MFGT 290

MFGT Certification Class

Chapters 13, 14, and 15: Engineering MaterialsPlastics, Composites, and Ceramics

Professor Joe Greene

CSU, CHICO

MFGT 290

Chap 13: Plastics

Plastics
Polymerization
Polymer Structures
Thermoplastics
Engineering Thermoplastics
Thermoset Polymers
Processing of Plastics
Review Questions

Definition of Plastics
All Materials
Simple
Liquids

Gases

Metals

Ceramics

Solids
Polymers
(polymeric molecules)
Thermoplastics
Heat Forming

Thermosets
Heat Setting
Elastomers

Introduction
Polymeric materials can be either
Thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers.
Each section is presented in appropriate groups

Thermoplastics- Heat Forming materials (Can reheat & form again)

Carbon bonds are Saturated and are single bonds.
Come in a variety of forms
Pellets, powder (1-100 microns), flake, chip, cube, dice,
Shipped in packages of choice
Bags (50 lbs), drums (200 lbs), boxes, cartons, gaylords (1000 lb),
Tank-truck loads (15 tons), rail cars (40 80 tons)
Bulk supplies are stored in silos and conveyed pneumatically

Thermosets- Heat Setting materials (Once set cant reform -like

cooked eggs)
Carbon bonds are Unsaturated and have some double bonds.
Supplied in powder or liquid form
Supplied in drums, tank-trucks, and railroad cars.

Rubbers are supplied in bale form.

4

Commercial Thermoplastics
Olefins

Unsaturated, aliphatic hydrocarbons made from ethylene gas

Ethylene is produced by cracking higher hydrocarbons of natural gas or
petroleum
LDPE commercialized in 1939 in high pressure process
Branched, high pressure, and low density polyethylene

HDPE commercialized in 1957 in low pressure process

Linear, low pressure, high density

Medium density PE and other PE, UHMWPE, LLDPE

The higher the density the higher the crystallinity
Higher the crystallinity the higher the modulus, strength, chemical resistance,

PE grades are classified according to melt index (viscosity) which is

a strong indicator of molecular weight.
Injection molding requires high flow, extrusion grade is highly elastic,
thermoforming grade requires high viscosity or consistency

Other commodity (cheap) plastics

PP, PS, PVC (or vinyl), ABS, PMMA (Acrylic)

Major Plastic Materials

1994

LDPE
HDPE
PVC
PP
PS
PU
PET
Phenolic
Total

6.4 M metric tons

5.3 M metric tons
5.1 M metric tons
4.4 M metric tons
2.7 M metric tons
1.7 M metric tons
1.6 M metric tons
1.5 M metric tons
28.6 M metric tons (82% of market)
6

Recycling of Plastics
State and Federal Legislation
PET bottle recycling
Codes for plastics

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

PET
HDPE
Vinyl/PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
Other

States of Thermoplastic Polymers

Amorphous- Molecular structure is incapable of forming regular order
(crystallizing) with molecules or portions of molecules regularly stacked in
crystal-like fashion.
A - morphous (with-out shape)
Usually transparent (Clear bags)
Less shrinkage with amorphous materials.

Amorphous

Polymers

ABS

Acrylics

Polycarbonate PS
Polyurethanes PPO
Phenoxy

PVC

SAN

States of Thermoplastic Polymers

Crystalline- Molecular structure forms regular order (crystals) with molecules or portions of
molecules regularly stacked in crystal-like fashion.
Most crystalline polymers are semi-crystalline because very few plastics are 100%
crystalline. All have both regions that are crystalline and some that are amorphous
Usually Opaque and not transparent
More molding shrinkage with
crystalline materials.

Crystalline Materials
LDPE
PET

HDPE

PP

PBT

Polyamides
PMO

PEEK

PPS

PTFE

LCP (Kevlar)

Functional Groups
Certain chemical characteristics associated with various groups of
atoms, called functional groups.
Particular groups of atoms occur in a large molecule, the
characteristic chemistry is anticipated.
Example, PP has Functional groups can be attached to basic groups of carbon
atoms by replacing on H atom.

