Inspection of Hot-Dip Galvanized Steel

This course is intended to train individuals on the proper inspection

techniques and requirements for hot-dip galvanized steel products. There are
four sections in this course:

Hot-Dip Galvanizing Process

Galvanizing Standards
Types of Inspection
Repair

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to recognize specification

requirements and perform all inspection steps to ensure conformance with the
requirements. Additionally, any inspector who completes the course, and
passes the test (80% or better) will receive a printable Certificate of
Completion and will be listed on the AGA website as an inspector.

Disclaimer
The information contained in this course has been compiled by the American
Galvanizers Association (AGA), a not-for-profit trade association whose members
represent the after-fabrication hot-dip galvanizing industry throughout the United
States, Canada, and Mexico. The AGA makes no endorsement and offers no
evaluation of any vendors products, whether listed here or not.

Galvanizing Process
The term hot-dip galvanizing is defined as the process of immersing iron or steel in a
bath of liquid zinc to produce a corrosion resistant, multi-layered coating of zinc-iron
alloy and zinc metal. The coating is produced as the result of a metallurgical reaction
between the liquid zinc and the iron in the steel. The coating forms an equal thickness
on all surfaces immersed in the galvanizing kettle. This process, similar to the one
seen in Figure 1, has been in use since 1742 and has provided long-lasting,
maintenance-free corrosion protection at a reasonable cost for many years. The three
main steps in the hot-dip galvanizing process are surface preparation, galvanizing, and
post-treatment, each of which will be discussed in detail.

Figure 1: Model of the Hot-Dip Galvanizing Process

Steel structures with visible evidence of corrosion are pictured in the series of photos
in Figure 2. Rust and corrosion can be expensive for business owners and taxpayers
because buildings, roads, and bridges, without sufficient corrosion protection, may
need to be repaired often or even rebuilt.
The process is described in more detail later in this section. It is inherently simple,
and this simplicity is a distinct advantage over other corrosion protection methods.

Figure 2: Corroding Steel Structures

Surface Preparation
The first step in the hot-dip galvanizing process is intended to obtain the cleanest
possible steel surface by removing all of the oxides and other contaminating residues.
This is achieved by first hanging the steel using chains, wires, or specially designed
dipping racks, as seen in Figure 3, to move the parts through the process. There are
three cleaning steps to prepare the steel for galvanizing.

Degreasing/Caustic Cleaning
First the steel is immersed in an acid degreasing bath or caustic solution in order to
remove the dirt, oil, and grease from the surface of the steel. After degreasing the steel
is rinsed with water.

Pickling
Next the steel is immersed in an acid tank filled
with either hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, as seen in
Figure 4, which removes oxides and mill scale in a
process called pickling. Once all oxidation has
been removed from the steel, it is again rinsed with
water and sent to the final stage of the surface
preparation.
Figure 4: The Pickling Tank

Fluxing
The purpose of the flux is to clean the steel of all oxidation developed since the
pickling of the steel and to create a protective coating to prevent the steel from any
oxidizing before entering the galvanizing kettle. One type of flux is contained in a
separate tank, is slightly acidic, and contains a combination of zinc chloride and
ammonium chloride. Another type of flux, top flux, floats on top of the liquid zinc in
the galvanizing kettle, but serves the same purpose.
After being immersed in the degreasing, pickling, and fluxing tanks, the surface of the
steel is completely free of any oxides or any other contaminants that might inhibit the
reaction of the iron and liquid zinc in the galvanizing kettle.

Galvanizing
Once the steel has been completely cleaned, it is ready for immersion in the liquid
zinc. The galvanizing kettle contains zinc specified to ASTM B 6, a document that
specifies any one of three different grades of zinc that are each at least 98% pure.
Sometimes other metals may be added to the zinc melt in order to promote certain
desirable properties in the galvanized coating.
The galvanizing kettle, like the one seen in Figure 5, is typically operated at a
temperature ranging from 820-860 F (438-460 C), at which point the zinc is in its
liquid state. The steel products are immersed into the galvanizing kettle and remain in
the kettle until the temperature of the steel has reached the temperature required to
form a hot-dip galvanized coating. Once the interdiffusion reaction of iron and zinc is
completed, the steel product is withdrawn from the zinc kettle. The entire dip usually
lasts less than ten minutes, depending upon the thickness of the steel.
The coating, as seen in the micrograph in Figure 6, is typical for low silicon steels
with silicon impurities less than 0.04% and where the thickness of the coating is
limited by the interdiffusion of iron and zinc.
Figure 6: Photomicrograph
of the galvanized coating

Post-Treatment
When the steel is removed from the galvanizing kettle, it may receive
a post-treatment to enhance the galvanized coating. One of the most
commonly used treatments is quenching. The quench tank contains
mostly water but may also have chemicals added to create a
passivation layer that protects the galvanized steel during storage and
transportation. Other finishing steps include removal of zinc drips, or
icicles, by grinding them off.

Time to First Maintenance

The estimated time to first maintenance for a hot-dip galvanized coating that
experiences common atmospheric exposure can be seen in Figure 7. Time to first
maintenance is defined as the time to 5% rusting of the substrate steel. The time to
first maintenance of hot-dip galvanized steel is directly proportional to the zinc
coating thickness.

Figure 7: Time to First Maintenance Chart for Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings

Other Corrosion Protection Systems

There are many other types of corrosion protection, such as coating steel with oil,
grease, tar, asphalt, polymer coatings or paints, or corrosion protection materials such
as stainless and weathering steel, sacrificial anodes, plating systems and impressed
current systems. These are some of the most commonly used corrosion protection
materials and systems and are sometimes used together with hot-dip galvanized steel.
Most of these materials rely on barrier protection, while some of them rely on
cathodic properties to prevent corrosion of the steel. The most effective type of
corrosion protection that provides both barrier and cathodic protection is hot-dip
galvanizing.

There are also a wide variety of zinc coatings used for corrosion protection. Many
people use galvanizing to describe all of these coatings, but each has its own unique
characteristics and performance. These coatings have several applications based on
their properties and respective thicknesses. The corrosion protection offered by a zinc
coating is linearly related to its coating thickness. The most commonly used coatings
are hot-dip galvanized, metallized, zinc-rich paint, galvannealed or galvanized sheet,
and electroplated. The relative thickness for each of these zinc coatings can be seen in
the photomicrograph (Figure 8). Below is a brief explanation of each type of zinc
coating.

Figure 8: Photomicrogrpah of Zinc Coatings Thicknesses

Metallizing
Metallizing is the general name for the technique of spraying a metal coating on the
surface of non-metallic or metallic objects. This process is accomplished by feeding
zinc in either wire or powder form into a heated gun, where it is melted and sprayed
onto the surface to be coated using combustion gases and/or auxiliary compressed air
to provide the necessary velocity. The limitations of this process include a difficulty in
reaching recesses, cavities, and hollow spaces, even coating thickness and cost.

Zinc-Rich Paint
Zinc-rich paint is applied to a clean, dry steel surface by either a brush or spray and
usually contains an organic binder pre-mix. Paints containing zinc dust are classified
as organic or inorganic, depending on the binder that they contain, and are discussed
in more detail later in this course.

