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Bertoli, Gustavo de Carvalho
ASSESSMENT AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF SOLAR POWERED UNMANNED AERIAL
VEHICLE / Gustavo de Carvalho Bertoli.
So Jos dos Campos, 2015.
118p.
Dissertation of Master in Engineering Program of Aeronautics and Mechanics Engineering Area
of Aerospace Systems and Mechatronics Instituto Tecnolgico de Aeronutica, 2015. Advisor: Prof. Dr.
Gefeson Mendes Pacheco, Prof. MSc. Geraldo Jos Adabo.
1.Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. 2.Conceptual Design. 3. Solar Energy. 4. Solar Powered UAV. 5. UAV
Architecture. I.Instituto Tecnolgico de Aeronutica. II. Solar Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV):
Assessment and Conceptual Design

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE
BERTOLI, Gustavo de Carvalho. ASSESSMENT AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF
SOLAR POWERED UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE. 2015. 118p. Dissertation of Master
in Aeronautics Engineering Aeronautical Technical Institute, So Jos dos Campos.

CESSION OF RIGHTS
AUTHOR NAME: Gustavo de Carvalho Bertoli
PUBLICATION TITLE: ASSESSMENT AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF SOLAR
POWERED UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE
PUBLICATION KIND/YEAR: Dissertation / 2015

It is granted to Instituto Tecnolgico de Aeronutica permission to reproduce copies of this

dissertation to only loan or sell copies for academic and scientific purposes. The author
reserves other publication rights and no part of this Dissertation can be reproduced without
(the) his authorization (of the author).

__________________________________
Gustavo de Carvalho Bertoli
gubertoli@gmail.com
Praa Melvin Jones, 92 Jd. So Dimas
CEP: 12245-360, So Jos dos Campos - SP

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ASSESSMENT AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF SOLAR

POWERED UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE

Gustavo de Carvalho Bertoli

Dissertation Committee Composition:

Prof. Dr.
Prof. MSc.
Prof. PhD.
Prof. MSc.

Gefeson Mendes Pacheco

Geraldo Jos Adabo
Alberto Jos de Faro Orlando
Celio Renato Melo Tiberi

Chairperson/Advisor
Co-Advisor
ITA
Embraer

ITA

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Acknowledgments
This dissertation is dedicated to all staff from Embraers Engineering
Specialization Program that provided me unestimated professional and personal
improvements.
To ITA (Aeronautical Technical Institute) staff and professors that shared
their knowledge with a great commitment to teaching. Also by the opportunity to
presents this masters dissertation.
To my advisors Gefeson and Adabo that guided me during research, study
and elaboration of this dissertations theme with a lot of meetings, emails and sharing
their knowledge to support me.
To my family that understood my absence sometimes, always supporting me
to pursue my dreams. My parents Ciro and Maria Emilia that always made choices
with me and my siblings in mind.
To my brother Guilherme, and sister Mila and my godson Joo Guilherme,
that despite the distance, they are always present. To Letcia that have been a great
friend, supporter and companion.
A special thanks to my family in So Jose dos Campos, all participants
from PEE20 and others that made the moving to here easily, special thanks to:
Corazza, Boy, de Caux, Joozinho, Triz, Slvio, Lo, Murilo, Porta, Platini, Rick, Bob,
Saka, Valdi, Tiozo e Queiroz.

Abstract
Solar UAVs have shown a great marketing trend, reducing costs and expanding
operational possibilities, mainly due to endurance increase, provided by solar power
generation on wing.
This dissertation presents the points that affect the development of a solar UAV. It
shows the various architectures presented in past researches.
Presents the challenges and attention points during development of Solar UAV and
also applications for this type of UAV.
Makes a description of the components required in the architecture of Solar UAV and
the technical background to understand its operation and importance in the solar UAV
architecture composition.
It is proposed a conceptual design methodology of a Solar UAV that from mission and
operational requirements, sizing a Solar UAV. The purpose of this methodology is to provide
a way to estimate the feasibility of a solar UAV from few technical information for its sizing,
leaving only possible values of components and definition of the geographical area of
operation.
This methodology is detailed in the dissertation where a tool was created to automate
the Solar UAV design process.
It is also presented using this tool for existing projects with subsequent analysis of
results and comparisons with the projects already constructed.
A case study is presented to a Solar UAV for application in Brazil, considering the
imaging and remote sensing activity.
A methodology for adapting Electric UAV with Solar Cells to increase Endurance is
presented and analyzed with an example case.
At the conclusion of the study presents some points to be deepened from this master's
thesis, presented as "future work", pioneering for more research in the area.

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Resumo
Os VANTs solares vem apresentando uma grande tendencia mercadologica, reduzindo
custos e ampliando possibilidades de operao, principalmente devido ao aumento de
autonomia, proporcionado pela gerao de energia solar embarcada.
Essa dissertao de mestrado apresenta os pontos que fazem parte durante o
desenvolvimento de um VANT Solar. Mostra as diversas arquiteturas apresentadas em
trabalhos passados.
Os desafios e pontos de ateno no desenvolvimento do VANT Solar e tambm as
aplicaes desse tipo de VANT.
Faz um descritivo dos componentes requeridos na arquitetura dos VANT Solares e
apresenta o embasamento tcnico para entender sua operao e importncia na composio da
arquitetura do VANT Solar.
proposta uma metodologia de design conceitual de um VANT Solar em que a partir
de requisitos de misso e operao, dimensionado o VANT Solar. O objetivo dessa
metodologia apresentar uma forma de estimar a viabilidade e realizao fsica de um VANT
Solar a partir de poucas informaes tcnicas para seu dimensionamento, partindo apenas de
possveis valores de componentes e definio da regio geogrfica de operao.
Essa metodologia detalhada durante a dissertao em que uma ferramenta foi criada
para automatizar o processo de design do VANT Solar.
apresentado tambm o uso dessa ferramenta para projetos j existentes com
posterior anlise dos seus resultados e comparaes com os projetos j realizados.
Um estudo de caso apresentado para um VANT Solar para aplicao no Brasil,
considerando a atividade de imageamento e sensoriamento remoto.
O caso de adaptar VANT Eltrico com clulas solares para aumento de autonomia
apresentado e analisado atravs de um estudo de caso.
Na concluso do trabalho so apresentados algums pontos para serem aprofundados a
partir dessa dissertao de mestrado, apresentados como trabalhos futuros, deixando
caminho para mais pesquisa na rea.

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List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Google UAV (MCNEAL, 2014) ............................................................................16
Figure 1-2 Facebook UAV (METZ, 2014)...............................................................................16
Figure 1-3 Adapting UAV to Solar Energy Source (QUICK, 2014) .......................................16
Figure 2-1 Solar-Powered Aircraft Development (HOFFBORN, 2009) .................................18
Figure 2-2 Skysailor (NOTH, 2008) ........................................................................................20
Figure 2-3 UAS inventory (DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, 2013).......................................21
Figure 2-4 Wingspan and Payload relation with UAV categorized (KIM, 1998)....................22
Figure 2-5 Clothier et al. approach for UAV classification (CLOTHIER et al., 2014) ...........22
Figure 2-6 Sales Forecast (AUVSI, 2013) ...............................................................................23
Figure 2-7 HAAPs Proposed Architecture (HALL et al., 1983) ..............................................25
Figure 2-8 Architecture (YOUNGBLOOD; TALAY; PEGG, 1984) ......................................26
Figure 2-9 Architecture (BENEDEK, 1988) ............................................................................26
Figure 2-10 Propulsion and Power System Layout for Venus Solar-Powered UAV
(COLOZZA, 2004)...................................................................................................................27
Figure 2-11 Architecture (MEYER et al., 2013) ......................................................................28
Figure 2-12 Solar Impulse Electrical Architecture (ROSS, 2008) ...........................................28
Figure 2-13 Electromagnetic Wave (CMDITR, 2015).............................................................29
Figure 2-14 Solar Irradiance Spectrum (COMMONS, 2015) ..................................................29
Figure 2-15 Atmosphere effects (CLEMENS, 2013)...............................................................30
Figure 2-16 Solar Beam Angle Effect (CLEMENS, 2013)......................................................31
Figure 2-17 Solar Cell (SICK and ERGE, 2015) .....................................................................32
Figure 2-18 Mult-junction Solar Cell (CLEMENS, 2015).......................................................33
Figure 2-19 NREL Photovoltaics (NREL, 2015) .....................................................................35

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Figure 2-20 Energy Variation due to latitude (NASA, 2015a).................................................36

Figure 2-21 Ragone Plot (WINTER; BRODD, 2004) .............................................................37
Figure 2-22 Simple battery cell (LINDEN and REDDY, 1995) ..............................................38
Figure 2-23 Fuel Cell (WIKIPEDIA, 2015b)...........................................................................38
Figure 2-24 Energy Storage Capabilities (Adapted from ELECTROPAEDIA, 2015a) ..........39
Figure 2-25 DOD effects in Total Cycles (YUASA, 2015) .....................................................40
Figure 2-26 Horizon Aeropak Main Parts (HORIZON ENERGY SYSTEMS, 2012) ............41
Figure 2-27 Propulsion Group (HEPPERLE, 2012) ................................................................41
Figure 2-28 Typical on-board conversion chains (HEPPERLE, 2012)....................................42
Figure 2-29 Solar Impulse Efficiency Chain (ROSS, 2008) ....................................................43
Figure 2-30 Brushless DC (BLDC) motor (ELECTROPAEDIA, 2015b) ...............................44
Figure 2-31 Brushless DC motors (AVISLAB, 2015) .............................................................44
Figure 2-32 Simple Block Diagram for Switching Converter (RASHID, 1999) .....................46
Figure 2-33 Solar I-V curve (SOLARHOMERU, 2015) .........................................................47
Figure 2-34 Sensorless Speed Controller Circuit (GAMAZO-REAL; VZQUEZ-SNCHEZ;
GMEZ-GIL, 2010).................................................................................................................49
Figure 2-35 Solar Cell strip with Bypass and Blocking Diodes...............................................50
Figure 2-36 Power flow due to shadow and Bypass Diode......................................................50
Figure 3-1 Software Block Diagram ........................................................................................52
Figure 3-2 Atmosphere (UCAR, 2014) ....................................................................................53
Figure 3-3 Zenith Angle ...........................................................................................................55
Figure 3-4 Solar Irradiance by Latitude (INFORSE, 2015) .....................................................56
Figure 3-5 Solar Radiation Intensity by Latitude Variation .....................................................57
Figure 3-6 Solar Radiation by Hemisphere Change.................................................................57
Figure 3-7 Day Length Solar by Latitude Variation ................................................................59

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Figure 3-8 Forces on aircraft (MATTINGLY; HEISER and PRATT, 2002) ..........................60
Figure 3-9 Flying Wing Configuration - Constraint Analysis (MALEKI, 2011) ....................64
Figure 3-10 Steady Flight Load Factor (WIKIPEDIA, 2015a) ................................................65
Figure 3-11 Turn Load Factor (WIKIPEDIA, 2015a)..............................................................65
Figure 3-12 Airfoil Parameters (DAVISSON, 2015)...............................................................67
Figure 3-13 Wing Tip Vortices (SWANSON, 2015) ...............................................................68
Figure 3-14 Wing Aspect Ratio (NASA, 2015b) .....................................................................69
Figure 3-15 Aspect Ratio effect on lift (RAYMER, 1989) ......................................................70
Figure 3-16 Empty Weight Fraction Trends (RAYMER, 1989)..............................................71
Figure 3-17 Simple Mission Profile .........................................................................................72
Figure 3-18 Energy Balance Example (MONTGOMERY and MOURTOS, 2013)................77
Figure 3-19 Adapted Electric UAV Power Flow .....................................................................80
Figure 4-1 Architecture Proposed.............................................................................................82
Figure 4-2 Powered by only Solar Cells...................................................................................83
Figure 4-3 Absence of Sun / Powered Battery-only.................................................................83
Figure 4-4 Tool GUI.................................................................................................................84
Figure 4-5 Latitude and Longitude representation (SATSIG, 2015) .......................................85
Figure 4-6 Sea Level Reference ...............................................................................................85
Figure 4-7 Solar Panel Construction ........................................................................................86
Figure 4-8 Rdesign and Wing Loading required during simulation.........................................87
Figure 5-1 Methodology with iteration considering Payload Power impact............................92
Figure 5-2 AtlantikSolar (AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM LAB ETH ZURICH, 2014) ..............93
Figure 5-3 AtlantikSolar Input data on tool .............................................................................94
Figure 5-4 HELIOS (USA, 2015) ............................................................................................95
Figure 5-5 Altitude Sensitive Analysis.....................................................................................97

Figure 5-6 Solar Cell Density Sensitive Analysis ....................................................................98

Figure 5-7 Propulsion Chain Sensitive Analysis......................................................................99
Figure 5-8 Parasite Drag Coefficient Sensitive Analysis .......................................................100
Figure 5-9 Cruise Speed Sensitive Analysis ..........................................................................101
Figure 5-10 Wing Loading Sensitive Analysis ......................................................................101
Figure 5-11 Battery Specific Energy Sensitive Analysis .......................................................102
Figure 5-12 Payload Mass Sensitive Analysis .......................................................................102
Figure 5-13 Battery Efficiency Sensitive Analysis ................................................................103
Figure 5-14 Example of Aerophotography (Adapted from CATUAV, 2015) .......................104
Figure 5-15 Input Simulation .................................................................................................105
Figure 5-16 Simulation Output...............................................................................................106
Figure 5-17 Power Profile ......................................................................................................106
Figure 5-18 Adapting Electric UAV ......................................................................................108

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List of Tables
Table 2-1 Photovoltaic by Generation (adapted from CLEMENS, 2015) ...............................33
Table 2-2 Solar Cells used in past projects...............................................................................34
Table 2-3 Commercially Available Solar Cells........................................................................34
Table 2-4 Lithium batteries used in past projects.....................................................................39
Table 3-1 Take-off Wing Loading Trends in lb/ft2 (NICOLAI and CARICHNER, 2010) .....66
Table 3-2 Subsonic Representative C D0 (NICOLAI and CARICHNER, 2010) ......................68
Table 3-3 Past Projects Airframe Loading ...............................................................................73
Table 3-4 Sizing Algorithm......................................................................................................76
Table 4-1 Aerodynamic Coefficients .......................................................................................87
Table 5-1 Past designs detailed data.........................................................................................90
Table 5-2 Skysailor case First Attempt .................................................................................91
Table 5-3 Skysailor case Second Attempt.............................................................................91
Table 5-4 AtlantikSolar Case ...................................................................................................95
Table 5-5 HELIOS Case...........................................................................................................96
Table 5-6 Payload Specification.............................................................................................104
Table 5-7 CATUAV Argos Electric Data ..............................................................................107
Table 5-8 ParkZone Radian Data ...........................................................................................109
Table 5-9 Comparison of Methodology with HURD, 2009...................................................109

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Contents
LIST OF FIGURES..............................................................................................................VII
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................. XI
CONTENTS ..........................................................................................................................XII
1

INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................15

1.1

Motivation ...............................................................................................................15

1.2

Objectives ................................................................................................................17

1.3

Work Structure .......................................................................................................17

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEW .......................................................................................18

2.1

Related Work ..........................................................................................................18

2.2

Solar-Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) ..............................................24

2.2.1

Solar UAV Design ............................................................................................24

2.2.2

Solar-Powered Propulsion and Power System Architecture ............................24

2.2.3

Solar Radiation .................................................................................................29

2.2.4

Photovoltaic / Solar Cells .................................................................................31