H H

H H

H H

H H

C C

C C

C C

C C

H CH3

H CH3

H CH3

H CH3

Note: PP is Mostly Isotactic- CH3 on one side of polymer chain (isolated).

Commercial PP is 90% to 95% Isotactic and not Atactic (random) or syndiotactic

10

Functional Groups
Various molecules of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen illustrating the
differences properties with different atomic arrangements

isopropyl alcohol- rubbing alcohol

methylethyl ether- anesthetic
acetone- common solvent
methyl acetate- sweet chemical perfume
propionaldehyde- sharp smelling chemical
propanoic acid= related to vinegar

Aromatic group- PBT, PET, PC, PEEK, PS all have aromatic

6 carbon atoms bonded together with double bonds
Highly aromatic if have several aromatic groups

Aliphatic group- LDPE, HDPE,

single and double bonded carbons with other atoms

11

Polymers Units
Just as 2 carbons atoms are bonded together in ethane, three, four, or
more carbons can be bonded in chain-like arrangement, sometimes
thousands of atoms long.
Long chains of atoms are poly-mers (many-mers or units)
Figure
Polyethylene

PP

PS

PVC

H H

H H

H H

H H

C C

C C

C C

C C

H H

H CH3

H Cl

Note: PP is Mostly Isotactic- CH3 on one side of polymer chain (isolated).

Commercial PP is 90% to 95% Isotactic and not Atactic (random) or syndiotactic

12

Complex
Polymers
Polymer chains with atoms other than carbon
Usually polymer chains with C and N, O, S, F, and Cl
PVC has Cl; Nylon has O and N; Polyurethane has O and N
PET has O and benzene ring; PC has O and benzene ring

Bonding in Plastics (No metallic or Ionic bonds_ Just Covalent)

Covalent bonds are dominate bonding between C and other atoms.

Secondary bonding and Intermolecular Forces

Van der Waals Forces- weak attraction not in plastics
Dipole interactions- Part of molecule is more electronegative than other part causing one side to be partially
negative and the other partially positive.

Hydrogen bonding- Very important for some plastics- Like Nylon

Causes physical properties to change. Like tensile strength and melting point
Nylon 6 has higher tensile strength and melting point than Nylon 12 because
Nylon 6 has 1 dipole + 1 hydrogen bond for every 6 Carbon atoms in chain.
Nylon 12 has 1 dipole and 1 hydrogen bond every 12 Carbon atoms
Dipole induces polarity and occurs if
C-Cl single bond (like PVC); C-Fl single bond (Like PTFE); C=O double bond (like Nylon, PET, PU,
PC)
Hydrogen bonds induces polarity and occurs if
C-OH single bond (like PU-polyurethane); N-H Single bond (Like PU, Nylon)

13

Formation of Polymers
Addition (or Chain-Growth) Polymerization
Most Commodity (cheap) plastics
Instantaneously, the polymer chain forms with no by-products
Chain-reaction mechanism that proceeds by several sequential steps
as shown in Figure 2.20. Polymerization begins at one location on
the monomer by an initiator

Condensation (or Step-wise) Polymerization

Most Engineering plastics (pellets of Nylon, PC, PET, Polyurethane)and
themosets (liquids of epoxy, polyester, polyurethane)
Step-growth polymerization proceeds by several steps which result in byproducts.
Monomers combine to form blocks 2 units long
2 unit blocks form 4, which intern form 8 and son on until the process is
terminated.
Results in by-products (CO2, H2O, Acetic acid, HCl etc.)

14

Nylon (or polyamide) and PC

The repeating -CONH- (amide) link

Polymerized with condensation reaction

Nylon 6- Polycaprolactam: [NH(CH2)5CO]x
Nylon 6,6- Polyhexamethyleneadipamide:
[NH(CH2)6NHCO (CH2)4CO]x

Nylon 12- Poly(12-aminododecanoic acid)- [NH(CH2)11CO]x

Polycarbonates are linear, amorphous polyesters because they

contain esters of carbonic acid and an aromatic bisphenol (C6H5OH)
Polymerized with condensation reaction
O

CH2
C
CH2

O
O

C
n

15

Homopolymers
Plastics Involving Three+ Substitutions (use Table 3.2)
Z

W X
n

e.g. PTFE
polytetrafluoroethylene
(Teflon)