Continuous Galvanizing
The continuous galvanizing process is a hot-dip
process where a steel sheet, strip, or wire is
cleaned, pickled, and fluxed on a processing line
approximately 500 feet (154 m) in length, and
running at speeds between 100 to 600 feet per
minute
Figure 9: Continuous Galvanizing Plant

(30 to 185 m per minute). In the coating of a steel sheet or strip, the galvanizing
kettle contains a small amount of aluminum, which suppresses the formation of the
zinc-iron alloys, resulting in a coating that is mostly pure zinc. A post-galvanizing, inline heat treatment process known as galvannealing can also be used to produce a
fully alloyed coating. Galvannealing is usually ordered by those wanting to paint over
the zinc surface because the presence of alloy layers on the steel surface promotes
paint adhesion. A photo of a continuous galvanizing plant is seen in Figure 9 and the
common plant setup is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Example of a Continuous Process

Electroplating
The electroplating process, or zinc-plated coating, has a dull gray color, a matte finish,
and a thin coating that ranges up to one mil (25 m) thick. This very thin coating
restricts the use of zinc-plated products to indoor exposures. The specification ASTM
B 633 lists the classes of zinc-plated steel coatings as Fe/Zn 5, Fe/Zn 8, Fe/Zn 12, and
Fe/Zn 25, where Fe represents iron and Zn represents zinc, while the number indicates
the coating thickness in microns. The main uses for this type of coating include
screws, light switch plates, and other small products or fasteners.

ASTM Specifications
There are certain specifications that have been developed for hot-dip galvanizing in
order to produce a high-quality coating. The most commonly used specifications
design engineers and fabricators should become familiar with in order to promote a
high-quality coating and ensure their steel design is suitable for hot-dip galvanizing
are:

ASTM A 123/A 123M: Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized)

Coatings on Iron and Steel Products
Single pieces of steel or fabrications with different types of steel products
ASTM A 153/A 153M: Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on
Iron and Hardware
Fasteners and small products that are centrifuged after galvanizing to remove
excess zinc
ASTM A 767/A 767M: Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
Reinforcing steel or rebar
ASTM A 780: Standard Practice for Repair of Damaged and Uncoated Areas
of Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings
Touch-up procedures for coating bare spots on an existing hot-dip galvanized
product

Other commonly used specifications in the hot-dip galvanizing industry include:

ASTM A 143/A 143M: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against

Embrittlement of Hot-Dip Galvanized Structural Steel Products and
Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement
ASTM A 384/A 384M: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against Warpage
and Distortion During Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Steel Assemblies
ASTM A 385/A 385M: Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc
Coatings (Hot-Dip)
ASTM B 6: Standard Specification for Zinc
ASTM D 6386: Standard Practice for Preparation of Zinc (Hot-Dip
Galvanized) Coated Iron and Steel Product and Hardware Surfaces for Paint
ASTM E 376: Standard Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness by
Magnetic-Field or Eddy-Current (Electromagnetic) Examination Methods
CAN/CSA G 164: Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles
ISO 1461 Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and Steel
Assemblies
Specifications and Test Methods

Lets examine a few of these specifications in more detail.

ASTM A 123 for Structural Steel Products

The ASTM A 123/A 123M specification covers individual steel pieces as well as
assemblies of various classes of material. The four material categories covered in
ASTM A 123/A 123M include structural steel and plates, strips and bars, pipes and
tubing, and wires. A fabrication can have more than one material category such as a
frame assembly. Any combination of these products can be assembled into a single
fabrication and then can be hot-dip galvanized, as seen in Figure 11.

It is the responsibility of the designer and fabricator to ensure the product has been
properly designed and built before the hot-dip galvanizing process. The galvanizer
should be made aware of any necessary special instructions or requests in advance of
shipping the materials to the galvanizing plant. These requests should be stated on the
purchase order for the hot-dip galvanizing.
It is the responsibility of the galvanizer to ensure compliance with the specifications
as long as the product has been designed and fabricated in accordance with the
referenced specifications. However, if the galvanizer has to perform additional work
in order to prepare the product for hot-dip galvanizing, such as drilling holes to
facilitate drainage or venting, it must be approved by the customer. Once the material
has been hot-dip galvanized, it can be fully inspected at the galvanizing plant prior to
shipment.
Any materials rejected by the inspectors for reasons other than embrittlement may be
stripped, regalvanized, and resubmitted for inspection. The ASTM specifications A
143/A 143M, ASTM A 384/A 384M, and ASTM A 385 provide guidelines for
preparing products for hot-dip galvanizing. The requirements listed in ASTM A 123/A
123M include coating thickness, finish, appearance, and adherence. These are each
defined below and discussed in more detail later in this course.

ASTM A 123/A 123M Requirements

Coating Thickness / Weight dependent upon material category and steel

thickness
Finish continuous, smooth, uniform
Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross
inclusions as well as having no heavy zinc deposits that interfere with intended
use
Adherence the entire coating should have a strong adherence throughout the
service life of galvanized steel

The hot-dip galvanized coating is intended for products fabricated into their final
shape that will be exposed to corrosive environmental conditions. Once a product has
been hot-dip galvanized, any further fabrication, which very rarely occurs, may have
negative effects on the corrosion protection of the coating. The coating grade is
defined as the required thickness of the coating and is given in microns. All coating
thickness requirements in specification ASTM A 123/A 123M, as seen in Tables 1 &
2, are minimums; there are no maximum coating thickness requirements in either
specification.

Table 1: Minimum Average Coating Thickness Grade by Material Category

(From ASTM A123)

Table 2: Coating Thickness Grade (From ASTM A 123)

The time to first maintenance of hot-dip galvanized steel is directly proportional to the
thickness of the hot-dip galvanized coating. With all other variables held constant, the
thicker the zinc coating, the longer the life of the steel. The aim of the finish and
appearance requirements is to ensure no coatings have problem areas that are deficient
of zinc or have surface defects that would interfere with the intended use of the
product. In addition, the coating should have a strong adherence throughout the
service of the hot-dip galvanized steel.

ASTM A 153 for Hardware

The specification ASTM A 153/A 153M applies to hardware products such as
castings, fasteners, rolled, pressed and forged products, and miscellaneous threaded
objects that will be centrifuged, spun, or otherwise handled to remove the zinc, as
seen in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Galvanized Fasteners

The requirements for ASTM A 153/A 153M are very similar to those reported earlier
for ASTM A 123/A 123M, except for the addition of threaded products and
embrittlement requirements.

ASTM A 153/A 153M Requirements

Coating Thickness/Weight depends on the material category and steel

thickness, values are listed in Table 3
Threaded Products areas with threads are not subject to the coating
thickness requirement
Finish continuous, smooth, uniform

Embrittlement high tensile strength fasteners (>150ksi) and castings can be

subject to embrittlement
Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross
inclusions as well as having no heavy zinc deposits that interfere with intended
use
Adherence the entire coating should have a strong adherence throughout the
service life of hot-dip galvanized steel

There are fabrication steps that may impair the corrosion protection of the hot-dip
galvanized coating, however, flaking or damage to the coating because of this is not
case for rejection. In all cases, good steel selection results in the formation of a higher
quality coating and finish on the product. The corrosion protection coating for
threaded products is applied after the product has been fabricated and further
fabrication may compromise the corrosion protection system. The one exception to
this rule is the internal threads of a nut that should be over-tapped after the coating is
applied in order to accommodate the coating thickness change on the thread of the
bolts. In this case, the zinc on the bolt threads provides the corrosion protection to the
uncoated threads in the nut.
There are certain fabrication techniques that can induce stresses into the steel and lead
to brittle failure. There are precautions given in ASTM A 143/A 143M that should be
taken in order to prevent embrittlement. In addition, selecting steels with appropriate
chemistries can help prevent embrittlement of malleable castings. A reproduction and
summary of the table given in ASTM A 153/A 153M, which is seen in Table 3, gives
the different classes of products and the minimum coating thickness required by the
specification.

