Contents

PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION

xvii

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

xx

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

xxi

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

xxiii

SERIES EDITORS PREFACE

xxiv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

xxv

Introduction to Design
1.1
1.2

1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

1.10

1.11
1.12
1.13

Introduction
Nature of design
1.2.1
The design objective (the need)
1.2.2
Data collection
1.2.3
Generation of possible design solutions
1.2.4
Selection
The anatomy of a chemical manufacturing process
1.3.1
Continuous and batch processes
The organisation of a chemical engineering project
Project documentation
Codes and standards
Factors of safety (design factors)
Systems of units
Degrees of freedom and design variables. The mathematical representation
of the design problem
1.9.1
Information ow and design variables
1.9.2
Selection of design variables
1.9.3
Information ow and the structure of design problems
Optimisation
1.10.1
General procedure
1.10.2
Simple models
1.10.3
Multiple variable problems
1.10.4
Linear programming
1.10.5
Dynamic programming
1.10.6
Optimisation of batch and semicontinuous processes
References
Nomenclature
Problems

1
1
3
3
3
4
5
7
7
10
12
13
14
15
15
19
20
24
25
25
27
29
29
29
30
31
32

Fundamentals of Material Balances

34

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

34
34
34
35
36

Introduction
The equivalence of mass and energy
Conservation of mass
Units used to express compositions
Stoichiometry

vi

CONTENTS

2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21

Choice of system boundary

Choice of basis for calculations
Number of independent components
Constraints on ows and compositions
General algebraic method
Tie components
Excess reagent
Conversion and yield
Recycle processes
Purge
By-pass
Unsteady-state calculations
General procedure for material-balance problems
References (Further Reading)
Nomenclature
Problems

37
40
40
41
42
44
46
47
50
52
53
54
56
57
57
57

Fundamentals of Energy Balances (and Energy Utilisation)

60

3.1
3.2
3.3

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62
62
62
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68
70
71
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77
79
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82
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101
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102
103
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110
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117
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3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13

3.14
3.15
3.16

3.17

Introduction
Conservation of energy
Forms of energy (per unit mass of material)
3.3.1
Potential energy
3.3.2
Kinetic energy
3.3.3
Internal energy
3.3.4
Work
3.3.5
Heat
3.3.6
Electrical energy
The energy balance
Calculation of specic enthalpy
Mean heat capacities
The effect of pressure on heat capacity
Enthalpy of mixtures
3.8.1
Integral heats of solution
Enthalpy-concentration diagrams
Heats of reaction
3.10.1
Effect of pressure on heats of reaction
Standard heats of formation
Heats of combustion
Compression and expansion of gases
3.13.1
Mollier diagrams
3.13.2
Polytropic compression and expansion
3.13.3
Multistage compressors
3.13.4
Electrical drives
Energy balance calculations
Unsteady state energy balances
Energy recovery
3.16.1
Heat exchange
3.16.2
Heat-exchanger networks
3.16.3
Waste-heat boilers
3.16.4
High-temperature reactors
3.16.5
Low-grade fuels
3.16.6
High-pressure process streams
3.16.7
Heat pumps
Process integration and pinch technology
3.17.1
Pinch technology
3.17.2
The problem table method
3.17.3
The heat exchanger network
3.17.4
Minimum number of exchangers
3.17.5
Threshold problems

CONTENTS

3.18
3.19
3.20

Flow-sheeting
4.1
4.2

4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

4.7
4.8
4.9

3.17.6
Multiple pinches and multiple utilities
3.17.7
Process integration: integration of other process operations
References
Nomenclature
Problems

Introduction
Flow-sheet presentation
4.2.1
Block diagrams
4.2.2
Pictorial representation
4.2.3
Presentation of stream ow-rates
4.2.4
Information to be included
4.2.5
Layout
4.2.6
Precision of data
4.2.7
Basis of the calculation
4.2.8
Batch processes
4.2.9
Services (utilities)
4.2.10
Equipment identication
4.2.11
Computer aided drafting
Manual ow-sheet calculations
4.3.1
Basis for the ow-sheet calculations
4.3.2
Flow-sheet calculations on individual units
Computer-aided ow-sheeting
Full steady-state simulation programs
4.5.1
Information ow diagrams
Manual calculations with recycle streams
4.6.1
The split-fraction concept
4.6.2
Illustration of the method
4.6.3
Guide rules for estimating split-fraction coefcients
References
Nomenclature
Problems

