)
C: Cambium; Cu: Cuticle; Chi: Chiorenchyma; Epi: Epidermis; H: Hair;
Mr: Medullary ray; P: Pith; Ph: Phloem; P.xy: Primary xylem; SchI: Schlerenchyma;
S.ph: Secondary phloem; St: Stomata S.xy: Secondary xylem
340
Pho
Fig. 134: (a-d) Rubia cordifolia:

T.S
of
a)
stolon-diagrammatic(x50) b) A portion-enlarged(xli 5)
c) T.S. of mature root-diagrammatic(x50) d) A portion-enlarged (xli5)
C.: Cambium; Ck.: Cor'k; Cor.: Cortex; P.: Pith; Per.: Periderm; Phe.: Phellogens;
Pxy.: Primary xylem; Sph.: Secondary phloem; S.xy.: Secondaryxylem; 1.: Tannin
Plate 58: Rub/a cordifolia:

a) A mature plant in the field b) Support providedfor the plant
341
342
U.Epl
Pal
_Ph
Cot
C
H
Pat
,sP
LEpI
-St
Fig. 135: (a-h) Rubia cordifolia:

T.S
of
a)
petiole-diagrammatic(xli5) b) A portion of petiole showing epidermis and cortex
(x210) c)T.S. of lamina through midrib(x115) d) Detailed T.S. of lamina (x450)
e) Lower portion of midrib-enlarged(x450) f) Lower epidermis (x210)
g) Upper epidermis (x 210) h) Single pyramidal hair (x450)
Cor: Cortex; Col: Collenchyma; ChI: Chlorenchyma; Epi: epidermis; H: Hair;
L.epi: Lower epidermis; Pal: Palisade; Ph: Phloem; SchI: Schlerenchyma;
Sp: Spongy parenchyma; St: Stomata; U.epi: Upper epidermis; Xy.: Xylem
CHAPTER 19
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde

(Caesalpin iaceae)
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde (Caesalpiniaceae)
345
19
SARL4CAASOCA (ROXB.)DE WILDE
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de wilde in Blumea 15:393.1968.Syn: Jonesia asoca Roxburgh,Asiat.
Res. 4: 365 . 1795. Saraca indica sensu Bourdillon. For Trs. Travancore 129. 1908, non
Linnaeus; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 1:28. 1957.
English
: Ashoka
Hindi
Kannada
Malayalam
Asok, Asoka
Asokada, Kengalimara
Asokam
Sanskrit
Asokah
Tamil
Asogam

Saraca asoca (Plate 59)is distributed in evergreenforests of India upto an elevation of about
750 metres. It is also cultivated in several parts. n Kerala region of Western Ghats, it is seen
in Patagiri, Kaikatty and Pothundi of Palakkad district; in Thrissur, Karadipara and Peechi of
Thrissur district; in Kulathupuzaof Kollamdistrict; in Taliparambaof Kannurdistrictand rarely
in Thiruvananthapuramand pathanamthittadistricts.
Formulations
The bark of this tree is widely used in several important preparations like Asokarishtam,
Asokaghritham,kachoradi tailam, etc. (lyer, 1983).
Officinal parts
Bark which is widely used and leaves, flowers and seeds.
Description (Fig. 137)

A small to medium-sized evergreen tree somewhat erect, straight, trunk covered over with
greyish to dark brown scabrous bark. Surface of the stem bark rough and uneven due to the
presenceofroundedor oval projecting lenticels. The branchesnumerous, spreading, somewhat
346
drooping. Leaves alternate, abruptly pinnate, sub-sessile, large, 30-40 cm long; beautifully
pink coloured when young, stipules connate, interpetiolar, leaflets opposite, 4-6 pairs, 15-30
cm long, 3-5 cm broad, coriaceous with slightly
wavy margin, lanceolate. Flowers many,
polygamous,apetalous, yellowish orange turning to scarlet, sweet scented, in short laterally
placedcorymbose,axillary panicles;bract small, deciduous,bracteolesreddish,subpersistant;
calyx petaloid, tube elongate, cylindric and closed, enclosing a lobed disc, calyx lobes four,
unequal, ovate to oblong, reddish, imbricate; petals absent; stamens usually seven, but may
vary from 5-8, exserted, filaments long, filiform about 2-3 times the length of the calyx tube.
Anthers reniform and versatile dehiscing longitudinally.Ovary superior, stipitate, stipe adnate
below to one side of the disc, unicellular, many ovuled, ovules in marginal placentation,
style
long, filiform, stigma small and capitate; pod flat, oblong, coriaceous or almost woody; 6-12
cm long, and 2-5.4 cm broad; tapering at both ends and having continuous
cavity
4-8 large seeds. Seeds obovate or orbicular, compressed, greyish, smoothcontaining
and non
endospermic.