Table 3: Minimum Average Coating Thickness by Material Class (From ASTM A

153)

ASTM A 767 for Reinforcing Steel

The specification ASTM A 767/A 767M is applicable exclusively to the hot-dip
galvanizing of reinforcing steel, otherwise known as rebar, as seen in Figure 13, and
is applicable to all types of rebar, both smooth and deformed. However, wire is not
included.

Figure 13: Hot-Dip Galvanized Rebar

The requirements in ASTM A 767/A 767M are also intended to produce a high quality
zinc coating for corrosion protection.

ASTM A 767/A 767M Requirements

Identity the galvanizer is responsible for consistent material tracking if

necessary
Coating Thickness/Weight material category and steel thickness
Chromating to prevent reaction between cement and recently galvanized
material
Finish continuous, smooth, and uniform
Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross
inclusions as well as having no heavy zinc deposits that interfere with intended
use
Adherence should be tightly adherent throughout intended use of the
product
Bend Diameters flaking and cracking due to fabrication after the hot-dip
galvanizing process are not rejectable

Once rebar is delivered to be hot-dip galvanized, it is the galvanizers responsibility to

track and maintain the identity of the product throughout the hot-dip galvanizing
process until shipment of the finished product. Again, the analogous coating
requirements in the areas of coating thickness, finish, and adherence are present in

ASTM A 767/A 767M. However, this single product specification introduces a few
new requirements that apply solely to hot-dip galvanized rebar. In ASTM A 767/A
767M, the coating requirement is given in mass of the zinc coating per surface area.
A summary of the table given in ASTM A 767/A 767M and the minimum required
coating thickness / weight of the classes is seen in Table 4.

Table 4: Mass of Zinc Coating (From ASTM A 767)

This specification also introduces a new requirement to the galvanized coating known
as chromating. Newly galvanized steel can react with wet cement and potentially form
hydrogen gas as a product. As this evolved hydrogen gas travels through the concrete
matrix toward the surface, voids can be created which weaken the bonding with the
concrete or disturb the smoothness of the concrete surface. In order to help prevent
and suppress this reaction, hot-dip galvanized rebar is dipped into a weak chromate
quench solution after being removed from the galvanizing kettle.
The finish requirement for rebar is along the same lines as the finish requirements
given in specifications ASTM A 123/A 123M and A 153/A 153M. The coating is
intended for corrosion protection, so deficiencies that affect the coatings corrosion
performance are grounds for rejection. In addition, since rebar is handled frequently
during its installation, any tears or sharp spikes that make the material dangerous to
handle are grounds for rejection.
Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. The table below
gives recommendations for bend diameters based upon the bare steel bar diameter
before coating. Steel reinforcing bars that are bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing
should be fabricated to a bend diameter equal to or greater than the specified values.
However, steel reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters tighter than specified in
Table 5 providing they are stress relieved at a temperature of 900 to 1050 F (480 to
560 C) for one hour per inch (25 mm) of diameter.

Table 5: Minimum Finished Bend Diameters (From ASTM A 767)

Other Galvanizing Standards

There are Canadian and international specifications that could be used to specify hotdip galvanizing on a project. The differences in these specifications and the ASTM
specifications are minimal, and for the most part, only differ slightly in the minimum
coating thickness/weight required for each type and thickness of product being hotdip galvanized.

Other Specifications for Hot-Dip Galvanizing (Taken from

CAN/CSA and ISO Standards)
CAN/CSA-G164 Hot Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles
Scope
1. This standard specifies the requirements for zinc coating (galvanizing) by the
hot-dipping process on iron and steel products made from rolled, pressed, or
forged shapes such as structural sections, plates, bars, pipes, or sheets 1 mm
thick or thicker.
2. Applies to both unfabricated and fabricated products such as assembled steel
products, structural steel fabrications, large hollow sections bent or welded
before galvanizing, and wire work fabricated from uncoated steel wire.
3. Applies to steel forgings and iron castings that are to be galvanized separately
or in batches.
4. Does not apply to continuous galvanizing of chain link fence fabric, wire,
sheet, and strip.
5. Does not apply to pipe and conduit that are normally hot dip galvanized by a
continuous or semicontinuous automatic process.
6. The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values in
parentheses are imperial units and are included for information only.

ISO 1461 Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and Steel
Articles
Scope: This Standard specifies the general properties of and methods of test for
coatings applied by hot dipping in zinc (containing not more than 2% of other metals)
on fabricated iron and steel articles.
It does not apply to:
1. Sheet and wire continuously hot dip galvanized;
2. Tube and pipe hot dip galvanized in automatic process;
3. Hot dip galvanizing products for which specific standards exist and which
may include additional requirements or requirements different from those of
this European Standard.
4. After-treatment/overcoating of hot dip galvanized articles is not covered by
this standard.
NOTE Individual product standards can incorporate this standard for the coating by
quoting its number, or may incorporate it with modifications specific to the product.
In this section, the type of inspections performed on hot-dip galvanized steel will be
discussed. The various inspections are used to verify the necessary specifications for
the galvanized product are met. These techniques for each test method are specified in
ASTM A 123/A 123M, A 153/A 153M, or A 767/A 767M, depending upon the type of
product being inspected. The most common inspections, listed below, range from a
simple visual inspection to more sophisticated tests to determine embrittlement or
adhesion.

Coating Thickness magnetic gauges, optical microscopy

Coating Weight weigh-galvanize-weigh, and weigh-strip-weigh
Finish and Appearance visual inspection
Additional Tests
o Adherence stout knife
o Embrittlement similar bend radius, sharp blow, and steel angle
o Chromating spot test
o Bending minimum finished bend diameter table
Sampling

Coating Thickness
The term coating thickness refers to the thickness of zinc applied to steel, while
coating weight refers to the amount of zinc applied to steel for a given surface area.
Two different methods are used in order to measure the coating thickness of hot-dip
galvanized steel.

Figure 14: Pencil-Style Gauge

The first method to measure coating thickness involves using magnetic thickness
gauges. There are three different types of magnetic thickness gauges and all can be
used quite easily in the galvanizing plant or in the field.
The first type of magnetic thickness gauge is very small and utilizes a spring-loaded
magnet encased in a pencil-like container, as seen in Figure 14. The tip of the gauge is
placed on the surface of the steel and is slowly pulled off in a continuous motion.
When the tip of the gauge is pulled away from the surface of the steel, the magnet,
near the tip, is attracted to the steel. A graduated scale indicates the coating thickness
at the instant immediately prior to pulling the magnet off the surface of the steel. The
accuracy of this gauge requires it to be used in the true vertical plane because, due to
gravity, there is more error associated with measurements taken in the horizontal
plane or overhead positions. The measurement should be made multiple times because
the absolute accuracy of this type of gauge is below average and it is difficult to
determine the true coating thickness when only one reading is taken.

Figure 15: Banana Gauge

A banana gauge, as seen in Figure 15 is the second type of thickness gauge. With this
gauge, coating thickness measurements are taken by placing the rubber magnet

housing on the surface of the product with the gauge held parallel to the surface. A
scale ring is rotated clockwise to bring the tip of the instrument in contact with the
coated surface and rotated counter-clockwise until a break in contact can be heard and
felt. The position of the scale ring when the magnetic tip breaks from the coated
surface displays the coating thickness. This type of gauge has the advantage of being
able to measure coating thickness in any position, without recalibration or interference
from gravity.