F
n

16

Copolymers and Ter Polymers

Plastics Involving Two mers in chain or 3 mers (ABS)
e.g. SAN
styrene
acronitrile

C:::N m

Structure of two mers can be OR the same three mers with a C

Alternating- ABABABABABABAB
Random copolymer- AABBABBBAABABBBAB
Block copolymer- AABBBAABBBAABBBAABBB
Graft copolymer- AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
B

17

Thermosets
Thermosets are polymers that undergo a chemical reaction
during the polymerization.
Thermosetting reaction is not reversible under heat.
Epoxy
Standard epoxy is based on bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin.
Properties include good adhesion to many substrates, low
shrinkage, high electrical resistivity, good corrosion resistance, and
thermal.
Processing is achieved without generation of volatiles.

18

 Polyester

Polyester and Polyurethane

Thermoset reaction between a difunctional acid (or anhydride) and a difunctional alcohol (glycol)
Heat or radiation can trigger the cross linking reaction
Accelerators (or promoters) speed up the reaction.
Condensation Reaction results in CO2 and H2O.
Monomer required to polymerize, e.g., Styrene at 30% to 50% in commercial polyester systems

Polurethane
Reaction between isocyanate and alcohol (polyol). Condensation Reaction results in CO 2 and
H2O.
Crosslinking occurs between isocyanate groups (-NCO) and the polyols hydroxyl end-groups (OH)
Thermoplastic PU (TPU) have some crosslinking, but purely by physical means. These bonds
can be broken reversibly by raising the materials temperature, as in molding or extrusion.

19

Thermoplastic Elastomers, Natural Rubber

Thermoplastic Elastomers result from copolymerization of two or
more monomers.
One monomer is used to provide the hard, crystalline features, whereas the other
monomer produces the soft, amorphous features.
Combined these form a thermoplastic material that exhibits properties similar to
the hard, vulcanized elastomers.

Thermoplastic Urethanes (TPU) were the first Thermoplastic

Elastomer (TPE) used for seals gaskets, etc.
Other TPEs

Copolyester for hydraulic hoses, couplings, and cable insulation.

Styrene copolymers are less expensive than TPU with lower strength
Styrene-butadiene (SBR) for medical products, tubing, packaging, etc.
Olefins (TPO) for tubing, seals, gaskets, electrical, and automotive.

Natural Rubber is an elastomer that comes from rubber trees in Asia

Properties are increased by vulcanization with sulfur to make it strong.
Automobile tires use a large amount of Natural rubber and SBR

20

Plastics Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

A bond between 2 carbon atoms is a _______ bond.

A CH3 groups is called a __________ group.
A dash between atoms indicates a ______ bond.
The small repeating units that make up a plastic molecule are called ___________
What does poly mean? ___________
3 types of intermolecular forces found in plastics are ___________ , ____________, and
____________.
What type of bonding makes Nylon 6 stronger than nylon 12? _____________
Crystalline plastics are more rigid and not as transparent as _________ plastics.
A _______ material may be softened repeatedly when heated and hardened when cooled.
The term used to describe tying together adjacent polymer chains is _______
If the different mers make up the composition of a polymer , it is called a ______.
A Hydrogen molecule which contains some double bonds is called ________.
Is PVC a copolymer? _________ Explain- _____________________________.
What is the general structure of an alternating copolymer? __________________.
If a carbon chain has a methyl side group, is it branched? _________ Explain_____________________________.
If a material is transparent, is it crystalline? ____________
What effect do dipoles and hydrogen bonds have on melting point of polymers ___________
Is residual stress synonymous with orientation? ____________________
How does the tensile strength and melting point change with increasing crystallization? ______

21

Processing of Polymers
Thermoplastics
injection molding, extrusion, blow molding, thermoforming,
rotational molding, compression molding
Usually uses high pressure processes and imparts high residual
stresses on the material which an cause warping in part.

Thermosets
compression molding, reaction injection molding, resin transfer
molding, casting, hand layup, etc.

Elastomers
compression molding, extrusion, injection molding, casting.

