Blood Disorders Affecting Red Blood Cells

Blood disorders that affect red blood cells include:

Anemia : People with anemia have a low number of red blood cells. Mild anemia
often causes no symptoms. More severe anemia can cause fatigue, pale skin, and
shortness of breath with exertion.

Iron-deficiency anemia: Iron is necessary for the body to make red blood cells.
Low iron intake and loss of blood due to menstruation are the most common causes
of iron-deficiency anemia. It may also be caused by blood loss from the GI tract
because of ulcers or cancer. Treatment includes iron pills, or rarely, blood
transfusion.

Anemia of chronic disease: People with chronic kidney disease or other chronic
diseases tend to develop anemia. Anemia of chronic disease does not usually
require treatment. Injections of a synthetic hormone, epoetin alfa (Epogen or
Procrit), to stimulate the production of blood cells or blood transfusions may be
necessary in some people with this form of anemia.

Pernicious anemia (B12 deficiency): A condition that prevents the body from
absorbing enough B12 in the diet. This can be caused by a weakened stomach
lining or an autoimmune condition. Besides anemia, nerve damage (neuropathy)
can eventually result. High doses of B12 prevent long-term problems.

Aplastic anemia: In people with aplastic anemia, the bone marrow does not
produce enough blood cells, including red blood cells. A viral infection, drug side
effect, or an autoimmune condition can cause aplastic anemia. Medications, blood
transfusions, and even a bone marrow transplant, may be required to treat aplastic
anemia.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia: In people with this condition, an overactive

immune system destroys the body's own red blood cells, causing anemia. Medicines
that suppress the immune system, such as prednisone, may be required to stop the
process.

Blood Disorders Affecting White Blood Cells

Blood disorders that affect white blood cells include:
Lymphoma : A form of blood cancer that develops in the lymph system. In
lymphoma, a white blood cell becomes malignant, multiplying and spreading
abnormally. Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma are the two major
groups of lymphoma. Treatment with chemotherapy and/or radiation can often
extend life with lymphoma, and sometimes cure it.

Leukemia : A form of blood cancer in which a white blood cell becomes malignant
and multiplies inside bone marrow. Leukemia may be acute (rapid and severe) or
chronic (slowly progressing). Chemotherapy and/or stem cell transplantation (bone
marrow transplant) can be used to treat leukemia, and may result in a cure.

Multiple myeloma: A blood cancer in which a white blood cell called a plasma
cell becomes malignant. The plasma cells multiply and release damaging
substances that eventually cause organ damage. Multiple myeloma has no cure, but
stem cell transplant and/or chemotherapy can allow many people to live for years
with the condition.

Myelodysplastic syndrome: A family of blood cancers that affect the bone

marrow. Myelodysplastic syndrome often progresses very slowly, but may suddenly
transform into a severe leukemia. Treatments may include blood transfusions,
chemotherapy and stem cell transplant.

Blood Disorders Affecting Platelets

Blood disorders that affect the platelets include:
Thrombocytopenia : A low number of platelets in the blood; numerous
conditions cause thrombocytopenia, but most do not result in abnormal bleeding.

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: A condition causing a persistently

low number of platelets in the blood, due to an unknown cause; usually, there are
no symptoms, yet abnormal bruising, small red spots on the skin (petechiae), or
abnormal bleeding can result.

Heparin -induced thrombocytopenia: A low platelet count caused by a

reaction against heparin, a blood thinner given to many hospitalized people to
prevent blood clots

Blood Disorders Affecting Blood Plasma

Blood disorders that affect blood plasma include:

Sepsis : An infection somewhere in the body spreads into the blood. Symptoms
include fever, rapid breathing, respiratory failure, and low blood pressure.
Hemophilia : A genetic deficiency of certain proteins that help blood to clot; there
are multiple forms of hemophilia, ranging in severity from mild to life-threatening.
von Willebrand disease: von Willebrand factor is a protein in blood that helps
blood to clot. In von Willebrand disease, the body either produces too little of the
protein, or produces a protein that doesn't work well. The condition is inherited, but
most people with von Willebrand disease have no symptoms and don't know they
have it. Some people with von Willebrand disease will have excessive bleeding after
an injury or during surgery.
Hypercoaguable state (hypercoagulable state): A tendency for the blood to
clot too easily; most affected people have only a mild excess tendency to clot, and
may never be diagnosed. Some people develop repeated episodes of blood clotting
throughout life, requiring them to take a daily blood thinning medicine.
Deep venous thrombosis: A blood clot in a deep vein, usually in the leg; a deep
venous thrombosis can dislodge and travel through the heart to the lungs, causing a
pulmonary embolism.
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC): A condition that causes tiny
blood clots and areas of bleeding throughout the body simultaneously; severe
infections, surgery, or complications of pregnancy are conditions that can lead to
DIC.

