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AT
COTTON RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
AYUB AGRICULTURE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
FAISALABAD (2016)

Supervised by:
MUHAMMAD RIAZ
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Submitted by:
Muhammad Zahid
2

Registration No:
2012-ag-4139
For the partial fulfillment of the degree of
B.Sc (Hons.) Agri.
Department of Agronomy
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

GHAZI UNIVERSITY
DERA GHAZI KHAN

To Whom It May
Concern
It is certified that Muhammad Zahid, Reg. No. 2012-ag-4139 has worked at Cotton Research
Institute Faisalabad from 1st April to 15th July as a part of Internship Program. The contents and
format of report have been checked, found satisfactory and recommended to be processed for
further evaluation.

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE

1) Director (CRI)

_______________________________

(DR .Saghir Ahmad)

Director,
Cotton Research Institute
Faisalabad.

______________________________

(Muhammad Riaz)
Assistant Botanist,
Cotton Research Institute
Faisalabad.

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2) Supervisor (CRI)

3) Co. Ordinator:
______________________________

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(Dr. Muddassar Maqbool)

Head of department, Agronomy
Ghazi University
Dera Ghazi khan

Dedicated
To.

ALMIGHTY ALLAH,
Holy Prophet (PBUH)
[Greatest Reformer]

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&
My Precious Parents

Acknowledgement
If oceans turn into ink and all of the woods become pens, even then praise of ALMIGHTY
ALLAH cannot be expressed but up ad above everything else, I offer my humblest and the
sincerest thanks to Allah Almighty and humblest ad the deepest obligations with great honor and
the esteem to the HOLY PROPHET HAZRAT MUHAMMAD (PBUH).
The work presented in this manuscript was accomplished under the enlightened supervision of
Director, Cotton Research Institute, Ayub Agricultural Institute, Faisalabad.
I deem my sincerest gratitude for Dr. Muhammad Saghir Ahmad for his valuable
suggestions and technical guidance for the completion of this research work.
I wish to pay my deepest homage to Sir, Muhammad Riaz for their moral suggestions and
encouraging attitude during my internship.
And last but not least, No acknowledgements could ever adequately express my obligations to my
affectionate and adoring parents whose hands always raised in prayers for me and without whose
moral and financial support, the present house for me in the dark oceans of life path. No words can
really express the feelings that I have for my beloved parents.

Muhammad Zahid

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2012-ag-4139

Chapter 1

Internship program: ......8

Principle Approach : ......

.8
Social Approach : ..
.8

Chapter 2

Introduction of City Faislabad : ...9

Introduction : ...........

9
GOVERNMENT: .....

...9
DISTRICT FAISALABAD AND AGRICULTURE:....
....10
Development : ...
.10
AYUB AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE (AARI), FAISALABAD .....11

Introduction :

.11
Objectives :

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Chapter 3

....11

Services Offered :

..12
Future Plans :

.....12
Organizational Setup : ...
13

Chapter 4

COTTON RESEARCH INSTITUTE, FAISALABAD (CRI):...14

Introduction :

14
Cotton Research Stations in Punjab:...

..14
Organizational Setup : ..

15
Mission :

...................................15
Objectives :

...15
Services :

..............................16
Research Activities :

Chapter 5

17
Varieties Released By Cotton Research Institute Faisalabad:
.18
Strains of (CRI), Faisalabad and its allied stations in pipeline:
......18
INTRODUCTION TO COTTON: ...19

History :

19
Genetic Makeup : ...

..19
Genetic modification : .

.20
Role of cotton in pakistan : .

.21
AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD OF COTTON IN PUNJAB:.

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..21

Year vise lint production of Punjab :

..22
Year vise lint production of Pakistan: .

22
Top 10 cotton producers :

....23
Botanical feature of cotton :

23
Main growth stages and development :

...27
Breeding methods :

..29
Production technology of cotton::.......30
Introduction(Seed parameters) : .30
Storage of seed, germination %, Seed treatment:....31
Selection of soil, preparation of soil : .31
Planting methods (Advantages and Disadvantages): ..33
Sowing time and Seed rate : ....34
Plant population, germination date recorded and thinning : ....35
Weeds of cotton : ....36
Losses due to weeds and control :
..38
Irrigation, time of irrigartion.
39
Fertilizer...
.40
Insect, pest management:.
.41
Picking:
.....42
Methods of storage, principles for getting higher yiedls:
.43

Chapter 6

Selfing and crossing techniques: .....45

Chapter 7

Biotic and abiotic stresses:........51

Chapter 8

Germination testing by towel roll method : ...................52

Chapter 8

GINNING AND FIBER TESTING LABORTORIES: 53

Chapter 9
Chapter 10

Fiber testing LABORTORIES:......63

Causes of low yield of cotton in Punjab during the year 2015-16:..............64

Chapter 11

Various effects and suggestions & SUMMARY...66

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Chapter 6

INTERNSHIP PROGRAM
Internship is a training program which is a prerequisite for the completion of B.Sc. (Hons.)
Agriculture. The duration of this training is one semester and it comprises of the following
components:
Internship training at any government agriculture research institute
Internship tour to various governments agricultural Research Institutes in Punjab.
Submitting internship tour report to the Supervisor.
Presentation and written comprehensive examination.
This is a kind of program which strongly enhances the expertise and practical approach on
various aspects of agricultural research. It makes a student more inclined towards achieving the new
horizons in agriculture research. Now the question arises, how it helps in enhancing the pragmatic
approach of a student? Here, I will briefly explain some of its positive strengths under the following
headings:

Practical Approach:
The best thing about this program is that we get practical know how about the theoretical
knowledge which we have gained during our degree program.
The difference between knowledge gained in classroom and obtained practically is equal to
the difference between something imaginary and real.
Also the published information may not be as state of the art and up-to-date as techniques
applied in the fields and laboratory.
It makes a student more ready to face daily problems of agriculture research and solving
these problems more rationally and prudently.

Social Approach:
Internship also helps us in interacting with the agricultural scientists, which helps us in

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sharing new ideas and developments in the field of agriculture.

10

FAISALABAD
(MANCHESTER OF

PAKISTAN)
Faisalabad is a city in Punjab Province,
Pakistan, formerly Known as Lyallpur. It is the third largest city in Pakistan after Karachi and
Lahore. Before the foundation of the city in 1880, the area was very thinly populated. The larger
Faisalabad district had a population of about 5.4 million in 1998.
It is an important center for industrial production at west of Lahore & is known as the
Manchester of Pakistan. The city-district of Faisalabad is bound on the north by the districts of
Gujranwala and Sheikhupura, on the east by Sahiwal, on the south by Toba Tek Singh and on the
west by Jhang. It is 1,135 km from Karachi, 128 km from Lahore, 350 km from Islamabad.
The city is at a road and railway junction, which has played an influential role in the
development of Faisalabad's trade and economy. The surrounding countryside, irrigated by the
Lower Chenab River, has seen expanded production of cotton, wheat, vegetables, and fruits, which
form 25% of Pakistan's exports. The city is also an industrial centre with major railway repair yards,
engineering works, and mills that process sugar, flour, and oil seed. Produce includes super
phosphates, cotton and silk textiles, hosiery, dyes, agricultural equipment, and ghee (clarified
butter). Faisalabad is also the site of the prestigious University of Agriculture, founded in 1909.

GOVERNMENT:
Faisalabad district formerly comprised six sub-divisions; Faisalabad City, Faisalabad Sadr, Chak
Jhumra, Jaranwala, Samundri, and Tandlianwala. In 2005, Faisalabad was reorganized as a CityPag

District composed of eight autonomous towns:

11

 Lyallpur Town
Madina Town
Jinnah Town
Iqbal Town
Chak Jhumra Town
Jaranwala Town
Samundri Town
Tandlianwala Town

DISTRICT FAISALABAD AND AGRICULTURE:

Faisalabad district is un-parallel for its agricultural productivity. The area grew in importance as the
grain belt of the Punjab. Prosperous towns and villages sprung up in the wake of colonization. Kharif
crops are cotton, maize, rice, sugarcane and bajra. Rabi crops are wheat, barley, Gram and Berseem.
In addition to these, there are also Zaid Kharif and Zaid Rabi crops. Zaid Kharif crops are toria, raiya,
sarsoon and Zaid Rabi crop is tobacco. The use of tractors is becoming popular and fast replacing the
conventional ploughs. Improved varieties of seeds, fertilizers and pesticides have greatly increased
per acre yield and with that the prosperity of the peasant community, which has toiled for three
generations to transform a barren land into verdant fields.
Faisalabad district is famous for its fruit production also. The important fruits are Kinnow, Malta,
Fruiter, Mango, Guava and Faalsa. Total area under fruit orchards is 34,517 acres.

DEVELOPMENT:
Faisalabad has a strong industrial base including textiles, jewelry, home furniture and
pharmaceuticals, assisted by expanding transport network which include newly build motorways to
Lahore and Rawalpindi. The city is also home to numerous colleges and universities such as the
Agriculture University and Punjab Medical College. The development of the new middle class has
led to a major malls and shopping plazas aimed investment from the United Arab Emirates as well
1. Pearl Continental

2.