Piping and Instrumentation

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

5.5

5.6
5.7

Introduction
The P and I diagram
5.2.1
Symbols and layout
5.2.2
Basic symbols
Valve selection
Pumps
5.4.1
Pump selection
5.4.2
Pressure drop in pipelines
5.4.3
Power requirements for pumping liquids
5.4.4
Characteristic curves for centrifugal pumps
5.4.5
System curve (operating line)
5.4.6
Net positive suction head (NPSH)
5.4.7
Pump and other shaft seals
Mechanical design of piping systems
5.5.1
Wall thickness: pipe schedule
5.5.2
Pipe supports
5.5.3
Pipe ttings
5.5.4
Pipe stressing
5.5.5
Layout and design
Pipe size selection
Control and instrumentation
5.7.1
Instruments
5.7.2
Instrumentation and control objectives
5.7.3
Automatic-control schemes

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CONTENTS

5.8

5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13

Costing and Project Evaluation

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10

6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14

Typical control systems

5.8.1
Level control
5.8.2
Pressure control
5.8.3
Flow control
5.8.4
Heat exchangers
5.8.5
Cascade control
5.8.6
Ratio control
5.8.7
Distillation column control
5.8.8
Reactor control
Alarms and safety trips, and interlocks
Computers and microprocessors in process control
References
Nomenclature
Problems

Introduction
Accuracy and purpose of capital cost estimates
Fixed and working capital
Cost escalation (ination)
Rapid capital cost estimating methods
6.5.1
Historical costs
6.5.2
Step counting methods
The factorial method of cost estimation
6.6.1
Lang factors
6.6.2
Detailed factorial estimates
Estimation of purchased equipment costs
Summary of the factorial method
Operating costs
6.9.1
Estimation of operating costs
Economic evaluation of projects
6.10.1
Cash ow and cash-ow diagrams
6.10.2
Tax and depreciation
6.10.3
Discounted cash ow (time value of money)
6.10.4
Rate of return calculations
6.10.5
Discounted cash-ow rate of return (DCFRR)
6.10.6
Pay-back time
6.10.7
Allowing for ination
6.10.8
Sensitivity analysis
6.10.9
Summary
Computer methods for costing and project evaluation
References
Nomenclature
Problems

Materials of Construction
7.1
7.2
7.3

7.4

Introduction
Material properties
Mechanical properties
7.3.1
Tensile strength
7.3.2
Stiffness
7.3.3
Toughness
7.3.4
Hardness
7.3.5
Fatigue
7.3.6
Creep
7.3.7
Effect of temperature on the mechanical properties
Corrosion resistance
7.4.1
Uniform corrosion
7.4.2
Galvanic corrosion

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CONTENTS

7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8

7.9

7.10

7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16

7.4.3
Pitting
7.4.4
Intergranular corrosion
7.4.5
Effect of stress
7.4.6
Erosion-corrosion
7.4.7
High-temperature oxidation
7.4.8
Hydrogen embrittlement
Selection for corrosion resistance
Material costs
Contamination
7.7.1
Surface nish
Commonly used materials of construction
7.8.1
Iron and steel
7.8.2
Stainless steel
7.8.3
Nickel
7.8.4
Monel
7.8.5
Inconel
7.8.6
The Hastelloys
7.8.7
Copper and copper alloys
7.8.8
Aluminium and its alloys
7.8.9
Lead
7.8.10
Titanium
7.8.11
Tantalum
7.8.12
Zirconium
7.8.13
Silver
7.8.14
Gold
7.8.15
Platinum
Plastics as materials of construction for chemical plant
7.9.1
Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC)
7.9.2
Polyolenes
7.9.3
Polytetrauroethylene (PTFE)
7.9.4
Polyvinylidene uoride (PVDF)
7.9.5
Glass-bre reinforced plastics (GRP)
7.9.6
Rubber
Ceramic materials (silicate materials)
7.10.1
Glass
7.10.2
Stoneware
7.10.3
Acid-resistant bricks and tiles
7.10.4
Refractory materials (refractories)
Carbon
Protective coatings
Design for corrosion resistance
References
Nomenclature
Problems

Design Information and Data

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8

Introduction
Sources of information on manufacturing processes
General sources of physical properties
Accuracy required of engineering data
Prediction of physical properties
Density
8.6.1
Liquids
8.6.2
Gas and vapour density (specic volume)
Viscosity
8.7.1
Liquids
8.7.2
Gases
Thermal conductivity
8.8.1
Solids
8.8.2
Liquids