HIV/AIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune

deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection
with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Following initial infection, a person
may not notice any symptoms or may experience a brief period of influenza-like
illness. Typically, this is followed by a prolonged period with no symptoms. As the
infection progresses, it interferes more with the immune system, increasing the risk

of common infections like tuberculosis, as well as other opportunistic infections, and

tumors that rarely affect people who have working immune systems.These late
symptoms of infection are referred to as AIDS. This stage is often also associated
with weight loss.

HIV is spread primarily by unprotected sex (including anal and oral sex),
contaminated blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to child
during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and
tears, do not transmit HIV.Methods of prevention include safe sex, needle-exchange
programs, treating those who are infected, and male circumcision. Disease in a
baby can often be prevented by giving both the mother and child antiretroviral
medication. There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow
the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy. Treatment
is recommended as soon as the diagnosis is made. Without treatment, the average
survival time after infection is 11 years.

Acute infection The initial period following the contraction of HIV is

called acute HIV, primary HIV or acute retroviral syndrome. Many
individuals develop an influenza-like illness or a mononucleosislike illness 24 weeks post exposure while others have no
significant symptoms.

Clinical latency
The initial symptoms are followed by a stage called clinical latency, asymptomatic
HIV, or chronic HIV. Without treatment, this second stage of the natural history of
HIV infection can last from about three years to over 20 years (on average, about
eight years)

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is defined in terms of either a CD4+ T
cell count below 200 cells per L or the occurrence of specific diseases in
association with an HIV infection.

Transmission

Sexual
Body fluids
Mother-to-child

Endangered and Endemic species of India

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA
A plant, animal or microorganism that is in immediate risk of biological extinction is called endangered
species or threatened species.
In India, 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. 100 mammals and 150 birds are
estimated to be endangered.
India's biodiversity is threatened primarily due to:
1.
Habitat destruction
2.
Degradation and
3.
Over exploitation of resources
The RED-data book contains a list of endangered species of plants and animals. It contains a list of
species of that are endangered but might become extinct in the near future if not protected.
Some of the rarest animals found in India are:
1.
Asiatic cheetah
2.
Asiatic Lion
3.
Asiatic Wild Ass
4.
Bengal Fox
5.
Gaur
6.
Indian Elephant
7.
Indian Rhinocerous
8.
Marbled Cat
9.
Markhor
Extinct species is no longer found in the world.
Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a critical number. Unless
it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
Vulnerable species is one whose population is facing continuous decline due to habitat destruction or
over exploitation. However, it is still abundant.
Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an extensive area. Such
species are not endangered or vulnerable.
A few endangered pecies in the world are listed below:
1.
West Virginia Spring Salamander (U.S.A)
2.
Giant Panda (China)
3.
Golden Lion Tamarin (Brazil)
4.
Siberian Tiger (Siberia)
5.
Mountain Gorilla (Africa)
6.
Pine Barrens Tree Frog (Male)
7.
Arabian Oryx (Middle East)
8.
African Elephant (Africa)
Other important endangered species are:
1.
Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)
2.
Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
3.
Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey (Primates)

4.
Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc
FACTORS AFFECTING ENDANGERED SPECIES
1.
Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting the air, land
and water. These pollutants enter the food chain and accumulate in living creatures resulting in
death.
2.
Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also leads to their
extinction.
3.
Climate change brought about by accumulation of green houses gases in the
atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems and they cannot adjust to the
changing environmental conditions leading to their death and extinction.
An international treaty to help protect endangered wildlife is, "Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species 1975" (CITES). This treaty is now signed by 160 countries.
1.
CITES lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife
products as they are in danger of extinction.
2.
CITES restricts trade of 2900 other species as they are endangered.
DRAWBACKS OF CITES
1.
This treaty is limited as enforcement is difficult and convicted violators get away by
paying only a small fine.
2.
Member countries can exempt themselves from protecting any listed species.
Endemic species of India
Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost 60% the
endemic species in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats. Endemic species are mainly
concentrated in:
1.
North-East India
2.
North-West Himalayas
3.
Western Ghats and
4.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Examples of endemic Flora species are
1.
Sapria Himalayana
2.
Ovaria Lurida
3.
Nepenthis khasiana etc
Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:
1.
Lion tailed macaque
2.
Nilgiri langur
3.
Brown palm civet and
4.
Nilgiri tahr
Factors affecting endemic species:
1.
Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.
2.
Pollution also plays an important role.
Ex:
1.
Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are extremely sensitive to pollutants especially
pesticides.
2.
Over-hunting and
3.
Populations can be adversely affected by introduction of non active predators and
competitors. Disease producing organisms also play an important adversary in reducing
populations of endemic species.