Kohinoor Plaza

3.

Centre point

4. Do Burj

5.

Dubai shopping mall

6.

Chen One

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as some European firms. Names of some of the main places are as follows:

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7. Rex City

8.

Media Com Trade City

9.

Serena Hotel

INTRODUCTION TO AYUB AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(AARI), FAISALABAD
Introduction:
Ayub Agricultural Research Institute (AARI), Faisalabad is the premier and prestigious
organization of the country. Its mandate is the development of technology for food security,
generation of exportable surplus, value addition and conservation of natural resources. AARI
originated in 1962 (after bifurcation of research and education) is a successor of former
Punjab Agriculture College and Research Institute Lyallpur (Established in 1906).

Objectives of AARI:

Genetic improvement of field and horticultural crops.

Formulation of production technologies for yield maximization.

Development of crop production technologies.

Introduction of new crops and practices for changing economy.

Processing and preservation of fruits, vegetables, etc. to avoid losses and stabilize prices.

Linkage/liaison with farmers and extension.

AARI is administrated by the Secretary, Government of the Punjab, Agriculture Department

Lahore and headed by the Director General Agric. (Research), Ayub Agricultural Research
Institute, Faisalabad. The main campus of
the Institute is located at Faisalabad
where major research personal and
facilities are located. The Institute also
has

Research

Stations,

Sub-stations,

Testing Centers, Service laboratories, and

Research-cum-demonstration

farms

located throughout the Province of

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Punjab to cater the ecological specific technology needs.

13

Fig.1.1 D.G office AARI.

AARI has the unique distinction of releasing 453 Varieties of different crops and their production
technologies resulting in several fold increase in yield of wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane and potato.
However, merely 40 to 50 percent of the yield potential has been recovered due to a number of
factors i.e. inconsistency in weather, improper marketing, poor infrastructure, untimely supplies of
inputs, absence of insurance cover to crops, poor control on quality of inputs, mismanagement of
nirrigation, post-harvest losses, high input cost, knowledge gap, inadequate financial resources etc.
AARI is the seat of green revolution which later spread to neighboring countries. The momentum
of green revolution has been kept by the release of more than fifty (50) wheat varieties. Due to
concreted breeding efforts, no epidemic of rust could suffer after 1977-78. The popular variety in
Pakistan, namely, INQILAB-91 is the best spring wheat variety in the world, which has remained in
the field for last 15 years, due to its versatility. AARI has the capacity to meet the challenges of the
21st century. New crop varieties and variety specific production technology is prepared to meet the
requirement of the farming community.

Services Offered:
The basic function of the Research Institute is to transfer production technology to the growers
through Agriculture Extension Wing of the Agriculture Department. However, the farming
community may contact Crop/Commodity Specialist available at the Research Institutes established
throughout the province for the following services:

Information on promising/approved varieties.

Seed availability of new varieties.
Package of advanced crop production technology.
Disease and insect attack identification and control measures.
Soil, Water, Fertilizer and pesticide analysis.
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FUTURE PLANS:
14

The research on Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering will be strengthened to boost up

the output and quality of o0ithe crops improvement program.

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Organizational Setup:

15

COTTON RESEARCH INSTITUTE, FAISALABAD (CRI)

Brief introduction:
Research work on cotton was started under Cotton Research Station Lyallpur (now Faisalabad),
established in 1902. There has been continuous expansion in cotton research system in Punjab to
cater the needs of farmers and other stakeholders

Cotton Research Institute

During 1935, one research sub-station was established in Multan for testing the performance of
varieties in relatively hotter Southern zone. Cotton Research Sub-Station, Multan was upgraded in
1958 and in addition to testing of varieties developed at Lyallpur (Faisalabad), the task of
developing varieties was also entrusted to this center. Further strengthening gave birth to several
Cotton Research Stations in Punjab, as outlined below: -

Sr. No.

Name of Research Center

Year of Establishment

1.

Cotton Research Station, Sahiwal

1948 (upgraded in 1972)

2.

Cotton Research Station, Bahawalpur

1975
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Cotton Research Stations in Punjab are outlined below:

16

3.

Cotton Research Station, Rahim Yar Khan

1988

4.

Cotton Research Station, Vehari

1988

The present organizational setup is as under:

Mission & Objectives

Mission:

Improvement in Yield.
Disease Resistance (CLCV).
Drought Tolerance.
Insect Resistance.
Improvement in Fiber Quality.
Broadening Genetic Base.
Expansion of Gene Pool
Early Maturity
Varieties suitable for high population
Heat Tolerance

Objectives:
Continuous genetic improvement for harmonious combination of various traits i.e.
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higher yield, GOT, boll weight, better fiber quality, etc.

Tolerance/resistance against CLCV
17

Early maturing cotton for wheat-cotton system

Resistance against bollworms
Tolerance against higher temperature (Global Warming)
Tolerance against water stress
Ideotypes suitable for higher plant population
Germplasm enrichment and Hybrid cotton development.
Interaction with various stakeholders i.e. farmers, extension industry etc.
Generation of knowledge to maximize cotton production.

Services:

Training of Extension Workers and Farmers

Through Mass Media i.e. Radio T.V Talks
Training of internship students of graduate classes
Provision of basic seed to Punjab Seed Corporation and Progressive Growers
Awareness through Seminars and Farmer Days
Awareness through Brushers and Pamphlets

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
(Project Planning 2016-2017)

AGRONOMIC TRIALS:
Sowing date trial on promising lines of cotton.
Yield response to cotton-wheat crop rotation.
Cotton planting date and plant population effects on seed cotton yield and fibre
quality
Impact of nutrient and irrigation management on cotton crop behavior and seed
cotton yield.
Zero-tillage in cotton wheat crop rotation.
Impact of N, P source on the growth and yield of cotton crop.
Plant spacing trials on promising advance line of cotton developed by CRI Fsd.

BREEDING TRIALS:
Maintenance and enrichment of germplasm of 510 accessions.
100 new crosses will be attempted using diversified/exotic genetic sources for the

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development of high yielding CLCV resistant and high fiber quality varieties.
100 F1, 16 F2, 137 F3, 132 F4, 150 F5, & 50 F6 generation materials will be studied.
4 PYT, 3 AYT, 3 PCCT, 1 NCVT trials will be conducted to find out desirable ones.
Pre basic seed is produced for the following varieties.
18

 Varieties: FH-114, FH-326, FH-118, FH-942, FH-142, FH-Lalazar, FH-NOOR,FHKAHKSHAN, FH-312, FDH-228, FDH-228, FDH-170, FDH-502 and FDH-512.
Selection of segregating material for the development of drought tolerant variety of
cotton
Study of filial generations for drought tolerance (F1 - F6 )
Screening of advanced lines under drought conditions for the development of drought
tolerant variety of cotton
Preliminary yield trial (DN) under water stress conditions
Screening of promising lines/varieties against CLCuV
ICARDA Project: (International Center for Agricultural Research In the Dry Areas)

Screening of exotic accessions received from USDA

Reconfirmation and screening of 10 local advance lines for CLCuV
F3 generation advancement of local x USDA crosses in greenhouse.(Three way crosses)
Provincial coordinated cotton trials (PCCT).

ENTOMOLOGICAL TRIALS:
Relative resistance test against bollworms & sucking pest attack.
Population dynamics of red and dusky cotton bugs on Bt. cotton sown at different
sowing dates
Determination of morphological traits of cotton imparting resistance against cotton
whitefly
Efficiancy of sprayable insecticides for standardization against insect pests of cotton
Screening of advanced lines/varieties against red and dusky cotton bugs at different
sowing dates.
FIBER TECHNOLOGY STUDIES:
Fiber analysis of breeding material in which F1 (100), F2 (16), F3 (132), F4 (137), F5
(150) & F6 (50) generation material and PYT (4), AYT (3), PCCT, NCVT trials will be

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conducted.

19

Varieties Released By Cotton Research Institute Faisalabad

Strains of Cotton Research Institute, Faisalabad and its allied

stations in pipeline:
STRAIN
FH-Lalazar
FH-Noor
FH-KAHKSHAN
FH-326
MNH-988
MNH-992
BH-305
SLH-4
SLH-8
VH-327
BH-184
RH-647

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SR. NO.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

20

INTRODUCTION TO COTTON
Cotton is a soft, fluffy, staple fiber that grows in boll around the seeds of cotton plant. It is a
shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the America, India and
Africa. The fiber most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile,
which is most widely, used natural-fiber cloth in clothing today. Cotton seed oil is used as
banaspati ghee and its seed cake is used as meal for animals.

HISTORY:
Cotton was first cultivated in old world seven
hundred

years

ago

(5th

millennium

BC-4th

millennium BC), by the inhabitants of Indus valley

civilization, a civilization that covered a huge swath
of northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent,
comprising today parts of eastern Pakistan and
Northwestern India. The Indus cotton industry was
well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used
until the modern industrialization of India. Well before the Common Era, the use of cotton textiles
had spread from India to Mediterranean and beyond.