2.2.5

Energy Storage .................................................................................................36

2.2.6

Propulsion Group..............................................................................................41

2.2.7

Payloads ............................................................................................................45

2.2.8

Power Electronics .............................................................................................45

METHODOLOGY .........................................................................................................51

3
3.1

Introduction ............................................................................................................51

3.2

Development Flow ..................................................................................................51

3.2.1

Earth Atmosphere Model..................................................................................52

3.2.2

Solar Irradiation Model ....................................................................................54

3.2.3

Day Length Model ............................................................................................58

3.2.4

Constraint Analysis ..........................................................................................60

3.2.4.1
3.2.4.2
3.2.4.3
3.2.4.4
3.2.4.5
3.2.5

Load Factor .......................................................................................................64

Wing Loading ...................................................................................................65
Lift and Drag Coefficients ................................................................................66
Aspect Ratio .....................................................................................................69
Oswald Efficiency Factor .................................................................................70
Sizing ................................................................................................................70

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3.2.5.1
3.2.5.2
3.2.5.3
3.2.5.4
3.2.5.5
3.2.6
3.3
4

Airframe Loading .............................................................................................73

Propulsion Loading ..........................................................................................74
Solar Cells Loading ..........................................................................................74
Energy Storage Loading ...................................................................................75
Sizing Calculation ............................................................................................75
Energy Balance Profile .....................................................................................77

Electric UAV adapted to Photovoltaic ..................................................................78

TOOL DEVELOPED FOR ANALYSIS ......................................................................82

4.1

Solar UAV Architecture Proposal.........................................................................82

4.2

Tool description ......................................................................................................84

4.2.1

Geographic Inputs ............................................................................................85

4.2.2

Photovoltaic ......................................................................................................85

4.2.3

Propeller Group ................................................................................................86

4.2.4

Aerodynamics ...................................................................................................86

4.2.5

Constraint Analysis ..........................................................................................87

4.2.6

Battery / Electronics / Payload .........................................................................88

4.2.7

Preliminary Design Output ...............................................................................88

4.2.8

Weight Breakdown ...........................................................................................88

4.2.9

Plot Area ...........................................................................................................88

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .....................................................................................90

5.1

Solar Powered UAV projects simulated on tool ..................................................90

5.1.1

Sky Sailor .........................................................................................................91

5.1.2

AtlantikSolar.....................................................................................................92

5.1.3

HELIOS ............................................................................................................95
Parameters sensitive analysis ................................................................................96

5.2
5.2.1

Geographical Inputs..........................................................................................96

5.2.2

Photovoltaic Inputs ...........................................................................................97

5.2.3

Propeller Group Inputs .....................................................................................98

5.2.4

Aerodynamics Inputs ........................................................................................99

5.2.5

Constraint Analysis Inputs .............................................................................100

5.2.6

Battery / Electronics / Payload Inputs ............................................................101

5.3

New Solar UAV Proposal .....................................................................................103

5.4

Adapting an Electric UAV to Photovoltaic ........................................................106

6
6.1

CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................111
Future Works ........................................................................................................112

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................................113

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1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Aircraft has already proven his advantages and nowadays it is imperative for the
common life. Another concept of aircraft is the unmanned, commonly referred as UAV
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle or RPA - Remotely Piloted Aircraft.
The UAV presents some advantages over the manned aircraft, mainly, those related to
human constraints. So, for missions that can expose the pilot to a high work load or risks, the
UAV are highly recommended. The operational applications range from military area to daily
civilian tasks.
Besides the known military applications, there are some important areas that the uses
of UAV are becoming popular, such as:
Precision agriculture

Environment studies

Search and rescue

Mapping

Facility and infrastructure inspection

Observation

Atmospheric Satellites

Communications

Long endurance flight is an important research area and is limited by the energy
sources capabilities. Researches are conducted to improve the fuel consumption, refueling
methods, energy saving and most efficient system components and energy providers.
Due the fact that UAV does not have the pilot constraint, long flight endurance
became an advantage for this type of vehicle. In this context shows up the concept of solarelectric UAV that has potential for long endurance or unlimited flight missions. Besides the
fact that the Solar Energy source has benefits like the fact of being renewable, inexhaustible
and ultimate source of energy, being an option during fossil fuels crisis scenario.
An example of this long endurance flight is presented by the Solar UAV Zephyr, made
by Qinetiq that holds the record for the longest airplane flight - 336h 22min 8sec (FAI, 2012).
Besides the historical researches focused on solar-powered electric UAV, there is also
a market trend, as stated by Figure 1-1 and Figure 1-2:

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Figure 1-1 Google UAV (MCNEAL, 2014)

Figure 1-2 Facebook UAV (METZ, 2014)

This trend proposes the use of solar-powered UAV to perform functions of satellites,
reducing the project costs and risks. Simplifying launching requirements and also become
possible to recover the platform.
Another trend for the solar energy source is for those electric UAV being adapted to a
hybrid solution, adding solar cells to increase the UAV flight endurance - Figure 1-3:

Figure 1-3 Adapting UAV to Solar Energy Source (QUICK, 2014)

The range and flight endurance extension for electrical UAV has some lines of
research, such as: Fuel Cells, Lightweight Structures, High Energy Density Batteries, Energy
Harvesting, More Efficient Electronics, Path Planning among others.
There is a trade-off between flight endurance and take-off weight, greater flight
endurance often means greater takeoff weight due the fact that a large portion of the mass of
an electric UAV is for energy storage. With the constant efficiency increase of solar UAV
components, solar-powered UAV becomes a feasible solution to meet high endurance flights
requirements.
Beyond the technical and mission advantages presented, the solar-powered UAV are
an increasing market trend and these facts are the synthesis of technological progress and
market needs, being a great subject for this master thesis.

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1.2 Objectives
The objective of this text is to propose a methodology for conceptual design of solarpowered UAV and verify the project sensitivity for some project parameters changes.
It does not have intended to be a proof-of-concept of solar-powered UAV. This
already been done by previous studies related to solar-powered UAV like NOTH, (2008),
BOUCHER, (2014) and COLOZZA, (2004) among others.
The methodology proposed, should be used as an initial feasibility study. By the initial
conditions and constraints, the methodology provides initial measurements for the project
UAV accomplishment. This data can be used as a start point for a more detailed study.
The methodology outputs will be compared with results already obtained by other
researchers and projects to validate its effectiveness.
Also a methodology for estimating the increase of endurance of an Electric UAV by
introducing of photovoltaic system is presented.

1.3 Work Structure

This work is structured by five chapters. The introductory chapter presents the
motivation for the theme of this master thesis and also presents the objectives to be achieved
in this dissertation.
Chapter 2 describes the bibliography review that was conducted in order to list
different points of view and research aspects related to UAV itself as well as Solar UAV
development, also a review of solar UAV design and the key design aspects in this process.
On Chapter 3 all building blocks used for Solar UAV design are presented and
discussed presenting the methodology and concepts.
For Chapter 4, the methodology proposed is detailed and some study cases are
simulated by the tool created. Sensitivity parameters analyses are conducted to verify the
impacts in the final design output.
In Chapter 5 is presented the conclusion of the work, with insights about the results as
well as some suggestions for future works.

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2 Bibliographic Review
2.1 Related Work
The first solar flight was made by Sunrise I in 1974, developed by AstroFlight, it was
a demand from DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency).
This demand was a consequence of the studies in the Electric Flight, aiming to extend
the flight endurance. For this purpose, the use of solar energy was considered by sun being an
inexhaustible energy source. The case of manned solar flight was demonstrated by Solar
Challenger in 1981 after Gossamer Penguin in 1980. These manned flights were conducted to
be pioneering in solar-powered flights and also to aware people of potentials of alternative
energy sources and specifically photovoltaic energy (MACCREADY et al., 1983).
Solar Flight was a breakthrough, but some constraints related to photovoltaic system
integration like solar cell efficiency, energy conversion efficiencies and costs, signaled as
impediment for large-scale implementations or commercial use, but it was a successful proofof-concept to demonstrate the possibility of the solar powered flight.
There are studies registering the historical evolution of solar powered aircrafts like
NOTH, (2008) and HOFFBORN, (2009), Figure 2-1 illustrates the development of solarpowered aircraft by years.

Figure 2-1 Solar-Powered Aircraft Development (HOFFBORN, 2009)

In 1980, PHILLIPS, (1980), provided details about the possibility of the solar flight
with analytical calculations to estimate performance, operational characteristics and

19

limitations, useful for further studies. This paper already considered the dependencies for
technological improvements in propulsion, solar cells, structures and batteries.
SOLUTIONS, (1997), made a technology survey about the energy source technology
for High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) UAVs comprised of: Solar Cells, NonRegenerative and Regenerative Fuel Cells, Primary and Second Batteries, Flywheels, Semicells and Capacitors.
LOGAN et al., (2007) presents the evolution in the energy storage devices, with the
Lithium batteries and specific energy density. Also describes evolution in the propulsion, like
brushless DC motors and more recently the outrunner motors, which can reduce the weight of
gearboxes before needed in the inrunner motors. Regarding the avionics, it shows an
incredible effect of miniaturization which impacts weight, power savings, volume required for
storage and the rise of functions capabilities by a single chipset. Advances related to materials
aimed to reduce weight of structures are also mentioned.
The reconnaissance and observation advantage have been used historically for military
purposes, from high towers, balloons, aircraft and UAVs as stated by BLOM, (2010). They
have been used as a great advantage in a battle field which by consequence helped the
developments in this area, in this context the interest about UAV started.
But beyond the military scope, civilian application started to be the focus because the
cost-effectively when compared with the normal aircraft for the same application purpose
(KIM, 1998).
For those civilian applications can be considered those related to imaging and sensing,
photogrammetric

assessment,

post-disaster

assessment,

environmental

management,

infrastructure development, search & rescue, power line inspection, pipeline inspection,
glacier monitoring, freight, weather and meteorology, telecommunication services among
others (FAA, 2013).
BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995) proposes a design methodology that has the
advantage of using the constraint analysis and mission requirements instead of components
weights. This BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995) approach - which in a conceptual design are
merely guesses - simplify the solar-powered UAV assessment. This method provided a rapid
way for sensitivity analysis but it was primarily applied to High Altitude Long Endurance
(HALE) solar-powered aircraft. An analysis of BRANDT et al, (2000) presented the use of

20

this methodology to the Small Electric UAV sizing which proved to be a comprehensive
method design.
A well-known thesis about solar UAV is the one presented by NOTH, (2008). It
proposed the Skysailor, a small solar UAV for Mars exploration. Another characteristic of
this mission is the payload of about half kilograms and the high endurance for the mission,
something between weeks and months, using for that the Solar Energy. The key point of this
PhD thesis are the enormous data and analysis provided as conceptual design methodology,
more specific the mass prediction models (Structures, Batteries, Propulsion) which has been
referenced in the more recent researches in the Solar Powered UAV area.

Figure 2-2 Skysailor (NOTH, 2008)

Another interesting approach in the Solar Powered UAV field is that presented by
COBA, (2010) and HURD, (2009), which instead of consider a complete Solar Powered UAV
development, it is proposed the use of solar cells and power electronics to complement the
batteries available energy and improve the Electrical UAV endurance capabilities with this
modification.
The DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, (2013) states that outside USA military
environment, the Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS - systems whose components include the
necessary equipment, network, and personnel to control an unmanned aircraft) sector growth
will continually rise and was classified as "the most dynamic growth sector of the world
aerospace industry this decade".

21

The DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, (2013) also provides the Figure 2-3, which
shows the Department of Defense UAS inventory classified by Groups that represent the
weight class and also the strike capability.

Figure 2-3 UAS inventory (DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, 2013)

An important point of this Figure 2-3 is the amount of Small UAV in the inventory,
which represents about 90% of the total.
There are some ways to classify the UAV, as mentioned before, DEPARTMENT OF
DEFENSE, (2013) consider the weight, flight level, strike capability and also the flight speed.
Figure 2-4 from KIM, (1998), shows the relationship between wingspan and payload weight
and use that to create some classified areas as micro-UAV and Small-UAV.

22

Figure 2-4 Wingspan and Payload relation with UAV categorized (KIM, 1998)
NICOLAI and CARICHNER, (2010) proposes a division of UAV by its Weight Class.
An interesting classification for UAV is proposed by CLOTHIER et al, (2010) and
presented by RAUCH, (2014). This approach considers the potential harm to people on
ground in case of a UAV crash. In addition, weight of UAV is taken into consideration and
the operating area in which it is applied. A sample of this classification is presented by Figure
2-5.

Figure 2-5 Clothier et al. approach for UAV classification (CLOTHIER et al., 2014)
As aforementioned by DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, (2013), the market perspective
for the UAVs has an increasing upper trend and some studies has already been conducted to

23

demonstrate the UAV advantage over manned flights for specific tasks, both military and
civilian.
MAILEY, (2013) presented some case studies comparing the use of manned flights
and UAV for the same application. Two cases are summarized below:
-

Sandhill Crane Population Survey presented a saving of about 93% when

comparing the use of a contractor manned aircraft and the Raven Electric
UAV.

The Mesa County Landfill Project had 97% saving when comparing UAV and
manned flight; in this case they used the Falcon and Dragonflyer UAV.

MAILEY, (2013) also mentioned the leasing services trend instead of the acquisition
of the UAV platforms. It is mentioned the bureaucratic challenges to operate these UAV
which is an actual theme in discussion regarding the operation UAV.
A great market forecast was conducted by AUVSI, (2013). This forecast presented
some aspects like agriculture the largest market when compared with the public safety market,
and they concluded that the agriculture must be ten times greater than public safety market. It
mentioned unlimited applications for UAV and highlights the real estate and pipe line
inspection. It is also pointed out the dependency of regulatory decisions. The summarizing of
the forecast from 2015 to 2025 is presented by Figure 2-6.

Figure 2-6 Sales Forecast (AUVSI, 2013)

24

Back to the UAV studies, others research paths being conducted with Solar UAV are
those that considers the use of thermal soaring to improve climbing capabilities, which results
in savings of energy, impacting directly needs of solar cells and batteries.
Also the store of potential energy by high altitude flights during the day and descend
during the night are also considered as an option to save energy and improve UAV endurance
capabilities, giving the same impact as thermal soaring regarding the energy savings.

2.2 Solar-Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)

This chapter aims to present background for the Solar UAV design process and also
for the components that comprise typical Solar UAV architectures.
For these components, a survey was conducted to present the evolution and actual
technological status compared with past studies related to Solar UAV.
2.2.1

Solar UAV Design

As for any aircraft design, the complexities and challenges are the same despite the
fact if it is an UAV or not. The design constraints are also the same, such as range, endurance,
payload, take-off/landing distance and ceiling.
For UAV, the breakthrough is related to constraints that has the manned factor as
limitation. Regarding those aforementioned constraints, unlimited ceiling and endurance
constraints are the focus for UAV applications.
For the case of high endurance missions, the solar-powered UAV rises as a solution.
To improve the endurance, the UAV provide the advantage to overcome human factors that
affect a pilot in a conventional aircraft and the solar energy, as the inexhaurible source,
removing the need for a lot of fuel.
2.2.2

Solar-Powered Propulsion and Power System Architecture

Architecture for Solar-Powered UAV has some components that are always presented
in previous works, this chapter presents them.
To analyze that, the architecture proposed for High Altitude Powered Platforms
(HAAPS) by HALL et al, (1983), Figure 2-7, has the interesting point of presenting both
Solar Thermal and Photovoltaic as options to convert Solar Energy to electricity, also it
established the Fuel Cells as the Energy Storage component.