Figure 16: Electronic/Digital Thickness Gauge

The electronic or digital thickness gauge, as seen in Figure 16 is the most accurate
and arguably, the easiest thickness gauge to operate. The electronic thickness gauge is
operated by simply placing the magnetic probe onto the coated surface and then a
digital readout displays the coating thickness. Electronic gauges have the advantage of
not requiring recalibration with probe orientation, but do require calibration with
shims of different thicknesses in order to verify the accuracy of the gauge at the time
it is being used. These shims are measured and the gauge is calibrated according to
the thickness of the shim, and then this process is repeated for shims of different
thicknesses until the gauge is producing an accurate reading in all ranges of thickness.

ASTM E 376
The specification ASTM E 376 contains information for measuring coating thickness
using magnet or electromagnetic current. It also provides some tips for obtaining
measurements with the greatest accuracy, as well as describing how the physical
properties, the structure, and the coating can interfere with the measurement methods.
The requirements for ASTM E 376, as seen below, are intended to make the coating
thickness measurements using magnet or electromagnetic current as accurate as
possible.
ASTM E 376 Requirements

Measurements on large products should be made at least four inches from the
edge to avoid edge effects
Measurement readings should be as widely dispersed as possible

There are some general guidelines, as seen below, for reducing error and ensuring the
most accurate readings are being collected when using magnetic thickness gauge
instruments.

Guidelines for Reducing Error

Recalibrate frequently, using non-magnetic film standards or shims above and

below the expected thickness value
Readings should not be taken near an edge, a hole, or inside corner
Readings taken on curved surfaces should be avoided if possible
Test points should be on regular areas of the coating
Take at least five readings to obtain a good, true value which is
representative of the whole sample

Figure 17: Optical Microscopy

The second method used to measure the coating thickness involves optical
microscopy, as seen in Figure 17. This is a destructive technique and is typically only
used for inspection of the coating of single specimen samples that have failed
magnetic thickness readings or for research studies. Since it is not a common method,
the accuracy is highly dependent on the expertise of the operator.

Coating Weight
The term coating weight refers to the amount of zinc applied to a product for a given
surface area. Two different methods can be used to measure the coating weight of hotdip galvanized steel.

The first method to measure the coating weight involves using a process called weighgalvanize-weigh, and is only appropriate for single specimen samples. The zinc
coating weight from this technique is underestimated because the actual coating is
made up of both iron and zinc and this method will only measure the added zinc
weight in the coating. In addition, it can be very difficult to measure and calculate the
surface area of a complex steel fabrication, and this makes coating weight values even
less accurate.
Weigh-strip-weigh is the second method used to measure coating weight, and again is
only appropriate for single specimen samples. This method is destructive since it

removes the hot-dip galvanized coating during the measurement. This process
involves first weighing the specimen, stripping it of all zinc coating that was added,
and then weighing it again. The difference in the weights is then equal to the amount
of coating added during the galvanizing process. However, this method is usually only
used on very small products like nails, and can be inaccurate because when the
coating is stripped there may be some base metal stripped along with the coating. This
means that there may be extra iron included in the weight measurement, making for a
higher than actual zinc coating weight.

Finish & Appearance

The inspection of finish and appearance is done with an unmagnified visual

inspection. This inspection is performed by fully observing all parts and pieces of a
hot-dip galvanized product to ensure all necessary components and specifications
have been met. It is done in order to observe surface conditions, both inside and out,
and check all contact points, as well as welds, junctions, and bend areas.

Appearance
The appearance of the hot-dip galvanized coating can vary from piece to piece, and
even section to section of the same piece. There are a number of reasons for the nonuniform appearance, but it is important to note appearance has no bearing on the
corrosion protection of the galvanized piece. This section will overview the resons for
differences in appearance.

Finish
This section will review a number of possible surface defects visible on the
galvanized coating. Some of these surface defects are rejectable, as they will seriously
lower the corrosion protection, while others have little or no effect on the corrosion
performance and are acceptable.

Different Appearances
The appearance of hot-dip galvanized steel immediately after galvanizing can be
bright and shiny, spangled, matte gray, or a combination of these. There are a number
of reasons for the difference in appearance, as explored here, but regardless if the
piece is shiny or dull, the appearance has no effect on the corrosion performance. And
in time after exposure to the environment, all galvanized coatings will take on a
uniform matte gray appearance.

Reasons for Different Appearances

Steel Chemistry
The most common reason for galvanized steel to have different appearances is the
chemistry of the steel pieces. There are two elements of steel chemistry which most
strongly influence the final appearance; silicon and phosphorous. Both silicon and
phosphorous promote coating growth, and this thicker coating is responsible for the
differing appearance.
The amount of silicon added during the steel making process to deoxidize the steel
can create differences in appearance of galvanized products. The recommended
silicon composition is either less than 0.04% or between 0.15% and 0.25%. Any steels
not within these ranges are considered reactive steels and are expected to form zinc
coatings that tend to be thicker.
In addition to producing thicker coatings, highly reactive steels tend to have a matte
gray or mottled appearance instead of the typical bright coating. This difference in
appearance is a result of the rapid zinc-iron intermetallic growth that consumes all of
the bright, pure zinc. This growth of the intermetallic layer is generally out of the
galvanizers control, because they usually do not have prior knowledge of the steels
composition. However, this increased coating thickness can be beneficial in some
respects because time to firrst maintenance is directly proportional to coating
thickness.
In Figure 18, the micrograph on the left shows a regular zinc-iron alloy, while the
micrograph on the right shows an irregular zinc-iron alloy. These clearly show the
microscopic level differences that can occur due to the amount of silicon in the steel
being hot-dip galvanized.
Figure 18: Regular vs.
Irregular Zinc-Iron
Alloy Layers

The Sandelin curve, as seen in Figure 19, compares the zinc coating thickness to the
mass percentage of silicon in the steel. The area on the graph labeled I is called the
Sandelin area and the coatings tend to be thick and dull gray as a direct result of the
percentage of silicon present in the base steel. This area is known as the Sandelin
range since Dr. Sandelin, a metallurgist, performed the experimental work to show
this behavior of galvanized steel. The Sandelin area is roughly between 0.05% and
0.15% silicon. The area on the graph labeled II, which represents a steel content of
greater than 0.25% silicon, shows the coating thickness increases with increased
silicon content and then starts to level off at around 0.4% silicon.

Figure 19: Sandelin Curve

Figure 20: Coating Due to Phosphorous

In addition to silicon, the presence of phosphorus influences the reaction between the
liquid zinc and the steel, as seen in Figure 20. Phosphorus is generally considered an
impurity in steel except where its beneficial effects on machinability and resistance to
atmospheric corrosion are desired. Some steels such as ASTM A 242 Type 1 present
problems because they may contain both a high level of phosphorus and a high level
of silicon. The presence of phosphorus generally produces smooth dull coating areas
and ridges of a thicker coating where there is increased intermetallic growth. The endresult is a rough surface with ridges appearance.
Figure 21 is an example of products with separate galvanized pieces that have very
different appearances due to the difference in steel chemistry. However, all of these
products still have an equal amount of corrosion resistance throughout and are
acceptable.

Figure 21: Shiny vs. Dull

Cooling Rate

Figure 22: Coating Appearance Due to Cooling Rate Difference

A visually dull or shiny coating on a product can be caused by the different rate of
cooling of a product. In Figure 22, the outer edges were cooled rapidly, which
allowed free zinc or an eta layer to form on top of the intermetallic layers. The zinc in
the center of the product that would have formed the eta layer was consumed in the
reaction with the iron after the part was removed from the galvanizing kettle and
formed an intermetallic layer that gives the dull gray look. Eventually as the product
weathers, the differences in appearance will disappear and it will become a dull gray
color throughout.