Bracteole
Seven vascular strands enter each bracteole and produce branches near about the middle.
The central strand is the longest reaching near the tip of the bracteole.
Petaloid sepal
Eight vascular strands traverse through the thalamustube and start branching nearabout the
middle. All the four petaloid sepals are supplied by the innumerable branches from them.
Stamen
Each stamen has a long filament traversed by a single unbranched vascular strand. At the
region of the connective this strand produces a few branches which supply the anther lobes.
Pistil
The ovary is monocarpellary and unilocular. Two dorsal bundles and two ventral bundles
traverse the ovary wall. The outer ones of each central and dorsal bundles are unbranched
and they straight away supply the style and stigma. The inner dorsal and ventral bundles
produce branches supplying the ovules. They traverse through the style without producing
any branch and ultimately end in the stigma.
Anatomy
Stem (Fig. 139)
The transverse section of young stem is some what circular in outline. The surface shows
presenceof small rounded to oval projecting lenticels.In young stem, bark is very thin. Epidermis
is single layered with thin cuticle. Below the epidermis, 5-6 layers of cork are seen. Cortex is
347
12-16 layered, composedof thin walled parenchymacells. In the middle region of cortex, 3-5
layers of stone cells are clearly visible. Just above, the phloem region is very distinct and
contains tannin cells. Cambium is very clear and is 2-3 layered. Xylem region is composed
mostly of tracheids and a few vessels. Primary xylem is prominent.There is a prominent pith,
composed of thin walled parenchymaand many of the pith cells contain polygonal calcium
oxalate crystals.
Hence, a detailed histology of bark (Fig.140) is given below as it is the most popularly used
part of the plant. In olderstem, the outermost layers of bark form the cork, consisting of 20-25
layers of narrowslightly tangentiallyelongatedcells. The external surface is roughand uneven
due to the presence of prominent rounded to oval lenticels. The outer row of cork cells is
much compressed and their cell walls are wavy. The cork region is reddish brown in colour.
Phellogen is composed of a single row of narrow tangentially elongated thin walled cells.
Interior to this cork region there is a large zone of secondary cortex which is composed of
fairly large thin walled polygonal cells and several prominent groups of stone cells. The stone
cells are elongated and may be considered as an identifying character. Most of the
parenchymatouscells are filled with few small rounded starch grains and in certain other
cells, polygonal crystals of varying size are also seen. The inner bark consists of phloem
tissues, bast fibres and medullary rays. This region constitutes half of the thickness of the
entire bark. The phloem parenchyma cells are small polygonal and thin walled. Alternating
these parenchymatouselements, small groups of fiber cells are seen arranged tangentially.
Some of the phloem parenchyma cells contain small polygonal crystals of calcium oxalate
and few other cells contain small rounded starch grains. Innermost row of phloem is mainly
composed of thin walled parenchymacells. Narrowand mostly uni or biseriate medullary rays
are very distinct in the phloem region, but get broadened much towards their distal end. The
cells are larger than the adjoining parenchymacells. Most of them contain crystals of calcium
oxalate and starch grains.
Root (Fig.140)
In transverse section, the root appears somewhat circular in outline. The outermost zone is
cork, composed of 8-10 layers of tangentially elongated thick walled cells. Phellogen is not
distinct. Inner to the cork region, secondary cortex having two distinct zones are seen. The
upper zone consists of 5-7 layers of thin walled parenchyma cells, some of them containing
few small rounded starch grains. Below this parenchymatousone, 3-5 layers of mechanical
cells are distinctly seen, of these the outer layer is schlerenchymatousand the inner layers
are stone cells. Following this supporting region is a broad zone of primary and secondary
phloem.The cells are parenchymatous,thin walled and polygonal.4-6cambial layers arevery
prominentbelow the bast zone. In secondaryxylem regiontracheids, vessels and parenchyma
cells are arrangedin a peculiarmanner,i.e., xylem parenchymaand tracheidsare in alternating
patches.Vessels are very large and few in number. Parenchymatouscellsarefilled with small
roundedstarch grains. Uniseriatemedullary rays are very distinct and extended to the phloem
region.The ray cells in the secondaryxylem region arefilled with starch grains. Exarch primary
xylem groups are seen towards the centre which are in a line with the medullary rays.
348
Petiole (Fig.141)
In T.S., the petiole appears almost circular in outline. Epidermisis
single layered and devoid of
any trichomes. Cuticle is thick. Cortex is composed of thick walled parenchymatous and
schlerenchymatous cells. Parenchymatous cells are rich in small roundedlstarch grains.
Schlerenchymatouslayers form a ring above the phloem.Secondary phloem and xylem also
seen in a ring. Inner to these vascular ring, a parenchymatouszone is visible. Leaf trace
bundles arealso distinctly seen.
Leaf (Fig.141)
T.S. of leafshows commondicotyledonouscharacters. Epidermis is single layered.
Mesophyll
consists of single layered palisade and multilayeredspongy tissue with intercellular spaces.
In the midrib region, vascular bundle is encircled by a schlerenchymatousring. In this species,
the' upper and lower epidermal cells are polygonal in shape and their walls are
slightly wavy.
Stomata are of Ranunculaceoustype.
The stomatal index is 15.5, palisade ratio is 2.09, vein-islet number is 7.68.
Powder Microscopy
Part studied
Fluorescence
Bark
Brown

Part studied
Bark
TLC Data
349

Thebark is bitter, astringent, refrigerant, anthelmintic,styptic,stomachic,constipating,febrifuge
and demulcent.It is useful in dyspepsia, fever, dipsia, burningsensation,visceromegaly,colic,

ulcers, menorrhagia, metropathy, leucorrhoea and pimples. The leaves are depurative and
their juice mixed with cumin seeds is used for treating stomachalgia. The flowers are
considered to be a uterine tonic and are used in vitiated conditions of pitta, syphilis, cervical
adenitis, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, haemorrhoids, dysentery, scabies in children and
inflammation. The dried flowers are used in diabetes and haemorrhagicdysentery and seeds
are used for treating bone fractures, strangury and vesical calculi (Warner et al, 1996). Bark is
used in several preparationsrelated to female trouble (Tiwari, 1979). It is also usedfor internal
piles, dysentery, biliousness,dyspepsia, colic, ulcers and pimples (Dastur, 1962).
Propagation (Plate 60 a-c)

Propagation by seeds is satisfactory. Seeds are large, weighing about 12.87 gms. Around 78
seeds make a kg. Seeds were collected from mature trees and were dibbled in nursery beds
3m x I m x 1/3m aftersoaking them in cold water for 24 hrs. Germinationcommenced on 30th
dayand completedon 50th day. Germinationpercent was very high as 96%. Germinationwas
found to be of epigeal type. Occasionally 2-3 seedlings came out from each seed. Three
leaved seedlings were transplanted into containers. The seeds gave a good percentage of
germination, no vegetative propagation'tnialswere conducted.
Adulteration
The drug is widely adulterated with the bark of Polyalthia longifolia Hook.f. & Thorns. The
information furnished below will help in distinguishing one from the other
Saraca asoca
1.
Leaves subsessile and

abruptly pinnate Stipules connate
2.
Orange red, apetalous

flowers in dense corymbos
3.
Calyxtube elongate,
lobes petaloid, unequal
and four in number
PolyalthiaIongifolia
Leaves narrow, lanceolate,
simple, undulate, penninerved, distichous, Stipules absent
Flowers green, axillary or
terminal, leaf opposed or
below the leaves on the
young or older trunk
Sepal free, subimbricate