25

Figure 2-7 HAAPs Proposed Architecture (HALL et al., 1983)

The Solar Thermal Concentrator with Radiator as electricity generation system,
gearbox and choose for Fuel Cell as options for energy storage are not consensus in the solarpowered UAV designs and previous works.
The architecture proposed by YOUNGBLOOD; TALAY and PEGG, (1984), also
considers the fuel cell as energy storage and defines photovoltaic as electric power generation
method similar to the architecture defined by HALL et al., (1983), see Figure 2-8:

26

Figure 2-8 Architecture (YOUNGBLOOD; TALAY; PEGG, 1984)

BENEDEK, (1988) proposed the uses of hybrid motors, proposes a turbo reactor
comprised of diffuser, compressor (electric motor), combustion chamber, nozzle and
regenerator - Figure 2-9. This configuration has the inner advantages and disadvantages and is
listed here due to its unusual solution.

Figure 2-9 Architecture (BENEDEK, 1988)

27

After COLOZZA and SCHEIMAN, (2000) conducted a demonstration of architecture

with batteries as energy storage, COLOZZA, (2004) showed up with architecture for a solarpowered UAV for the Venus environment, Figure 2-10.

Figure 2-10 Propulsion and Power System Layout for Venus Solar-Powered UAV
(COLOZZA, 2004)
MEYER et al, (2007) proposes architecture for a Low Altitude Long Endurance
(LALE) UAV - Figure 2-11. This architecture distinct by the previous architectures due the
absence of a belt drive or gear box for the electric motors, the power management computer
and by the isolation switches which normally is performed in other architectures with bypass
diodes. This architecture is very similar to the IURIF, (2013), except by the absence of MPPT
(maximum power point track) in the architecture below.

28

Figure 2-11 Architecture (MEYER et al., 2013)

A more recent architecture, Figure 2-12, is proposed by the Solar Impulse project, a
manned solar airplane that aims to demonstrate a repetitive day and night flight around the
world.

Figure 2-12 Solar Impulse Electrical Architecture (ROSS, 2008)

Solar-powered UAV propulsion and power system architecture could be summarized
by the vital components: Solar Cells, Energy Storage, Propulsion Group, Payloads and Power
Electronics.

29

2.2.3

Solar Radiation

Solar Radiation is an electromagnetic radiation (Figure 2-13), composed by an

magnetic field and an electric field perpendicular to it.

Figure 2-13 Electromagnetic Wave (CMDITR, 2015)

Characterizing this radiation uses some measures like Wavelength and Frequency.
Solar radiation could also be characterized by photon energy which is the less amount of
energy that could be extracted from the electromagnetic wave. This photon energy has major
importance for the study of solar cells because it references the amount of energy that is
present in the Solar Radiation.
Solar Spectrum is the energy available per unit of area and wavelength, this is
illustrated by Figure 2-14:

Figure 2-14 Solar Irradiance Spectrum (COMMONS, 2015)

30

Analyzing the figure is possible to extract some information like the Spectral
Irradiance in the top of Atmosphere and its behavior due to wavelength, the black body
spectrum approximation which indicates that a black body at 5250C irradiates similar
amount of energy as the sun and also the radiation at sea level and the degradation caused by
air mass effects. Another interesting point is the integration of top of the atmosphere curve for
whole wavelength, which provides an important constant called solar constant or AM0 (air
mass zero) which is considered 1367 W/m .
Air Mass Effect is all events that reduce the available energy from top of the
Atmosphere to the ground of earth. This degradation is caused by effects such as: absorption,
which is caused by energy absorption due to molecules and also by dust particles which cut
down the amount of energy available and also scattering effect which can causes energy lost
but differing from absorption has the diffuse component that could be used afterwards.

Figure 2-15 Atmosphere effects (CLEMENS, 2013)

Another radiation effect that must be mentioned is the albedo, which consists of
diffuse radiation scattered from ground.
When Sun beam comes directly through atmosphere than there is the situation of AM1
(Air Mass One), but if there is an angle between sun beam and the surface considered, sun
beam has to face a longer distance through atmosphere before hits the solar panel, so the Air
Mass is obtained by the inverse of the cosine of angle between solar beam and vertical Figure 2-16. And this Air Mass variation affects directly the available solar radiation
reducing the radiation.

31

Figure 2-16 Solar Beam Angle Effect (CLEMENS, 2013)

2.2.4

Photovoltaic / Solar Cells

Photovoltaic reminds to the photovoltaic effect. This effect is presented in

semiconductor elements which when exposed to light; causes the electrons transitions
between the layers of the element, these transitions could be used as an electrical current
when there is also a potential barrier producing a voltage to drive the current. The
photovoltaic could be summarized in the converting light into electricity.
For using of the photovoltaic effect, solar cells emerge as the component. A solar cell
is composed of two layers of semiconductor, one layer has excess of electrons on the
conduction band (n-junction) and the other has absence of electron (p-junction), these layers
are obtained through a process of doping the semiconductor with specific elements to obtain
the respective properties (excess of electrons or absence of electrons). With the junction of
these two layers is obtained the solar cell, with a specific part of the cell called p-n junction,
which is the area between the two layers (CLEMENS, 2013).
So, electrical current is obtained after the light, or more precisely the photons, being
absorbed by the cell causing and electron transition between the two layers. The amount of
current is directly proportional to the light intensity and the solar cell area.
Figure 2-17 illustrates the section of a Silicon solar cell and also the schematic of the
cell applied in an electric circuit, showing the top contacts:

32

Figure 2-17 Solar Cell (SICK and ERGE, 2015)

The types of solar cells could be classified in three generations, the first generation of
solar cells are those most used and in production nowadays, based in the silicon p-n junction,
they are made of bulk crystalline silicon, either single or multicrystalline, being a very known
technology. Second generation solar cells, aims to the potential of make them low cost, using
thin-film technologies with materials like CIGS (Cooper, Indium, Gallium and Selenium),
CdTe (Cadmiun-Telurium), GaAs (Gallium Arsenide), InP (Indium Phosphite), a-Si
(amorphous Silicon) or those based in organics cells. With the trade-off cost, they normally
rely in low efficiencies cells. Because of other materials usage instead of silicon, there are
some options of very thin and flexible cells. Third generation solar cells, focus on high
efficiency, multi-junction solar cells are the approach adopted for that and the only one
approach that has been shown work. Mult-junction solar cells (tandem cells) are obtained by
an expensive process. Main idea in these cells is to each junction absorbs a specific section of
the solar spectrum (energized photon) which leads to a high efficiency cell.

33

Figure 2-18 Mult-junction Solar Cell (CLEMENS, 2015)

The table below summarizes the three generations of solar cells.
Table 2-1 Photovoltaic by Generation (adapted from CLEMENS, 2015)
Generation
First

Second
Third

Top
Materials
Efficiency
Single Crystal
24.7%
- High Energy Content to Produce
Bulk crystalline Si
- Difficult to make much cheaper
Multi Crystal
20.3%
CIGS
20.0%
- Can be lower cost
CdTe
17.3%
- Can have poor lifetimes (organic, a-Si)
Low Cost Thin Films
a-Si
10.1%
- Can have rare materials (Te, In)
organic
11.1%
High Efficiency
GaInP/GaInAs/Ge
44.0%
- Expensive
Chracteristics

As stated in chapter 2.1 the application of solar cells, to extend the endurance of flight,
have been studied since 1970s. So the feasibility of it as energy generation source is already
proven.
Improvements regarding solar cells have been the reduction of weight with an increase
of efficiency. The table below shows the solar cells used in past projects.

34

Table 2-2 Solar Cells used in past projects

Project
Sunrise I
Helios
Solong
Sunsailor
Zephyr 7
Skysailor
Solar Impulse

Year

Efficiency

Density
(kg/m)

1974
1999
2005
2006
2008
2008
2014

9.5%

0.512

20%

0.73

10%
16.9%
21.8%

n/a
0.32
0.51

A research for commercial available solar cells was conducted, raising new options for
a future application as well as to update the efficiencies and density of cells used in the past.
Table 2-3 Commercially Available Solar Cells
Manufacturer
MicroLink
MicroLink
MicroLink
Alta Devices
Azur Space
Azur Space
Sunpower
RWE Schott
Spectrolab

Type
Single-Junction GaAs
Dual-Junction AlInGaP/GaAs
Triple-Junction
AlInGaP/GaAs/InGaAs
Single-Junction GaAs
Triple-Junction GaInP/GaAs/Ge
Silicon S32
Monocrystalline
Thin-Silicon
Triple-Junction GaInP2/GaAs/Ge

Efficiency
(%)
21
26

Density
(kg/m)
0.25
0.25

31
26
28
17
21
18
29

0.25
0.24
0.86
0.32
0.64
0.32
0.84

A well-known graphic is the one provide by NREL (National Renewable Energy

Laboratory), this plot shows conversion efficiencies for research cells in a great range of
photovoltaic technologies.
It is useful to see the new technologies and the trend improvements of solar cells
efficiencies.
The choose of solar cell presents a trade-off between cost, weight and efficiency, by
the technical perspective, the lighter and most efficiency cell are the aim for a better design.
As soon as the new solar cells, lighter and more efficient, are commercially available,
more restricted projects could be implemented and the requirements will be met more easily.

35

Figure 2-19 NREL Photovoltaics (NREL, 2015)

36

For use of solar cells, there is a dependency of incoming solar irradiation, as the first
step for the Solar UAV powertrain operation. Regarding this solar irradiation, it is important
to point out that it vary with changes of latitude, from tropical latitudes to polar latitudes,
which could be illustrate by the figure below.

Figure 2-20 Energy Variation due to latitude (NASA, 2015a)

Important as geographical region of operation is also important the orientation and
inclination of the solar cell area relative to the horizon (direct solar beam effects), time of the
year and time of the day (irradiation profile), altitude (air mass effects) and weather (clouds,
humidity and temperature).
2.2.5

Energy Storage

Energy required for flight must be stored on-board. For conventional aircraft it is
possible with fossil fuels and fuel tanks. For specific case of the solar-powered aircraft,
aircraft will need the energy storage to complement the photovoltaic generation, in cases such
as those caused by absence or reduction of sunlight, due to night, cloudy conditions and for
high power demand situations like maneuvers, climb and stabilization during wind gusts.
Most common energy storages for solar-powered UAV are fuel cells and batteries. As
for solar cells, some characteristics of the energy storage are important during the design, like
specific energy which represents the energy density of the storage system and also the
efficiency of the energy storage system chosen.

37

Batteries and fuel cells convert the chemical energy in electrical energy and are
classified as electrochemical sources. They are composed by three main parts: electro-positive
electrode (anode), a negative electrode (cathode) and the electrolyte.
Analyzing the Ragone plot below, it is clear that fuel cells are the highest energy
system whereas supercapacitors the highest power systems. This duality could be understood
by specific energy representing the amount of energy that it contains and the specific power as
the ability to delivers this energy. Batteries position show intermediate characteristics.

Figure 2-21 Ragone Plot (WINTER; BRODD, 2004)

No single electrochemical power source can achieve the characteristics of Combustion
Engine and Gas Turbines, with high specific power and high specific energy. Similar solution
for that could be obtained when the electrochemical systems are combined.
Regarding batteries, they could be classified in two categories, primary and secondary
cells. Primary Cells are non-rechargeable (to be used until exhausted), commonly
inexpensive, need low maintenance, very common in portable electronics, toys, lighting and
electric devices and also has a good shelf life (e.g. alkaline).
Secondary Cells are rechargeable, they are used in energy storage applications (power
tools, aircraft, automotive, solar backup), they have high discharge rate and they are poorer in
charge retention (e.g. Lithium, Lead-Acid and Nickel-Cadmium batteries). For purpose of
Solar UAV, it is considered Secondary-type batteries, which will be consumed when solar
energy provided by solar cells are not available or sufficient for entire UAV operation and

38

will be recharged when solar energy is available and exceeds the required for flight and
payload (excess of energy).
A battery or fuel cell is composed of cells arranged in series and/or parallel to obtain
certain voltage and current values. The anode element normally is an element that catalyzes
the reaction to provide electrons to the circuit and cathode permits the reaction with sub
product from anode; electrolyte is responsible to permits the ions to transit between anode and
cathode. When applies a reverse current in the battery cell it is recharged. In the case of fuel
cell, anode is a porous material that break the fuel to obtain electrons (e.g. For Hydrogen: H 2
2H+ + 2e-) and the cathode (e.g. Oxygen: 0.5O 2 + 2H+ + 2e- H 2 O) by the other side of
the cell, a membrane (e.g. PEM Polymer Electrolyte Membrane) is placed between
anode/cathode and electrolyte to avoid electrons transitions through it. While the fuel and the
oxidant are inserted in the cell, it will generate electricity by electrochemical reaction.

Figure 2-22 Simple battery cell (LINDEN and

REDDY, 1995)

Figure 2-23 Fuel Cell (WIKIPEDIA,

2015b)

Regarding batteries, they can also be classified by the materials that compose them,
such as Lead-based, Nickel-based and Lithium-based batteries.
Lead-based batteries and mainly the lead-acid were the first rechargeable batteries
invented, from century XIX until now it is still widely used due to its low cost. Regardless the
cost advantage, it presents some disadvantages like the low life cycle and greater weight when
compared with other batteries technologies. (BUCHMANN, 2011)

39

Nickel-based batteries could be represented by Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and Nickelmetal-hydride (NiMH). These batteries have a fast and simple charging with high number of
charge/discharge cycles. Besides that it has the memory effect which obligates periodic full
discharge, high self-discharge and Cadmium is a toxic metal NiMH raised to compensate
the cadmium toxicity problem. (BUCHMANN, 2011)
Lithium-based batteries were initially composed by Lithium metal as the anode.
Lithium has great characteristics like light-weight and high energy density, in other hand, is
very instable which can induce thermal runways caused by short-circuits after dendrites
formed in the anode after cycling the battery. Instead of using the Lithium metal, it was
researched and adopted the Lithium-ion with a more acceptable behavior but with less energy
density, nowadays the most used option. The Lithium-based batteries have a lot of effort to
develop new solutions and types of this battery to improve safety and energy density leading
to varieties like Lithium Polymer, Lithium Sulfur and so on. Roughly speaking, Lithium-Ion
batteries have the double energy density and half weight when compared with NickelCadmium batteries. (BUCHMANN, 2011)

Figure 2-24 Energy Storage Capabilities (Adapted from ELECTROPAEDIA, 2015a)

Table 2-4 Lithium batteries used in past projects
Project

Year

Type

Energy Density (Wh/kg)

Solong
Zephyr 7
Skysailor
Solar Impulse

2005
2008
2008
2014

Lithium-Ion
Lithium-Sulfur
Lithium-Ion
Lithium-Polymer

220
350
240
260

40

A very important characteristic that must be taken into account is the Depth-ofDischarge (DOD). DOD is the percent of battery capacity that is consumed during a
discharge; it is inherent of each battery technologies and has relation with total cycles
(charging/discharge) capability.