GENETIC MAKEUP OF COTTON:

Malavales and family Malvaceae. This genus comprises of more than 50 wild, cultivated and lint
less species. These are subdivided into 8 genomes i.e. A,B,C,D,E,F,G and K widely scattered over
21

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Cotton plant is annual and perennial in nature. It belongs to genus Gossypium, order

five continants.it is found in regions of high temperature. G.arboreum and G.herbaceum are diploid
with n=13(2n=26 chromosomes).these two species are mainly grown on tropical and subtropical
regions of the old world. G.hirsutum, G.barbadense and four other wild species (G.darvium,
G.lanceolatum, G.mustilanum and G.tomentosum are tetraploid n=26, 2n=52 chromosomes. The
first two species have long history cultivation in the old world. During the last century, new world
cotton species (tetraploids) have been replaced the diploid species in most part of the world, except
for small areas of Indo-Pak continent. The tetraploid cotton is known as American or upland Cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum and G. barbadense) is known as Egyptian cotton. The wild species are the
best source of resistance to disease, insect pests and tolerance to poor soil and stress conditions. The
rest of the species are wild type. They have least contribution to production but they are of great
importance for plant breeders.
These are diploid, perennial, xerophytic shrubs of arid and semi-arid regions of tropics. There seed
coat is hard, small in size and dont produce fiber. G. thurbri and G.triphyllum have a significant
contribution to fiber strength to upland cotton (G. hirsutum L.) and old world spp. respectively.

Genetic Modification:
Genetic modification (GM) of cotton was developed to reduce
heavy

reliance

on

pesticides.

The

bacterium

Bacillus

thuringiensis (Bt) naturally produces a chemical harmful only to

a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of moths &
butterflies, beetles, and flies, and harmless to other forms of life.
The gene coding for Bt toxin has been inserted into cotton,
causing cotton to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In
many regions, the main pests in commercial cotton are

Genetically modified cotton plants (left)

are able to withstand insect attacks that
can devastate conventional plants (right).

lepidopteran larvae, which are killed by the Bt proteins in the

transgenic cotton they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amount of broad-spectrum
insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed pyrethroid resistance). This
spares natural insect predators in the farms ecology and further contributes to non-selection

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insecticides pest management.

22

Cotton has also been genetically modified for resistance to glyphosate (marketed as Roundup in
North America), an inexpensive and highly effective, but broad-spectrum herbicide

Genetically modified cotton plants (left) are able

to withstand insect attacks that can devastate
conventional plants (right).

Other countries like USA, Chnina and India are using bollgard-

II. Bollgard-III having protein resistant to all bollworms have yet to be released byMonsanto.

Role of cotton in Pakistan:

Pakistan is the fourth largest producer of cotton in the world, the fifth largest consumer of cotton
and the largest producer cotton yarn. About 1.3 million farmer 9out of a total of 5 million)
cultivate cotton over 3 million hectares, covering 15 percent of the cultivated area in the country.
Cotton and cotton products contribute 1.6% to the GDP and 55 % of the foreign exchange
earning of the country. Taken as whole, 30 to40 % cotton ends up as domestic consumption of
the final product. The remaining is exported a raw cotton, yarn, cloth and garments.
Cotton production supports Pakistans largest industrial sector, comprising some 400 textiles, 7
million spindles, 27000 looms in the mill sector (including 15000 shuttle less looms), over
25000 looms in the non- mill sector, 700 knitwear units, 4000 garment unit (with finishing
capacity of 1150 million square meter per year), nearly1000 ginners, 30 oil expellers and 15000
to 20000 indigenous small scale oil expellers (Kohlus). It is by any measure Pakistan most
important economic sector. Not surprisingly, government policy has generally been used to
maintain a stable and often relatively low domestic price of cotton, especially since1986-1987
through the imposition of export duties, in order to support domestic industry.

Year
200001
200102
200203

Area (million
ha)
2.39

Production (million
bales)
8.54

Mnds/ac
(Phutti)
19.8

2.53

8.40

18.4

2.21

7.66

19.2

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AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD OF COTTON IN PUNJAB

23

200304
200405
200506
200607
200708
200809
200910
201011
201112
201213
201314
201415
201516

2.38

7.57

17.6

2.52

11.15

24.9

2.43

10.37

22.03

2.47

10.35

21.9

2.42

9.06

20.6

2.22

8.75

21.7

2.42

8.36

18.0

2.20

7.85

19.9

2.53

11.13

24.5

2.31

9.53

23.02

2.20

9.15

24.7

2.30

10.90

25.6

2.428

5.982

12.65

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YEARWISE LINT PRODUCTIONOF PUNJAB FROM 1947-48 TO 2015-16

24

YEARWISE LINT PRODUCTION OF PAKISTAN FROM 1947-48 TO 2015-16

TOP 10 COTTON PRODUCERS IN THE WORLD

Country

Production (Million Bales)

Peoples Republic of China

33.0

India

27.0

United States

18.0

Pakistan

10.3

Brazil

9.3

Uzbekistan

4.6

Australia

4.2

Turkey

2.8

Turkmenistan

1.6

10

Greece

1.4

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Ran
k

25

BOTANICAL FEATURES OF COTTON PLANT:

MAIN STAGES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Germination and emergence:
Cotton germination begins as seed absorbs water and oxygen through its seed coat after planting.
The water swells the dormant tissues; cell growth and division begin to take place. The radicle
emerges through micropyle, turns downward and grows deeper into the soil, providing a taproot
that will supply water and nutrients throughout the life of the plant. The hypocotyl elongates from
the radicle and forms an arch or crook that begins to push up through the soil, a brief period often
referred as the crook stage.
Under favorable condition for germination, the radical emerges through the pointed micropylar end of
the seed in two to three days. The radical becomes the primary root that grows downward into the
soil. The tissues between the radical and cotyledons (hypocotyls) grow rapidly, arching near the
through the soil surface. Typically, the seed coat is shed and remains in the soil. Optimum soil
26

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cotyledons. With continued expansion of the hypocotyls, the cotyledon and the epicotyls are pulled

temperature required for germination of cotton seed is 30 degree centigrade. Seedlings emerge in 5 to
10 days. Possible problem that hinder germination includes poor seed quality, soil crusting, salinity,
herbicides residues, cool temperature and disease. The radical or primary root develops rapidly and is
the first organ to emerge from the seed coat. The primary root or the tap root, penetrate the soil
rapidly and may reached a depth of upto 10 inches or more by the time the cotyledons unfold. The
root development during the early vegetative stage may proceed at the rate of 0.5 to 2 inches per day
depending upon condition. Thus, the root may go 3 feet deep when above ground portion of the plant
is only about the one foot tall.

Seasonal developments events:

The overall growth and development of the cotton plant follows a typical sigmoid curve. It begins
with relatively slow start during emergence and root growth followed by an exponential increase in
growth rate during canopy formation, flowering and boll development.

Root depth:
Depth of soil reservoir that plant can attain in order to get plant available
water is known as rooting depth of the plant. Effective root depth is determined by
both crop and soil properties. Different species of the cotton have different potential
rooting depth. Crop root do not extract water uniformly from the entire root zone.
The potential rooting depth is the maximum rooting depth when grown in a most
soil with no barriers or restrictions that inhibit root elongation. The potential rooting
depth of a commercial cotton plant is about 3-5 feet. Deeper root can extract
moisture to keep the plant alive, but they do not extract sufficient water to maintain
optimum growth. When adequate moisture is present, water uptake by the crop is the same as its root
distribution. About 70% of the water used by the crop comes from the upper half of the root depth.

Vegetative Growth:
Cotton has an indeterminate growth habit and can grow very tall under conditions of unrestrained
growth. Growth regulators such as Mepiqual chloride are generally applied to cotton to slow inter
node elongations especially for well-fertilized irrigated cotton. Otherwise, vigorous cotton varieties
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with plenty of water and nutrient can develop very tall vegetative growth. This type of rank growth
promotes boll rot and fruit abscission and makes a cotton crop difficult to harvest.
27

The first vegetative structures that appear on the main stem are main stem leaves and their point of
attachment is called node. A new node is produced from the apical meristem an average of every 3
days. The stem like structure that connects the leaf with the stem is called a petiole .Leaves arising
from the fruiting branches are referred to as subtending leaves. A fruiting bud, called a square,
begins to form at initiation of the fruiting branch.
The first square produced on a fruiting branch is referred as first position square. As this square
develops, the position of the fruiting branch between the main stem and the square also elongates.
This portion of the fruiting is also called internodes. An axillary meristem also develops adjacent to
this square. The axillary meristem produces a second position square and subtending leaf. As many
as four square may be produced in this fashion on fruiting branch.
As cotton plant develops, new leaves appear and expand, increasing sunlight interception. Initially
carbohydrates produced by the leaves are used to produce roots and more leaves. This production of
new leaves causes the leaf area of cotton plant to increase rapidly. Once reproductive structure
being to develop, carbohydrates supplies are slowly shifted to the developing fruit. As the fruit load
on the plant increases and development of new leave steadily declines. Leaf photosynthesis does not
remain constant as the leaf grows and develops. Collectively, as the reproductive growth of cotton
plant is increases it is doing so with the support of a leaf canopy that is aging.

