Midterm Exam Review

Prof. L. Muzio
Spring Quarter 2016
Efficiencies
Costs
Fuels
Solar Energy

The following slides summarize the key points of

the lectures that I gave this quarter; at least as I
see them.
A lot of information is discussed in this class,
while it all is important in one way or the other,
there are some key points that you should take
away from each discussion.
Review all of your lecture notes and the slides.
If you have any questions, or feel that you need
some help, between now and the midterm please
contact The TAs or me:

Tel: 949- 677- 0107

E-mail: lmuzio@ferco.com

U.S. Electricity by Source (AEO2014 Early

Release Outlook)(US Energy Information Administration)
2013

Major shift coal to Nat.

Gas

Current

EIA Short Term Forecast 2016

NG-33%
Coal-32%

Projected New Natural Gas Resources

(Power Engineering March 2012)

New sources of natural gas. Recall the

difference between Shale and Tight gas

History: U. S. New Electric Capacity

Additions

For both economic and environmental

reasons natural gas is displacing coal

Heat Engine Concept

Rankine Cycle
Simple Rankine Cycle

Superheat/Reheat Cycle Supercritical Cycle(*)

Water~3200 psia, 705F (217 atm, 374 C)

P=const.

P=const.

P=const.

(*) also utilizes Reheat

Wet steam
leaves the turbine
Turbine Erosion

Superheat intended
to protect turbine
Secondary benefit
higher eff.

Heat added at higher

average temperature
Higher eff.

Combined Cycle Thermodynamics

Using the waste heat from the Gas Turbine

Brayton Cycle in a steam Rankine cycle
markedly increases the efficiency( decreases
the Heat Rate)

ASME PTC 4.1 Heat Loss Efficiency Method

There is more than just the Thermodynamic efficiency to consider. In the case of a
steam cycle you need to consider how much of the chemical energy in the fuel
can actually be used to make steam; what are the main losses?

Cost Of Electricity Estimates

Cost Elements
Capital Cost ( what it cost to build)
Variable O&M ( primarily fuel); depends on the use
Fixed O&M ( routine maintenance, repairs, staff)Sometimes called Other than Fuel

Terms
Overnite Costs ( capital costs assuming plant built
overnight, not over 3-10 yrs)
Cost of Money (or interest rate paid on a loan)
Inflation rate ( decrease in the value of $)
Present Value ( current value of a series of payments
made in the future)
Discount Rate ( definition can vary, can include,
interest, inflation, expected profit; simplistically =
Interest-inflation)

Capacity Factors
Capacity Factor, %

100
80
60
40
20
0

Lower capacity factor means less KW-hr

means higher cost per KW-hr

Example
Capital Cost
Cost
Interest Rate
Inflation Rate
Unit Life
Capital Payment
Total Payments
Present Value
Fixed Operations and Maintenance
Variable Operations and Maintenance (Fuel)
Plant Heat Rate
Heat Input
Capacity Factor
Unit Fuel Cost( Present Value)
Fuel Cost(Variable O&M)
Unit Size
Capital Cost
Fixed O&M
COE

C
I
IFR
T
Pi

Coal Unit
1800
10
3
30
$191
$5,728
$3,964

Nat. Gas Combined Cycle

1000
10
3
20
$117
$2,349
$1,850

Wind
2000
10
3
20
$235
$4,698
$3,700

($/kw)/yr

30

12

30

Btu/Kwhr
MMB/Kwhr
%
$/MMBtu
$/Mwhr
MW
$/MW
$/MWhr
$/MWhr
$/MWhr

9200
0.0092
85
2
18.4
500
$3,963,805
17.74
4.03
40

6700
0.0067
85
4
26.8
500
$1,850,101
12.42
1.61
41

0
32
0
0
500
$3,700,202
66.00
10.70
77

$/kw
%
%
yrs
$/yr
$/kw
$/kw

Excel Functions
PMT(I/100,T,C,0)
XNPV(IFR/100,P1:pf,Y1:Yf)

In the spreadsheet I used in class I did Not Calculate XNPV for Fixed O&M
or Fuel Why?
For fixed O&M mainly salaries , unless you have other information
like history of union negotiations will likely increase close to
inflation. So, if I escalated the costs by the inflation rate then did the
net present value calculation I end up with the current cost
For Fuel, similar argument, unless you have information on future
fuel prices( perhaps a mine mouth plant where you have had
negotiations on future fuel costs that can be projected into future),
these are difficult to forecast so it is common to just use todays fuel
cost

Capital Cost vs. Size

Capital Cost Usually expressed as $/KW
$/KW will vary with the size of the plant
Typically $/KW decreases with increasing size-Why?
Engineering costs dont scale linearly
Equipment purchases might not scale linearly
400MW Coal- uses 4 pulverizers ( 3-in service, 1-spare)
800MW Coal-8 pulverizers? No probably 7 (6-in sevice, 1spare)
The cost of a continuous emissions monitor in the stack
does not vary much with size
C1/C2~(S1/S2)^n
C=Cost, S=Size
n= scaling factor, typically n=2/3

Coal
What is it?-basically plant matter that has
been under pressure and temperature for a
long time

Progression: Coalification
Plant Matter

Peat

Lignite

Subbituminous

Bituminous

Heat
Pressure
Time
Hydrogen and Oxygen Decrease

Anthracite

Effect of Coal Rank (Why?)

PA (Plan Area)
PA
=1.00

PA
PA
PA
1.26W
1.16W
=1.56
=1.15 1.08W =1.25

1.08D

1.06D

High-Volatile
Bituminous or
Subbituminous

1.24D

PA
=1.63

1.29W

1.26D

Medium-Sodium
Lignite

High-Sodium
Lignite

Medium-Volatile
Bituminous

Low-Sodium
Lignite

Solar

Radiation Review
Black Body Radiation ( Perfect Radiator)

Pl=Power per m area per m wavelength

h = Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js)
c = Speed of Light (3 x 108 m/s)
l = Wavelength (m)
k = Boltzmann Constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = Temperature (K)
s = Stefan's-Boltzmann Constant= 5.67 x
10-8 W m-2 K-4

lp = 2898/T

Flat Plate Solar Collector ( Solar Hot Water)

Pi
The panes of glass
make the collector
have an effective
emissivity

Pi

Pi

Pi = s/(n+1) (T4 T4a)

N=# of glass panes

Pi
Pi)
Pi

Single Pane T increases from 93C

to 144 C for one pane of glass

Absorption of a Photon
N
E=hn=EG

E=hn>EG

Silicon Absorption of Solar Radiation

Energy of a
Photon of
wavelength -l

Solar Behavior
If Fixed Make Tilt=Latitude
Simple Calculator at
(http://solarelectricityhandbook.com/solarangle-calculator.html)

Operating Characteristics Solar

Collectors
CSP
Technology

Concentration Ratio

Tracking
Requireme
nts

Operating
Temp (oC)

Average
solar to
electricity
efficiency

Unit Size
range

Status

Power
Towers

500-1000

2 axis
heliostat

400-600

12-18%

30-400
MWe

Current
largest:
392MW
(Ivanpah,
CA)

Parabolic
Troughs

10-100

1-axis
reflector

100-400+

8-12%

30-100
MWe

20 years
operating in
CA

Dish
Engines

600-3,000

2-axis

600-1,500

15-31%

5-50 MWe

Prototypes
tested at
25kWe

Power Plant Cooling

Once Through
Closed Look
Dry

Combined Heat and Power(CHP)

CO2 (lb/MW-HR)Uses the energy of the steam in the denominator

Avoids burning fuel just for the process steam