Figure 2-25 DOD effects in Total Cycles (YUASA, 2015)

In Fuel Cells, the active materials (fuel and oxidant) are note integral part of the
device, but are fed into the fuel cell from an external source. Energy is stored in hydrogen or
hydrocarbon fuels (anode agent) with high energy than that available in batteries. Fuel cells
are silent, safe, they need low maintenance and they have an efficient energy conversion. Fuel
Cell was discovered in century XIX and was applied for the first time in the 1960s space
programs and is a well-known energy storage option for space vehicles.
Also the fuel cells are complex to operate, requiring sophisticated manufacturing
techniques and control circuitry and they are an expensive option when compared to batteries.
For application of fuel cells in Solar UAV, it must be regenerative, if considering it for
a long endurance (multiples days and nights flight). This reversibility of the fuel cell means to
convert the reaction output (e.g. Water), back to fuel (e.g. Hydrogen) by means of introducing
an electrolyzer closing the loop - creating a Regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC) - which implies in
more complexity for the system.
Nowadays it is available on market, portable and rechargeable fuel cells which can be
implemented in Solar UAV or Electric UAV, being possible to take advantage of the high

41

specific energy of fuel cells on a UAV. But a regenerative fuel cell is not market available to
be embedded in small UAV. Figure 2-26 present a commercially available Fuel Cell stack for
UAV purposes.

Figure 2-26 Horizon Aeropak Main Parts (HORIZON ENERGY SYSTEMS, 2012)
HEPPERLE, (2007) also pointed out the huge trade-off that normally arises during the
Solar UAV development, for the best option of energy storage, fuel cells or batteries. Some
factors like payload, flight altitude and mainly endurance has huge importance in this choice
and each single case must be analyzed and decided through engineering judgment.
So the energy storage system chosen, impacts directly in weight, endurance and
system architecture definition.
2.2.6

Propulsion Group

Propulsion is another key factor for the realization of the Solar UAV. The concept of
propulsion group is the group composed by electric motor, propeller, motor controller and if it
is the case, the gear box. Each component increases the UAV weight and decreases the overall
efficiency of the electric propulsion.

Figure 2-27 Propulsion Group (HEPPERLE, 2012)

42

This overall efficiency is also called efficiency chain by HEPPERLE, (2012) which
analyzed four typical conversion chains (including conventional turboprop and turbofan):

Figure 2-28 Typical on-board conversion chains (HEPPERLE, 2012)

Not only overall efficiency is taken into account when choosing the final architecture.
As presented in 2.2.5 and also stated by Figure 2-21, energy density of the power sources has
a huge impact on the overall efficiency. Also this efficiency chain, when applied to Solar
UAV, must take into account the solar cells efficiency and the power convertor that follows to
the battery or fuel cell.
As stated by Figure 2-28 the four components propeller, gearbox, electric motor and
controller have high efficiencies and these components are still improving due to technical
evolution.

43

Figure 2-29 Solar Impulse Efficiency Chain (ROSS, 2008)

The electric motor and propeller are highly dependent of the power required for flight
and it is sized by aerodynamics and performance calculations for the UAV.
Due to the DC (Direct Current) electrical system provided by solar cells and
batteries/fuel cells, it is considered for the Solar UAV only the DC type of motors, more
specifically the brushless type (also called BLDC Brushless DC) of motors that have
proven its benefits over the brushed DC motors (simplified and compact design, lighter
weight and more reliable).
Structurally, the brushless DC motor is composed by a rotor with permanent magnets
and stator windings. For controlling the motor it is used electronic control, sometimes
referenced as Speed Controller or ESC (Electronic Speed Controller) which switches the
energized windings in the stator producing a rotating magnetic field that pull the rotors
(magnet) around.

44

Figure 2-30 Brushless DC (BLDC) motor (ELECTROPAEDIA, 2015b)

DC electric motors have presented a great evolution in power and weight efficiency as
well as the technological solutions for Solar UAV when compared to technologies available
during initial studies of Solar UAV. As presented by LOGAN et al (2007), it is compared for
the same purpose and similar efficiencies three types of DC electric motors, a traditional DC
brushed motor with gearbox, a brushless DC motor and also a called outrunner brushless
DC motor (commonly used in radio controlled airplanes). The outrunner brushless type
introduced weight savings and also increases the reliability because of less moving parts.
With the brushless type lighter than the brushed type and the outrunner even lighter than the
other two. The term outrunner and inrunner refers to the magnets localization in the
Brushless DC motor. In the inrunner case the magnets are on the interior of the stator
windings and for the outrunner, the magnets are outside the stator windings.

Figure 2-31 Brushless DC motors (AVISLAB, 2015)

For the outrunner, the moving part is not the rotor with the magnets but the outside
part (around the stator windings) which implicates some physical installation difficulties.

45

2.2.7

Payloads

Payload is a term that could be simplified as items in a vehicle that is transported

when paid by the costumer.
In the UAV context, payload is more like those items that is carried to accomplish a
mission with the UAV being capable of flight without the payload. Even thought some
manufacturers informs payload as total mass composed by payload and sensors, flight
controls, radio controllers, battery controller among others.
Operational

characteristics

determine

the

payload

required

for

mission

accomplishment. These characteristics in UAV systems could require a payload as (AUSTIN,

2010):

Unstabilized video camera with a fixed lens having a mass as little as 200g;

A video system with greater range, employing lens and zoom capability, gyrostabilized and with pan and tilt function with mass between 3-4kg;

High-power radar with mass up to 1000 kg;

Different types of sensors with integrated processor modules

All these payloads could interact with a ground control station with online data
transmission or with onboard data storage devices.
Also these payloads are classified in two main groups, dispensable and no dispensable.
Dispensable payloads are quite rare nowadays but are those like crop-spraying for agricultural
purpose, package delivery, flares and so on.
For dispensable payloads a careful analysis must be carried out to check the UAV
balance and the possible impact with UAV when jettison the payload.
2.2.8

Power Electronics

Solar UAV has inherent components that could be classified in other group, in this
case, Power Electronics components. Power Electronics applies solid-state electronics in
control and conversion of electrical energy. It is based on switching the semiconductor
components which has increased power capacities and switching speeds after the evolution on
semiconductors technologies.

46

They are Power Converters, Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT), Energy
Management System (EMS), Electronic Speed Controller (ESC), Battery Charger and Bypass
and Blocking Diodes.

Power Converters

Power Converters transforms electric energy from one form to another; it can be DC
(Direct Current) to AC (Alternating Current) - Inverter, DC-DC (regulator), AC-DC (rectifier)
or AC-AC (transformer, regulator, cycloconverter). Considering the electric power generation
(Solar Cells) and the storage devices (Batteries or Fuel Cells), they are all DC sources, so it
will be considered only DC-DC regulators. For the case of Inverters it must be taken into
account for systems with high load demands which became unfeasible (losses and cabling
mass) with only DC power. The International Space Station (ISS) is an example of highpower spacecraft with AC loads, it was considered to come back for a complete DC system.
(LARSON and WERTZ, 1999)
The DC-DC converter can be compared with an AC transformer which can elevate
(step-up) or reduce (step-down) the DC power input. These converters have a high efficiency
and fast dynamic response. The operational characteristics of this type of converter can be
explained by a simple switch (function performed by power transistors) that varies the power
to the load with different switching times. This switching produces an average output to the
load that can be calculated with an integral calculation in time of this switched output. This
switching is normally obtained by pulse width modulation (PWM).

Figure 2-32 Simple Block Diagram for Switching Converter (RASHID, 1999)
Must be taken into account the load being supplied by a converter if it is resistive,
inductive or capacitive, these characteristics obligate to improve the circuitry to prevent back

47

voltages. The use of switching devices impacts overall electrical system quality energy, which
must be analyzed during development of the system architecture.

Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)

MPPT is a power electronics circuit (DC-DC) that permits the solar cells array to

provide maximum power during its operation preventing wasting of energy which reduces the
required number of solar cells. The solar array output has a non-linear behavior that can be
represented by its I-V curve which is affected by irradiance (impacts current) and temperature
(impacts voltage) variations. The MPPT monitors the output (current and voltage) and varies
the load keeping the output in the Maximum Power Point (MPP). An example is presented by
ROSU-HAMZESCU and OPREA, (2013):
Matching panel and load impedances with a DC-DC converter makes sense,
because for example, if you have a 5V/2A load and a 20W panel that has the MPP
at 17.5V/1.15A, connecting the load directly will not work. Considering a simple
resistive load, and the short-circuit current of 1.25A, the panel will only be able to
provide about 3V/1.2A, or less than 4W out of 20W.

Figure 2-33 Solar I-V curve (SOLARHOMERU, 2015)

Many algorithms are available to be implemented like Perturb and Observe and
Incremental Conductance which generally affects the duty cycle in the MPPT (DC-DC
converter) and so change the operational point in the I-V Curve.

48

For the Solar UAV design it must be kept in focus the most efficient MPPT and the
lighter weight option.

Energy Management System (EMS)

EMS is responsible to monitor and command the entire Electrical Power System. Its

roles can be switching load, provide protection actions, like isolation of faults, provide load
shed during overload, control and monitor battery charger and power converters.
For these types of actions, it is required a computer and an embedded software which
increases the Solar UAV complexity, weight and costs. In other hand, advantages could be a
greater reliability, reduce required electrical energy due to control electrical demand peaks
from loads and also by load shedding during unexpected solar energy availability which could
cause a greater discharge of battery and cause a cascade effect that can reduce the mission
endurance.
For a simple Solar UAV, it is not necessary an Energy Management System (EMS)
but with increments of architectural complexity and loads, it becomes mandatory to comply
with mission and reliability requirements.

Electronic Speed Controller (ESC)

The Electronic Speed Controller (ESC) is responsible to energize the stator windings

of the brushless DC motors and this energize must change time to time to keep the motor
turning, the ESC could also monitors rotor position by using magnetic Hall sensors and had
these measurements back to ESC.
ESC in a nutshell is made of transistors that operate in saturation or cutoff, similar to a
switch (closed and opened) to excite sequentially the stator windings.

49

Figure 2-34 Sensorless Speed Controller Circuit (GAMAZO-REAL; VZQUEZSNCHEZ; GMEZ-GIL, 2010)

Battery Charger
Battery Chargers are used to recharge secondary-type batteries. It makes that by

introducing a current into the battery (reverse from the normal output current) with constant
voltage or current, optionally could have an electronic circuit that prevents from overcharging
which can cause battery damages or degrades most batteries.
Each battery type has its inherent charging characteristics which for a more
sophisticate battery could introduce sensors to monitor temperature and charging current
and/or voltage. For unstable electrical systems with voltage and current fluctuations it is not
possible to perform float charge (battery without charger) which can produce a degraded
final charge, so battery charger is a mandatory component to prevent battery degradation.
Also this unstable system with unstable bus voltage also impacts the battery lifecycle.

Bypass and Blocking Diodes

Bypass Diodes are used in Solar Panels to prevent loss of solar cells strings due to

shadow or obstruction from solar irradiation to a single or multiple solar cells. Solar Cell with
shadow will become open circuit (high resistance) which can cause damage or even total
loss of an entire string.
Blocking Diodes are presented in the output of strings to prevent back voltage from
the electrical system which is connected due to other power sources like batteries or even
between solar cells strips.

50

Figure 2-35 Solar Cell strip with Bypass and Blocking Diodes

Figure 2-36 Power flow due to shadow and Bypass Diode

It is a technical decision to define how many solar cells will have a bypass diode and
its distribution of the whole series-parallel design of solar cells arrangement. The effects from
shadowed solar cells impact directly the output voltage and the overall electrical power
system efficiency.

51

3 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
The methodology adopted for this work was implemented in MATLAB with
GUIDE for a GUI (Graphical User Interface). This tool focuses on conceptual design of a
Solar Powered UAV.
Using the mission requirements, geographical position, aerodynamics, photovoltaic
and propulsion characteristics as inputs, it outputs a conceptual design as a feasible solution
of a Solar Powered UAV that can be used as a starting point for a more detailed design or as a
first iteration design output.
This chapter will be a breakdown of all the methodology behind the calculus for the
realization of Solar Powered UAV conceptual design.

3.2 Development Flow

Figure 3-1 illustrates the inputs and outputs from software building blocks. This
allows an overview of the entire calculation flow where geographical operational
characteristics impact the Atmosphere Model, Solar Irradiance and Day Length. Components
efficiencies, aerodynamics characteristics and components densities affect the sizing of the
Solar Powered UAV.

52

Figure 3-1 Software Block Diagram

Also some graphical outputs are available during running software as plots in the
Graphical User Interface (GUI).
3.2.1

Earth Atmosphere Model

The atmosphere is defined by parameters such as: temperature, pressure and density

all of them being functions of altitude. The altitude input is a mission requirement or an
estimated altitude for flight cruise.
The first step for the Solar UAV design is the one performed by the block called
Earth Atmosphere Model, this block is responsible to provide two outputs for the algorithm,
the air pressure and the air density.
The graphics below illustrate the variation of air pressure and air density by altitude:

53

Figure 3-2 Atmosphere (UCAR, 2014)

The air pressure is used for the Solar Model, more specifically to estimate the air
mass that the solar beam radiation must passes, relating to a degradation of original energy
emitted by sun.
The air density is used for the aerodynamics performance estimation because forces,
such as lift and drag, are directly related to the air density flowing past the body.
The algorithm (Sartorius, 2014) for the atmosphere model, consider the 1976 Standard
Atmosphere at the altitude defined as input.
The 1976 Standard Atmosphere established some tables which determine the
temperature, pressure and density at any altitude. These values are essential for aerodynamics
and flight mechanics studies and they are derived from equations adopted in 15 October 1976
by the United States Committee on Extension to the Standard Atmosphere (COESA)
(PUBLIC DOMAIN AERONAUTICAL SOFTWARE, 2015).

54

3.2.2

Solar Irradiation Model

Solar Irradiation is the main source of energy for the Solar UAV. This solar energy

could be considered inexhaustible and for Solar UAV the conversion from Sun energy to
electric energy is possible due the photovoltaic effect in the solar cells.
The irradiance is produced by the Sun electromagnetic emissions and it is measured in
power per unit area. The solar irradiation model is responsible to estimate the irradiation for
the latitude and altitude of mission inputs.
Solar radiation data are widely available (DUFFIE AND BECKMAN, 2013) but as
the tool used in this thesis aims to be flexible, useful for any region considered for operation,
the use of solar radiation data was not considered due the fact that it will be restrictive to
those regions with data available in the tool data base. To overcome this limitation, a solar
radiation equation is used to estimate the solar radiation available for the mission operation.
For a detailed development phase, best practice can be using the data collected in the
region defined for mission. This data could be used as feedback for the preliminary design, to
validate the energy available for operation and confirm the project feasibility.
Solar radiation is affected by the atmosphere attenuation, caused by factors such as
scattering and absorption (explained in 2.2.3). The model adopted in this simulation is the one
presented by CAMPBELL and NORMAN, (1998) and algorithm is based on SONG and
ZHANG, (2015) with improvements to calculate the Monthly Average Irradiation and also to
increase the daily time span calculated.
CAMPBELL and NORMAN, (1998) splits the total solar irradiance in three
contributors: beam or direct, diffuse and reflected radiation. For calculation, only beam
radiation and diffuse radiation are taken into account.
As inputs it uses Latitude of operation in degrees and Air Pressure at altitude of
operation in kilopascal. As outputs the algorithm produces, monthly average irradiation
during a year and the hourly average solar irradiation during the year.
First it calculates the hour angle:
(1)

55

The sun declination angle for each hour:

(2)

The Solar zenith angle where zenith angle is the angle between sun and a vertical line
from the point analyzed:

Figure 3-3 Zenith Angle

(3)

Calculate the optical air mass:

(4)

Beam radiation (considered horizontal surface) with Solar Constant (G0) of 1397
W/m2 and atmospheric transmittance (Tr) of 0.75:
(5)
Diffuse radiation (considered horizontal surface):

56

(6)
Total Radiation:
(7)

It is important to mention the solar irradiance behavior. Figure 3-4 show how it varies
by the latitude, so regions closer to tropics (20S and 20N) have the greater amount of
irradiance available.