Cotton Flower:
The cotton square is actually a flower bud. The first visible structures of the square are
the leaf like brackets or epicalyx.
Three brackets surround the flower bud in a pyramid like shape.
The cotton plant produces perfect flowers, meaning the flower contains both male and
female organs.
The first square is typically visible on node 5-7 about 35 days after planting.
Anthesis or a flower bloom occurs approximately 21 days after the first square appears.
When a pollen grain reaches the stigma, it germinates into a pollen tube.
The pollen tube grows through the style, micropyle and into the ovule chamber, where
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the fertilization takes place.

28

 Anything that reduces egg or pollen viability or tube growth in a flower adversely
affects the final yield for the boll.

Stages of flower:
Flowering is important to cotton production because pollinated flowers form cotton
bolls.
The bloom process takes several days and bloom age can be estimated by the bloom
characteristics.
On the day a flower opens, it is white in color.
Pollination of that flower usually occurs within a few hours after the white flower
opens.
On the second day the flower will have a pink like color and red color on the third day.
Approximately 5-7 days after a flower appears it usually dries and falls freely the plant
exposing the developing boll.
Occasionally a flower will stay attached to the developing boll for a longer period. This
is called a bloom stage.

Boll development:
After pollination occurs the boll begins to develop.
Under optimum conditions, it requires approximately
50 days for a boll to open after pollination.
Boll development can be characterized by three phases.

Enlargement phase:
The enlargement phase of boll development lasts for

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approximately 3 weeks.

29

 During this time the fiber produced on the seed are

elongating and maximum volume of the boll and
seed attained.
During this time the fiber is basically a thin walled tubular structure, similar to a straw.
Each fiber develops from a single epidermal cell on the seed coat.
During this phase, the development of the fiber is very sensitive to adverse
environmental conditions, low water availability and extreme in temperature and
nutrient deficiencies (especially Potassium) can reduce the final fiber length.

Filling Phase:
The filling phase of boll development begins during the 4th week after flowering.
At this time, fiber elongation ceases and the secondary wall formation of the fiber
begins.
The deposition of cellulose into the fiber cell is also sensitive to environmental
conditions.
The filling phase of boll development continues into 6th week after pollination.

The Boll Maturation:

This phase begins as the boll reaches its full size and maximum
weight.

During this phase, fiber and maturation takes place and boll dehiscence
occurs.
The capsule wall of the boll
the cells adjacent to the dorsal suture to shrink
These shrinking causes the suture between the

dry

causing

unevenly.
carpel walls
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to split and the boll opens

30

Fruiting habit of cotton:

The cotton plant also produced fruit on two different types of branches, each unique is growth habit,
further complicating crop management. In addition, cotton growth is very sensitive to temperature
and soil condition. As in other corps producers use chemicals in cotton to control weeds and
insects, but cotton is unique in that crop growth must also be regulated and eventually terminated
by chemical means.

BREEDING METHODS:
Commonly used breeding method for genetic improvement of cotton crop are given below
Introduction
Pure line selection
Mass selection
Pedigree method (most commonly used)
Back cross method

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Bulk method

31

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Production Technology of Cotton

32

Quality of Good Seed:

Seed should be free from weeds, diseases, stones and having good germination
%age. Good seed decreases 50% chances of crop failure, the rest of 50% will be
covered by appropriate crop operations i.e. proper preparation of land, use of
fertilizer, irrigation and crop protection. But if poor quality seed is used having
poor germination and vigor then proper stand of the crop will not be possible and
sometime it may happens that the whole crop may fail. So to safeguard all the
investment of land operations, cost of seed and fertilizer, pure seed is of extreme
importance.
Fit for less and more plant population
Crop height remains suitable.
Fertilizer use in better way.
Spray is easy.
Less dropping of squares and bolls.
Yield is more.

Delinting of Seed:
The seed is delinted with commercial grade sulphuric acid. 12 liter sulphuric acid is sufficient for delinting 10 kg cotton
seed. Seed should be placed in plastic pots or delinting
machine and spread acid on the seed equally. Stir it with the help of wooden stick so that
the lint will be detached from the seed. When all the lint is removed and seed appears
shiny black then put it on sieve present on floating water.
Fill the bucket with water and sprinkle on seed to wash the seed well.
Collect the healthy seeds from delinted seeds.
Cotton Seed Delinter

Cleaning of Seed:
After delinting the seed should be dipped in water so that the diseased and unhealthy seed will
float on the water so we will collect the diseased seed from the healthy one.

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Storage of Seed:
33

The healthy seed that settle down in water should be packed in gunny bags in dry and ventilated
stores for the storage of seed. Nylon and plastic bags should not be used for storage of cotton
seed.

Germination Percentage:
For germination testing sample of seed should be dipped in water for 6-8 hours. Take two wet
towels and one of them spread in shady place and put 100 seeds on that towel on four different
places. The temperature of place should be at least 30 degree centigrade for best germination.
Put the second towel on first towel. Sprinkle water 2-3 times on the seed in a day for
germination. After 8 days count the germinated seeds from the towel and make its average. It is
germination % age of seed.

Seed Treatment:
Seed treatment with suitable insecticide and fungicide is recommended to provide control of
sucking pests and seed borne diseases during early crop growth. Crop yields more and less
effected from disease attack due to treatment with pesticides and fungicide e.g. Imidacloporid
70WS, Thiomethoxan 70WS @ 3 gm per Kg of seed.

Selection of Soil:
Clayey soil is best for cotton crop.
Soil should be well pulverized and nutrients should be in sufficient quantity.
Soil should have ability to conserve water.
There should be no hard pan in soil.
Saline soil is not fit for cotton sowing. Ridge or bed sowing should be carried out on
such soils.

Preparation of Soil:
The land should be free of stubbles, clods and well pulverized.
Use rotavator, disk harrow so that it will not restrict plant growth.
Green maturing or animal dung should be buried in the soil at-least 45 days before
planting.
After green manure irrigate the field in 10 days.
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Apply half bag per acre urea fertilizer in field to speed up the process of decomposition
of organic matter.
34

Field should be properly leveled

with precision laser leveler for
uniform application of water.

Double rainy in fallow fields

should be carried out in case of flat

sowing after wheat crop.

Bed
preparation for sowing
Planting methods
1) Flat sowing.
2) Ridge sowing.
3) Bed sowing.

Flat sowing:
Flat sowing is carried out where the soil is fertile, loamy and rich in nutrients. For flat sowing
soil should be salinity affected. Prepare the land properly with 2-3 cultivators before conducting
rainy of the field. Irrigate the field heavily and weight for wattar condition. As the wattar
condition reach, prepare the soil with 2-3 cultivators + planking. Line sowing should be made
with cotton seed planter at a distance of 75 cm apart in rows.

ADVANTAGES:
Weeding is easy in flat sowing.
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Fertilizer application is easy.

35

 Intercultural practices are easy.

Spraying is easy in flat sowing.
DISADVANTAGES:

More wastage of irrigation water.

Poor germination on salt effected soils.

Accumulation of rain water in the field causing death of cotton plants.

RIDGE/ BED SOWING:

Ridge/ bed sowing is practiced where soil is saline and low water holding capacity. Land is
prepared by deep ploughing followed by 2-3 cultivators + plankers. Ridges/ beds are prepared
by ridger/ bed planter mounted by tractor.
ADVANTAGES:
It saves 30-40% water.
More area under irrigation in less time.
Good germination %age of seed and good plant population.
Save from rain fall losses.
50% seed save from this type of sowing.
Crop height is maximum.
Picking is earlier.

DISADVANTAGES:
Interculture and weeding is difficult in bed sowing.

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Spraying is difficult in ridge/bed sowing.

36

Bed making

Making Layout

SOWING TIME OF COTTON:

Core areas:

15th March- 31st May

Multan, Khanewal, Vehari, Lodhran, Bahwalnagar, Bahawalpur, D.G Khan, Rajanpur,

Muzaffargarh, Layyah, RahimYar Khan.
Non-core areas: 15th March-15th May.
Faisalabad, Toba Tek Singh, Jhang, Chiniot, Sahiwal, Okara, PakPattan.
Marginal area: 2nd fortnight of April.
Bakkahr, Mianwali, Khushab, Sargodha, Gujrat, MandiBahaodin, Hafizabad, Gujranwala,
Narowal, Sialkot, Shiekhupura, Nankana sahib, Lahore, Kasur, Attock. Rawalpindi, Jehlum,
Chakwal.

Seed rate and spacing:

Depending upon the variety, soil type, the cultivation on practices and method of sowing, seed rates
and spacing have been recommended.
The seed rate of 15-25 kg/ha and spacing of 75-90 cm between the rows are generally

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recommended for irrigated conditions. For rainfed deshi-cotton seed rate of 12-16 kg/ha and

37

spacing 45-60 cm between rows are adopted. For rainfed American cotton
seed rate is 12-16 kg and spacing is 60-75 cm between the rows.