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307

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CONTENTS

8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16

8.17
8.18
8.19

8.8.3
Gases
8.8.4
Mixtures
Specic heat capacity
8.9.1
Solids and liquids
8.9.2
Gases
Enthalpy of vaporisation (latent heat)
8.10.1
Mixtures
Vapour pressure
Diffusion coefcients (diffusivities)
8.12.1
Gases
8.12.2
Liquids
Surface tension
8.13.1
Mixtures
Critical constants
Enthalpy of reaction and enthalpy of formation
Phase equilibrium data
8.16.1
Experimental data
8.16.2
Phase equilibria
8.16.3
Equations of state
8.16.4
Correlations for liquid phase activity coefcients
8.16.5
Prediction of vapour-liquid equilibria
8.16.6
K -values for hydrocarbons
8.16.7
Sour-water systems (Sour)
8.16.8
Vapour-liquid equilibria at high pressures
8.16.9
Liquid-liquid equilibria
8.16.10 Choice of phase equilibria for design calculations
8.16.11 Gas solubilities
8.16.12 Use of equations of state to estimate specic enthalpy and density
References
Nomenclature
Problems

Safety and Loss Prevention

9.1
9.2
9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9

Introduction
Intrinsic and extrinsic safety
The hazards
9.3.1
Toxicity
9.3.2
Flammability
9.3.3
Explosions
9.3.4
Sources of ignition
9.3.5
Ionising radiation
9.3.6
Pressure
9.3.7
Temperature deviations
9.3.8
Noise
Dow re and explosion index
9.4.1
Calculation of the Dow F & EI
9.4.2
Potential loss
9.4.3
Basic preventative and protective measures
9.4.4
Mond re, explosion, and toxicity index
9.4.5
Summary
Hazard and operability studies
9.5.1
Basic principles
9.5.2
Explanation of guide words
9.5.3
Procedure
Hazard analysis
Acceptable risk and safety priorities
Safety check lists
Major hazards
9.9.1
Computer software for quantitative risk analysis

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CONTENTS

9.10
9.11

10

References
Problems

Equipment Selection, Specication and Design

10.1
10.2
10.3

10.4

10.5
10.6

10.7
10.8

10.9

10.10
10.11

10.12

10.13
10.14
10.15
10.16

Introduction
Separation processes
Solid-solid separations
10.3.1
Screening (sieving)
10.3.2
Liquid-solid cyclones
10.3.3
Hydroseparators and sizers (classiers)
10.3.4
Hydraulic jigs
10.3.5
Tables
10.3.6
Classifying centrifuges
10.3.7
Dense-medium separators (sink and oat processes)
10.3.8
Flotation separators (froth-otation)
10.3.9
Magnetic separators
10.3.10 Electrostatic separators
Liquid-solid (solid-liquid) separators
10.4.1
Thickeners and clariers
10.4.2
Filtration
10.4.3
Centrifuges
10.4.4
Hydrocyclones (liquid-cyclones)
10.4.5
Pressing (expression)
10.4.6
Solids drying
Separation of dissolved solids
10.5.1
Evaporators
10.5.2
Crystallisation
Liquid-liquid separation
10.6.1
Decanters (settlers)
10.6.2
Plate separators
10.6.3
Coalescers
10.6.4
Centrifugal separators
Separation of dissolved liquids
10.7.1
Solvent extraction and leaching
Gas-solids separations (gas cleaning)
10.8.1
Gravity settlers (settling chambers)
10.8.2
Impingement separators
10.8.3
Centrifugal separators (cyclones)
10.8.4
Filters
10.8.5
Wet scrubbers (washing)
10.8.6
Electrostatic precipitators
Gas liquid separators
10.9.1
Settling velocity
10.9.2
Vertical separators
10.9.3
Horizontal separators
Crushing and grinding (comminution) equipment
Mixing equipment
10.11.1 Gas mixing
10.11.2 Liquid mixing
10.11.3 Solids and pastes
Transport and storage of materials
10.12.1 Gases
10.12.2 Liquids
10.12.3 Solids
Reactors
10.13.1 Principal types of reactor
10.13.2 Design procedure
References
Nomenclature
Problems

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409
415
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xii

11

CONTENTS

Separation Columns (Distillation, Absorption and Extraction)