Figure 3-4 Solar Irradiance by Latitude (INFORSE, 2015)

Figure 3-5 represents the algorithm output for three simulated latitudes (only North),
as can be confirmed, once the latitude increases, available radiation decreases. Figure 3-6
illustrate the differences caused by Hemisphere chosen for operation, due to Earths
inclination and its translational movement around the Sun, the peak Solar Irradiation occurs in
different times, although the total energy available are the same.

57

1200
0
23N
60N

Solar Radiation [W/m]

1000

800

600

400

200

10

15

20

Hours of Day

Figure 3-5 Solar Radiation Intensity by Latitude Variation

1050
23N
23S

1000

Solar Radiation [W/m]

950
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
550

6
7
Month

10

11

Figure 3-6 Solar Radiation by Hemisphere Change

12

58

3.2.3

Day Length Model

For the energy storage size estimation, it is needed to know the absence of light

duration or the night duration. As for Solar Irradiance, for Day Length, data are available for
many latitudes locations but for the purpose of automating the case studies, an equation is
used to estimate the day length in specific latitude of operation.
The day length varies with latitude and day of the year. Also, it varies if twilight is
taken into account. Some definitions for sunset and sunrise are presented by FORSYTHE et
al., (1995):
o When the center of the sun is even with the horizon;
o When the upper rim of the sun is even with the horizon;
o When the upper rim of the sun is apparently even with horizon.
It was considered the sunrise/sunset is when the top of the sun is apparently even with
horizon.
The model adopted in this thesis is the CBM model presented by FORSYTHE et al.,
(1995), which presented the most accurate model from those analyzed.
This model has three steps:
1. predicts the revolution angle from the day of the year:
(8)
2. predicts the sun declination angle:
(9)
3. predicts day length (plus twilight) from Latitude (L), longitude and sun declination
angle:

(10)

59

After day length calculation, algorithm uses the minimum day length for further
calculations.
Figure 3-7 represents the Day Length behavior by variation of latitude of operation
(similar to Solar Radiation). When extreme latitude regions are considered, like latitude North
60, day length will impose a huge constraint (low energy availability) e.g. if it is planned to
operate between days 1 to 50 (January to early March) or whole year (being dimensioned to
worst case scenario), it will require a bigger area to generate the same energy as in the case of
regions closer to average day lengths of 12 hours during the year (like latitude South 23 or
Equator).

0
23S
60N

18

Day Length [h]

16

14

12

10

6
50

100

150
200
Day of Year

250

300

Figure 3-7 Day Length Solar by Latitude Variation

350

60

3.2.4

Constraint Analysis
Constraint Analysis is commonly used in Aeronautics Design Process. Based on

performance requirements (take-off distance, climb rate, cruise speed, etc.) and the forces that
acts in the aircraft, it is possible to create a plot relating Thrust to Weight ratio (in Solar UAV
case the Solar Cell Area to Wing Area ratio) and Wing Loading which can demonstrate the
feasible area to design an aircraft that met the requirements. (MATTINGLY; HEISER and
PRATT, 2002) (BRANDT and GILLIAM, 1995)
In the Figure 3-8 is depicted the forces that acts on aircraft. Those forces are Lift (L)
which is produced from the pressure differences produced by wing, Drag (D+R) which is a
sum from drag forces like skin friction drag, lift induced drag and others, Thrust (T) produced
by the propulsive system and Weight (W) related to aircraft own mass.
Besides the forces is depicted two reference lines Horizontal Reference Line, Wing
Chord Line (WCL) and also the angles, angle of attack (AOA) between WCL and velocity
(V), flight path angle () between horizon and Velocity (V) and the angle between thrust
vector and WCL ().

Figure 3-8 Forces on aircraft (MATTINGLY; HEISER and PRATT, 2002)

So a master equation can be obtained from the case of unaccelerated flight (used
throughout this thesis), all forces are balanced and flight path angle is equal to zero, so by
Newtons second law, parallel to Velocity (V), can be stated:
(11)
Multiplying equation (11) by the Velocity (V):

61

(12)
As presented by MATTINGLY; HEISER and PRATT, (2002) and by NICOLAI and
CARICHNER, (2010) for most flight conditions thrust is aligned with direction of flight, so
the term (AOA+) is small and cos(AOA+) 1. Also multiplying equation (11) by velocity
transformed a force relationship into power equation. The rate of change of altitude is the
same as:
(13)

So, combining both equations (12) and (13) and dividing by Weight (W) is obtained:
(14)
The right part of (14) represents the sum of instantaneous potential and kinetic
energies of the aircraft, commonly known as energy height. The left side is called weight
specific excess power.
In this method, term related with Drag will be only D, simplifying to:
(15)
As demonstrate by MATTINGLY; HEISER and PRATT, (2002) and BRANDT and
GILLIAM, (1995), the equation could be manipulated as equation (16), where Power (P) is
equal to Thrust (T) times Velocity (V):
(16)
From aerodynamics, equations for Lift (L) and Drag (D) are:

62

(17)
(18)
In these equations n is load factor, C L is lift coefficient for aircraft, C D is the aircrafts
drag coefficient, S is the reference area (usually wing area) and q is the dynamic pressure,
expressed by:
(19)
From the dynamic pressure equation, represents air density in determined altitude
and V , airspeed. Lift and Drag coefficients can be expressed as follows:
(20)

(21)
W TO /S represents the Wing Loading, AR wing aspect ratio and e the Oswald Constant.
The term C D0 is called parasite drag coefficient.
So, the term DV can be rewritten:
(22)

Propulsive Power (P [W]), for a Solar UAV, can be calculated by the product between
available wing area (S [m2]), ratio of total solar cell area per wing area (R [%]), solar cell and
MPPT efficiency ( [%]) and Irradiance (I max [W/m2]).
(23)
So, applying equation (23) to equation (16):

63

(24)

Rearranging the equation (24), it is obtained the master equation as adapted from
BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995):

(25)

With this master equation, it is possible to output a plot that presents the feasible area
to meet the requirements set by the mission constraints. An example is the constraint analysis
conducted by MALEKI, (2011).
MALEKI, (2011) applied a constraint analysis to design a Solar UAV for remote
sensing mission in a flying wing configuration, requirements and constraints considered were:
o Solar Cell Efficiency of 30%;
o Solar Cell Area and Wing Area Ratio of maximum 90%;
o Solar Irradiation of 800 W/m2;
o Cruise Speed of 10 m/s and maximum speed of 42 m/s;
o Absolute ceiling of 21,300 m;
o Structural Load Factor of 5;
o Rate of Climb of 2 m/s;
o Turn Capability at load factor equal to 1.1

64

Figure 3-9 Flying Wing Configuration - Constraint Analysis (MALEKI, 2011)

On this master thesis for constraint analysis will be considered only the unaccelerated
cases for maneuvers and flight, which implies in the following cases for master equation:
o Constant Altitude and Constant Speed Cruise:
and
o Constant Speed and Unaccelerated Climb:
and
o Constant Altitude and Constant Speed Turn:
and
The aforementioned terms Load Factor (n), Wing Loading (W TO /S), Lift Coefficient
(C L ), Drag Coefficient (C D ), Aspect Ratio (AR) and Oswald Constant (e) are detailed below
for a comprehensive understanding of the physics impact in the Solar UAV.
3.2.4.1 Load Factor
Load Factor is non-dimensional and expressed by the ratio between Aircraft Lift and
Weight forces and it impacts directly in the structures stress.

65

(26)

Figure 3-10 Steady Flight Load Factor (WIKIPEDIA, 2015a)

The aircraft is also impacted by gusts where it flies which can produce changes in the
Lift force and so in the load factor.
Even though load factor is normally used as a structure constraint, which could impact
the operational altitude (avoiding gusts) and is more critical for low wing loading/large wing
configuration (Solar UAV), in this master thesis, load factor will be referenced only during
constraint analysis for turning maneuver which the load factor is greater than 1 and normally
calculated as:
(27)

Figure 3-11 Turn Load Factor (WIKIPEDIA, 2015a)

3.2.4.2 Wing Loading
Wing Loading (W/S) is represented by the ratio of Aircraft Weight and its Plan form
Area (Wing Area).

66

This parameter have many physical implications specially in the aircraft behavior, like
in take-off and landing speeds, climb rate, turning and cruise performance and effects on
stability. This parameter with the methodology adopted is the basis for the constraint analysis
which summarized determines the Solar UAV wing size.
Roughly speaking, it could indicate how heavy (aerodynamically) an aircraft is. This
affects the required speed to generate the Lift, so lighter wing loading requires a lower speed
in all situations like take-off, climb, cruise and land.
Normally, UAV has to save energy to improve it endurance and avoid refueling
dependency. As known, energy required for flight is highly dependent of speed, so a lower
operational speed is aiming when creating a UAV for large endurance.
This is typical characteristic for a Solar UAV, high endurance and low Wing Loading
which reduces required speed and so the required energy for operation.
This same energy saving impacts of wing loading are presented in sailplanes. This is
shown in Table 3-1 with the first two lines representing the lowest values for wing loading for
Solar UAV and sailplanes as mentioned.
Table 3-1 Take-off Wing Loading Trends in lb/ft2 (NICOLAI and CARICHNER, 2010)

3.2.4.3 Lift and Drag Coefficients

Lift Coefficient (C L ) and Drag Coefficient (C D ) are determined by wing but airfoil
selected during design has great effect on that.

67

The airfoil selection is a step forward from this master thesis output (which validates
the feasibility and provide initial values), it is considered as a design layout phase. Once the
analysis used such terms during the calculus, it is necessary to be familiar with them.
Simplifying an airfoil, it could be imagined as a cross-section of the wing, it presents
characteristics that will affect wing behavior and so the entire aircraft, Figure 3-12 presents
the key parameters of an airfoil.

Figure 3-12 Airfoil Parameters (DAVISSON, 2015)

To understand physically, airfoil generates lift due to pressure difference between top
and bottom of it, this pressure difference is created by the air flow that passes through airfoil,
accelerating when pass on top of it which creates a low pressure distribution over the airfoil
which tends to pushes the airfoil upward. This idea extends to the entire wing which could be
imagined as a 3-d airfoil.
As first approximation the wing lift coefficient (C L ), used during design calculus, can
be assumed as the airfoil lift coefficient (C l ) (RAYMER, 1989). As input for the algorithm,
only the parasite drag coefficient (C D0 ) is required, although C L (equation (20) for constraint
analysis) and C D (equation (21)) are calculated during the analysis.
C D0 is the parasite drag related with drag that results from moving through the air. It is
a combination of form drag and skin friction drag, useful to understand how clean
aerodynamically speaking the wing is. Summed with the Induced Drag (C Di ) composes the
total C D .

68

Table 3-2 Subsonic Representative C D0 (NICOLAI and CARICHNER, 2010)

Induced Drag (C Di ) is related with the drag created by lift and increase once the angle
of attack increases. As the pressure difference is produced by the wing (lift), in a finite wing it
creates tip vortex that further create the downwash effect which is related to the Induced drag.
(28)

Figure 3-13 Wing Tip Vortices (SWANSON, 2015)

Instead of the C L calculated by equation (20), for the required power in flight used in
the energy balance, it is used the C L that maximizes aerodynamic efficiency calculated as
follow (RODRIGUES, 2008):

69

(29)

3.2.4.4 Aspect Ratio

Aspect Ratio (AR) is one of the many characteristics of a wing like sweepback,
dihedral angle, taper ratio and torsion.
Aspect Ratio is calculated as follow:

Figure 3-14 Wing Aspect Ratio (NASA, 2015b)

High Aspect Ratio wings have lower drag than a low aspect ratio wing due to its
impact in the Induced Drag (equation (28)).
Physically, this effect is explained by wingtip vortices impacting the wing pressure
distribution; so, as the aspect ratio increases it reduces the induced drag. Aspect Ratio also
impacts directly the Lift coefficient curve (Figure 3-15) and the angle of stall due to the
reduced effective angle of attack at wing tip, so, lower-aspect-ratio wings will stall at a higher
angle of attack than higher-aspect-ratio wings. This also explains why empennages have a low
aspect ratio, to stall just after wings maintaining aircraft controllability (avoiding deep stall).
During aircraft configuration, the design process for choosing aspect ratio must
consider the impact that a greater aspect ratio leads to a heavier wing. For the Solar UAV
case, higher-aspect-ratio wing is commonly used to reduce the required energy for flight.

70

Figure 3-15 Aspect Ratio effect on lift (RAYMER, 1989)

3.2.4.5 Oswald Efficiency Factor
The Oswald efficiency factor (e) affects the Drag Coefficient being part of the Induced
Drag contribution (equation (28)).
It relates the change in drag of the wing in comparison with a similar wing but with
elliptical lift distribution (lowest induced drag).
Typically it is between 0.7 and 0.9 for conventional fixed-wing aircraft with moderate
aspect ratio and sweep.
3.2.5

Sizing
As presented by RAYMER, (1989), the Sizing process is one of the initial steps from

aeronautical design. Normally it uses historical data and regression analysis from past projects
to do this estimation.
This estimation starts with the guess of Design takeoff gross weight which is based
in the following weight breakdown equation (30):
(30)
From mission requirements it is already available the Payload (W payload ) and Crew
(W crew ) weights, so the remaining unknown values are those for Fuel (W fuel ) and Empty
(W empty ) Weight.
Simplifying the calculation the terms W fuel and W empty are expressed as fractions of
total gross weight, resulting in the following equation (31):

71

(31)
From this equation, it is possible to determine W total once the fractions W fuel /W total and
W empty /W total are known. As aforementioned, these fractions can be estimated from historical
data and regression analysis

Figure 3-16 Empty Weight Fraction Trends (RAYMER, 1989)

For fuel fraction each flight phase is taken into account such as: start, take-off, climb,
cruise, loiter, landing and taxi. Each phase has specific characteristics of fuel consumption
(weight reduction), which require more detailed calculations to determine the contribution of
Fuel fraction. This is not the scope of this master thesis.

72

Figure 3-17 Simple Mission Profile

The same process (weight fractions breakdown) is presented in preliminary aircraft
design texts such as ROSKAM, (1985), NICOLAI and CARICHNER, (2010), Brandt et al.
(2004) and so on.
For the specific case of a Solar UAV, the total weight equation will differ and in
details is more likely to (32):
(32)
Solar UAV weight is composed of:
Airframe: the whole structure that composes the vehicle wing, tail, fuselage,
landing

gear.