Plant population:
Sr.No
1
2
3

Sowing
time
Early
(March)
Mid
(April)
Late
(May)

PP
Distance
12-15
inches
9-12
inches
6-9
inches

RR
Distance
2.5 feet

Plant Pop./Acre

2.5 feet

17500-23000

2.5 feet

23000-35000

14000-17500

GERMINATION RECORDING AND GAP FILLING:

One or one and half week after sowing of cotton crop germination data should be recorded and
missing plants from required plant population should be noted. Gap filling should be carried out
in wattar condition by eight hour soaking of cotton seed.

Germination recording
THINNING:
For good production of cotton it is necessary to maintain proper distance between plants. After
thinning plant grow normally at its place. Thinning should
be done after 20-25 days of sowing or before first
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irrigation or after first dry hoeing. Distance between

38

plants
should
be

maintained according to time of sowing as recommended.

Thinning of Cotton
Recommended Way for thinning:
After 20-25 DOS thinning done as just 3 plants left (healthy appearance)
And after one month out of three just one plant is selected left on field

Weeds of cotton:
Weeds are unwanted plants grown in cotton crop without the desire of growers. These unwanted
plants need to be eradicated before maturation of their seeds. It has been observed that weeds
around water channels, ridges and roads act as host plant for whitefly which is cause of leaf curl
virus infection. Therefore, eradicate weeds from places, clean water channels, ridges and roads
before sowing. Itsit, Madhana grass, Lehli, Tandla, Bhakhra, Khabal grass, Swank and Deela are
the important weeds of cotton.
Losses due to weeds:
Reduce production considerably
Provide shelter for insect/pests.
Compete crop for water, nutrients, air and light etc.
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Weeds are responsible for less production.

Secrete chemical compounds which harm plants
39

 Weeds serve as shelter for insect pests.

Weeds compete for air, water and light with cotton crop.

Weed Control:
Weeds should be eradicated as early as possible. There are two methods for effective control of
weeds
1. Cultural operations (Hand hoeing and interculture with tractor)
2. Chemical control (Application of pre-emergence and post-emergence weedicides)

Cultural operations:
Hand hoeing:
There are several benefits of weeds control by hand hoeing. It retains
moisture in soil. It allows air passage to the crop roots in soil. 1-2
hand hoeings should be done before first irrigation

Hoeing with tractor/hoe machine:

Hoeing should be done 25-30 days after sowing and before first irrigation. 1-2 dry hoeings
are sufficient. Depth of plough should not be more than 2-2.5 inches to avoid the loss of
moisture from the soil.

Wet method:
Performed hoeing after each irrigation at water conditions. Hoeing should be continued till
the breakage of plants. It is important that hoeing should be done at proper moisture level to
avoid make of slumps.

Chemical control:
Two types of herbicides are used
1. Pre emergence
2. Post emergence

Pre emergence herbicides:

Apply herbicides before Rouni irrigation
Use blade or planker
Apply herbicides after preparation of seed bed but before sowing of seed.
Before last ploughing for seed bed preparation spray weedicide in the field

Post emergence herbicides:

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Use T. Jet Nozzles

Use shield to avoid crop damage
40

 Post emergence herbicides should be used after emergence of crop and weeds in the
field

Irrigation:
Irrigation should be applied by keeping in view fertility of soil, method of sowing, variety
sown and climatic conditions. Avoid heavy irrigation because it is harmful for plants. Light but
frequently irrigation is required by the crop. Short stature and early maturing varieties need
first irrigation early than the late maturing varieties

Irrigation of Field
Drawback of heavy irrigation:
Temporary water logging.
Withering of young plants.
Bud and flower shedding.
Leaching of nitrogen.
Excessive growth.

Symptoms of water deficiency in cotton plant:

Water deficiency symptoms on upper part of plant are more visible as compared to lower. In
which:
Discoloration of leaves.
Decrease in length of upper branches.

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Emergence of cotton flower at upper top.

Rapid Reddening of upper part of stem.
41

 Upper surface of leaves becomes rough.

Irrigate the field immediately before the appearance of such symptoms so that cotton crop can
be saved from any sort of damage.

Time of irrigation:
First irrigation in case of flat sowing in lines should be given 30-35 days after sowing and
remaining irrigations with the interval of 12-15 days. If wheat is to be grown after cotton crop
then last irrigation should be given upto 15th October.
In case of bed sowing first irrigation should be given within 2 to 3 days after sowing and
subsequent irrigations with interval of 12-15 days.

Fertilizer application:
(Sowing between 15th March to 15th April)
Nature of
soil

Nitrog
en

Phospho
rus

Pota
sh

Fertilizer quantity per acre

Unfertile
(weak)

161

70

50

3 bags DAP + 5.75 bags urea + 2

bags potash sulfate

Medium
fertile
Fertile

161

58

50

161

46

50

2.5 bag DAP + 6 bags urea + 2

bags potash sulfate
2 bags DAP + 6.25 bags urea + 2
bags potash sulfate

(Sowing between mid-April to mid-May)

Nature of Nitrog Phospho
soil
en
rus
Unfertile
80
58
(weak)
Medium
fertile
Fertile

Pota
sh
38

80

46

38

80

35

38

Fertilizer quantity per acre

2.5 bags DAP + 2.5 bags urea + 1.5
bags potash sulfate
2 bags DAP + 2.45 bags urea + 1.5
potash sulfate
1.5 bags DAP + 3 bags urea + 1.5 bags
potash sulfate

In case of zinc and boron deficiency use zinc sulfate 33 % 5 Kg or 21 % 10 Kg and Uric acid

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3.5kg per acre after soil analysis.

42

(Fertilizer Applications)

Insect pest management:

Insect pest management is a crucial step in the field for the maximum yield of cotton. In cotton
crop insect pest management can broadly be divided into three major controls.
1. Cultural control
2. Biological control
3. Chemical control

Cultural control:
Avoid the cultivation of alternate host plant near the control field. Avoid excessive amounts of
nitrogenous fertilizers. Never over irrigate the cotton field so that, there may non-succulency in
leaves. In order to avoid from the jassid attack, cotton crop should be sown earlier. Completely
remove the weeds from the cotton field. Destroy the stubbles in order to destroy the overwintering eggs and pupa of pink bollworm. For the control of armyworm, the most effective
method is the hand picking of egg masses and their destruction. Proper preparation of land
results in killing of pupae or exposing them to environmental factors. Trap crop (millet) is very
effective for the effective control of pink boll worm, for attracting the bird predator of larvae of
boll worms. For effective control of pink boll worm, following practices should be applied.
Before sowing, all the seeds must be de-linted and exposed sun by spreading them on the hard
floor at mid- day for about 4-5 hours and for 2-3 consecutive days.
All the double, triple and quadruple seeds, containing dispraising larvae should be picked out
and destroyed. In case of early season attack, the infected flowers (rosette flowers) should be
handpicked and destroyed. Removal of crop residues left over bolls and cotton sticks soon after
harvest so as to check the carryover of the dispraising larvae. Grazing by animals (sheeps and
goats) for 2-3 times in cotton fields after last picking and before cutting of sticks. Ploughing of
cotton fields with furrow turning plough to bury debris and bolls containing dispraising larvae.
Chopping and slashing of the cotton sticks in the fields and burying them with tractors to
destroy pink boll worm and to increase organic matter and nutrients in the soil, followed by a

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heavy irrigation to kill the resting larvae in the soil.

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Biological control:
Biological control is not much developed in Pakistan. However, following species of the
predator and parasites are successfully being used for the control of sucking and chewing insect
pest.
Chrysoperlacarnea
Lady bird beetle
Hover fly
Myrid bug
Anagyruskamali
Cryptoyolaemusmontrouzieri
Trichogramma spp.

Lady bird beetle

Hover fly

Chemical control:

For sucking insect:

Imidacloprid and Thiomethoxam
For chewing insects:
Profenofos and Thiodicarb

SUCKING INSECT PESTS OF COTTON

Insect pest
Predator/parasite
Whitefly
Jassid
Aphid

Crysoperacarnea, lady bird beetle

Chrysoperlacarnea, Lady bird beetle.
Chrysoperlacarnea, hoverfly

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44

Thrips
Mite
Mealybug

Chrysoperlacarnea, predator mite

Myrid bug, predator mite
Anagyruskamali,
cryptoleamousmountroieri

CHEWING INSECT PESTS

Spotted bollworm
American bollworm

Trichogrammassp,myrid bug.
Trichogrammassp,

Pink bollworm

Trichogrammassp,spider

Armyworm

Damsel and dragon flies, spider

Picking of cotton:
Keep in mind the following things while picking the
cotton;
Picking of cotton should be done when 4050% has been opened.
Try to avoid cotton picking, if the weather is
cloudy.
Do not pick immediate after the rainfall.
Start the picking, when there is no dew in
field. Picking should be start after 10 AM to 4
PM.
Pick the cotton from lower bolls to the upper
ones. In this way leaves do not contaminate
the lint.
Picking should be done in lines by the pickers.
Pay reasonable wages to the labor.
After picking place the cotton on dry and clean place in the field.
Only fully opened bolls should be picked
Picking interval for American cotton is 15-20 days and for Desi cotton is 8 days to avoid
loss of open cotton.
The pickers under the supervision of skilled supervisions should pick cotton in a row in
the same direction.
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Methods of storage:
Following points must be considered for storing seed cotton.
45

 Moisture level must not be above 8-10%

Store rooms must make of concrete and should be dry
If store rooms are not cemented, a layer of dry sand should be put on the ground then plastic
sheet is placed on this layer and seed cotton should be stored in these stores
Seed cotton should be placed in small heaps in stores so that air could move easily
Seed cotton should be stored after sun drying
Each variety should be stored separately
If stores are not available then seed cotton should be placed at elevated and dry places in
small heaps

Priciples for getting higher yield:

Level field
Proper soil preparation
Healthy, graded and treated seed
Balanced used of fertilizers with micronutrients applications
Use approved and recommended varieties
Timely sowing up to 15 May
Proper and timely management
Timely picking

SELFING AND CROSSING TECHNIQUES:

Cotton is an often cross pollinated crop. The first flower opens at the lower side of the plant and
near the main axis. Most of the flowers complete anthesis between 8 to 10 am, although there is
a great variation in flowering time.