11.1
11.2

11.3

11.4
11.5

11.6
11.7

11.8

11.9

11.10

11.11
11.12
11.13

11.14

Introduction
Continuous distillation: process description
11.2.1
Reux considerations
11.2.2
Feed-point location
11.2.3
Selection of column pressure
Continuous distillation: basic principles
11.3.1
Stage equations
11.3.2
Dew points and bubble points
11.3.3
Equilibrium ash calculations
Design variables in distillation
Design methods for binary systems
11.5.1
Basic equations
11.5.2
McCabe-Thiele method
11.5.3
Low product concentrations
11.5.4
The Smoker equations
Multicomponent distillation: general considerations
11.6.1
Key components
11.6.2
Number and sequencing of columns
Multicomponent distillation: short-cut methods for stage and reux requirements
11.7.1
Pseudo-binary systems
11.7.2
Smith-Brinkley method
11.7.3
Empirical correlations
11.7.4
Distribution of non-key components (graphical method)
Multicomponent systems: rigorous solution procedures (computer methods)
11.8.1
Lewis-Matheson method
11.8.2
Thiele-Geddes method
11.8.3
Relaxation methods
11.8.4
Linear algebra methods
Other distillation systems
11.9.1
Batch distillation
11.9.2
Steam distillation
11.9.3
Reactive distillation
Plate efciency
11.10.1 Prediction of plate efciency
11.10.2 OConnells correlation
11.10.3 Van Winkles correlation
11.10.4 AIChE method
11.10.5 Entrainment
Approximate column sizing
Plate contactors
11.12.1 Selection of plate type
11.12.2 Plate construction
Plate hydraulic design
11.13.1 Plate-design procedure
11.13.2 Plate areas
11.13.3 Diameter
11.13.4 Liquid-ow arrangement
11.13.5 Entrainment
11.13.6 Weep point
11.13.7 Weir liquid crest
11.13.8 Weir dimensions
11.13.9 Perforated area
11.13.10 Hole size
11.13.11 Hole pitch
11.13.12 Hydraulic gradient
11.13.13 Liquid throw
11.13.14 Plate pressure drop
11.13.15 Downcomer design [back-up]
Packed columns
11.14.1 Types of packing

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CONTENTS

11.15
11.16

11.17
11.18
11.19

12

11.14.2 Packed-bed height

11.14.3 Prediction of the height of a transfer unit (HTU)
11.14.4 Column diameter (capacity)
11.14.5 Column internals
11.14.6 Wetting rates
Column auxiliaries
Solvent extraction (liquid liquid extraction)
11.16.1 Extraction equipment
11.16.2 Extractor design
11.16.3 Extraction columns
11.16.4 Supercritical uid extraction
References
Nomenclature
Problems

Heat-transfer Equipment
12.1
12.2

Introduction
Basic design procedure and theory
12.2.1
Heat exchanger analysis: the effectiveness NTU method
12.3 Overall heat-transfer coefcient
12.4 Fouling factors (dirt factors)
12.5 Shell and tube exchangers: construction details
12.5.1
Heat-exchanger standards and codes
12.5.2
Tubes
12.5.3
Shells
12.5.4
Tube-sheet layout (tube count)
12.5.5
Shell types (passes)
12.5.6
Shell and tube designation
12.5.7
Bafes
12.5.8
Support plates and tie rods
12.5.9
Tube sheets (plates)
12.5.10 Shell and header nozzles (branches)
12.5.11 Flow-induced tube vibrations
12.6 Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force)
12.7 Shell and tube exchangers: general design considerations
12.7.1
Fluid allocation: shell or tubes
12.7.2
Shell and tube uid velocities
12.7.3
Stream temperatures
12.7.4
Pressure drop
12.7.5
Fluid physical properties
12.8 Tube-side heat-transfer coefcient and pressure drop (single phase)
12.8.1
Heat transfer
12.8.2
Tube-side pressure drop
12.9 Shell-side heat-transfer and pressure drop (single phase)
12.9.1
Flow pattern
12.9.2
Design methods
12.9.3
Kerns method
12.9.4
Bells method
12.9.5
Shell and bundle geometry
12.9.6
Effect of fouling on pressure drop
12.9.7
Pressure-drop limitations
12.10 Condensers
12.10.1 Heat-transfer fundamentals
12.10.2 Condensation outside horizontal tubes
12.10.3 Condensation inside and outside vertical tubes
12.10.4 Condensation inside horizontal tubes
12.10.5 Condensation of steam
12.10.6 Mean temperature difference
12.10.7 Desuperheating and sub-cooling