For

the

airframe,

use

of

technological

solutions

and

light-weight materials must be in focus to reduce this part of the total weight
equation.
o Propulsion Group: It is composed by the electric motor, propeller, and motor
controller, if is the case, a gearbox.
o Solar Cells: The focus must be to select solar cells with high efficiency
and low density. It can represent also the weight of encapsulation and diodes.
o Energy

Storage:

Must

be

selected

an

energy

source

with

high energy density. This term can take into account others peripherals that
complete the energy storage system.
o Payload: Comprised by the electronics in the UAV, could be summarized by the
servos,

avionics,

or sensors.

solar

maximum

power

point

tracker,

cameras

73

Similar to the classical aeronautics design method which create fractions of the total
weight, same rationale could be done with the Solar UAV case, but due the lack of past
designs data, it is not possible to solve this equation with reliable data.
To surplus this difficulty, will be used the method proposed by BRANDT and
GILLIAM, (1995) and also presented in SMITH et al., (2000). This method, instead of using
weight fractions of total weight, it uses wing loading portions, so each component contributes
for the total wing loading. Leading to the equation (33):
(33)
Equation (33) is derived from the fact that when properly sized the sum of portions of
the Solar UAVs wing loading must equal the total wing loading chosen in constraint analysis
(BRANDT et al., 2004).
3.2.5.1 Airframe Loading
For the Airframe contribution in the total Wing Loading, BRANDT and GILLIAM,
(1995) propose the values of 9.61 N/m2 for aerodynamic surfaces (wing and empennage) and
6.67N/m2 for fuselage.
In SMITH et al., (2000), it is proposed a global value for airframe of 0.98 kg/m2 (9.61
N/m2). This value considers a conventional configuration of a small UAV built in carbon fiber
and epoxy composite skin over a Styrofoam core.
Also, a research was conducted to evaluate the Airframe Loading presented by past
Solar UAV projects which can be summarized by Table:
Table 3-3 Past Projects Airframe Loading
Project

Year

Airframe Weight (N)

Wing area (m) Ratio (N/m)

Sunrise *

1975

100.16

8.36

11.98

Zephyr *

2005

294.30

27.90

10.55

Sunsailor I

2006

16.81

1.35

12.45

Skysailor

2008

7.11

0.78

9.16

Photon

2013

14.21

1.34

10.61

* Empty Weight considered as Airframe Weight (NOTH, 2008)

74

For this thesis the Airframe Loading will be considered the constant value proposed
by SMITH et al., (2000) of 0.98 kg/m2 (9.61 N/m2) which is similar to the other projects
Airframe Loading.
3.2.5.2 Propulsion Loading
For the Propulsion Loading, calculation is based on equation (34):
(34)
P levelflight represents the Power required for steady flight multiplied by ratio between
Motor Mass and Motor Power, which is determined by motor and propulsive components
technologies.
NOTH, (2008) conducted past designs review and concluded for the Skysailor project
the value of 0.008 kg/W which already considers the contribution of motor, controller,
gearbox and propeller, this same value will be considered in this master thesis.
Power required loading for steady flight is calculate by equation (35):
(35)
It takes into account the power required for flight in an incomplete form once Power
should be calculated as:

The term wing area (S) was removed from equation, so the P levelflight calculated has the
dimension of W/m2. This calculation presented in equation (35) takes into account also the
propulsion components efficiencies.
3.2.5.3 Solar Cells Loading
Solar Cell loading is based in the BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995) equation (36):

75

(36)
From the original BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995) equation, it differs by the
inclusion of Encapsulation (kg/m2) and the multiplication by gravity which produces an
output in N/m2.
The ratio between Area of Solar Cells and Area of Wing is defined by Constraint
Analysis or provided as a project input, such as: 70% of wing area will be covered by solar
cells.
3.2.5.4 Energy Storage Loading
Energy Storage Loading is based on the required energy storage for the Solar UAV.
The first step is to determine the required energy that the device must stores to provide in
absence of light. This is calculated by equation (37):
(37)

In this equation P levelflight was already calculated by equation (35) but now must take
into account the efficiency of the energy storage. Time Required is defined as the time
without Sun (or absence of light). This can be obtained by the calculation of 24h minus the
day length calculated in equation (10).
(38)
Energy Storage Loading is so obtained with the Energy Required for Level Flight
(Wh/m2) divided by Energy Storage Energy Density (Wh/kg) which is chosen during project
definition.
3.2.5.5 Sizing Calculation
Revisiting the Sizing equation (33) and manipulating in terms of S:
(39)
BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995) also propose an increase of wing loading
contribution introduced by the weight of wiring, transformers, controllers, etc, which are

76

unknown at this design stage, so it is proposed an increase of 10% associated with wing
loadings from energy storage, propulsion and solar cells, so the equation (39) is rewritten to:

(40)

Once W payload is known, all terms were previous calculated and W total /S is determined
from Constraint Analysis or pre-defined, so it is obtained the planform wing area (S) and the
take-off weight is obtained by equation (41):
(41)
All aforementioned steps are considered as first iteration, since a modification on
BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995) method was introduced by this master thesis. This
modification considers the contribution of payload power on the Energy Storage loading, so a
high level algorithm could be described as stated by Table 3-4.
Table 3-4 Sizing Algorithm
calc Airframe_Wing_Loading
calc Solarcells_Wing_Loading
calc PLevelFlight
calc EnergyLevelFlight

// Equation (36)
// Power required to steady flight Equation (34)
// Equation (37)

calc EnergyStorage_Wing_Loading
calc Propulsion_Wing_Loading
calc Wing_Area
Calc Take-off_Weight

// Equation (38)
// Equation (34)
// Equation (40)
// Equation (41)

while (Ratio) {
if (WingArea greater than 0){
ReCalc (PLevelFlight + Payload_Power/Wing_Area) //Include Payload Power
} else {
Wing Loading not enough to satisfy equation ()
}
ReCalc EnergyLevelFlight
// Equation (37)
ReCalc EnergyStorage_Wing_Loading
// Equation (38)
ReCalc Wing_Area
// Equation (40)
ReCalc Take-off_Weight
// Equation (41)
Ratio = (Take-off_Weight - Previous_Take-off_Weight)/Take-off_Weight
}

77

3.2.6

Energy Balance Profile

Energy Balance Profile aims to illustrate the electrical power availability of the Solar

UAV. It takes into account the generation of electrical power through photovoltaic, energy
storage charging and consumption and power required for unaccelerated cruise flight.
The core for this Solar UAV concept uses the excess power generated by photovoltaic
during the day to charge energy storage to be used during the night.
Theoretically the charging-discharging cycle can go on forever, however, energy
storage devices have finite cycle limits and its performance normally reduces as life cycle
increase. A typical Energy Balance Profile is illustrated by Figure 3-18.

Figure 3-18 Energy Balance Example (MONTGOMERY and MOURTOS, 2013)

Using Figure 3-18 as reference, calculation of each curve is done by previous
equations. Constant Cruise Power can be changed now as it sums the power required by
Payload taking into account the switching converter efficiency (equation (42)):
(42)
Solar Power is obtained by Irradiation Model for the geographic region and altitude of
operation (Chapter 3.2.2) considered the average hourly irradiance during a day (calculated
through a whole year) multiplied by photovoltaic efficiency and percentage of total wing
area covered by solar cells (as used in equation (36) and expressed in equation (43)).

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(43)
Solar Consumed Energy is the area below Constant Cruise Power Line and during the
availability of Solar Power (day hours). Battery Drain Energy is calculated as the area below
Constant Cruise Power Line and limited by Solar Power Generation not being greater than
Constant Cruise Power.
This methodology introduces two variations on equation (42) for cruise power. One
considers the solar energy powering the UAV and the other considers the battery feeding the
system. These two different configurations introduce efficiencies that are not the same in both
cases once the power flow is not the same.

3.3 Electric UAV adapted to Photovoltaic

Herein will be explained the case of an Electric UAV adapted with Photovoltaics to
improve its endurance due to increase of available energy on-board, complementary to
batteries.
This approach presented advantages as presented by COBA, (2010) and HURD,
(2009). However, it lacks of theoretical explanation aiming to be a feasibility analysis for any
electrical UAV.
First of all, it must be established an Electric UAV design as start point like
AeroVironment Raven RQ11B as proposed by COBA, (2010) or the R/C Hobbyist aircraft
Parkzone Radian used by HURD, (2009). They have wing area of 0.23 and 0.36 m2
respectively suitable for Photovoltaic Cells.
Back to Aerodynamics and based on TORABI, SADI and VARJANI, (2011), it is
known that at steady cruise flight:
Power required (Watts):
(44)
C D is known by equation (21) and CL can be determined:
(45)

From this, the Power Required for Steady Cruise flight can be rewritten to:

79

(46)

In this equation, is air density, V is the cruise airspeed, S is the Wing Area, C D0 is
the parasite drag coefficient, AR is the Aspect Ratio, e is the Oswald Coefficient and W is the
Electrical UAV total Weight.
From existing projects, to determine parameters such as C D0 and e can cause some
difficulties, once they are normally technical proprietary information. Comparing with similar
aircraft configurations that offer data, it is possible to estimate C D0. For Oswald Coefficient, it
is possible to be obtained with dedicated equations. Aspect Ratio and Wing Area are easily
obtained by measurements conducted by inspection or pictures analysis.
From now, the trade-off will be to increase weight (photovoltaic cells) to increase
endurance or could be, increase weight of photovoltaic cells and reduce battery weight to keep
the same endurance. Once photovoltaic cells are sensitive to weather condition so in some
undesirable condition we can have an electric UAV with endurance de-rated from its original
design - we will consider only the case of increasing weight to increase endurance without
impacting the original battery capacity.
From equation (46), total weight can be decomposed in Electric UAV total weight and
Photovoltaic Delta (cells, electronics and harness).
It is important to consider the real Propulsion Required Power, one after all efficiency
chain from propulsion components (propeller, gearbox, motor, motor controller) - Figure
2-27, so the net Power Required will be:

(47)
From this point, Power Generated by Solar Cells can be calculated by equation (23).
So, energy balance, same as for Solar UAV design, will be related to batteries and
photovoltaic cells as sources and propulsion system as consumer. This balance will be directly
affected by solar cells density (impacting Weight increase and thereafter required Power),

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solar cells efficiency (impacting Power delivered) and operational characteristics, region and
time of year (impacting Irradiance and consequently Power delivered by photovoltaic).

Figure 3-19 Adapted Electric UAV Power Flow

From Figure 3-19, the power balance can be expressed as:
P battery + P solar = P net , or defined to Battery Required Power:
P battery = P net - P solar
TRAUB, (2011) presented a method to estimate range and endurance for batterypowered aircraft, this method will be used in conjunction with Power Provided from Solar
Cells to estimate the increased endurance of Electric UAV adapted with Photovoltaic Cells.
Peukerts effect is explained by TRAUB, (2001), which relates the battery capacity to
its discharge, so a higher current draw, less effective the battery capacity.

(48)
From equation (48), t is time in hours, i" is the discharge current (Amperes), C is
the battery capacity in Ampere-hour, n Peukerts exponent being temperature and
battery type dependent and Rt is the battery discharge time in hour (discharging time over
which capacity was determined).

81

(49)
Equation (49) rearranges the power flow equation in terms of t, time in hours,
representing the Endurance. This equation can be used to estimate the endurance of an
Electric UAV adapted with Photovoltaic Cells.

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4 Tool developed for analysis

4.1 Solar UAV Architecture Proposal
During all chapters, Solar UAV design was considered with many uncertainties like
how many motors, which power electronics circuits, which energy storage method and the
most important, which architecture considered.
So the methodology and tool created in this master thesis is based on system
architecture illustrated by Figure 4-1 composed of Photovoltaic Array, MPPT, Common
Power

Bus,

Power

Converter,

Payloads,

Battery

Management

System

(charging/discharging/power flow), Batteries, Motor Controller and the Propulsion

components like Electric Motor, Gearbox and Propeller.

Figure 4-1 Architecture Proposed

Two system configurations are illustrated by Figure 4-2 and Figure 4-3, these
configurations differ by power source in charge to supply the loads installed in the Solar
UAV. In first case the Solar UAV is powered only by Photovoltaic and the Batteries are fully
charged, so the open circuit in Figure 4-2 between Battery and Battery Management System
represents that no power flows in or out the battery and not a physical disconnection.

83

Figure 4-2 Powered by only Solar Cells

Second configuration is battery supplying all energy required by Solar UAV. Also, the
disconnection between Power Bus and the MPPT is not a physical disconnection but an
absence of power flow in these components.
These segregations or isolations are not detailed, but can be assumed to be performed
by MPPT for solar cells and by Battery Management System for Battery.

Figure 4-3 Absence of Sun / Powered Battery-only

Not illustrated by there is the configuration that represents the transitions between the
power sources in charge of supplying the Solar UAV. These transitions occur during the night
to day or day to night transitions, where in the first case arise of Sun, reduces the required
power of Battery and start to introduce Solar Power in the system. For day to night, once the

84

available irradiation reduces, battery comes to play introducing power for the Solar UAV,
these transitions are visually available in the Energy Balance Plot.

4.2 Tool description

All methodology exposed on prior chapters are integrated in a tool with the purpose of
automatize the Solar UAV design process, allowing the designer to change freely the
parameters that impacts the project and verify instantaneously if project still is feasible or not
and how these changes impact the output.
Figure 4-4 illustrates the GUI (Graphical User Interface) developed through GUIDE
on MATLAB to facilitate the developer interaction with the design method. This GUI can be
split in two sections, user inputs and text outputs (left) and plots area (right).
User inputs are on left side of the screen separated in boxes named: Geographic
Inputs, Photovoltaics, Propeller Group, Aerodynamics, Constraint Analysis and Battery /
Electronics / Payload.
Still on left side and below the Run button, responsible for running the method, are
the text outputs composed of boxes Preliminary Design Output and Weight Breakdown. On
right side, plots area, are the plots of Average Monthly Solar Irradiation, Day Length during
the year, Constraint Diagram and the Steady Flight Power Profile (Energy Balance output).

Figure 4-4 Tool GUI

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4.2.1

Geographic Inputs
In short, geographic inputs could be stated as region of operation for Solar UAV.

Latitude must be represented in degrees. For North hemisphere this value is positive and
negative for South Hemisphere.

Figure 4-5 Latitude and Longitude representation (SATSIG, 2015)

Altitude must be flight cruise altitude, represented in meters. It must be considered
above sea level (sea level reference) and not ground level as reference (Figure 4-6). This is
required due to atmospheric and solar radiation models that uses this sea-level reference.

Figure 4-6 Sea Level Reference

4.2.2

Photovoltaic
For photovoltaic inputs are cell density (kg/m2), cell efficiency (%) and encapsulation

(kg/m2).

86

Encapsulation is the material that goes on the top and on the bottom of solar cells
when constructing solar panel, like silicone, Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA), epoxy and others.
It is responsible for increasing its integrity, improving physical characteristics and also
improving thermal characteristics and irradiation absorption. Extends the solar cells life cycle
by preventing oxygen and gases from oxidizing the cells, also prevents water and dirt
ingression. Another important role is that it acts as a shock absorber during thermal expansion
and retraction preventing breakage.

Figure 4-7 Solar Panel Construction

Figure 4-7 represents the construction of solar panel by junction of solar cells with tab
ribbon (conductive wires that create the series/parallel array) and encapsulation layers.
Table 2-3 can be used as reference for efficiency and density once they are off-theshelf solar cells.
4.2.3

Propeller Group
Propeller Group box includes efficiencies for each component: propeller, gearbox,

motor and controller (Figure 2-27).

If a configuration without gearbox is taken into account (e.g. outrunner motor),
gearbox efficiency can be defined as 100%, so, it will not affect the global efficiency that
impacts the calculus of power required.
4.2.4

Aerodynamics
The aerodynamics inputs are Parasite Drag Coefficient (C D0 ), Oswald Efficiency

Constant (e) and Aspect Ratio (AR), they were explained previously and the Table 4-1
presents the values obtained or used by past projects.

87

Table 4-1 Aerodynamic Coefficients

Project

Parasite Drag Coefficient (C D0 )

Oswald Constant (e)

Aspect Ratio (AR)

Skysailor

0.006

0.9

12.9

AtlantikSolar

0.009

0.7

18.52

(0.005 0.01)

(0.85 0.95)

30.9

HELIOS

Source: MOSIMANN and DUCARD, (2014)

4.2.5

Constraint Analysis
Constraint Analysis box ask for Cruise Speed (m/s), Climb Rate (m/s), Turn Load

Factor, Rmax, Rdesign and Wing Loading W/S (N/m2).