Steel Processing

Figure 23: Coating Appearance Due to Steel Processing

In addition to temperature and chemistry of the steel, the processing of the steel can
also create a bright or dull appearance in galvanized products. The top rail in Figure
23 has a winding pattern of dull gray areas corresponding to processing during the
tube making. The stresses in the steel affect the intermetallic formation and can create
this striped look. The corrosion protection is not affected and these parts are
acceptable.

Finish: Visual Defects

As stated before, the hot-dip galvanized coating could have any number of surface
defects. This section will review the various defects and discuss whether or not they
are cause for rejection according to the specification. The surface defects reviewed
are:

AC

Bare Spots
Blasting Damage
Chain and Wire Marks
Clogged Holes
Clogged Threads

DE

Delamination
Distortion
Drainage Spikes
Dross Inclusions
Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath

FO

Fish Boning
Flaking
Flux Inclusions
Oxide Lines

PR

Products in Contact
Rough Surface Condition
Runs
Rust Bleeding

ST

Sand Embedded in Casting

Striations
Steel Surface Condition

Surface Contaminant
Touch Marks

UZ

Weeping Weld
Welding Blowouts
Welding Spatter
Wet Storage Stain
Zinc Skimmings
Zinc Splatter

Visual Defects: A-C

Bare Spots
Bare spots, defined as uncoated areas on the steel surface, are the most common
surface defect and occur because of inadequate surface preparation, welding slag,
sand embedded in castings, excess aluminum in the galvanizing kettle, or lifting aids
that prevent the coating from forming in a small area. Only very small areas, less than
1 inch in the narrowest dimension with a total of no more than 0.5%of the accessible
surface area, may be renovated using ASTM A 780. This means narrow, bare areas
may be repaired; however, if they are greater than one inch-square areas, the product
must be regalvanized. In order to avoid bare spots, like those seen in Figure 24, the
galvanizer must ensure the surfaces are clean and no contaminants are present after
pretreatment. If the size of the bare spot or total surface area causes rejection, the
parts may be stripped, regalvanized, and then re-inspected for compliance to the
standards and specifications.

Figure 24: Bare Spots

Figure 25: Blasting Damage

Blasting Damage
Blasting damage creates blistered or flaking areas on the surface of the galvanized
product. Blasting damage follows abrasive blasting prior to painting of the galvanized
steel. It is caused by incorrect blasting procedures creating shattering and
delamination of the alloy layers in the zinc coating. Blasting damage, as seen in
Figure 25, can be avoided when careful attention is paid to preparation of the product
for painting. In addition, blast pressure should be greatly reduced according to ASTM
D 6386. Since blasting damage is induced by a post-galvanizing process, the
galvanizer is not responsible for the damage.

Figure 26: Chain and Wire Marks

Chain and Wire Marks

Another type of surface defect occurs when steel is lifted and transported around the
galvanizing plant using a chain or wire. These lifting aids can leave uncoated areas on
the finished product that will need to be repaired. The superficial marks, like those
seen in Figure 26, left on the galvanized coating from the lifting attachments are not
grounds for rejection as long as marks can be repaired. ASTM specifications do not
allow any bare spots on the finished galvanized part.

Figure 27: Clogged Holes

Clogged Holes
Clogged holes are holes partially or completely clogged with zinc metal. A good
example is the screen shown in Figure 27. The zinc was trapped because liquid zinc
will not drain easily from holes less than 3/10 (8mm) in diameter due to its high
surface tension. Clogged holes can be minimized by making all holes as large as
possible. The trapped zinc can be removed by using active fettling when the part is in
the galvanizing kettle, vibrating the cranes to jostle the parts, or blowing compressed
air onto the galvanized products. This condition is not a cause for rejection, unless it
prevents the part from being used for its intended purpose.

Figure 28: Clogged Threads

Clogged Threads
Clogged threads are caused by poor drainage of a threaded section after the product is
withdrawn from the galvanizing kettle. These clogged threads, as seen in Figure 28,
can be cleaned by using post-galvanizing cleaning operations such as a centrifuge or
by heating them with a torch to about 500 F (260 C) and then brushing them off with
a wire brush to remove the excess zinc. Clogged threads must be cleaned before the
part can be accepted.

Visual Defects: D-E

Figure 29: Delamination

Delamination
Delamination or peeling creates a rough coating on the steel where the zinc has peeled
off. There are a number of causes for zinc peeling. Many large galvanized parts take a
long time to cool in the air and form zinc-iron layers after they have been removed
from the galvanizing kettle. This continued coating formation leaves behind a void
between the top two layers of the galvanized coating. If there are many voids formed,
the top layer of zinc can separate from the rest of the coating and peel off the part. If
the remaining coating still meets the minimum specification requirements, then the
part is still acceptable. If the coating does not meet the minimum specification
requirements then the part must be rejected and regalvanized. If delamination, as seen
in Figure 29, occurs as a result of fabrication after galvanizing, such as blasting
before painting, then the galvanizer is not responsible for the defect.

Figure 30: Distortion

Distortion
Distortion, as seen in Figure 30, is defined as the buckling of a thin, flat steel plate or
other flat material such as wire mesh. The cause of this is differential thermal
expansion and contraction rates for the thin, flat plate and mesh than the thicker steel
of the surrounding frame. In order to avoid distortion, use a thicker plate, ribs, or
corrugations to stiffen flat sections or make the entire assembly out of the same
thickness steel. Distortion is acceptable, unless distortion changes the part so that it is
no longer suitable for its intended use.

Figure 31: Drainage Spikes

Drainage Spikes
Drainage spikes or drips are spikes or tear drops of zinc along the bottom edges of the
product. These result when the surfaces of the product are processed horizontal to the
galvanizing kettle, preventing proper drainage of the zinc from the surface as the
product is withdrawn from the kettle. Drainage spikes, as seen in Figure 31, are
typically removed during the inspection stage by a buffing or grinding process.
Drainage spikes or drips are excess zinc and will not affect corrosion protection, but
are potentially dangerous for anyone who handles the parts. These defects must be
removed before the part can be accepted.

Dross Inclusions
Dross inclusions are a distinct zinc-iron intermetallic alloy that becomes entrapped or
entrained in the zinc coating. This is caused by picking up zinc-iron particles from the
bottom of the kettle. Dross, as seen in Figure 32, may be avoided by changing the
lifting orientation or redesigning the product to allow for proper drainage. If the dross
particles are small and completely covered by zinc metal, they will not affect the
corrosion protection and are acceptable. If the dross particles are large, then the dross
must be removed and the area repaired.

Figure 32: Dross Inclusions

Figure 33: Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath

Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath

Another type of surface defect, shown in Figure 33, is caused by an excess amount of
aluminum in the galvanizing bath. This creates bare spots and black marks on the
surface of the steel. The excess aluminum can be avoided by ensuring proper control
of the aluminum level in the galvanizing bath by means of regular sampling and
analysis, and by adjusting the levels in a regular and controlled manner. For small
areas of bare spots, the part may be repaired as detailed in the specification. If this
condition occurs over the entire part, then it must be rejected and regalvanized.

Visual Defects: F-O

Figure 34: Fish Boning

Fish Boning
Fish boning is an irregular pattern over the entire surface of the steel part. This is
caused by differences in the surface chemistry of a large diameter steel piece and
variations in the reaction rate between the steel and zinc. These reaction differences
cause the thickness of the galvanized coating to vary in sharply defined zones across
the surface. Fish boning, as seen in Figure 34, has no effect on the corrosion
protection provided by the zinc coating and is not cause for rejection of the hot-dip
galvanized part.