Equipment Needed:
Forceps, pointed needles, razor, camel hair brush, soda straw tube, copper wire no.30, wax,
butter paper bag, needle and thread, methylated sprit, small tags and lead pencil, acetone, or any
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adhesive material.
46

Selfing Procedure:
Place a rubber band around the unopened large size floral bud of desirable plant in the evening
to prevent the corolla from opening. Tie the bud with copper wire no. 30 below the flower tip,
taking care that the pistil is not being damaged. Stitch the unopened floral bud and complete the
operation by passing the needle through the bud in the direction opposite to the first. Place the
butter paper bag on the unopened floral bud and tie the loose end by means of a soft thread.
Apply acetone, clay or any other adhesive material like nail polish at the apex of the unopened
floral bud.

Crossing procedure:

Emasculation

In the evening select a desirable floral bud and cut the corolla by giving a circumcision around
the floral bud near the basal side. Remove the stamen gently with a forceps. Slide a wax based
soda tube on the pistil after emasculation. Plug the open end of the tube with surgical cotton.

Pollination

In the evening, Tag the unopened desirable flowers of the male parent before anthesis.

Next morning collect the pollen grains in the Petridish.

Dust the pollen grains with the help of fine camel hair brush on the stigma of the
emasculated bud after removing the soda straw tube.

Pollinate between 8-10 a.m. Put the soda straw tube after pollination to protect it from
stray pollen contamination.

Sterilize your hands and equipment with methylated spirit after each of pollination.

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Labeling:

47

Write the names of the parents in an order that female parents

name is written first then the name of male parent. Also write date
of emasculation, pollination and your name on the tag. Use lead
pencil for writing on tags.

```````````````Pollination

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Tagging

48

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC STRESSES IN COTTON

Stress refers to adverse conditions for crop growth and production imposed by either biotic or
abiotic factors.

1. Biotic stress:
Adverse conditions for crop growth and production imposed by biotic factors such as diseases,
insects and parasitic weeds.

2. Abiotic stress:
The various abiotic stress factors affecting cotton growth, development and yield mostly originate
due to weather and soil constraints. Their occurrence may be erratic or specific and the intensity
may be varying in their adversity. Consequently, stress imprints are marked in the altered plant
traits. The major abiotic stress factors affecting cotton production are;
Drought stress
High temperature stress
Salinity stress
Waterlogging

DROUGHT STRESS:
Prolonged dry spell due to uneven and erratic monsoon particularly under rainfed condition will
lead to rapid depletion in soil moisture. Drought stress gradually develops and intensifies during the
course of soil moisture decline resulting in restricted growth and development in cotton the critical
crop stage encountering dry spell is important. Drought stress at early growth phase may lead to
poor crop stand as the survival of the crop is at a great risk. Extension of dry spell duration at very
early growth stage may become disastrous for cotton performance. Mid stage drought stress
corresponding to peak flowering is critical as far as yield realization is concerned. Water
requirement is relatively higher at this crop age to sustain developing squares and young bolls,
may enhance abscission of fruiting parts thus affecting sink strength. Cotton water requirement is
about 5000 to 8000 m during the season for obtaining a normal yield. Reduced water availability
49

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whereas it is comparatively lower at pre-flowering and post-flowering stages. Continuous stress

due to dry spell has significant effect on growth and development due to adverse effect on the
ongoing physiological process.

Mechanism of Drought Resistance:

There are four mechanisms as follows.
1) Drought escape
2) Drought tolerance
3) Drought avoidance
4) Drought resistance

1. Drought Escape:
Ability of crop plant to complete their life cycle before the start of moisture stress in the
field is known as drought escape. Early maturing varieties generally escape from late season
drought.

2. Drought Tolerance:
Ability of crop plant of grow develop and reproduce normally under moisture deficit
condition is called as drought tolerance. In other words, it refers to survival of a crop plant under
water deficit condition without injury.

3. Drought Avoidance:
Ability of plant to maintain a favorable internal water balance under moisture stress is
known as drought avoidance.

4. Drought Resistance:
Ability of crop plant to give higher yield under moisture stress conditions is known as

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drought resistance. It refers to good yielding ability under moisture deficit condition.

50

Drought Avoidance
1. Plant maintains favorable tissue water
content.

Drought Tolerance
1.

Plant does not maintain favorable tissue

water content.

2. It reduces photosynthesis and increase

root development.

2. Tolerant genotypes exhibit better seed

germination, seedling growth at

3. In cereals, it operates during

vegetative phase.

photosynthesis.
3. In cereals, it operates during

4. Plant cannot withstand low tissue

water contents.

reproductive phase.
4. Plant can withstand low tissue water

5. It involves various morphological and

anatomical features of plant which

contents.
5. It generally involves those traits which

reduce water loss through

support for better photosynthesis under

transpiration.

drought conditions.

Drought Hardening:
Improvement in drought tolerance ability of a genotype through various seeds and seedling
treatment is called drought hardening.
DROUGHT MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Psycometer

Tensiometer

An instrument which is used to An instrument which is used to

An instrument which is

for measuring stomata

measure tissue water potential in

used for measuring soil

aperture/ stomata conductance

plants is known as psychomotor or

moisture is known as

is called poromoter.

pressure chamber

tensiometer

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Porometer

51

Effects of Drought:
Drought effects are given below.
Reduction in both quality and yield.
Adverse effects on plant growth and development.
Damage chloroplast and lowers outputs of the photosynthetic activities

Lead to increase in proline, abscisic acid and ethylene levels in the leaves.

Morphological traits associated with Drought:

Following morphological traits of cotton plant are associated with drought resistance
Small or okra leaf size
Lesser no. of stomata per unit area on leaves.
Thick cuticle layer of leaves.
Leaf and stem waxiness.
Deep root system.
Determinate growth habit.

Physiological traits associated with Drought:

Following Physiological parameters of cotton plants are associated with drought tolerance/
resistance.
High photosynthetic rates (umole / m2 / min).
Low transpiration rate(mm/s)
Leaf water potential(-mpa)2
Leaf osmotic potential (-mpa)
Turgor pressure (-mpa).
Leaf gas exchange. (mol m-2 s-1)
Leaf area index(mol m-2 s-1)
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Stomatal conductance.(mol/m2/sec)
Canopy temperature.(C)
52

 Excised leaf water loss (%)

Leaf water content (%)
Relative water content (%).
Cell membrane permeability (%)
Carbon isotopes discrimination.
Chlorophyll fluorescence.

Biochemical parameters for drought tolerance:

Abscisic acid (ABA) level.
Ethylene level.
Proline level (mol/g fresh wt.)
Superoxide dismutase (SOD).
Protein level (mg)

HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS

The temperature range 26-35oC is desirable during day time but the night should be cool during
flowering and fruiting in cotton. This crop is able to tolerate short periods of high temperature
upto 43-45oC if soil moisture condition is favorable. High day temperature coupled with high
night temperature delay flowering. The associative trend of high temperature low relative
humidity is more harmful in desiccating the leaf surface due to sharp increase in leaf
temperature.

High temperature regimes affect plant metabolism by impairing membrane

thermo stability and photosynthetic process. Enzyme activity is more sensitive and proteins
may be denatured at elevated temperatures. Plants tolerate high temperature by the
accumulation of low molecular weight 70 kD heat shock proteins. The other heat avoidable
mechanisms include light reflectance and transmittance to reduce the radiation load and to
maintain active transpiration cooling. Thick cuticle and hairiness are desirable characters to
minimize the heat stress effects.
The heat stress management includes identifying plants with relatively higher tolerance or
acclimatization to high temperature growing conditions. Cotton possesses near xerophytic
characters and wild cotton species have relatively more heat tolerance. High temperature effect
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may considerably be reduced by providing adequate irrigation at critical stages of growth which
53

may lead to leaf cooling effects. Use of light reflecting material and soil moisture conservation
at appropriate times may be useful in reducing the ill effects of elevated temperature. Such
measures may enhance water use efficiency

SALINITY STRESS
Salt affected soils are mainly confined to arid and semiarid
regions of the world. Common ions contributing to this
problem are Ca. Mg, Na, C1, SO4, and HCO3 and in some
instances K and NO3. The soils having EC of the saturated
extract more than 4 dS m-1, ESP more than 15 and pH more
than 8.5 are categorized as alkali soils.

Salinity on land
WATERLOGGING:
Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil
may be regarded as waterlogged when the water table of the
ground water is too high to conveniently permit an anticipated
activity, like agriculture. In agriculture, various crops need air
(specifically, oxygen) to a greater or lesser depth in the soil. In
rainy and humidity region cotton usually suffers from water
logging stress in growing stage leaf area index (LAI) in the
cotton bud period stage and flowering and boll-setting stage.

Water logging
Germination testing in accelerated growth chamber by towel roll method
Five varieties (FH-Lalazar, FH-142, FH-326, FH-312 and FH-444) were selected for their
germination testing under controlled condition of temperature (30C) and humidity (80%) in

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accelerating growth chamber. Seeds were spread over sheets of wet towel. As 100 seeds/towel in

54

three replications. Germination data were recorded after 7 days. The data is presented in the table
given below:

SR. NO

REPEATS

FHFH-142 FH-326 FH-312 FH-444

Lalazar
1
R1
45
55
60
58
55
2
R2
48
58
65
60
62
3
R3
47
52
68
62
65
Average (%)
46.7%
55%
64.3 %
60%
60.6%
Germination of percentage of different varieties tested in May 2015

GINNING AND FIBER TESTING LABORTORIES

Cotton Research Institute, Faisalabad has one ginnery lab and two fiber testing laboratories.

Ginning Laboratory:
Ginning is the process by which seeds are removed from the seed cotton (phutti). Ginning out
turn is the lint percentage. It is calculated as under:
Ginning out turn = Lint weight/Seed cotton weight100

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Two types of ginning machines are used i.e. Ruler Gin and Saw Gin.

55

GOT (%) of Advance Lines tested at CRI during 2016

Variety

Set 1

Set 2

DTV1
DTV2
DTV3
DTV4
DTV5
DTV6
DTV7
DTV8
DTV9
DTV10
DTV11
DTV12

42.7
46.3
43.0
41.7
43.7
43.0
43.7
42.7
43.3
42.3
44.3
42.7

39.3
43.0
40.0
41.0
42.7
41.7
41.7
40.3
42.0
42.7
42.0
40.3

Fiber
Testing

Laboratories
1. Manual Fiber Testing Laboratory:
In manual fiber testing laboratory instruments used for measuring fiber strength are operated by
manual way and all fiber traits are measured separately one by one. In this laboratory staple length
(mm), fiber fineness (g/i), strength (tppsi), uniformity ratio (%) and maturity (%) is measured.
There are following steps which are involved in fiber length measurement:

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Sliver Making
Drafting
56

 Tufting

Slivering:
Take about 5 gm of lint sample and break it into two pieces.
Take both pieces of lint into left hand and pick out the
protruding fiber with right hand.
When the fiber are of length of about 6 then role it to make sliver.

Drafting:

Drive the draw box machine anti

clock wise.

Pass the sliver through draw box

carefully.

Remove the drafted sliver from the big roller

Tufting:

Take the drafted sliver and break it into two pieces

Fix it tightly in the comb stand.

Remove all the loose fiber from protruding until there is a straight edge. A tuft shall now be

Comb this tuft 2 or 3 times and transfer on the black velvet tuft board.

A cut is marked with the scale at edge of the fiber.

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pulled from the sample by using a tweezer.

57

The length of fiber is measured between two points (grip of fiber and mark fiber)

Combing

Tufting

Standard of Fiber Length in Pakistan

20.6-25.4
25.5-28.2

Medium staple
Medium long

28.3-33.3

Long staple

Fibre Fineness:
Following steps are involved in fiber fineness measurement
Blending
Weighing
Micronaire value

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Blending:

58

It is

highly important that bulk cotton sample be thoroughly

blended

before specimens of cotton fiber are taken for testing. A

blender

performs following jobs:

1)

Open the cotton satisfactorily

2)

Certain amount of cleaning of sample

3)

Blending the fiber thoroughly and appreciably less fiber

damage
Blended
sample

is

used for
testing

moisture,
strength, fineness and maturity etc.
After blending the sample, it is weighed for calibration of fiber fineness.

Weighing:
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The weighing is done by digital balance or shadowgraph. The standard weight for Micronaire
Sheffield machine is 50 grains (1gm =15.43) 50 grains = 3.24 gms.
59

Micronaire value:
Rate of air flow through fiber mass is called micronaire value. It is measured by Micronaire
Sheffield machine.

Installation of machine:
Connect the air supply to inlet foot paddle valve of paddle.
Air should be minimum 40 pounds/sq.inch and not more than 120 pounds/sq.inch.