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xiv

CONTENTS

12.11

12.12

12.13
12.14
12.15
12.16
12.17

12.18

12.19
12.20
12.21

13

12.10.8 Condensation of mixtures

12.10.9 Pressure drop in condensers
Reboilers and vaporisers
12.11.1 Boiling heat-transfer fundamentals
12.11.2 Pool boiling
12.11.3 Convective boiling
12.11.4 Design of forced-circulation reboilers
12.11.5 Design of thermosyphon reboilers
12.11.6 Design of kettle reboilers
Plate heat exchangers
12.12.1 Gasketed plate heat exchangers
12.12.2 Welded plate
12.12.3 Plate-n
12.12.4 Spiral heat exchangers
Direct-contact heat exchangers
Finned tubes
Double-pipe heat exchangers
Air-cooled exchangers
Fired heaters (furnaces and boilers)
12.17.1 Basic construction
12.17.2 Design
12.17.3 Heat transfer
12.17.4 Pressure drop
12.17.5 Process-side heat transfer and pressure drop
12.17.6 Stack design
12.17.7 Thermal efciency
Heat transfer to vessels
12.18.1 Jacketed vessels
12.18.2 Internal coils
12.18.3 Agitated vessels
References
Nomenclature
Problems

Mechanical Design of Process Equipment

13.1
13.2
13.3

13.4

13.5

Introduction
13.1.1
Classication of pressure vessels
Pressure vessel codes and standards
Fundamental principles and equations
13.3.1
Principal stresses
13.3.2
Theories of failure
13.3.3
Elastic stability
13.3.4
Membrane stresses in shells of revolution
13.3.5
Flat plates
13.3.6
Dilation of vessels
13.3.7
Secondary stresses
General design considerations: pressure vessels
13.4.1
Design pressure
13.4.2
Design temperature
13.4.3
Materials
13.4.4
Design stress (nominal design strength)
13.4.5
Welded joint efciency, and construction categories
13.4.6
Corrosion allowance
13.4.7
Design loads
13.4.8
Minimum practical wall thickness
The design of thin-walled vessels under internal pressure
13.5.1
Cylinders and spherical shells
13.5.2
Heads and closures
13.5.3
Design of at ends
13.5.4
Design of domed ends
13.5.5
Conical sections and end closures

719
723
728
731
732
735
740
741
750
756
756
764
764
765
766
767
768
769
769
770
771
772
774
774
774
775
775
775
777
778
782
786
790

794
794
795
795
796
796
797
798
798
805
809
809
810
810
810
811
811
812
813
814
814
815
815
815
817
818
819

CONTENTS

13.6
13.7

13.8

13.9

13.10

13.11
13.12
13.13
13.14
13.15

13.16
13.17
13.18
13.19
13.20

14

Compensation for openings and branches

Design of vessels subject to external pressure
13.7.1
Cylindrical shells
13.7.2
Design of stiffness rings
13.7.3
Vessel heads
Design of vessels subject to combined loading
13.8.1
Weight loads
13.8.2
Wind loads (tall vessels)
13.8.3
Earthquake loading
13.8.4
Eccentric loads (tall vessels)
13.8.5
Torque
Vessel supports
13.9.1
Saddle supports
13.9.2
Skirt supports
13.9.3
Bracket supports
Bolted anged joints
13.10.1 Types of ange, and selection
13.10.2 Gaskets
13.10.3 Flange faces
13.10.4 Flange design
13.10.5 Standard anges
Heat-exchanger tube-plates
Welded joint design
Fatigue assessment of vessels
Pressure tests
High-pressure vessels
13.15.1 Fundamental equations
13.15.2 Compound vessels
13.15.3 Autofrettage
Liquid storage tanks
Mechanical design of centrifuges
13.17.1 Centrifugal pressure
13.17.2 Bowl and spindle motion: critical speed
References
Nomenclature
Problems

General Site Considerations

14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6

14.7

Introduction
Plant location and site selection
Site layout
Plant layout
14.4.1
Techniques used in site and plant layout
Utilities
Environmental considerations
14.6.1
Waste management
14.6.2
Noise
14.6.3
Visual impact
14.6.4
Legislation
14.6.5
Environmental auditing
References

xv
822
825
825
828
829
831
835
837
839
840
841
844
844
848
856
858
858
859
861
862
865
867
869
872
872
873
873
877
878
879
879
879
881
883
885
889

892
892
892
894
896
897
900
902
902
905
905
905
906
906

APPENDIX A: GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS FOR PIPING SYSTEMS AND PLANT

908

APPENDIX B: CORROSION CHART

917

APPENDIX C: PHYSICAL PROPERTY DATA BANK

937

APPENDIX D: CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SOME COMMON SI UNITS

958

xvi

CONTENTS

APPENDIX E: STANDARD FLANGES

960

APPENDIX F: DESIGN PROJECTS

965

APPENDIX G: EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION (DATA) SHEETS

990

APPENDIX H: TYPICAL SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE-SHEET LAYOUTS

1002

AUTHOR INDEX

1007

SUBJECT INDEX

1048