4.
Petals absent
Petals six, in 2 senate,

elongate, flator inner
vaulted, torus convex
5.
Stamens usually seven,

but may vary from
5-8. Filaments long,
Filiform, anthers
versatile
Stamens numerous, connate,

anthers extrose
6.
Ovary superior, style

Long, filiform, stigma
small, capitate and
ovules many on marginal
placentation
Ovary superior, apocarpous,

indefinite, style oblong,
ovules 1-2, erect on basal
7.
Fruit dehiscent flat

oblong pod, with 4-8
large seeds
Fruit an aggregate of
berries
8.
Surface of the stem

is rough and uneven due to the presence of many rounded
or oval projecting
lenticels
Surface of the stem bark

is comparatively smooth
with small lenticels
9.
The outer rind can be

easily scraped
The outer rind cannot be

easily scraped
10.
Several prominent
groups of characteristic stone cells present
in the secondary cortex
Several groups of sclereids

are present in the secondary cortex. Characteristic stone cells are absent
11.
Starch grains are

comparativelyfew in
many of the parenchyma
cells
Most of the parenchyma

cells are packed with starch
grains
placentation
350
12.
Hexagonalcalcium
oxalate crystals of
varying sizes are
present in many cells
Calcium oxalate crystals

absent
13.
Vein-islet numberis 7.68
Vein-islet numberis I
14.
Palisade Ratio is 2.09
Palisade Ratio is 6.85
15.
Stomatal index is 15.5
Stomatal index is 18.1
351
Some ImportantMedicinal Plants of WesternGhats, India : A Profile
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Thfruvananthapuram
Kollam
Pathanamthjtta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
ldukki
Ernakulam
Trissur
Palakkad
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Kai.
Kaikatty
Karadippara, Peechi
Kulathupuzha
Patagiri
Pathanamthitta
Pot. Pothundi
Tal. Taliparamba
Thr. Thiruvananthapuram
Tn. Trissur
Kar.
Kup.
Ptg.
Pth.
FOREST TYPES
II
Wetevergreen
llhIIIiIII!IIVl Semi evergreen

llllIIIIIIIIIIIIII Deciduous
++++++
_________
Drydeciduous
iioa
Scale:
1:9,00,000 (1cm= 9km)
Fig. 136: Saraca asoca: Distribution in Kerala
352
353
sti
---Bri
a
Fig. 137: (a-i) Saraca asoca:

a) Habit b) Inflorescene C) Bract d) Bracteole e) Gynoecium f) Single Flower
g) Ovary C.S h) Petaloid calyx split opened i) Flower L.S.
BrI: Bracteole; 0: Ovary; Ps: Petaloid sepal; St: Stamen; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
354
- - - - Bri
----.--Sti
b
Sty
VS
Vc
--
--
-D.Bs
v.a
Ovs
-- Ov
ci
Fig. 138: (a-d) Saraca asoca: Floral vascular supply

a) Bracteole(x115) b) Petaloid sepal (xlOO) C) Stamen (x115) d) Gynoecium (x115)
Al: Anther lobe; Bri: Bracteole; D.bs: Dorsal bundle; F: Filament; Ov: Ovule;
Ov.s: Ovular Supply; P.s: Petaloid sepal; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style; V.b: Ventral bundle;
V.c: Vascular complex; V.s: Vascularsupply
Plate 59: Saraca asoca: Twig with flower
355
Fig. 140: (a-b) Saraca asoca:

T.S.
of
root-diagrammatic(x50) b) A portion-enlarged (xli5)
a)
C: Cambium; Ck: Cork; Cor: Cortex; Cry: Crystal; M.r: Medullary ray
Phe: Phellogen; P.xy: Primary xylem; S: Starch grain; Schi: Schlerenchyma;
St: Stone cell; S.ph: Secondary phloem; S.xy: Secondary xylem
357
Plate 60: Saraca asoca:

a-c) Seedlings in containers ready for planting out
d) A seedling outplanted in the field e) A three year old tree
358
359
Fig. 141: (a-f) Saraca asoca:

T.S.
of
petiole-diagrammatic(x50) b) A portion of petiole-enlargedshowing epidermis
a)
and cortex (x210) c) T.S of lamina through midrib (xl 15) d) Detailed T.S of lamina (x 450)
e) Upper epidermis (x 210) f) Lower epidermis (x 210)
Cor: Cortex; Epi: Epidermis; L.epi: Lower epidermis; Pal: Palisade; Ph: Pholem;
S: Starch grain; Schi: Schierenchyma; Sp: Spongy parenchyma; St: Stomata;
Uepi: Upperepidermis; Xy: Xylem
CHAPTER 20
Trichosanthes lobata Roxb.

(Cucurbitaceae)
Trichosanthes lobata Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae)
363
20
TRJCHOSANTHES LOBATA ROXB.
(Cucurbitaceae)
TrichosantheslobataRoxb. Fl. md. 3% 703.1832.,Clarke in Hook.f., Fl.Brit.India2:610.1879,
Chakr. fax. Fl.lndia2:119. 1982.
English
Wild snake gourd, Bitter snake gourd
Hindi
Jangali cicinda, Tikta cicinda
Kannada
Kiripodla, Kadupodavalu
Malayalam : Patolam, Kaipanpatolam,Kattupatolam
Sanskrit
: Tiktapatola
Tamil
Peppudal,Kattupeppudal
Trichosanthes lobata (Plate 61) is distributed in plains and lower hills extensively in India. It is
also cultivated. In Kerala region of Western Ghats, it is found in Painavu and Devikulam of
Idukki district; Tunakkadavu,Karasuramalai and Tachamparaof Palakkaddistrict; Nedungayam
to Meenmutty, Olippuram kadavu, Randathani of Malappuram district and in Brehmagiri of
Wayanad district.
Formulations
An important constituent in around 32 preparations which include Punarnavasavam,
Kachoraditailam, Nimbaditailam, Panchathikthamkashayam, Patolamooladi kashayam, etc.
(lyer, 1983).
Officinal part
Whole plant except root (Plate 61e)
Description (Plates 61 & 62; Fig.143)

Climbing herb, dioecious or sometimesmonoeciouswith slightly downy or pubescentslender
five-angular furrowed stems, 3-5m long, climbing with the help of 2 or 3 fid
tendrils.Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate, petioled, broader than long, orbicular-reniform
or broadly ovate, more or less deeply five lobed, distantly toothed, somewhatglabrous above
and pubescent. Flowers unisexual, white, male in axillary racemes, female axillary, solitary.
364
Pendunclesof male flower 5-15cm long with or without bract. Pedicel of female flower 0.52cm long. Calyx tube long cylindrical somewhat clavate or dilated at the apex, 2-3cm long,
0.3-0.5cm wide with five, short acutely triangular lobes. Corolla with five whitish, lanceolate,
ciliated petals, 1-2cm long. The petals appear connate at the base. Stamensthree, inserted in
the calyx tube with very short filament, ofwhich, 2 bear2 celled anthers and the one, with one
celled anther. Sometimes along with the male inflorescence there may be a female flower in
the same axis. Pedicel offemale flower is short; calyx and corolla as in the staminate flowers.
Ovary inferior, ovoid, hairy and 3 celled with very many ovules on 3perietal placentae. The
style slenderending in three oblong, subulate, entirestigmas.Fruits ovoid, fusiform, indehiscent
berries, tapering at both ends, 3-10cm long and 2-4cm in diameterwith a pointed beak, scarlet
red striped with white when immature. Seeds semi ellipsoid, compressed and surrounded
with red pulp.