Figure 35: Micrograph of Flaking

Flaking
Flaking results when heavy coatings develop in the galvanizing process, usually 12
mils or greater. This generates high stresses at the interface of the steel and the
galvanized coating and causes the zinc to become flaky and separate from the surface
of the steel. Flaking can be avoided by minimizing the immersion time in the
galvanizing kettle and cooling of the galvanized steel parts as quickly as possible.
Figure 35 shows a micrograph of flaking. In addition, using a different steel grade, if
possible, may also help avoid flaking. If the area of flaking is small, it can be repaired
and the part can be accepted; however, if the area of flaking is larger than allowed by
the specifications, the part must be rejected and regalvanized.

Figure 36: Flux Inclusion

Flux Inclusions
Flux inclusion can be created by the failure of the flux to release during the hot-dip
galvanizing process. If this occurs, the galvanized coating will not form under this
flux spot. If the area is small enough, it must be cleaned and repaired; otherwise, the
part must be rejected. Flux spots can increase if the flux is applied using the wet
galvanizing method, which is when the flux floats on the zinc bath surface. Flux
deposits on the interior of a hollow part, such as a pipe or tube, as seen in Figure 36,
cannot be repaired, thus the part must be rejected. Any flux spots or deposits,picked
up during withdrawal from the galvanizing kettle do not warrant rejection if the
underlying coating is not harmed, and the flux is properly removed.

Figure 37: Oxide Lines

Oxide Lines
Oxide lines are light colored oxide film lines on the galvanized steel surface. Oxide
lines are caused when the product is not removed from the galvanizing kettle at a
constant rate. This may be due to the shape of the product or the drainage conditions.
Oxide lines, as seen in Figure 37, will fade over time as the entire zinc surface
oxidizes. They will have no effect on the corrosion performance; only the initial
appearance will be affected. This condition is not a cause for rejection of the hot-dip
galvanized parts.

Visual Defects: P-R

Figure 38: Products in Contact

Products in Contact
Another type of surface defect is caused by products that come in contact with each
other or are stuck together. This usually occurs when many small products are hung
on the same fixture, which creates the chance products may become connected or
overlapped during the galvanizing process, as seen in Figure 38. The galvanizer is
responsible for proper handling of all products in order to avoid this defect. In
addition, if the surface of a product has a larger bare area than the specified repair
requirement allows, then that product must be rejected and regalvanized.

Rough Surface Condition

Rough surface condition or appearance is a uniformly rough coating with a textured
appearance over the entire product. The cause for this rough surface condition is hotrolled steel with a high level of silicon content. This can be avoided by purchasing
steel with a silicon content less than 0.03% of the steel by weight. Rough surface
condition, as seen in Figure 39, can actually have a positive effect on corrosion
performance because of the thicker zinc coating produced. One of the few situations

where rough coating is cause for rejection is if it occurs on handrails. The corrosion
performance of galvanized steel with rough coatings is not affected by the surface
roughness.

Figure 39: Rough Surface Condition

Figure 40: Runs

Runs
Runs are localized thick areas of zinc on the surface. Runs occur when zinc freezes on
the surface of the product during removal from the zinc bath. This is more likely to
occur on thinner sections with large surface areas that cool quickly. In order to avoid
runs, as seen in Figure 40, adjustments of the dipping angles can be made, if possible,
to alter the drainage pattern to a more acceptable mode. If runs are unavoidable and
will interfere with the intended application, they can be buffed. Runs are not cause for
rejection.

Rust Bleeding
Rust bleeding appears as a brown or red stain that leaks from unsealed joints after the
product has been hot-dip galvanized. It is caused by pre-treatment chemicals that
penetrate an unsealed joint. During galvanizing of the product, moisture boils off the
trapped treatment chemicals leaving anhydrous crystal residues in the joint. Over

time, these crystal residues absorb water from the atmosphere and attack the steel on
both surfaces of the joint, creating rust that seeps out of the joint. Rust bleeding, as
seen in Figure 41, can be avoided by seal welding the joint where possible or by
leaving a gap greater than 3/32 (2.4mm) wide in order to allow solutions to escape
and zinc to penetrate during hot-dip galvanizing. If bleeding occurs, it can be cleaned
up by washing the joint after the crystals are hydrolyzed. Bleeding from unsealed
joints is not the responsibility of the galvanizers and is not cause for rejection.

Figure 41: Rust Bleeding

Visual Defects: S-T

Figure 42: Sand Embedded in Casting

Sand Embedded in Casting

Another type of surface defect occurs when sand becomes embedded in the castings
and creates rough or bare spots on the surface of the galvanized steel. Sand inclusions
are not removed by conventional acid pickling, so abrasive cleaning should be done at
the foundry before the products are sent to the galvanizer. This type of defect also
leaves bare spots and must be cleaned and repaired or the part must be rejected,
stripped, and regalvanized. Sand embedded in a casting can be seen in Figure 42.

Figure 43: Striations

Striations
Striations are characterized by raised parallel ridges in the galvanized coating, mostly
in the longitudinal direction. This can be caused when sections of the steel surface are
more highly reactive then the areas around them. These sections are usually associated
with segregation of steel impurities, especially phosphorous, created during the rolling
process in steel making. Striations, as seen in Figure 43, are related to the type of steel
galvanized and while the appearance is affected, the performance of the corrosion
protection is not. Striations are acceptable on most parts; however, if the striations
happen to occur on handrails, then the parts must be rejected and regalvanized.
Sometimes regalvanizing does not improve the striations and the handrail must be
refabricated out of better quality steel.

Figure 44: Surface Contaminents

Surface Contaminant
When surface contaminants create an ungalvanized area where the contaminant was
originally applied, a surface defect may occur. This is caused by paint, oil, wax, or
lacquer not removed during the pretreatment cleaning steps. Surface contaminants, as
seen in Figure 44, should be mechanically removed prior to the galvanizing process.
If they result in bare areas, then the repair requirements apply and small areas may be
repaired, but a large area is grounds for rejection and the entire part must be
regalvanized.

Figure 45: Touch Marks

Touch Marks
Another type of surface defect is known as touch marks, which are damaged or
uncoated areas on the surface of the product. Touch marks are caused by galvanized
products resting on each other or by the material handling equipment used during the
galvanizing operation. Touch marks, as seen in Figure 45, are not cause for rejection
if they meet the size criteria for repairable areas. They must be repaired before the
part is accepted.

Visual Defects: U-Z

Figure 46: Weeping Weld

Weeping Weld
Weeping welds stain the zinc surface at the welded connections on the steel. They are
caused by entrapped cleaning solutions that penetrate the incomplete weld. In order to
avoid weeping welds for small overlapping surfaces, completely seal weld the edges
of the overlapping area. For larger overlapping areas, the area cannot be seal welded
since the volume expansion of air in the trapped area can cause explosions in the
galvanizing kettle. To avoid weeping welds in large overlapping areas, the best plan is
to provide a 3/32 (2.4mm) or larger gap between the two pieces when welding them
and let the zinc fill the gap between the pieces. This will actually make a stronger
joint when the process is complete. Weeping welds, as seen in Figure 46, are not the
responsibility of the galvanizer and are not cause for rejection.

Figure 47: Welding Blowouts

Welding Blowouts
Welding blowout is a bare spot around a weld or overlapping surface hole. These are
caused by pre-treatment liquids penetrating the sealed and overlapped areas that boil
out during immersion in the liquid zinc. This causes localized surface contamination
and prevents the galvanized coating from forming. In order to avoid welding
blowouts, as seen in Figure 47, check weld areas for complete welds to insure there is
no fluid penetration. In addition, products can be preheated prior to immersion into
the galvanizing kettle in order to dry out overlap areas as much as possible. Welding
blowouts cause bare areas that must be repaired before the part is acceptable.