Both Rmax and Rdesign are ratios; Rmax represents the ratio between maximum wing
area covered by solar cells by total wing area. Rdesign is the ratio chosen, if it is empty, it will
be required to choose the Rdesign in the Constraint Diagram plot.
For Wing Loading, the empty value conducts to same behavior as Rdesign (either
value left blank), tool will require from user to choose the value in the Constraint Diagram as
illustrated by Figure 4-8.

Figure 4-8 Rdesign and Wing Loading required during simulation

88

The required parameters for simulation and Constraint Analysis plot are Rmax and
Cruise Speed.
If it is the case that the user already know the Rdesign and Wing Loading for the
simulation, it still need to inform these both values for simulation, however does not need to
choose these values from Constraint Diagram.
4.2.6

Battery / Electronics / Payload

This box covers all parameters from these components, they are: Battery Specific

Energy (Wh/kg), Battery Efficiency (%), Payload (kg), Payload Power (W), Power Converter
Efficiency (%) and MPPT Efficiency (%).
All these parameters are required for simulation. They are used for calculations as
presented in chapter 3.
4.2.7

Preliminary Design Output

This box presents the output from the design for parameters: Wing Area (m2), Power

Required (W), Take-off Weight (N), Battery (Wh) and Wingspan (m).
Wing Area and Take-off Weight are obtained from Sizing Equation. Wingspan
considers a rectangular wing.
Both Power Required and Battery are calculated for the requirements in steady cruise
flight, does not take into account the take-off (a high power demanding phase).
4.2.8

Weight Breakdown
Weight Breakdown presents the main component from the Solar UAV in kilograms

(kg). They are: Airframe, Propulsion Group, Solar Cells and Battery.
4.2.9

Plot Area
Plot Area presents the four visual outputs from simulation:

Average-Monthly Solar Irradiation: Consider the latitude provided in the box Geographic
Inputs. It can visually show the maximum and minimum Irradiance (W/m2) for this
region and the behavior during the whole year, so the designer can take some conclusions
on energy available for operation in the chosen location.

Day Length: Same as Average-Monthly Solar irradiation, it provides the day length
profile during the year allowing some insight about the Solar UAV operation.

89

Constraint Diagram: Provide the feasible area that meets requirements provided in the
Constraint Analysis box.

Steady Flight Power Profile: Presents the Solar Power Generation and Required Power
during a whole day.

90

5 Results and Discussion

5.1 Solar Powered UAV projects simulated on tool
This chapter aims to simulated real Solar UAV projects in the tool and compared its
outputs with these projects realization.
For this comparison was considered the projects Skysailor (NOTH, 2008),
AtlantikSolar (OETTERSHAGEN et al., 2015) and HELIOS (USA, 2015) due to their
availability of data presented in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1 Past designs detailed data

Geographic
Solar Cells
Propulsion

Aerodynamics

Battery
Payload
Electronics
Design Output

Altitude [m]
Latitude []
Efficiency [%]
Total Density [kg/m]
Total Eff [%]
Specific Weight (kg/W)
CD0
Oswald Constant
Aspect Ratio
Cruise Speed [m/s]
Rdesign
Wing Loading [N/m]
Specific Energy [Wh/kg]
Efficiency [%]
Mass [kg]
Power [W]
Power Converter Eff [%]
MPPT Eff [%]
Wing Area [m]
Take-off Weight [N]
Power Required [W]

Sky Sailor
460
47
16.9
0.581
66
0.008
0.006
0.9
12.9
8.3
0.75
30.9
190
95
0.2
1.179
65
97
0.787
25.0
14.2

Atlantik Solar
200
47
23
0.454
48
0.0004
0.009
0.7
18.52
9.7
0.9 - 0.95
42
243
91
0.61
15
65 - 80
95 - 98
1.72
73.6
84.7

HELIOS
15000 - 21000
21
19
0.6 - 2
60 - 70
0.01 - 0.03
0.005 - 0.01
0.85 - 0.95
30.9
8.5 - 12.1
0.9 - 0.95
39
200 - 500
60 - 95
90.7
65 - 80
95 - 98
183.6
7120.1
N/A

Source: MOSIMANN and DUCARD, (2014)

Highlighted parameters were estimated during the construction of Table 5-1 and it is
important to notice that HELIOS data have parameters with variable values due to its
uncertainties, like for Geographic Altitude, Solar Cell Total Density among others.

91

5.1.1

Sky Sailor
Sky Sailor is a solar powered aircraft developed by NOTH, (2008) - Figure 2-2 - with

the concept to propose a new conceptual design for this type of UAV.
The first simulation conducted in the methodology proposed by this dissertation will
be with the data from Sky Sailor, obtained from Table 5-1.
The results are presented in the following Table:
Table 5-2 Skysailor case First Attempt

Output

Wing Area [m]

Take-off Weight [N]
Power Required [W]

Skysailor Simulated
0.787
1.6568
25.0
51.194
14.2
32.991

Delta
+211%
+205%
+232%

Once the average delta from available data of Skysailor project and the simulation
conducted was of 200%, it was made an inspection to determine why this occurred.
Analyzing the algorithm from tool developed in this dissertation and the data
presented by NOTH, (2008), the difference was encountered, it is related with the night time.
Once the tool created considers the minimal daylength during the year (greater night time),
Skysailor project is dimensioned considering a restricted time span operation (between June
and July Most favorable time of year for operation on North Hemisphere).
Once the night time period is taken into account to dimensioning the battery, it
impacts directly the outputs from sizing methodology.
To confirm this, simulation was re-performed with a Night Time period of: 13.3 hours.
(Prior value used was 15.5 hours)
Table 5-3 Skysailor case Second Attempt

Output

Wing Area [m]

Take-off Weight [N]
Power Required [W]

Skysailor Simulated
0.787
0.752
25.0
23.247
14.2
14.008

Delta
-4%
-7%
-1%

So, with a different night time period considered the Delta for these three output
parameters were more acceptable. From operational inputs, altitude of flight impacts only the
Power Required for Flight, so increasing the altitude of flight will reduce this required power.

92

From NOTH, (2008), some differences could be explained, calculation of air density
are made different, which impacts power required and all calculations. It uses a different
airframe weight parameter, 0.96 kg/m2 instead of the 0.98 kg/m2 assumed in this
methodology.
An interesting output was the Battery Capacity (Wh) that simulation presented 207Wh
very close to the 200Wh presented by Skysailor sizing methodology.
Table 3-4 presented a modification in the methodology, Figure 5-1 below presents this

Weight (N)

iterative method to obtain a more precise output.

28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
1

Iteration
Output

Skysailor Real

Skysailor Estimated

Figure 5-1 Methodology with iteration considering Payload Power impact

The Skysailor Real represents the physical Solar UAV constructed and the Skysailor
Estimated represents the Weight Estimated by NOTH, (2008) methodology. Output line
represents the methodology proposed by this dissertation.
An important point to highlight in this Figure 5-1 is the transition between iteration 1
and 2. On iteration 1, the Weight estimated does not take into account the payload power for
battery sizing, but from step 2 and following it is taken into account as presented previously.
5.1.2 AtlantikSolar
AtlantikSolar is a Solar UAV designed to cross the Atlantic Ocean fully solar-powered
and autonomous. Considering a route between Lisbon (Portugal) and Boston (USA),

93

considered to be a 5 days long flight. Created by ETH Zurichs Autonomous System Lab
professionals.

Figure 5-2 AtlantikSolar (AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM LAB ETH ZURICH, 2014)

AtlantikSolar does not have much data available regarding its design. Because of that,
a first analysis from Table 5-1 can be performed to find some assumption that are not for
AtlantikSolar case.
The Propulsion Specific Weight that was assumed to be 0.008 kg/W, it is stated that
for AtlantikSolar, this value is 0.0004 kg/W. Also, there are some uncertainties for Rdesign,
Wing Loading, Power Converter and MPPT Efficiencies. AtlantikSolar project does not have
available data to determine if it was designed to operate in specific time of year or the whole
year.

94

Figure 5-3 AtlantikSolar Input data on tool

For the Rdesign and Wing Loading W/S were considered the values presented in
Figure 5-3 and for Power Converter and MPPT Efficiencies were maintained as the same as
Skysailor Project, 65% and 97% respectively.
Propulsion Specific Weight was modified in source code, once this is not an available
input.
Due to uncertainties the tool will be used in an iterative/automatic way to provide the
output closer to the available data, trying to determine this values that reduces the Delta
between available data from AtlantikSolar and tools output.
First attempt to simulate this Solar UAV on tool was unsuccessful, due the fact that
the change in methodology to include Payload Power for battery sizing produced an
extremely high battery loading which was not conclusive to the result. Remove the payload
power consideration in sizing, produces a valid design output but far from the real values.
The possible paths to use the proposed methodology were to reduce the Payload
Power or increase the Payload mass, so to overcome this limitation, the Payload Power was
maintained in 15W and Payload Mass increased to 1.16 kg, producing the output presented in
Table 5-4.

95

Table 5-4 AtlantikSolar Case

Output

Wing Area [m]

Take-off Weight [N]
Power Required [W]

AtlantikSolar Simulated
1.72
1.775
73.6
74.550
84.7
61.420

Delta
3%
1%
-27%

From this analysis it could be stated that the algorithm calculation (Table 3-4) after
Equation (40) presents a restriction in this methodology. This restriction is that the Payload
Power can not be increased indiscriminately once it will impacts the calculation of battery
(which takes the payload power into account), so once the payload power is increased, have to
pay attention to keep payload characteristics below a maximum Power to Weight ratio
(W/kg).
For the Atlantik Solar case, this payload power to weight ratio was reduced from
24.59 W/kg to 12.93 W/kg to output a feasible value.
5.1.3

HELIOS
HELIOS is a Solar UAV classified as HALE (High Altitude Long Endurance). It was

developed under NASAs Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST)
project to prove high altitude flights and non-stop flight for at least 24 hours.

Figure 5-4 HELIOS (USA, 2015)

For this simulation, HELIOS relies on the same impediment as Atlantik Solar, the lack
of data. Because of that, some assumptions were made to simulate this case in the tool
developed in this dissertation.

96

From data presented in Table 5-1, HELIOS lack data for the Payload Power which
was demonstrated to be a very important and sensitive parameter during the Solar UAV
sizing. Because of that, to perform the HELIOS case in this methodology, it was assumed to
increase the Payload Power until the tools output get closer to the expected HELIOS Wing
Area and Take-off Weight.
For other uncertainties was assumed: Altitude of 17,000 m, solar cell density of 0.6
kg/m2, propulsion specific weight (used 0.02 changed in source code), total efficiency for
propulsive system of 70%, C D0 of 0.009, Oswald Constant of 0.9, Cruise Speed of 12.1 m/s,
Rdesign of 0.9, Battery Specific Energy of 400 Wh/kg (HELIOS has some hybrid versions
that considers fuel cells) and Battery Efficiency of 90%. For MPPT and Power Controller
Efficiencies were considered the same as Sky Sailor case.
Table 5-5 HELIOS Case

Output

Wing Area [m]

Take-off Weight [N]
Power Required [W]

HELIOS
Simulated
183.6
190.23
7120.1
7419.0
N/A
36880

Delta
+4%
+4%
N/A

To obtain the values presented in Table 5-5, payload power was considered to be
1,3kW.

5.2 Parameters sensitive analysis

Sensitive analysis will be conducted starting from Skysailor data (simulation) to see
by inputs variations which effects are expected for Power Required and Take-off Weight.
A variation from each part of the tool will be conducted, geographical inputs,
photovoltaic inputs, propeller group, aerodynamics, constraints analysis (Rdesing, Cruise
Speed and Wing Load) and for Battery / Electronics / Payload.
5.2.1

Geographical Inputs
From Geographical Inputs the Latitude variation affects only the Energy Balance,

wherein a Latitude closer to the poles tend to cripple a 24 hour cycle, due to lack of energy to
keep the charging-discharging battery cycle.
For the altitude of operation, it affects directly the power required for flight, once it
affects the power to keep the Solar UAV on steady cruise flight.

97

18
16

P ower [W ]

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

Altitude [m]
Power Required [W]

Figure 5-5 Altitude Sensitive Analysis

So, from Geographical Inputs, the best operational characteristics are a higher altitude
and between the tropics.
5.2.2

Photovoltaic Inputs
From photovoltaic input, efficiency presented effects only in the Energy Balance

profile, which a poorer cell efficiency reduces the energy conversion and impacts the cycle of
using excess energy to recharge the batteries which can affects directly the greater than 24
hours operating cycle.
From the solar cell density (considered with the same encapsulation as Skysailor),
once it is increased, it impacts directly the power required for flight and the total take-off
weight, once it increases the total mass.
This behavior is illustrated by Figure 5-6:

98

180

Power [W]

140

Weight [N] /

160

80

120
100

60
40
20
0
0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

Solar Cell Density [kg/m ]

Take-off Weight [N]

Pow er Required [W]

Figure 5-6 Solar Cell Density Sensitive Analysis

The best choice for Solar Cells during the design is a high efficiency cell with low
density.
5.2.3

Propeller Group Inputs

From the propulsion group, it was evidenced that the simulation of the overall chain

efficiency will provide same insights as variation of each term (motor, gearbox, propeller and
controller).
As presented by Figure 5-7 once the overall efficiency chain reduces, by reducing the
efficiency of any of the components from propulsion group, the Power Required for Flight
and the Take-off Weight increases.

99

600

Power [W]

400

Weight [N]

500

200

300

100
0
55%

60%

65%

70%

75%

80%

Propulsion Chain Efficiency [%]

Take-off Weight [N]

Power Required [W]

Figure 5-7 Propulsion Chain Sensitive Analysis

During the design phase, choosing the propulsion components must focus on the high
efficiency components to reduce the requirements for power and weight.
5.2.4

Aerodynamics Inputs

From Aerodynamics Inputs, it was analyzed the changes in Parasite Drag Coefficient (C D0 ),
Oswald Constant (e) and Aspect Ratio.
It was concluded that the terms Oswald Constant and Aspect Ratio has minor effects in Power
Required for flight but impacting the Constraint Analysis plot, which restricts the feasible
area of design.
Regarding the Parasite Drag Coefficient, it presented a high influence in both Power Required
and Take-off Weight, but it is important to mention that the values for Solar UAV has some
references in Table 3-2, but in this analysis it was not restricted to them.

100

350

Weight [N] / Power [W]

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

0,005

0,01

0,015

0,02

0,025

0,03

Parasite Drag Coefficient

Take-off Weight [N]

Pow er Required [W]

Figure 5-8 Parasite Drag Coefficient Sensitive Analysis

For the Solar UAV design, must be focused in a configuration with reduced parasite
drag coefficient which besides that must pay attention to the airfoil chosen for this UAV.
5.2.5

Constraint Analysis Inputs

From Constraints Analysis only the terms Wing Loading and Cruise Speed were

simulated to see its impacts once the other terms (Rmax, Climb Rate and Turn Load Factor)
only impacts the Constraint Analysis Plot, reducing or increasing its feasible solution area.
Cruise Speed impacts directly in power required for flight and increasing this value
require more power and consequently more weight. The same for Wing Loading that is part
from the Sizing equation, despite it is known how this value varies (Table 3-1), it was
simulated a high excursion of this value to confirm its impacts both in weight and power
required.