Calyx
The calyx is five lobed. Each lobe being supplied by two vascular strands which remain
unbranched 3/4th of their distance in the calyx and then getting repeatedly branched near the
lobes.
Petal
Each petal is supplied with a median vascular strand and three strands each on either side.
The middle strand on each side get repeatedly branched at the tip and gets united with the
central strand,whereas the alternatingones get branchedhere and there without gettingunited
with the central strand or between themselves.
Stamen
Each stamen is supplied with a stout cylindrical strand, which traverses through the filament
and gets '5' shaped in the anther region.
Gynoecium
Six vascular strands traverse through the stalk of the ovary. The median two vascular strands
get branched into two each. Of the four branches,the inner two run parallel through the centre
of the ovarian chamberright in the middle of the locule. They again get branched into two. The
central ones continue the supply to the stigma through the style, while the outer two take a
reverse turn comes down the base of the ovarian chamber and then turn upwards supplying
the ovary wall. They produce branchesintothe ovarian chamberwhichformthe ovular supply.
The peripheralfour run upwards, each getting branched intothree. These branches run straight
without further branchingsupplying the ovary wall, traversingthe style and get biforked in the
stigmatic region.
365
Anatomy
Stem (Fig.145)
Cross section of the stem is a five angled structure due to the presence of ridges and furrows.
The epidermisis single layered with multicellularand glandulartrichomes. Belowthe epidermis
2-3 layers of chlorenchyma cells are seen, but at the ridges 4-5 layers of collenchyma cells
are conspicuousabove the chlorenchymatouslayers. Chlorenchymatous region is followed
by 3-4 layers of schlerenchyma cells. Inner to the schlerenchymatous zone the cells are
parenchymatous.Vascular bundles are bicollateral and arranged in two rings offive each. Of
these, bundles of the outer ring aresmall and opposite to the ridges, and the inner bundles are
larger and opposite to the furrows. Pith is large and parenchymatous.
Root (Fig. 145)
In T.S., root is circularin outline. In young root, epidermis is single layered with unicellular
hairs. Cortex .has 9-10 layers of loosely arranged parenchymacells without any inclusions.
Cortex is delimited by endodermis, which is followed by single layered pericycle. Vascular
tissues occupy more or less a central position.Vascular bundles are radial; xylem and phloem
occur in separate patches, arranged on alternate radii, intervenedbysmall parenchymacells.
There are four groupsof xylem alternatingwith four groupsof phloem.Xylem is exarch. Central
portion is occupied by metaxylemvessels so that all the patches of xylem arejoined together
to give a starlike appearance.Secondary thickening is normal. In mature root cortical region
gets lignified.
Petiole (Fig.146)
Transverse section of petiole is almost circularin outline. Epidermis is single layered with thin
cuticle and possessesmulticellular glandular and non-glandular hairs. Epidermis is followed
by a narrow zone of collenchyma which consists of 3-4 layers. Remaining portion is
parenchymatous.Vascular bundles arebicollateral and arrangedtowards the peripheryofthe
parenchymatousregion. In the centre parenchymacells are larger when compared to those
in the outer layers.
Leaf (Fig. 146)

The transverse section of the leaf shows common dicotyledonous characters. Both upper
and lower epidermis possess two types of trichomes, i.e., multicellular glandular and nonglandular. Non-grandular hairs are very long. In the midrib region below the epidermis,
collenchymatouslayers are seen. Bicollateralvascular bundles are seen in the centre of the
midrib. Mesophylltissue consists of compactlyarranged single layer palisadecells and loosely
arranged spongy tissues. Stomata are of Ranunculaceoustype. Some of the epidermal cells
contain single and double cystolith. This is a characteristicfeature of the family Cucurbitaceae.
The stomatal index, palisade ratio and vein-islet numberare: 19.25; 3.64 and 2.87 respectively.
0)
0)
C)
rD
0)
-'
0i.
3CD
CD
0)0
0.
0.
a
U)
C)
0
Cl)
0)
0)
C)
0.
CD
0)
CD
C)
CD
CD
cn '
0
3
C,,
Dichloromethane
extract
Colour: Brown
0.1714
0.3280
0.3428
0.4570
0.7857
0.3560
0.4790
0.6840
0.7808
0.8630
0.3071
0.3850
0.6570
0.9714
Methanolextract
Colour: Brown
0.0450
0.0900
0.1818
0.3530
0.5450
0.5750
0.6212
0.7420
367
none
0.8906
04687
none
01904
06349
none
0.9375
0.9452
0.6400
0.6560
0.7014
0.8805
0.8208
none
0.6349
0.8095
0.8181

The plant is bitter, acrid, thermogenic, emollient,laxative, depurative, alexeteric,anthelmintic,
appetiser,carminative,digestive, cholagogue, stomachic,anodyne, expectorant, cardiotonic,
suppurative, vulnerary,anti-inflammatory,antipyreticand tonic. It is useful in vitiated conditions
of tridosa, leprosy, leucoderma, pruritus, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, dipsia,
hyperacidity,hepatopathy,jaundice, helminthiasis, haemorrhoids,cephalalgia,cough,asthma,
bronchitis, cardiac debility, wounds, ulcers, inflammations, intermittent fever, alopecia, boils
and general debility. In higher doses, it is emetic and purgative (Warner et al, 1996). Seeds of
T. lobata act as vermifuge (Dastur, 1962). The plant is pungent, 'hot', cordial, unctuous,
aphrodisiac and germicidal. It aids digestion and helps to move the bowels. It cures
haematemesis,dermatosis and erysipelas. It is useful in eye diseases and in purifying the
blood. It overcomes itching sensation, excessive thirst and intestinal disorders. The leaves
are light and easily digested and cure diseases caused by pitta. They promote digestion and
give sexual vigour. They regulate the upward and downwardcourse of vata, and givereliefin
dyspnoea.They dispel pathogenicorganisms.The roots are good purgatives.The decoction
of patola and barley made tasty by adding honey is used internally for severe fever caused by
pitta and indigestion. Juice of leaves with Amalaka and the decoction of green gram is used
internally with ghee for treating erysipelas (Narayana tyeret al, 1963).
Propagation
Propagation by seed gave satisfactory results. Seeds are very small weighing around
0.0845 gm. About 11810 seeds make a kg. Seeds pretreatedby soaking in cold water for 48
368
hrs were sown in nursery beds. Germination commenced on the 10th day and continued
during 4 weeks. Germination percentwas 78. One month old seedlings were pricked out and
transplanted to containers and transported to planting site. Supports were provided for the
climber to trail. T. lobata without pre-treatmentwere sown on nursery beds. The germination
commencedon the 10th dayand continuedfor one month.Only 20% of the seeds germinated.
The germination conforms to epigeal type. The experiment was repeated with 500 seeds
soaked in water for 48 hrs. Here also, the germination commencedon the 10th day and was
completed within four weeks. But the percentage of germination was increased to 78.
Outplantedthey trail on supports.
Adulteration
Leaves and stems of other cucurbitaceous plants are used for adulterating dried T. lobata.
But T. lobata can be identified from adulterants based on the following anatomical characters:
Fibers are present and stone cells absent