22

Injection Molding Process and Cycle Time

23

Extruder Equipment
Exit zone- die
die imparts shape on the material, e.g., rod, tube, sheet, channel
exit material is called extrudate
extrudate swells at end of die due to normal forces from the polymer flow, called die swell

Die Swell
Cooling zone
water bath or air cooled to lower the temperature below Tg

Auxiliary equipment
puller
rollers for proper thickness
Wind-up or cut off

24

Compression Molding Process

Materials

Thermosets: Polyester, Vinyl ester, or Epoxy resins with glass fiber

Sheet Molding Compound (SMC), Bulk Molding Compound (BMC)
Thermoplastics: Polypropylene, polyester, or others with glass fibers
Glass Mat Thermoplastic (GMT), thermoplastic BMC
Elastomers: Thermoplastic or Thermoset rubbers
Thermoplastic Olefin (TPO), Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE), Thermoplastic
Rubber (TPR)
Thermoset Styrene Butidiene Rubber

Thermoplastic:
Heat Plastic
prior to molding

Thermosets:
Heat Mold
during molding

25

Resin Transfer Molding Process

Ref: MSU Tutorial- http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/liquid/rtm/

Materials
Thermosets: Polyester, Vinyl ester, or Epoxy resins with glass fiber

26

Polyurethane Processing
Polyurethane can be processed by
Casting, painting, foaming
Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)

27

Thermoset Reacting Polymers

Process Window
Temperature and pressure must be set to produce chemical reaction
without excess flash (too low a viscosity), short shot (too high a
viscosity), degradation (too much heat)

28

Compression Molding
Compression molding was specifically developed for replacement of metal
components with composite parts. The molding process can be carried out with
either thermosets or thermoplastics. However, most applications today use
thermoset polymers. In fact,compression molding is the most common method
of processing thermosets.

29

Resin Transfer Molding

In the RTM process, dry (i.e.,unimpregnated )
reinforcement is pre-shaped and oriented into skeleton of
the actual part known as the preform which is inserted into
a matched die mold.
The heated mold is closed and the liquid resin is injected
The part is cured in mold.
The mold is opened and part is removed from mold.

30

Injection Molding Glass Reinforced Composites

Plastic pellets with glass fibers are melted in screw,
injected into a cold mold, and then ejected.

Glass filled resin pellets

31

Chap 14: Composites

Composite Materials
Composite Construction
Composite Applications
Processing of Composites
Review Questions

32

Polymers Composites
Objectives
Define the components and difference types of composites.
Explain the different types of composite construction and the reasons behind
them.
Describe the various manufacturing methods used to produce composites.
List the different reinforcing materials used in composites.
List the various matrix materials used in composites.

Excellent Web sites

Michigan State http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/
U of Delaware http://www.ccm.udel.edu/publications/CU/99/
Cornell University http://www.engr.siu.edu/staff2/abrate/NSFATE/links.htm

33

Composites

Composite definition

A composite is a material comprised of two or more physically distinct

materials with at least one material providing reinforcing properties on
strength and modulus.

Natural Composites
Bone
Wood
Bamboo: Natures fiber glass due to pronounced fibrillar structure which is
very apparent when fractured.
Muscle and other tissue

Engineering Composites
Reinforced concrete beams
Thermoset composites: Thermoset resins (polyurethanes, polesters, epoxies)
Glass fibers, Carbon fibers, Synthetic fibers, metalfibers, or ceramic fibers

Thermoplastic composites (polypropylene, nylon, polyester,TPU,polyimide)

Glass fibers, Carbon fibers, Synthetic fibers, metalfibers, or ceramic fibers

34

Composite Classifications
Reinforcement Type
Discontinuous (fibers are chopped and dispersed in matrix resin)
Short fibers: fiber lengths 3mm or less (most injection molded materials)
Long fibers: fiber lengths greater than 6 mm. (Some injection molded materials with 6mm fibers,
Sheet Molding Compound (SMC) with 1 fibers, DFP Directed Fiber Preforms for RTM and SRIM)

Particulates: fibers is forms as spheres, plates, ellipsoids (some injection molded materials
reinforced with mineral fibers)

Continuous (fibers are throughout structure with no break points)

Glass roving: glass bundles are wound up in a packet similar to yarn.
Roving is woven into several weaves using a loom machine like in apparel.
Mat products: random swirl glass pattern.
Woven product: roving is woven into machine direction (warp) and cross direction (weft)
Uni product: roving is woven in one direction with a cross thread given to hold mat
together.