Figure 48: Welding Spatter

Welding Spatter
Welding spatter appears as lumps in the galvanized coating adjacent to weld areas. It
is created when welding spatter is left on the surface of the part before it is hot-dip
galvanized. In order to avoid welding spatter, welding residues should be removed
prior to hot-dip galvanizing. Welding spatter, as seen in Figure 48, appears to be
covered by the zinc coating, but the coating does not adhere well and can be easily
removed. This type of defect can leave an uncoated area or bare spot if the zinc
coating is damaged and must be cleaned and properly repaired.

Wet Storage Stain

Wet storage stain is a white, powdery surface deposit on freshly galvanized surfaces.
It is caused by newly galvanized surfaces being exposed to fresh water, such as rain,
dew, or condensation that react with the zinc metal on the surface to form zinc oxide
and zinc hydroxide. It is found most often on tightly stacked and bundled items, such
as galvanized sheets, plates, angles, bars, and pipes. Wet storage stain can have the
appearance of light, medium, or heavy white powder on the galvanized steel product.
Each of these appearances can be seen from right to left in Figure 49.
One method to avoid wet storage stains is to passivate the product after galvanizing
by using a chromate quench solution. Another precaution is to avoid stacking products
in poorly ventilated, damp conditions. Light or medium wet storage stain will weather
over time in service and is acceptable. In most cases, wet storage stain does not
indicate serious degradation of the zinc coating, nor does it necessarily imply any
likely reduction in the expected life of the product. However, heavy wet storage stain
should be removed mechanically or with appropriate chemical treatments before the
galvanized part is put into service. Heavy storage stain must be removed or the part
must be rejected and regalvanized.

Figure 49: Wet Storage Stain

Figure 50: Zinc Skimming Inclusions

Zinc Skimmings
Skimming deposits are usually caused when there is no access to remove the
skimmings during the withdrawal of the steel from the galvanizing kettle. The
skimmings on the liquid zinc surface are trapped on the zinc coating. In order to

remove zinc skimmings without harming the soft zinc coating underneath, lightly
brush them off the surface of the galvanized steel during the in-house inspection stage
with a nylon-bristle brush. Zinc skimmings, as seen in Figure 50, are not grounds for
rejection. The zinc coating underneath is not harmed during their removal and it meets
the necessary specifications.

Zinc Splatter

Figure 51: Zinc Splatter

Zinc splatter is defined as splashes and flakes of zinc that loosely adhere to the
galvanized coating surface. Zinc splatter is created when moisture on the surface of
the galvanizing kettle causes liquid zinc to pop and splash droplets onto the product.
These splashes create flakes of zinc loosely adherent to the galvanized surface. Zinc
splatter, as seen in Figure 51, will not affect the corrosion performance of the zinc
coating and is not cause for rejection. The splatter does not need to be cleaned off the
zinc coating surface, but can be if a consistent, smooth coating is required.

Additional Tests
Adherence Test

Figure 52: Stout Knife Test

Testing of the zinc coating adherence to the steel is achieved using a stout knife. The
steps used in this test are listed below and a photo of the test being performed can be
seen in Figure 52. The coating shall be deemed not adherent if it flakes off and
exposes the base metal in advance of the knifepoint. The test is not an attempt to pare
or whittle the zinc coating. If the coating is adherent the knife should put a slight mark
in the zinc metal surface, but should not cause any delamination of the coating layers.

Adhesion Test with a Stout Knife

Push down point of stout knife

Coating must not flake off exposing the base metal
Do not perform at edges or corners of the product
No paring or whittling with knife is acceptable

Bending Test
The hot-dip galvanized coating on a steel bar must withstand bending without flaking
or peeling when the bending test is preformed in accordance with the specifications in
ASTM A 143. There are various tests used to assess the ductility of steel when
subjected to bending. One test may include the determination of the minimum radius
or diameter required to make a satisfactory bend. Another test may include the
number of repeated bends that the material can withstand without failure when it is
bent through a given angle and over a definite radius.
Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. Steel reinforcing
bars bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing should be fabricated to a bend diameter
equal to or greater than the specified value in ASTM A 767/A 767M. However, steel
reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters tighter than the specified values if they are
stress relieved at a temperature of 900 to 1050 F (480 to 560 C) for one hour per inch
(25mm) of diameter.

Chromating Test
The specification to determine the presence of chromate on zinc surfaces is ASTM B
201. This test involves placing drops of a lead acetate solution on the surface of the
product, waiting 5 seconds, and then blotting it gently. If this solution creates a dark
deposit or black stain, then there is unpassivated zinc present. A clear result indicates
the presence of a chromate passivation coating.

Embrittlement Test
When there is suspicion of potential embrittlement of a product, it may be necessary
to test a small group of the products to measure the ductility. These tests are usually
destructive to the zinc coating and possibly to the product as well. Products suspected
of embrittlement shall be tested according to the specification ASTM A 143.
Depending on the service conditions the product will be exposed to, one of three
embrittlement tests may need to be performed. These embrittlement tests include the
similar bend radius test, sharp blow test, and steel angle test. The embrittlement test
uses a known force to provide a stress that should be lower than the yield stress of the
part. If there is a fracture or permanent damage created during the testing process, the
parts must be rejected.

Sampling
A sampling protocol has been developed by ASTM to ensure high quality products
because the inspection of the coating thickness for every piece of material galvanized
in a project would not be practical. ASTM A 123/A 123M states for a unit of products
whose surface area is equal to or less than 160 in (1032 cm), the entire surface of
each test product constitutes a specimen. In the case of a product containing more
than one material category or steel thickness range, that product will contain more
than one specimen. In addition, products with surface areas greater than 160 in (1032
cm) are multi-specimen products. There are four important terms used in the ASTM
specifications and each is defined below.

Sampling Terms

Lot unit of production or shipment from which a sample is taken for testing
Sample a collection of individual units of product from a single lot
Specimen the surface of an individual test product or a portion of a test
product which is a member of a lot or a member of a sample representing that
lot
Test Product an individual unit of product that is a member of the sample

For single specimen products, each randomly selected product is a specimen. In

thickness measurement tests, five measurements are taken widely dispersed over the
surface area of the specimen in order to represent the total coating thickness. The
mean value of the five coating thicknesses for one specimen must have a minimum
average coating thickness grade of not less than one grade below the minimum
average coating thickness for the material category. In Figure 53, the separation of a
lot into a sample and individual specimen is shown.

Figure 53: Single Specimen Product Sampling

A multi-specimen product is defined as having a surface area that may be larger than
160 in (1032 cm), have multiple steel thicknesses, or contain more than one coating
category. In order to test coating thickness of products whose surface area is greater
than 160 in (1032 cm), they are subdivided into three continuous local sections with
equivalent surface areas, each of which constitutes a unique specimen. In the case of
any such local section containing more than one material category or steel thickness

range, that section will contain more than one specimen. In Figure 54, the separation
of a lot into a sample and individual specimen is shown.

Figure 54: Mutli-Specimen Product Sampling

For products hot-dip galvanized to either ASTM A 123/A 123M or A 153/A 153M,
Table 6 is used to determine the minimum number of specimens for sampling from a
given lot size.
No. of Pieces in Lot
3 or less
4 to 500
501 to 1200
1201 to 3200
3201 to 10,000
10,001+
Table 6: Minimum Number of Specimens

No. of Specimens
All
3
5
8
13
20
for ASTM A 123 and A 152

For rebar hot-dip galvanized according to ASTM A 767, the information below is
used to determine the minimum number of samples per lot, measurements per sample,
and the total number of measurements required for each of the different coating
thickness measurement techniques.