Glandular and very long non-glandularhairs are present
Cystoliths are present
Economics and Cultivation

No. of plants per Hectare
Duration of crop
7,500
6 months
Excess of income over expenditure (Rs.)
1,60,000.00
DISTRICTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Thiruvananthapuram
KoIlam
Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha
Kottayam
Idukki
Ernakulam
Trissur
Palakkade
Malappuram
Kozhikode
Wayanad
Kannur
Kasargode
LOCALITIES
Bra. Brahmagiri
Cuc. CalicutUniversity Campus
0ev. Devikulam
Eng. Engandiyoor
Kar. Karasuramalal
Kum. Kumbala
Ned. Nedungayam to Meenmutty
OIl. Olippuram Kadavu
Pal. Painavu
Ran. Randathani
Tac. Tachampara
Thu. Thunakkadavu
FOREST TYPES
Wetevergreen
iiliiiiiiiiiiiiiI
Semi evergreen
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIUI
Deciduous
IThI
I+++++++I
+++++++i
Dry deciduous
i_oa
I
Scale:
1:9,00,000(1cm
= 9km)
Fig. 142: Trichosantheslobata: Distribution in Kerala
369
356
Fig. 139: (a-c) Saraca asoca:

T.S.
of
stem-diagrammatic.(x50) b) A portion-enlarged (xli 5)
a)
c) A portionof bark-enlarged(xli5)
C: Cambium; Ck: Cork; Cor: Cortex; Cry: Crystal; M.r: Medullary ray;
P: Pith; Phe: Phellogen; Per: Periderm; P.xy: Primary xylem; S: Starch grain;
S.Cor: Secondary cortex; SchI: Schlerenchyma; Sph: Secondary phoelm; St: Stone cell
S.xy: Secondaryxylem; T: Tannin
370
cu
-Q
0
CO
ci)
Cu
Cl)
0
C
FEE
(0
a)
4-'
Cd
a) Flower
Plate 62: Trichosantheslobata:

Immature
fruit C) Climber trailing on wall d) Climber on support
b)
e) Medicinal parts of the plant
371
372
Ic
.-
8tj
Sty
i
fflflOv
H
Fig. 143: (a-j) Trichosantheslobata:

Habit
Male
flower
a)
b)
C) Female flower d) Calyx tube split opened e) Petal
Androecium g) Gynoecium h) L.S of male flower i) Ovary C.S j) L.S of female flower
An: Androecium; Cl: Calyx lobe; Ct: Calyx tube; H: Hair; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovules;
P: Petal; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style
373
.8
Fig. 144: (a-d) Trichosantheslobata: Floral vascular supply

a) Calyx (xlOO) b) Petal (x115) c) Stamen (x115) d: Gynoecium(xlOO)
A: Anther lobe; Cl: Calyx lobe; Ct: Calyx tube; F: Filament; 0: Ovary; Ov: Ovule;
P: Petal; Sti: Stigma; Sty: Style; V.s.: vascular supply
Some lmporthnt Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India : A Profile
374
b
d
Fig 145: (a-d) Trichosantheslobata:

T.S
of
a)
stem-diagrammatic(x50) b) A portion-enlarged(xli 5)
c) T.S. of mature root-diagrammatic(x50) d) A portion-enlarged (x 115)
C: Cambium; Col: Collenchyma; Cor: Cortex; G.h: Glandular hair; M.r: Medullary ray;
N.h: Nonglandular hair; P: Pith; Per: Periderm; Ph: Phloem; P. xy: Primary xylem;
Schl: Schlerenchyma; S.ph: Secondary phloem; S.xy: Secondary xylem;
V.b: Vascularbundle; Xy.: Xylem
Trichosanthes lobataRoxb. (Cucurbitaceae)
375
i
i
e
iv
Fig. 146: (a-i) Trichosantheslobata:

T.S
of
a)
petiole (x210) b) A portion of petiole showing epidermis and cortex (x115)
T.S
of lamina through midrib (x210) d) Detailed T.S of lamina (x115)
C)
e) Lower epidermis (xl 15) f) Double cystolith (xl 15) g) Upper epidermis (xl 15)
h) i-u Non-glandularhairs (xl 00), i-v Glandular hairs (xli 5)
Col: Collenchyma; Cu: Cuticle; Cy: Cystolith; D.c: Double cystolith; Epi: Epidermis
G.h: Glandular hair; H: Hair; L.epi: Lower epidermis; N.h: Non glandular hair;
Par: Parenchyma; Pal: Palisade; Ph: Phloem; Sp: Spongy parenchyma
St: Stomata; U.epi: Upper epidermis; V.b: Vascular bundles; Xy: Xylem
CHAPTER 21
Sustainable use and biodiversity conservation:

Issues and opportunities
Sustainable Use andBiodiversity Conservation:Issuesand Opportunities
379
SUSTAINABLEUSE AND
BIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION:
ISSUES AND OPPORTUNITIES
An important aspect with which biodiversity conservation in India is linked, is sustainable use
of medicinal plants, as the dominant source of these plants is natural forests. Due to the
unsustainable methods of their extraction and severe pressure exerted on their habitats,
destruction of biodiversity is a widespread phenomenon.A quantification of the damage is
difficult as reliable statistics regarding removals of these plants from forests is not available.
However, to get an idea of severity of the situation, following data of removals of entire plants
(among the 20 species studied) to meet the demand of AVS is given:
90,000
--
6,500
500
indicus
152,000
46,300
30,000
Plumbago indica
Rotula aquatica
Rubia cordifolia
(about 30 year old climber)
30,000
120,000
360
7,200
8,400
14,000
Above data relateto extraction of plants in toto for utilization of entire plant or parts thereof and
do not include species of which plant parts like leaves, fruits, seeds, etc., are harvested not
resulting in their mortality. As harvesting is indiscriminatewithout any consideration given to
spatial or temporal distribution, regenerationof these species in nature is not commensurate
with harvests, resulting in progressive decline in their populations and causing irreversible
damageto biodiversity.
380
Aspointed out by Holley and Cherla (1998), with the exception of a limited number of species,
the production base relies heavily on materials harvested from the wild and current practices
are unsustainableand many studies have emphasizedrapid depletion of the natural resource
base. It is stressed by the authors that the only solution to the problem is promotion of
large
scale cultivation, of those species which are in great demand. The major research initiative
suggested for conservation of priority species of medicinal plants in South Asia is cultivation
(Karki and Williams, 1999). As pointed out earlier, the bottlenecksfor large scale cultivation of
medicinal plants are non-availability of planting materials to those interested in their farming
or even tested technologies for their cultivation. Apart from these, lack of awareness about
economics of this cultivation is a serious deterrent. In this study, it is shown that it makes
economic sense to grow medicinal plants as an add-on activity in farms and homesteads as
in respect of Baliospermum montanum, Hemidesmus indicus, Holarrhena pubescens,
Holostemmaada-kodienand Trichosanthes lobata. In a recent report (Anon. 1999), it is pointed
out that medicinal herbs have spelt commercial success to villagers in Jowahar Valley,
Pithorgarh (Uttar Pradesh)wherefarmers migrate every summer to cultivate medicinal herbs.
Thus, the major issues involved (GOl, 1998; Holley and Cherla, 1998) in the medicinal plants
sector are:
Depletion of the resource base, which is the foundation of the entire sector;
Decline of the base on which depends the primary health care of over five
hundred million people; and
The risk to health of those depending on folk and traditional medicine on account
of adulteration due either to inadequate understandingof identity of the right
species or adulteration with spurious plant parts.
These are not insuperableproblems. Theycan be addressed by promoting artificialregeneration
of those species extensively used in traditional medicine. The opportunities thrown open are:
Research on propagationtechniques;
Establishment of facilities for mass production of planting material and their
distribution;
Developmentof on-farm and in-forest model plantations to determine and demonstrate
techno-economicfeasibility of cultivation; and
Linking producers to traders, consumersand domestic & international markets through
improvedunderstandingand implementation of production-to-consumption and marketing
system (PCMS) model.
References
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383
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Swaminathan, M.S., 1977. In. Guidelinesfor National Policy and Conservationprogrammes.

ConservationScience Division. Ministry of Environment& Forests, Govt. of India,
New Delhi: iii
The Wealth of India. 1988. (reprint) Raw Materials. 2:360
Thotadri, K., 1986. Status of Medicinal Plants in Indian Flora. Proc. Of the Regional Seminar
on MedicinalPlants. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 93-94
Timmerman, H.A., 1927. Pb. J. 118, 241
Tiwari, S. P.N., 1979. Thy phytogeographyof legumes of Madhya Pradesh. (Central India)
PubI. Bishan Singh MahendrapalSingh, Dehra Dun
Tokitomo,Y., Shimons,A., Kobayashyand Yamnish,T. 1982. Aroma componentsof baelfruit
(Aeglemarmelos Correa) Agricultural Biological Chemistry. 46:1873-1877
Tripathi, Y.B., Chrurasia, S.,
Tripathi, E., Upadhyay,A. and Dubey, G.P. 1995. Indian J.
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34:
523-526
ExperimentalBiology.
Ullrich. 1943. Am. J. Phar., 115, 195 * Varma, C.R.r. 1981. Plants used in nature
cure. Proc. Of the Seminar on Medicinal Plants
Vogel, V.J., 1970. AmericanIndian MedicinesUniversityof Oklahoma:
NormanWallis, T.E. and Dewar, T. 1933. Q.J.P. & Pb. 6:347
Wallis, T.E. and Forsdike. 1938. Q.J.P. & Pb. 11:700
Wangoo, 0., 1988. Antispermatogeniceffects of Celastruspaniculatus seed extracts on the
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Watt, G. 1972. A Dictionary of the EconomicProducts of India. Vol.1-6. Reprinted. Periodical

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Wealth of India. 1959. Vol.1 A Pp.470. CSIR, New Delhi. South east
Wealth of India. 1959. VoI.V (H-K) CSIR, New Delhi. 103:39-41
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Zornig and Weiss. 1925. Arcb. Pharma. Berl. 263 (1925) 462
388
Appendices
391
Appendices
Appendix I
Notes on Nursery Development

As a well established and maintained nursery is an important prerequisite for ex situ
conservation of medicinal plants, some aspects of the same are summarized below.
1. Selection of site
As irrigation is complementaryto produce planting material,it is importantto locate the nursery
proximal to water source. The area should be cleared and fenced - preferably to protect from
burrowing animals also.
2. Standard nursery bed

To facilitate watering, weedingand similar operations,the standard size of a nursery bed is 12
m length, 1.2 m width and 30cm height. This height is achieved by providing 50-60cm wide
space between beds, which is dug down to about 30 cm and the soil heaped and evenly
spread to form the beds. To provide side support, wooden pegs may be driven along the
length and breadth, about a meterapart and split bamboo or similar materialplaced all through.
3. Medium containers (polythene bags)

The standard media for nursery containers is in-situ soil, sand and dried ground farm yard
manure in 1:1:1 ratio. This is commonly referred to as potting mixture. As porosity of the
medium is an important consideration,mixture in this ratio is recommended.It is advisable to

sieve the soil and sand through a 2 mm sieve. Farm yard manure should be beaten into near
powder form and undecomposed leaves, twigs, etc., removed.
4. Filling the containers

After filling upto halflevel, the container should be tapped several times on the ground to pack
the media adequately.The other halfshould be filled thereafter, leaving about 5 mm at the top.
The containersshould have punched holes towardsthe bottom to allow excess water to drain
out. Loose packing should be avoided.
5. Pricking out and transplanting in containers