35

Glass Fiber Applications

Discontinuous (Chopped) Fiber
Short fiber (L= 3mm) reinforcement for thermoplastic materials that are
injection molded (PP and Nylon)
Long Fiber (L=6mm) reinforcement for thermoplastic materials that are
injection molded (Nylon)
Chopped Fiber (L=12 mm to 25 mm) reinforcement for thermoset (SMC
and BMC) and thermoplastic BMC that are compression molded into parts
for Corvette hoods and doors, bumpers, Ford Truck box, and consumer box
shapes

Continuous (Mat) Fiber

Many types of weaves for automotive or aerospace applications
Automotive: Viper hood with RTM, GM Truck box with SRIM, Corvette
floor pan with RTM
Aerospace: Prepregs, Wings, Fuselages with RTM and SCRIMP

36

Carbon/Graphite Fibers
Need for reinforcement fibers with strength and modulii
higher than those of glass fibers has led to development of
carbon
Thomas Edison used carbon fibers as a filament for
electric light bulb
High modulus carbon fibers first used in the 1950s
Carbon and graphite are based on layered structures of
hexagonal rings of carbon
Graphite fibers are carbon fibers that
Have been heat treated to above 3000F that causes 3 dimensional
ordering of the atoms and
Have carbon contents GREATER than 99%
Have tensile modulus of 344 Gpa (50Mpsi)
37

Carbon/Graphite Fibers
Need for reinforcement fibers with strength and modulii
higher than those of glass fibers has led to development of
carbon
Thomas Edison used carbon fibers as a filament for electric
light bulb
High modulus carbon fibers first used in the 1950s
Carbon and graphite are based on layered structures of
hexagonal rings of carbon
Graphite fibers are carbon fibers that
Have been heat treated to above 3000F that causes 3 dimensional
ordering of the atoms and
Have carbon contents GREATER than 99%
Have tensile modulus of 344 GPa (50Mpsi)
38

Carbon/Graphite Fibers
Manufacturing Process
Current preferred methods of producing carbon fibers are from
polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon (regenerated cellulose), and pitch.

PAN
Have good properties with a low cost for the standard modulus
carbon
High modulus carbon is higher in cost because high temperatures
required

PITCH
Lower in cost than PAN fibers but can not reach properties of PAN
Some Pitch based fibers have ultra high modulus (725 GPa versus
350GPa) but low strength and high cost (Table 3-2)
39

Carbon/Graphite Fibers
PAN Manufacturing Process Figures 3-3 and 3-4
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is commercially available textile fiber and is a ready
made starting material for PAN-based carbon fibers
Stabilized by thermosetting (crosslinking) so that the polymers do not melt in
subsequent processing steps. PAN fibers are stretched as well
Carbonize: Fibers are pyrolyzed until transformed into all-carbon
Heated fibers 1800F yields PAN fibers at 94% carbon and 6% nitrogen
Heated to 2300F to remove nitrogen yields carbon at 99.7% Carbon

Graphitize: Carried out at temperatures greater than 3200 F to

Improve tensile modulus by improving crystalline structure and three dimensional
nature of the structure.

Fibers are surface treated

Sizing agent is applied
Finish is applied
Coupling agent is applied

Fibers are wound up for shipment

40

Carbon/Graphite Fibers
PITCH Manufacturing Process
Pitch must be converted into a suitable fiber from petroleum tar
Pitch is converted to a fiber by going through a meso-phase where the polymer
chains are somewhat oriented though is a liquid state (liquid crystal phase)
Orientation is responsible for the ease of consolidation of pitch into carbon

Stabilized by thermosetting (crosslinking) so that the polymers do not melt in

subsequent processing steps
Carbonize: Fibers are pyrolyzed until transformed into all-carbon
Heated fibers 1800F
Heated to 2300F

Graphitize: Carried out at temperatures greater than 3200 F to

Improve tensile modulus by improving crystalline structure and three dimensional
nature of the structure.