Magnetic Thickness:
o 3 samples per lot
o 5 or more measurements per sample
o 15 measurements, at the minimum, comprise the average
Microscopy Method:
o 5 samples per lot
o 4 measurements per sample
o 20 measurements, at minimum, comprise the average
Stripping and Weighing:
o 3 samples per lot

The minimum average coating thickness for a lot is the average of the specimen
values and must meet the minimum for the material category. The minimum for an
individual specimen is one grade below the minimum for the material category. An
individual measurement has no minimum, but bare areas are not allowed on the part.
The final inspection of a part shall include thickness measurements and visual
inspection. All parts that do not meet the requirement must be resorted and
reinspected or rejected and then regalvanized.

Repair
If the galvanized product does not meet all of the requirements of the specification, it
must be repaired or rejected along with the lot it represents. When repair of the
product is allowed by the specification or bare spots are present, the galvanizer is
responsible for the repair unless directed otherwise by the purchaser. The
specifications allow for some retesting of products that represent lots or retesting after
the lot has been sorted for non-conformance. The coating thickness of the repaired
area must match the coating thickness of the surrounding area. However, if zinc-rich
paint is used for repair, the coating thickness must be 50% higher than the
surrounding area, but not greater than 4.0 mils because mud cracking tends to result
when the paint coating is too thick. The maximum sizes for allowable areas that can
be repaired during in-plant production are defined in the specifications as summarized
below.

Maximum Size of Repairable Area

ASTM A 123/A 123M:

o One inch or less in narrowest dimension
o Total area can be no more than 0.5% of the accessible surface area to
be coated or 36 square inches per piece, whichever is less
ASTM A 153/A 153M:
o The bare spots shall have an area totaling no more than 1% of the total
surface area to be coated, excluding threaded areas of the piece
ASTM A 767/A 767M:
o No area given
o If the coating fails to meet the requirement for finish and adherence,
the bar may be stripped, regalvanized, and resubmitted
o Damage done to the coating due to fabrication or handling shall be
repaired with a zinc-rich formulation
o Sheared ends shall be coated with a zinc-rich formulation

Repair Methods
Any repairs made to galvanized products must follow the requirements of ASTM A
780, which defines the acceptable materials and the required procedures. Repairs are
normally completed by the galvanizer before the products are delivered, but under
certain circumstances, the purchaser may perform the repairs on their own. The touchup and repair materials are formulated to deliver an excellent color that matches either
brightly coated, newly galvanized products or matte gray, aged galvanized products.

Materials used to repair hot-dip galvanized products include zinc-based solder, zincrich paint, and zinc spray metallizing, and are explained in the following sections.

Zinc-Based Solder

Figure 55: Zinc-Based Solder

Soldering with zinc-based alloys is achieved by applying zinc alloy in either a stick or
powder form. The area being repaired needs to be preheated to approximately 600 F
(315 C). The most commonly used solders for repair, as seen in Figure 55, include
zinc-tin-lead, zinc-cadmium, and zinc-tin-copper alloys.

Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be reconditioned shall be wire brushed,
lightly ground, or mildly blast cleaned. In addition, if wire brushing or light blasting is
inadequate, all weld flux and spatter must be removed by mechanical methods. The
cleaned area also needs be preheated to 600 F (315 C) and wire brushed while heated.
Pre-flux may also be necessary to provide chemical cleaning of the bare spot. Finally,
special care should be given to insure that the surrounding galvanized coating is not
overheated and burned by the preheating.

Application
The soldering method is the most difficult of the three repair methods to complete. A
high level of caution must be taken while heating the bare spot to prevent oxidizing
the exposed steel or damaging the surrounding galvanized coating. Solders are
typically not economically suited for touch-up of large areas because of the time
involved in the process and because heating of a large surface area to the same
temperature is very difficult. When the repair has been completed, the flux residue
needs to be removed by rinsing the surface with water or wiping with a damp cloth.

Final Repaired Product

The final coating thickness for this repair shall be agreed upon between the galvanizer
and the purchaser, and is generally in the 1 to 2 mil range. The thickness shall be
measured by any of the methods in ASTM A 123/A 123M that are non-destructive.
Zinc-based solder products closely match the surrounding zinc and blend in well with
the existing coating appearance.

Zinc-Rich Paint

Figure 56: Zinc-Rich Paint

Zinc-rich paint is applied to a clean, dry steel surface by either a brush or spray as
seen in Figure 56, and usually contains an organic binder pre-mix. Zinc-rich paints
must contain either between 65% to 69% metallic zinc by weight or greater than 92%
metallic zinc by weight in dry film. Paints containing zinc dust are classified as
organic or inorganic, depending on the binder they contain. Inorganic binders are
particularly suitable for paints applied in touch-up applications around and over
undamaged hot-dip galvanized areas.

Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be repaired shall be blast cleaned to SSPCSP10/NACE No.2 near white metal for immersion applications and SSPC-SP11 near
bare metal for less aggressive field conditions. When blasting or power tool cleaning
is not practical, hand tools may be used to clean areas to be reconditioned. The blast
cleaning must extend into the surrounding, undamaged, galvanized coating.

Application
This method of repairing galvanized surfaces must take place as soon as possible after
preparation is completed and prior to the development of any visible oxides. The
spraying or brushing should be in an application of multiple passes and must follow
the paint manufacturers specific written instructions. In addition, proper curing of the
repaired area must occur before the product is put through the final inspection
process. This repair can be done either in the galvanizing plant or on the job site and
is the easiest repair method to apply because limited equipment is required. Zinc-rich
painting should be avoided if high humidity and/or low temperature conditions exist
because adhesion may be adversely affected.

Final Repaired Product

The coating thickness for the paint must be 50% higher than the surrounding coating
thickness, but not greater than 4.0 mils, and measurements should be taken with either
a magnetic, electromagnetic or eddy current gauge. Finally, the surface of the painted
coating on the repaired area should be free of lumps, coarse areas, and loose particles.

Zinc Spray Metallizing

Figure 57: Zinc Spray Metallizing

Zinc spray, which is also referred to as metallizing, is done by melting zinc powder or
zinc wire in a flame or electric arc and projecting the liquid zinc droplets by air or gas
onto the surface to be coated, as seen in Figure 57. The zinc used is nominally 99.5%
pure or better and the corrosion resistance of the wire or powder is approximately
equal.

Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be reconditioned shall be blast cleaned to
SSPC-SP5/NACE No.1 near white metal and must be free of oil, grease, weld flux
residue, weld spatter and corrosion products. The blast cleaning must extend into the
surrounding, undamaged, galvanized coating.

Application
Zinc spraying of the clean, dry surface must be completed by skilled workers and
should take place within four hours after preparation or prior to development of
visible oxides. Spraying should also be done in horizontal overlapping lines, which
yield a uniform thickness more consistent than the crosshatch technique. The zinc
coating can be sealed with a thin coating of low viscosity polyurethane, epoxyphenolic, epoxy, or vinyl resin. The details of the application sequence and procedures
can be found in ANSI/AWS C2.18-93. The application of zinc spray can be done
either in the galvanizers plant or at the job site. In addition, if high humidity
conditions exist during spraying, adhesion may be degraded.

Final Repaired Product

The renovated area shall have a zinc coating thickness at least as thick as that
specified in ASTM A 123/A 123M for the thickness grade required for the appropriate
material category. These thickness measurements should be taken with either a
magnetic or an electromagnetic gauge for best results. The plain zinc sprays or the
sprays with aluminum additives both provide a good match for newly galvanized,
bright surfaces. Finally, the surface of the sprayed zinc coating should be free of any
lumps, coarse areas, and loose particles.