The plants are generally pricked out from germinationbeds and transplanted in containers at
the 4-leaves stage. As young stem of the plant is very tender and succulent, pricking out
should be done carefully by holding the leaves in one hand and digging out the young plants
without damaging the roots. Pulling out the plants by holding the stem should be avoided.
Using a spatula for digging out and lifting the seedling is advisable. After scooping out top
392
portion of media in the container,the plants should be gently placed, scooped out media being
retained and gently consolidatedaround.
6. Watering the container plants

A hose pipe fitted with rosette or sprinkler is a good device. This can be used for watering the
nursery beds also. Excessivewatering should be avoided as, apart from wastage of water, it
will result in leachingof nutrients and fine particles of soil from upper portion of the container.
A rose can (can fitted with a sprinkler head) can be used for hand watering.
7. Shade
Some seedlings require partial overhead shade. In such cases, temporary pandal may be
provided. It can be about 2 m in height. while columns for support can be of wood poles or
bamboo culms, dry leaves or straw can be employed as shading material.
8. Shifting and grading of seedlings

Grading of container plants accordingto heightand arrangingthem in groups of height classes
will prevent suppression and mortality. If necessary, special treatment like manuring may be
given to the group of seedlings which have not registered satisfactory height growth.
9. Simple facility for vegetative propagation

A mist chamber is a good addition in the nursery to facilitate rooting of stem/root cuttings. As
several medicinal species respond more satisfactorily to vegetative propagation, it will be
useful to provide this facility.
393
Appendices
Appendix2
Glossary
Medicial Terms
Localised Collection ofpuss caused by suppuration
in a tissue
Abscess
Acrid
Bitting, purgent
Alexeteric
Protective to infectious diseases
Alexipharmic
Antidoteto poison
Alopecia
Alterant
Amenorhoea
Amentia
Anasarca
Loss ofhair-a melady in loss ofhairfallsfromwhich

thehairfalls fromone or morercircumcribed round
or oval areas, leaving the skin
Causing a favourable change in the discorderes
functions of the bodyor metabolism
Failureof menstration
An arrest of the development of the mind from to
earlyage.
Diffused dropsey in the skin and subcutaneous
tissue
A medicine that alwayspain

A condition ofhavinglost the appeetiteforfood.
Anodyne
Anorexia
Anthelmintic
Destroying or expellingworms
Antiperiodic
Preventing the regularrecurrence of a disease
Antiscorbutic
Actingagainstsurvey
Antiseptic
A chemical sterilising substanceto kill or control

pathogenis microbes
Aphrodisiac
A drug which stimulates sexualdesire
Arthritis
Pain in ajoint
Arthralia
Inflammation ofa joint
Astringent
Biliousness
Arresting secretion or discharge causing

contraction of the tissues
The term for a condition attributed to disordered
secretion of bileand hepticdysfunction

Calculus
Carcinoma
394
A concretion formed in anypartof the bodyusually

compounds of salts of organicor inorganic acids.
A malignant epithelialtumoureventuallybecoming
fatal.
Cardiopalmus
Palpitation ofthe heart
Carminative
Drug curing flatulence
Cephalalgia
Headache
Cholagogue
A drugwhich causes increased flow of bile into the

intestine amooth & white.
Colic
A severespasmodicgriping pain.
Any agentor deviceused to preventconception
Contraceptive
Demulcent
Soothing
Depurative
An agentthat purifiesblood
Diuretic
A drug which induces perspiration

Promoting the flow of urine
Dropsy
Dysmenorrhoea
Difficultor painful menstration
Dyspepsia
Indigestion
Dyspnoea
Difficulty in breathing
Dysuria
Difficulty or pain while passing urine
Elephantasis
Emaciation
The state or extreame leanness
Emmenagogue
Medicine intended to restore the mensus
Emollient
Softening
Epilepsy
An affection of the nervoussystem resulting from

excessive or disordered discharge of cerebral
Diaphoretic
An excessive accumulation of clearor wateryfluid

in anyof the tissuesor cavities of the body.
Gross lymphatic oedema of the limbs leading to

hypertrophy
neurons.
Erysipelas
Aninflammatorydisease generally affecting theface

marked by a bright redness ofthe skin.
395
Appendices
Aiding the secretion of the mucous membrane of

theair passages and the removal offluid by spitting
Expectorant
Febrifuge
Anything which reduces fever
Flatulence
Presence of excessive gas in the stomach or

intestine
Galactagogue
Medicine that promotes secretion of milk
Gleet
Chronic dischargeof thin mucusfrom the vagina
Gonorrhoea
Haematemesis
Vomiting of blood
Haemorrhoids
A bleeding pile
Helminthiasis
Morbidstate due to infestation with worms
Hemicrania
Headache confirned to one side
Hepatopathy
Hepatosplenomegaly
Hoarseness
Hydragogue
Promoting expulsion ofwater or serum
Hyperdipsia
Intense thirstof relativelybrief duration
Insanity
Mental disease ofa gravekind
Laxative
Having the actionof loosening the bowel
Leucoderma
Leucorrhoea
Any white areaon the skin

An abnormal mucus discharge from vagina
Lithiasis
Theformation of calculus of any kind.
Lithontriptic
An agentthat effects the dissolution of calculus
Menorrhagia
Excessive or prolonged menstration
Metropathy
Any uterine diseases
Nephropathy
Disease of kidneys
Neuralgia
A painful affection of the nerves due to functional
Inflammatory discharge of the genitourinary

passages characterised by pain & discharge
Any disease of the liver

An enlarged conditionof the liverand spleen
The harsh, rough, grating qualityofvoice distinctive
ofaffectionsor diseasesof throat & larynx
disturbances or neuritis.