Soil conservation is the prevention of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by
over usage, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination.
Slash-and-burn and other unsustainable methods of subsistence farming are practiced in some
lesser developed areas. A sequel to the deforestation is typically large scaleerosion, loss of soil
nutrients and sometimes total desertification.
Techniques for improved soil conservation include crop rotation, cover crops, conservation
tillage and planted windbreaks and affect both erosion and fertility. When plants, especially trees,
die, they decay and become part of the soil. Code 330 defines standard methods recommended by
the US Natural Resources Conservation Service.
Soil-conservation farming involves no-till farming, green manures and other soil-enhancing
practices. Such farming methods attempt to mimic the biology of virgin land. They can revive
damaged soil, minimize erosion, encourage plant growth, eliminate the use of nitrogen fertilizer or
fungicide, produce above-average yields and protect crops during droughts or flooding. The result is
less labor and lower costs that increase farmers profits. No-till farming and cover crops act as sinks
for nitrogen and other nutrients. This increases the amount of soil organic matter.

Repeated plowing/tilling degrades soil, killing its beneficial fungi and earthworms. Once damaged,
soil may take multiple seasons to fully recover, even in optimal circumstances.
Critics argue that no-till and related methods are impractical and too expensive for many growers,
partly because it requires new equipment. They cite advantages for conventional tilling depending on
the geography, crops and soil conditions. Some farmers claimed that no-till complicates weed
control, delays planting and that post-harvest residues, especially for corn, are hard to manage

When worms excrete egesta in the form of casts, a balanced selection of minerals and plant
nutrients is made into a form accessible for root uptake. Earthworm casts are five times richer in
available nitrogen, seven times richer in available phosphates and eleven times richer in available
potash than the surrounding upper 150 millimetres (5.9 in) of soil. The weight of casts produced may
be greater than 4.5 kg per worm per year. By burrowing, the earthworm improves soil porosity,
creating channels that enhance the processes of aeration and drainage.
Other important soil organisms include nematodes, mycorrizha and bacteria.
Degraded soil requires synthetic fertilizer to produce high yields. Lacking structure increases erosion
and carries nitrogen and other pollutants into rivers and streams.
Each one percent increase in soil organic matter helps soil hold 20,000 gallons more water per acre.

Water Conservation:

Our ancient religious texts and epics give a good insight into the water storage and conservation systems
that prevailed in those days.
Over the years rising populations, growing industrialization, and expanding agriculture have pushed up
the demand for water. Efforts have been made to collect water by building dams and reservoirs and
digging wells; some countries have also tried to recycle and desalinate (remove salts) water. Water
conservation has become the need of the day. The idea of ground water recharging by harvesting
rainwater is gaining importance in many cities.
In the forests, water seeps gently into the ground as vegetation breaks the fall. This groundwater in turn
feeds wells, lakes, and rivers. Protecting forests means protecting water 'catchments'. In ancient India,
people believed that forests were the 'mothers' of rivers and worshipped the sources of these water
bodies.
Some ancient Indian methods of water conservation
The Indus Valley Civilization, that flourished along the banks of the river Indus and other parts of western
and northern India about 5,000 years ago, had one of the most sophisticated urban water supply and
sewage systems in the world. The fact that the people were well acquainted with hygiene can be seen
from the covered drains running beneath the streets of the ruins at both Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
Another very good example is the well-planned city of Dholavira, on Khadir Bet, a low plateau in the Rann
in Gujarat. One of the oldest water harvesting systems is found about 130 km from Pune along Naneghat
in the Western Ghats. A large number of tanks were cut in the rocks to provide drinking water to
tradesmen who used to travel along this ancient trade route. Each fort in the area had its own water
harvesting and storage system in the form of rock-cut cisterns, ponds, tanks and wells that are still in use
today. A large number of forts like Raigad had tanks that supplied water.
In ancient times, houses in parts of western Rajasthan were built so that each had a rooftop water
harvesting system. Rainwater from these rooftops was directed into underground tanks. This system can
be seen even today in all the forts, palaces and houses of the region.
Underground baked earthen pipes and tunnels to maintain the flow of water and to transport it to distant
places, are still functional at Burhanpur in Madhya Pradesh, Golkunda and Bijapur in Karnataka, and
Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
Rainwater harvesting
In urban areas, the construction of houses, footpaths and roads has left little exposed earth for water to
soak in. In parts of the rural areas of India, floodwater quickly flows to the rivers, which then dry up soon
after the rains stop. If this water can be held back, it can seep into the ground and recharge the
groundwater supply.
This has become a very popular method of conserving water especially in the urban areas. Rainwater
harvesting essentially means collecting rainwater on the roofs of building and storing it underground for
later use. Not only does this recharging arrest groundwater depletion, it also raises the declining water
table and can help augment water supply. Rainwater harvesting and artificial recharging are becoming
very important issues. It is essential to stop the decline in groundwater levels, arrest sea-water ingress,
i.e. prevent sea-water from moving landward, and conserve surface water run-off during the rainy season.
Town planners and civic authority in many cities in India are introducing bylaws making rainwater
harvesting compulsory in all new structures. No water or sewage connection would be given if a new
building did not have provisions for rainwater harvesting. Such rules should also be implemented in all the
other cities to ensure a rise in the groundwater level.
Realizing the importance of recharging groundwater, the CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) is taking
steps to encourage it through rainwater harvesting in the capital and elsewhere. A number of government
buildings have been asked to go in for water harvesting in Delhi and other cities of India.
All you need for a water harvesting system is rain, and a place to collect it! Typically, rain is collected on
rooftops and other surfaces, and the water is carried down to where it can be used immediately or stored.
You can direct water run-off from this surface to plants, trees or lawns or even to the aquifer.

Some of the benefits of rainwater harvesting are as follows

Increases water availability
Checks the declining water table
Is environmentally friendly
Improves the quality of groundwater through the dilution of fluoride, nitrate, and salinity
Prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in urban areas
Rainwater harvesting: a success story
Once Cherrapunji was famous because it received the largest volume of rainfall in
the world It still does but ironically, experiences acute water shortages. This is mainly
the result of extensive deforestation and because proper methods of conserving
rainwater are not used. There has been extensive soil erosion and often, despite the
heavy rainfall and its location in the green hills of Meghalaya, one can see stretches
of hillside devoid of trees and greenery. People have to walk long distances to collect
water.
In the area surrounding the River Ruparel in Rajasthan, the story is different - this is
an example of proper water conservation. The site does not receive even half the
rainfall received by Cherrapunji, but proper management and conservation have
meant that more water is available than in Cherrapunji.
The water level in the river began declining due to extensive deforestation and
agricultural activities along the banks and, by the 1980s, a drought-like situation
began to spread. Under the guidance of some NGOs (non-government
organizations), the women living in the area were encouraged to take the initiative in
building johads (round ponds) and dams to hold back rainwater. Gradually, water
began coming back as proper methods of conserving and harvesting rainwater were
followed. The revival of the river has transformed the ecology of the place and the
lives of the people living along its banks. Their relationship with their natural
environment has been strengthened. It has proved that humankind is not the master
of the environment, but a part of it. If human beings put in an effort, the damage
caused by us can be undone.

Agriculture
Conservation of water in the agricultural sector is essential since water is necessary for the growth of
plants and crops. A depleting water table and a rise in salinity due to overuse of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides has made matters serious. Various methods of water harvesting and recharging have been and
are being applied all over the world to tackle the problem. In areas where rainfall is low and water is
scarce, the local people have used simple techniques that are suited to their region and reduce the
demand for water.
In India's arid and semi-arid areas, the 'tank' system is traditionally the backbone of agricultural
production. Tanks are constructed either by bunding or by excavating the ground and collecting rainwater.
Rajasthan, located in the Great Indian Desert, receives hardly any rainfall, but people have adapted to
the harsh conditions by collecting whatever rain falls. Large bunds to create reservoirs known as khadin,
dams called johads, tanks, and other methods were applied to check water flow and accumulate run-off.
At the end of the monsoon season, water from these structures was used to cultivate crops. Similar
systems were developed in other parts of the country. These are known by various local names jal
talais in Uttar Pradesh, the haveli system in Madhya Pradesh, ahar in Bihar, and so on.
Reducing water demand
Simple techniques can be used to reduce the demand for water. The underlying principle is that only part
of the rainfall or irrigation water is taken up by plants, the rest percolates into the deep groundwater, or is
lost by evaporation from the surface. Therefore, by improving the efficiency of water use, and by reducing

its loss due to evaporation, we can reduce water demand.