101

160

Weight [N] / Power [W]

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
3,5

4,5

5,5

6,5

7,5

8,5

9,5

Cruise Speed [m /s]

Take-off Weight [N]

Pow er Required [W]

Figure 5-9 Cruise Speed Sensitive Analysis

400

Weight [N] / Power [W]

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Wing Loading [N/m ]

Take-off Weight [N]

Pow er Required [W]

Figure 5-10 Wing Loading Sensitive Analysis

During design a higher wing loading and a lower cruise speed must be kept in mind to
less impact the final Solar UAV.
5.2.6

Battery / Electronics / Payload Inputs

From Battery / Electronics / Payload inputs, it was simulated the variation for Battery

Specific Energy, Payload Mass and Battery Efficiency, once the other terms impacts the
energy balance only.

102

180

Weight [N] / Power [W]

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

0,6

0,7

Battery Specific Energy [Wh/kg]

Take-off Weight [N]

Pow er Required [W]

Figure 5-11 Battery Specific Energy Sensitive Analysis

60

Weight [N] / Power [W]

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

Payload Mass [kg]

Take-off Weight [N]

Pow er Required [W]

Figure 5-12 Payload Mass Sensitive Analysis

103

180

Weight [N] / Power [W]

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
75

80

85

90

95

100

Battery Efficiency [%]

Take-off Weight [N]

Pow er Required [W]

Figure 5-13 Battery Efficiency Sensitive Analysis

From these sensitive analyses, it is concluded that for batteries, higher efficiency and
specific energy is aimed during the project. For payload mass, once it is increased it impacts
directly the power required and total take-off weight, because of that payload mass is a critical
parameter for Solar UAV project.

5.3 New Solar UAV Proposal

On this chapter a Solar UAV will be conceptually designed using the methodology
and tool presented in this masters dissertation.
The first step in the design process is the requirements capture, both from operational
and performance.
The objective for this Solar UAV will be:
Provide a platform for agricultural inspection and monitoring that stays aloft
for more than 24 hours with online radio communication and embedded data storage. It must
operate in Brazil to support the precision agriculture on southeast.
Precision agriculture aims to increase productive, cost reduction, minimize
environmental impacts and improve the production quality.
It can be done by data collection and analyzing by specific software and technical
personnel. This data collection is normally performed by satellites or aircraft and this Solar
UAV is being proposed to reduce cost of operation, replacing these options and increasing

104

readiness and flexibility repeating the flight as much as required. The UAV also present the
advantage of flying closer to the target (lower altitudes) and below clouds which generates
better images.
For this type of operation some special cameras are required for Visual Imagery like
Thermal Inspection, Multi and Hyperspectral analysis or LIDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging).

Figure 5-14 Example of Aerophotography (Adapted from CATUAV, 2015)

For this Solar UAV proposal, some off-the-shelf components were chosen and a
limited payload for camera was defined, cruise airspeed will be defined as 12 m/s and a flight
altitude of 120 m being consistent with ANAC (National Civil Aviation Agency), Brazilian
authority that specifies this altitude (or 400 ft) and a maximum take-off weight of 25 kg
(ANAC IS n 21-002), attending these constraints not require a full certification for flight
process, requiring just consonance with the air traffic control.
Table 5-6 Payload Specification
Description Weight [kg] Power [W]
RFD 900u Receiver Radio Modem
0.0027
0.385
3DR uBlox GPS Module
0.0168
0.2
3DR Airspeed Sensor
0.004
0.02
3DR Pixhawk Autopilot
0.038
1
Camera or Sensor
0.5
Total
0.56
1.64

105

As already stated, the analysis will be concentrated in the southeast region of Brazil
which limits the latitudes around 20 south.

Figure 5-15 Input Simulation

For photovoltaic, it is considered an Alta Devices GaAs solar cell (Table 2-3) of 26%
efficiency, 0.24 kg/m2 density and same encapsulation as presented by NOTH, 2008.
Propeller and electronics components efficiencies as well as motor power-to-weight ratio will
be the same as presented by NOTH, 2008, however in a preliminary phase; they can be
updated creating other design loop.
A Parasite Drag Coefficient of 0.02, Aspect Ratio of 12 and Oswald Coefficient of
0.85 are proposed. For Constraint Analysis, only the Cruise Speed is taken into account. For
battery, a Specific Energy of 300 Wh/kg is proposed due to technical improvements in
Lithium batteries.
Choosing a Rdesign of 80% (0.8) and a Wing Loading of 50 N/m2, provided the
following:

106

Figure 5-16 Simulation Output

Figure 5-17 Power Profile

In this simulation, the design met the requirement, specifically the maximum take-off
weight of 25kg or 245 N.
This low altitude flight impacts directly the available irradiation, nevertheless, the
energy balance for continuous flight or greater than 24-hour endurance is conceptually
achieved as illustrated by Figure 5-17.

5.4 Adapting an Electric UAV to Photovoltaic

HEPPERLE, (2012) conducted a study about electric flight and for the specific case of
solar powered flight, he concluded that it is possible the application of solar cells for low
power aircrafts but it still needs an improvement in the efficiencies. Also for the case-study of
adapting the Airbus A320 with solar cells, it was not feasible even with a solar cell of 100%
efficiency, due the high power demands for this size of aircraft.

107

However HEPPERLE, (2012) not considered the trade-off mentioned in chapter 3.3
between on-board energy storage and on-board solar energy generation for weight reduction,
fuel consumption and improvements in energy efficiency or even endurance increase.
On this chapter an Electric UAV will be adapted with Photovoltaic Cells to increase
its endurance. For this study case, CATUAVs ARGOS Electric was chosen due to available
design data.
Table 5-7 CATUAV Argos Electric Data
CATUAVARGOSElectric
Parameter
Value
Obs.
CruiseSpeed[m/s]
19
maxrange
AltitudeConsidered[m] 300
estimated
WingArea[m] 0.74
MTOW[N] 117.7
EmptyMass[kg] 4.725

UsefulPayload[kg] 5.88
withoutbattery(1.395kg)
Wingspan[m]
2.8
Endurance[h]
1.5
AspectRatio 10.6
ParasiteDragCoefficient 0.02
estimated
OswaldCoefficient 0.75
(TORABI;SADI;VARJANI,2011)
PropulsionEfficiency[%]
80
estimated
BatteryType LiPo

BatteryCapacity[Ah] 12.5
Voltage[V] 22.2
DischargeRate 30C
CellNumber
6S
PeukertConstant
1.3
(TRAUB,2011)

From data presented in Table 5-7 a first iteration was conducted on equations (46),
(47) and (49) which provided an Endurance of 2 hours. This discrepancy from original
endurance data (1.5h) can be explained by the energy required during take-off and climb that
are not taken into account. For a preliminary study of adapting an Electric UAV, it can be
considered fair this value which requires in a further step, the flying test.
The analysis will use as premise the compromising of available payload weight for
introducing solar cells to increase Endurance. This weight introduced by solar cells will
require a reduction of payload weight (available 5.88kg) keeping the total weight below the
specification of 12 kg (empty mass plus payload mass plus battery mass).

108

Parameters available for design change are: Rdesign (ratio of solar cell area by wing
area), Solar Cell efficiency and Solar Irradiance. During design, how much payload weight
that could be compromised in order to introduce the photovoltaic components is a major step
prior to all analysis.
The analysis consisted in consider two solar irradiation scenarios, 300 and 500 W/m2,
from this, was conducted variations on Rdesign and Solar Cell Efficiency to compare with
Endurance changes, represented by Figure 5-18.

Endurance [h]

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Solar Cell Efficiency @ 300W/m

Rdesign @ 300 W/m

Solar Cell Efficiency @ 500W/m

Rdesign @ 500 W/m2

90%

Figure 5-18 Adapting Electric UAV

On this analysis, weight introduced by solar cells and components was not detailed,
for this; solar cell chosen must provide the cell density data. Taken as example the point of
Rdesign 80% at 300W/m2, a solar cell of 0.60 kg/m2 will represent an increase of 0.355 kg
which accounts for approximately 6% reduction of available payload weight and an increase
of Endurance about 50%.

100%

109

Using this methodology for the HURD, 2009, case which uses the ParkZone Radian
R/C Airplane will provide:
Table 5-8 ParkZone Radian Data
ParkZoneRadian
Parameter
Value
Obs.
CruiseSpeed[m/s]
15
(HURD,2009)
AltitudeConsidered[m] 300
estimated
WingArea[m] 0.41
MTOW[N]
8.1
Wingspan[m]
2
Endurance[h]
0.5
AspectRatio
9.8
ParasiteDragCoefficient 0.02
estimated
OswaldCoefficient 0.76
(TORABI;SADI;VARJANI,2011)
PropulsionEfficiency[%]
80
estimated
BatteryType LiPo

BatteryCapacity[Ah]
1.3
Voltage[V] 11.1
PeukertConstant
1.3
(TRAUB,2011)

Same as performed with CATUAVs ARGOS Electric, using equations (46), (47) and
(48) results in an Endurance of 0.55 hours - 9% greater than the spec data that is 0.5 hours.
Back to HURD, 2009, flight test was performed for Rdesign of approximately 50%,
average solar irradiance of 680 W/m2 and CIGS solar cells of 8% efficiency. Afterwards
calculation was performed for CIGS solar cells of 11% efficiency. Using equations (46), (47)
and (49) provide the comparison below:
Table 5-9 Comparison of Methodology with HURD, 2009

BatteryOnly BatteryandSolarCells Calculated

LevelFlying(8%CIGSEff)
37min
93min
94min
LevelFlying(11%CIGSEff)
37min
177min
191min

From Table 5-9, methodology provide the values on column Calculated, these
values differs on 1% and 8% respectively from HURD, 2009, that can be explained by
approximation values once the lack of data published by HURD, 2009.

110

As illustrated in Figure 5-18 and stated in Table 5-9, solar cell efficiency has a major
impact in the electric UAV adapted with solar cells, increasing its endurance. From original
values (battery only), adapted electrical UAVs endurance increases substantially.

111

6 Conclusion
This masters dissertation presented a methodology to conceptually size a Solar
Powered UAV. From mission requirements, it proposes an initial sizing for this Solar
Powered UAV, being a start point for a more detailed design.
This methodology has a limitation regarding the Payload characteristics, which must
respect a Power-To-Weight ratio as presented during the AtlantikSolar study case.
Another difficulty is to estimate the propulsion mass-to-power ratio. For each of the
three cases analyzed, mass-to-power ratio was different. So, a step prior to simulation is to
know this expected value. This methodology used the one proposed by NOTH, (2008).
It was noted that if Solar Powered UAV will operate in specific time of the year or a
specific region in the world, it can change significantly the design, during the sensitive
analysis some of these characteristics were raised, like the latitude of operation and
consequent available solar energy. For lower altitude and higher cruise speeds more power is
required, which impacts the whole design.
This methodology based on BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995), introduced an
innovation. It takes into account the payload power during the battery sizing, which produces
a conceptual design more realistic when compared to BRANDT and GILLIAM, (1995).
An example of Solar Powered UAV was proposed and simulated through the tool
create. This Solar Powered UAV has the mission of imaging and remote sensing in Brazil and
demonstrated a feasible conceptual solution of a Solar Powered UAV with 2.37 m2 of wing
area and total mass of 12kg.
Also was presented a methodology to estimate the flight endurance increase of an
Electric UAV adapted with Solar Cells. This methodology was applied to CATUAVs Argos
Electric presenting that compromising 6% of available payload mass, represents an increase
of 50% in flight endurance.
The methodology was also applied to experimental case from HURD, 2009. The
measured values from HURD, 2009, and the values obtained through the proposed
methodology are close with the experimental case which permits to conclude that the

112

proposed methodology is effective to estimate flight endurance increase in Electric UAV

adapted with photovoltaic system.

6.1 Future Works

Based on this master thesis, some future works can be conducted, such as:

Power demand analysis during the Solar Powered UAV performance conditions (takeoff, climb, turn and landing). These conditions could be potential constraints for Solar
Powered UAV dimensioning.

Create an electrical load analysis for the Solar Powered UAV, to better understand the
loads profile during each flight phase, also consider the use of an Electrical
Management System (EMS) for loads power up in different time span and
consequently reducing the energy demand peaks.

Build a Solar Powered UAV starting from outputs of the tool/methodology proposed
in this master thesis or a more detailed design starting from this methodology outputs.

For Sizing equations some parameters are based in past studies such for Airframe and
Propulsion. For an improvement and future work based on this, an updated research or
survey in new Solar Powered UAV projects can be conducted to obtain or refine these
values.

A new concept being used for Solar UAV is the concept of Gliding Soaring and
potential energy storage aiming to reduce energy storage requirements (batteries, fuel
cells, etc.), so this concept can be studied and complemented to this methodology.

Another trend for Solar Powered UAV is adaptation of Electric UAV with Solar Cells
to increase its endurance. A methodology was presented in this masters dissertation
and it can be adapted to the tool proposed creating an automatic and user-friendly
platform for simulation.

113

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FOLHA DE REGISTRO DO DOCUMENTO

1.

CLASSIFICAO/TIPO

DP
5.

2.

3.

DATA

15 de Julho de 2015

4.

REGISTRO N

N DE PGINAS

DCTA/ITA/DP-036/2015

118

TTULO E SUBTTULO:

Assessment and Conceptual Design of Solar Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

6.

AUTOR(ES):

Gustavo de Carvalho Bertoli

7.

INSTITUIO(ES)/RGO(S) INTERNO(S)/DIVISO(ES):

Instituto Tecnolgico de Aeronutica - ITA

8.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE SUGERIDAS PELO AUTOR:

1. Solar Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 2. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 3. Autonomous Vehicle
9.PALAVRAS-CHAVE RESULTANTES DE INDEXAO:

Aeronave no-tripulada; Asas; Projeto estrutural; Energia solar; Metodologia; Engenharia aeronutica.
10.
APRESENTAO:
X Nacional
Internacional
ITA, So Jos dos Campos. Curso de Mestrado Profissional em Engenharia Aeronutica do Programa de
Ps-Graduao em Engenharia Aeronutica e Mecnica Orientador: Prof. Dr. Gefeson Mendes Pacheco;
coorientador: Prof. MSc. Geraldo Jos Adabo. Defesa em 08/07/2015. Publicada em 2015.
11.

RESUMO:

Solar UAVs have shown a great marketing trend, reducing costs and expanding operational possibilities,
mainly due to endurance increase, provided by solar power generation on wing. This dissertation presents
the points that affect the development of a solar UAV. It shows the various architectures presented in past
researches. Presents the challenges and attention points during development of Solar UAV and also
applications for this type of UAV. Makes a description of the components required in the architecture of
Solar UAV and the technical background to understand its operation and importance in the solar UAV
architecture composition. It is proposed a conceptual design methodology of a Solar UAV that from
mission and operational requirements, sizing a Solar UAV. The purpose of this methodology is to provide
a way to estimate the feasibility of a solar UAV from few technical information for its sizing, leaving only
possible values of components and definition of the geographical area of operation. This methodology is
detailed in the dissertation where a tool was created to automate the Solar UAV design process. It is also
presented using this tool for existing projects with subsequent analysis of results and comparisons with the
projects already constructed. A case study is presented to a Solar UAV for application in Brazil,
considering the imaging and remote sensing activity. A methodology for adapting Electric UAV with
Solar Cells to increase Endurance is presented and analyzed with an example case. At the conclusion of
the study presents some points to be deepened from this master's thesis, presented as "future work",
pioneering for more research in the area.
12.

GRAU DE SIGILO:

(X ) OSTENSIVO

( ) RESERVADO

( ) SECRETO