Oedema
Ophthalmia
Orchitis
396
The presence of excessive amountsof fluid in the

intercellular tissue spaces of the body, due to
increased transudation of fluidfrom the capillaries.
A term usuallyappliedto conjuctivitis

Inflammation of the testis characterised by
hypertrophy and pain
Inflamation of the mucous membrane and

underlying partofthe pharynx
Pharyngitis
Pharyngodynia
Pain ofthe pharynx
Pruritus
Itching
Purgative
Promoting evacuation ofthe bowel
Refrigerant
Coiling
Rubifacient
Causingreddening of the skin
Scrofula
Tuberculous cervical adenitis with or without

ulceration
Sialogogue
An agentthatincreasesthe flow of saliva
Splenomegaly
Enlargement ofthe spleen
Stomachalgia
Pain in the stomach
Stomachic
Relating or belongiong to the stomach; gastric
Strangury
A painful excretion ofthe urine, slowly and drop by

drop due to spasmodic contraction ofthe urethra &
bladder
Styptic
Having the poserto arrestbleeding
Sudorific
Diaphoretic; giving rise to perspiration
Thermogenic
Heat producing
Uropathy
Vaginismus
Any disease of the urinarytract

Painful spasm of the muscles surrounding the
vagina
Verminosis
Helminthiasis
Vesical
Referring to the urinarybladder
Visceromegaly
Abnormal enlargement of the viscera
Vulnerary
Pertaining to or healing wounds, an agent which

heals wounds.
397
Appendices
Appendix2
Glossary
Botanical Terms
Apiculate
A short, sharp, but not rigid point
Apocarpous
When the carpets are free and separate
Bifarous
Leaveson two sides with the upper surface facing

upwards
Caudicles
A smalltail organ in orchids the stalk ofthepollinium
Chartaceous
Paperly
Clavate
Clubshaped
Coma
The tuft of hairsat the end of some seeds
Coriaceous
Leathery
Crustaceous
Hard like a crust
Distichous
Arranged in two vertical rows
Eliiiptic
Oblong but end tapering towardsboth the ends
Emarginate
Ratherdeeply notched at the apex
Glabrous
Gynophore
Gynostegium
Union formed between androecium & Gynoecium
Imparipinnate
Pinnate with an odd terminal member
Lanceolate
Lens shaped
Ligulate
A strap-shaped organ; in grassesand somesedges
Withoutany kindof hairs

An elongation of the axis forming a stalk.
a narrowtransverse appendage at the base of the

leafwithin
Mottled
Palisade ratio
Pinnate
Pollinia
Variegated
The ratio between the number of epidermal and

palisade cells. It is the average number ofpalisade
cells below an epidermal cell.
Leaflets arranged on each side of a common axis
as in a feather
A pollen mass, speciallyin orchids
398
With both unisexual and bisexual flowers on the

sameor different individual plant.
Polygamous
Pubescent
Puberulus
Sinuate
Spathulate
Narrowlyoblong with theend expanded and broader,

more or less like a chemist's spathula
Stipitate
Sralked
Stomatal index
Terete
Cylindrical and circular in cross section
Tomentose
Densely matted with wooly hairs.
Undulate
Wavy
Vein-islet number
The number of minute areasof the photo-synthetic

tissues, encircled by the ultimate division of the
conducting strands in a unitarea.
Clothed with soft, rather short hairs
Slightlyhairywith very short hairs

with a deeplywavy margin
Number of stomataand the numberof epidermal

cells in unit area of leafsurface. It is calculated by
using the formula SIE+S x 100

Important Kerala Herbs

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IbRCtJb.

VaidyaratnamP.S. VarriersARYA VAIDYASALA

The Medicinal and AromaticPlants Program in Asia (MAPPA)

Development Research Centre, 2000

Production: Artstock, NewDelhi, India

Medicinal andAromatic Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA)

20. Trichosanthes lobata

Sustainable use and biodiversity conservation: issuesand opportunities

countryand exported abroad. Conservative estimates place theeconomic valueofmedicinal plants

Regional Program Coordinator, (MAPPA)

IDRC Program Officer

Cherla Sastry (1992-1 997)

Extant location specific distribution not documentedadequately.

Overexploitationand destructionof natural habitats of widely used taxa have resultedin

Specific objectives(in respectof 20 selectedspecies)

Documentationof pharmacognosticfeatures of plant parts of medicinal value

Developmentof techniques to raise healthy seedlings in nurseries

Standardization of planting methods and training farmers, housewives, personnel

Establishment of permanent self sustaining facilities for production of planting

Selection of Species for the Study

Species have become critically endangered globally (e.g. Coscinium fenestratum or

adulterated with morphologicallysimilar plant parts of other species of unknownmedicinal

collection and field study

Drs. N. Ssidharan, C. Renuka, K.K.N. Nair and K.K. Seethalakshmi,Scientists, Kerala

Late Dr. V.V. Sivarajan, Dept. of Botany, CalicutUniversity in guidancein pharmacognostic

of medicinal plants In India and current status

As observed by Vogel (1970), Indianshave believed from time immemorialthat natureprovides

Some Important MedicinalPlants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile

Prevent unintentionalusage of wrong taxa and/or deliberateadulteration

Prevention of using incorrect taxa

The plant mentioned as murva in sanskrit is identified variously as Clemdtis triloba,

Enlargement of resource base

Some Important MedicinalPlants of WesternGhats, India: A Profile

Lack of tested techniques to raise and tend medicinal plant crops

contributions. These are:

Developing simple technologies for raising 20 species of medicinal plants in nurseries

Species selectedfor the study

Some Important Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile

Fig.1: Western Ghats: Location

Some Important Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile

Figs 2: Western Ghats: Forest types

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Rutaceae)

The bael tree, Holy fruit tree

Dhanwanthararishta, Mrithasanjeevani, Anuthaila,Arimedasthaila(small), Asanavilwadithaila,

Khadirasaradi ghritha, Chargeryadi ghritha, Thylwaka ghritha, Dadhika ghritha,

Brihachagaladi ghritha, Mahabhootharava ghritha, Mahasneha ghritha, Lasuna ghritha, Varanadi

Some Important Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile

ghritha, Varahyadighritha(big),Sarvamayanthaka ghritha, Sukumaraghritha, Sooranadi ghritha,

Hingupadaghritha, Kapithashtakachoorna, Pushyanugachoorna, Abhra bhasma, Chinchadi

Officinal parts (Fig.4 and Plate 2)

Description (Plates 1-3; Figs.5, 6)

Flowers3-4 cm in diameter, regular, bisexual,occasionallypolygamous, greenish-white;sepals

Floral vasculature (Fig.7)

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Rutaceae)

Distinct patches of stone cells above the phloem region

Several layers of cambium

iii) Interior to the cortex is the characteristic concentric patches of sclerenchyma

Some Important MedicinalPlants of Western Ghats, India: A Profile

The numericalvalues like stomatal index, palisaderatio and vein-islet numberareofsignificant

root (25 samples)

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Rutaceae)

Chemical characteristics and properties

0.74; 0.79; 0.92