There are numerous methods to reduce such losses and to improve soil moisture. Some of them are
listed below.
Mulching, i.e., the application of organic or inorganic material such as plant debris, compost, etc., slows
down the surface run-off, improves the soil moisture, reduces evaporation losses and improves soil
fertility.
Soil covered by crops, slows down run-off and minimizes evaporation losses. Hence, fields should not
be left bare for long periods of time.
Ploughing helps to move the soil around. As a consequence it retains more water thereby reducing
evaporation.
Shelter belts of trees and bushes along the edge of agricultural fields slow down the wind speed and
reduce evaporation and erosion.
Planting of trees, grass, and bushes breaks the force of rain and helps rainwater penetrate the soil.
Fog and dew contain substantial amounts of water that can be used directly by adapted plant species.
Artificial surfaces such as netting-surfaced traps or polyethylene sheets can be exposed to fog and dew.
The resulting water can be used for crops.
Contour farming is adopted in hilly areas and in lowland areas for paddy fields. Farmers recognize the
efficiency of contour-based systems for conserving soil and water.
Salt-resistant varieties of crops have also been developed recently. Because these grow in saline
areas, overall agricultural productivity is increased without making additional demands on freshwater
sources. Thus, this is a good water conservation strategy.
Transfer of water from surplus areas to deficit areas by inter-linking water systems through canals, etc.
Desalination technologies such as distillation, electro-dialysis and reverse osmosis are available.
Use of efficient watering systems such as drip irrigation and sprinklers will reduce the water
consumption by plants.
Water conservation
The most important step in the direction of finding solutions to issues of water and environmental
conservation is to change people's attitudes and habitsthis includes each one of us. Conserve water
because it is the right thing to do. We can follow some of the simple things that have been listed below
and contribute to water conservation.
Try to do one thing each day that will result in saving water. Don't worry if the savings are
minimalevery drop counts! You can make a difference.
Remember to use only the amount you actually need.
Form a group of water-conscious people and encourage your friends and neighbours to be part of this
group. Promote water conservation in community newsletters and on bulletin boards. Encourage your
friends, neighbours and co-workers to also contribute.
Encourage your family to keep looking for new ways to conserve water in and around your home.
Make sure that your home is leak-free. Many homes have leaking pipes that go unnoticed.
Do not leave the tap running while you are brushing your teeth or soaping your face.
See that there are no leaks in the toilet tank. You can check this by adding colour to the tank. If there is
a leak, colour will appear in the toilet bowl within 30 minutes. (Flush as soon as the test is done, since
food colouring may stain the tank.)
Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Put a brick or any other device that occupies space to cut down
on the amount of water needed for each flush.
When washing the car, use water from a bucket and not a hosepipe.
Do not throw away water that has been used for washing vegetables, rice or dalsuse it to water plants
or to clean the floors, etc
You can store water in a variety of ways. A simple method is to place a drum on a raised platform
directly under the rainwater collection source. You can also collect water in a bucket during the rainy
season.

Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there

was no forest. Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally (by
natural seeding, coppice, or root suckers) or artificially (by direct seeding or planting).
Forestation is the establishment of forest growth on areas that either had forest or
lacked it. So reforestation and afforestation are both forestation. Many governments
and non-governmental organizations directly engage in programs of afforestation to
create forests, increase carbon capture and sequestration, and help to
anthropogenically improve biodiversity. (In the UK, afforestation may mean
converting the legal status of some land to "royal forest".) Special tools, e.g. tree
planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster.
In some places, forests need help to reestablish themselves because of environmental
factors. For example, in arid zones, once forest cover is destroyed, the land may dry
and become inhospitable to new tree growth. Other factors include overgrazing by
livestock, especially animals such as goats, cows, and over-harvesting of forest
resources. Together these may lead to desertification and the loss of topsoil; without
soil, forests cannot grow until the long process of soil creation has been completed - if
erosion allows this. In some tropical areas, forest cover removal may result in a
duricrust or duripan that effectively seal off the soil to water penetration and root
growth. In many areas, reforestation is impossible because people are using the land.
In other areas, mechanical breaking up of duripans or duricrusts is necessary, careful
and continued watering may be essential, and special protection, such as fencing, may
be needed.