Connect the outlet of foot paddle to the inlet of the air filter valve.
Connect the outlet of filter valve to the inlet of micronaire machine.

Procedure:

Weigh 50 grains (3.24gm) with balance

Place the cotton in compression chamber

Press the paddle to turn the air on, take direct reading to the nearest scale reading
from top of float
Take two readings from the sample

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60

Standard of Fiber Fineness in Pakistan

Micronaire value

Grading

Below 3

Very fine

3.0-3.9

Fine

4.0-4.9

Medium fine

5.0-5.9

Coarse

Above 6

Very coarse

Fiber Maturity:
The ratio of wall thickening to the standard degree of thickening.

Maturity Measurement:

Microscopic method

Causticaire method

New method

Microscopic Method:
The fibers are directly examined microscopically for their maturity.

Causticaire method:
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The rate of air flow through a porous plug of cotton fiber, before and after treatment with 18%
solution of caustic soda is measured with micronaire.
61

New method (Process):

Blend the sample on blender.
Calibrate the Micronaire machine. Weigh two test specimens in the cylindrical container and
compress it by plunger.
Record the position of the float on designed linear scale mounted on the left side of
Micronaire machine.
Turn off air supply and remove plunger (L1).
Compress the test specimen by means of plunger (1, 2), record loat position, call this
reading (R2).
Work out the ratio (R2/R1) and consult conservation table.
Standard of Fiber Maturity in Pakistan
Maturity value (%)
Below 70
70-75
76-81
Above 81

Grading
Very immature
Immature
Average mature
Mature

Fiber Uniformity:
Presence of uniform fiber in cotton sample is called fiber uniformity. It is measured by using
Fibrograph530.
Formula:
Span length 50% level

X 100

2.5% level

Standard of Fiber Uniformity in Pakistan

Grading
Very low uniform

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Uniformity value (%)

Below 41

62

41-43
43-46
47-48
Above 49

Low uniform
Average uniform
High uniform
Very high uniform

Fiber Strength:
The force required to break a 1 sq.inch of cotton
OR
1 lac pound requires breaking 1 sq. inch.
Methods to Measure:
Presley method (tppsi)
Gram per tex(000 Psi)

Presley method:
Procedure:
Comb a sample bundle take from the sample and make a ribbon.
Place the ribbon of long straight fiber across the open jaws. The ribbon should
approximately inch wide.
Lock the top clumps.
Cut of the ends of the fibers protruding from jaws. Use a special recipe provided for this
purpose.
Release the beam weight by gently raising the locking lever.
When the weight stops, reading the breaking strength in pounds.

Unlock the top jaws.

Remove the broken fiber with tweezer and weight to the nearest 0.1 mg.

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Remove clumps from machine and place in the vise.

63

Standard of Fiber Strength in Pakistan by Presley Method

Fiber Strength value (tppsi)
70-76
77-83
84-90
91-97
Above 98

Grading
Very low
Low
Average
High
Very high

Standard of Fiber Strength in Pakistan by Gram per tex Method

Fiber Strength value (000

Grading

Psi)
16-18
19-21
22-24
25-27
Above 28

Very low
Low
Average
High
Very high

Minimum fiber quality requirement for variety approval by Punjab Seed Council:
Fiber quality traits
GOT %
Staple length
Fineness
Fiber strength

Minimum standard
38 %
28.0s mm
4.9 g/inch
92.5

tppsi

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Sr.#
1
2
3
4

64

2. High Volume Instrument Laboratory (HVI):

Recently this institute has purchased the USTER HVI 1000. This instrument measures fourteen
fiber traits with high precision.

A trial comprising of 12 varieties in three replications and two sets (Normal irrigation (8) and less
irrigation (3)) was analyzed for fiber traits both by manual and HVI methods.
The results of common traits measured by Manual and HVI methods are summarized as below:

Fiber testing by Manual method of advance lines under Drought (Set-1)

DVT1
DVT2
DVT3
DVT4
DVT5
DVT6
DVT7
DVT8
DVT9
DVT10
DVT11
DVT12

S.L. (mm)
28.0
27.7
27.7
27.8
28.1
27.7
27.9
27.8
27.7
27.5
27.4
27.5

F.F. (g/inch)
4.3
4.5
4.6
4.3
4.0
4.3
4.3
4.6
4.0
4.3
4.4
4.7

F.St. (tppsi)
98.2
100.4
90.9
98.5
100.9
101.0
101.4
99.2
92.7
101.0
99.1
98.6

MAT (%)
81.5
82.0
81.8
80.7
80.6
81.6
81.5
82.2
80.0
81.0
81.6
81.9
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Variety

Fiber testing by Manual method of advance lines under normal irrigation (Set-2)
65

Variety
DVT1
DVT2
DVT3
DVT4
DVT5
DVT6
DVT7
DVT8
DVT9
DVT10
DVT11
DVT12

S.L. (mm)
27.7
27.9
27.9
27.7
28.0
27.9
27.6
27.9
27.7
27.5
27.5
27.9

F.F. (g/inch)
4.4
4.6
4.6
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.0
4.5
4.4
4.6

F.St. (tppsi)
97.5
100.2
101.3
98.9
96.5
102.2
96.7
93.4
89.5
101.7
101.6
99.9

Fiber testing by HVI method of advance lines under Drought (Set-1)

Variety
S.L. (mm)
F.F. (g/inch)
F.St (g/tax)
DVT1
28.4
4.5
26.4
DVT2
26.8
5.0
25.4
DVT3
28.4
4.6
27.2
DVT4
27.9
4.3
27.3
DVT5
29.9
4.1
28.1
DVT6
27.8
4.5
25.4
DVT7
27.7
4.3
27.0
DVT8
27.9
4.6
26.8
DVT9
27.7
4.1
26.7
DVT10
26.5
4.4
25.8
DVT11
25.2
4.4
24.1
DVT12
26.3
4.8
25.8

MAT (%)
81.6
82.3
82.1
81.4
80.7
81.1
81.5
81.4
78.7
81.8
82.0
81.5

MAT (%)
87
88
87
86
85
86
86
87
86
87
86
88

Variety
DVT1
DVT2
DVT3
DVT4
DVT5
DVT6
DVT7
DVT8
DVT9
DVT10

S.L. (mm)
28.3
27.8
26.9
26.3
30.2
28.4
27.1
28.0
26.5
27.4

F.F. (g/inch)
4.3
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.2
4.6

F.St. (g/tax)
28.6
27.3
27.4
26.0
30.3
27.6
27.5
27.4
26.0
24.0

MAT (%)
86
87
86
86
86
87
87
87
86
87
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Fiber testing by HVI method of advance lines under normal irrigation (Set-2)

DVT11
DVT12

25.3
27.5

4.6
4.6

24.9
27.3

87
88

Study the effect of irrigations and method of analysis of fiber quality traits in
Cotton:
Ranges of quality traits (Set-1 Drought, 3 irrigations):
Method
Manual
HVI

Staple Length (mm)

27.4-28.1
25.2-29.9

Fiber Fineness (g/i) Fiber Strength

4.0-4.7
90.9-101.4(tppsi)
4.1-5.0
24.1-28.1 (g/tax)

Maturity (%)
80-81.9
85-88

Ranges of quality traits (Set-2 Normal, 8 irrigations):

Method
Manual
HVI

Staple Length (mm)

27.5-28.0
25.3-30.2

Fiber Fineness (g/i)

4-4.6
4.2-4.7

Fiber Strength
89.5-102.2 (tppsi)
24-30.3 (g/tax)

Maturity (%)
78.7-82.3
86-88

There is no variation seen in staple length under drought and normal water condition in the sample
tested in this trial.

Conclusion:
Difference has been observed in the methods used for measuring staple length i.e. manual
and HVI. Minimum value in manual method is 27.4 mm while 25.2 mm in HVI. Similarly
maximum value 28.1 mm in manual method while 30.2 mm in HVI measurement.
Fiber fineness value seems almost same under drought and normal conditions. A very little
variation is seen under two methods i.e. manual and HVI.
In this fiber trial fiber strength is almost same under normal and water stressed conditions.
Very little variation is observed in the both methods used for analysis.
Fiber maturity range under drought and normal irrigation and seems almost same under both
water levels. Manual method of analysis showed less maturity values (78.7%- 82.3%) than
the HVI (85% - 88%).

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Causes of low yield of cotton in Punjab during the year 2015-16

67

The cotton arrivals, as on 1st December 2015, indicates 5.103 million bales compared to 8.498
million bales on the same date in2014, reflecting a diminution of 40%in Punjab, whereas Sindh
province produced 3.529 million bales during the current year as compared to last year arrival of
3.647million bales on the corresponding date, showing a reduction of only 3.26%. On Pakistan
basis, there is a decline of 23.2% in production over the last year. The provisional estimates of Crop
Reporting Services Punjab stand at average yield of 17.12 monds/acre during 2015 to that of
29.0maunds/acre during 2014; showing a decline of 34% over the last year. The production is
estimated as7.432 million bales during 2015 compared to 10.277 million bales during 2014 with a
pronounce attenuation of 38.3%. The area under cotton during 2015 was 5.582 million acres
compared to 5.740 million acres during 2014; which shows a 2.8 % decrease over the last year.

Effect of various factors on cotton crop decline during 2015

Sr.
No.
1.

Parameter

Effect

Parameter

Effect

++++

Sr.
No.
9.

2.

Climate Change High

Rainfall, Temperature
fluctuation
White Fly

Planting Time

+++

++++

10.

Plant Population

++

3.

Pink Boll Worm

+++++

11.

Seed cotton Price

++++

4.

Army Boll Worm

+++

12.

++

5.

Jassid

+++

13.

Fertilizer
availability and Use
Pest management

+++

6.

Other insect pests

No

14.

CLCV Infestation

7.

Weeds Infestation

++++

15.

Bt Toxin

No

8.

Seed quality

++

+ magnitude of effect out of five, +++++ means major effects

It is apparent from the Table that amongst the abiotic factors,climatic change, particularly the arrival
of early monsoon in the months of June and July and abnormal variation in temperature had an
adverse effect on the growth and development of the crop. Unusually high rainfall (>300mm)
during months of June, July, August and September brought crop under severe stress at an early
high rainfall (400 mm)in 1976, 1983 & 1993. High rains induced shedding of fruiting parts, plants
68

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growth stage. These observations are supported by previous record of low production coupled with

mortality, infestation of weed population, leaching of nutrients from soil, poor pest control and
stunted plant growth. Less sunshine and high humidity due to extended wet and cloudy weather
adversely affected nitrogen application, pesticide spray, weed control and other agricultural
practices.
The extent of weed population was enormous with multiple negative effects such as nutrient
depletion, competition for nutrients, sunlight, hibernating sources for insects/pests and problems in
picking. CLCV played low to medium damaging role in different districts. Among biotic factors,
whitefly, pink bollworm, armyworm and jassid were the most damaging pests. Low cotton price
during July to September affected many cotton management decisions of the farmers. Quality of
seed had a minor effect on the reduction of yield. Although, availability of certified seed has
increased from 27% (2014) to 35% (2015) yet it needs to be improved. There was no issue of inputs
availability such as fertilizer and pesticides, etc. However, fertilizer and pesticide use was lower
compared to 2014 because of intermittent rains and low prices of seed cotton. Delayed planting, low
plant population, poor plant growth /canopy also contributed to lower production. There was no
issue of toxin level of Bt. varieties as Bollgard-I have only resistance against American & spotted
bollworms and it does not ensure complete protection against pink bollworms.

Committee decision (Suggestions)

The committee after several deliberation and discussion regarding reasons of low yield during the
current crop 2015 formulated the strategy for the crop seasoned 2016.

The main features of the strategy are given as under:

1) Introduction of 2nd and 3rdgeneration Bt technology along with Glyph sate tolerant genes.
2) Reduction of pink bollworm population by sex pheromone, PB Robes and light traps in the
affected areas.
3) Removal or rotation of standing cotton sticks (in the field), before January.
4) Cleaning and burying of cotton debris from the ginning factories.
5) Control of sucking pests on spring crops.
6) Announcing support price before the commencement of the cotton crop season.
7) Media campaign to avoid cultivation of okra near cotton fields.
8) More availability of certified seed.
9) Discourage early planting.
10) Intelligent weather forecast and close coordination with Meteorological Department.
11) Enactment of Plant Breeder Rights.
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Summary
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Internship has been a wonderful opportunity for polishing various facets of a students personality.
This is a kind of experience which Incorporates professionalism and confidence. I was placed at
Cotton research institute (CRI) Faisalabad, for internship training. At CRI Respected sir,
Muhammad Riaz was my internship supervisor.
During the period of my internship I have learned that at CRI there is a bundle of techniques/
technologies that are backbones for the progress/ development of country. And at CRI I have
learned more about cotton, closely know about it, as before this I was beyond of nature but after
work at CRI i know about God Blessings. I am highly thankful to my internship supervisor who

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remained supportive to me in this whole tenure and guided at all steps of my internship.

70