Fibers are surface treated

Sizing agent is applied
Finish is applied
Coupling agent is applied

Fibers are wound up for shipment

41

Carbon Fiber Mechanical Properties

Table 3-2 (from MFGT 104)
Carbon Fiber Mechanical Properties
PAN Based
Tensile Modulus (Mpsi)
33 - 56
Tensile Strength (Msi)
0.48 - 0.35
Elongation (%)
1.4 - 0.6
Density (g/cc)
1.8 - 1.9
Carbon Assay (%)
92 - 100

PITCH Based Rayon Based

23 -55
5.9
0.2 - 0.25
0.15
0.9 - 0.4
25
1.9 - 2.0
1.6
97 - 99
99

42

Composites Have a Fiber Preform

Fiber type
Roving form that can be sprayed into a 3-D preform
Roving form that is woven into a glass sheet and then formed to
shape (preform)

43

Sheet Molding Compound (SMC)

SMC is the paste that is compression molded
33% polyester resin and stryrene, which polymerizes and crosslinks
33% glass fibers (1 fibers)
33% Calcium Carbonate

44

Processing of Composites
Open Mold processes
Vacuum bag, pressure bag, SCRIMP

autoclave: Apply Vacuum Pressure and Heat in an oven which can be 5 feet to 300 feet long

45

Structural RIM
Fiber preform is placed into mold.
Polyol and Isocyanate liquids are injected into a closed
mold and reacted to form a urethane.

46

Processing of Composites
Open Mold processes
Hand lay-up and Spray-up

Filament winding

47

Composite Classifications
Resin (or matrix) type
Thermoset resins- those that undergo a chemical cross-linking reaction
Epoxy; Polyester;Polyurethane;
Phenolic
Silicone;
Melamine
Thermoplastic resins- those that are formed under heat
Polyamines (nylon) (short and long fibers)
Polyesters (short and long fibers)
Polypropylene (short, long fibers and continuous fibers)
Other thermoplastic resins (short and long fibers)

Fiber Reinforcements
Glass for reinforced composites with concentrations less than 50% weight
Carbon fiber for Advanced (aerospace) composites with concentrations greater than 60% by weight.
Kevlar fiber for Advanced (aerospace) composites.

Core or Laminate structures

A foam core material can be added (sandwiched) between the layers of resin and fiber.
Composite laminate has a core material with resin and fiber combinations

48

Processing and Composites Questions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A composite material is a combination of a reinforcing element and ___________.

How are advanced composites are distinguished from reinforced plastics?_________
The fibers in advanced composites are usually made from what? ____________
What two functions does the matrix of a composite serve? ________________
Under what conditions should graphite fibers versus carbon fibers be used? _______

49

Chap 15: Ceramics

Ceramic Applications
Ceramic Structures
Glass
Advanced Ceramics
Processing of Ceramics
Review Questions

50

Introduction
Ceramics are
complex compounds and solutions that contain both metallic and
nonmetallic elements,
heated at least to incandescence during processing applications,
typically hard and brittle,
exhibit high strength and high melting points,
exhibit low thermal and electrical conductivity.

Applications
Pottery, brick, tile, glass, ovenware, magnets, refractories (resist high
temperature), cutting tools.
Furnace linings and tiles for space shuttle due to high resistance to
heat.
Superconductivity applications
51

Ceramics
Traditional ceramics are made from clay, silica, and feldspar
Structural clays for bricks, sewer pipes, drain tiles, and floor tiles
are made from natural clays made from three basic components
Traditional ceramic products are china, dental porcelain, and
sanitary-ware
Technical ceramics are mainly pure compounds or nearly pure
compounds of primarily oxides, carbides, or nitrides.
Carbides: with Silicon, tungsten, titanium, or tantalum Carbides
Extreme hardness and wear resistance allows Use for cutting tools and abrasives

Nitrides: with Boron, Silicon, or titanium Nitrides

Ti-Nitride used as surface coating for cutting tools is brittle so B-nitride is added
Boron Nitride is called cubic boron nitride (CBN) is used for cutting tools.

Normally hot pressed in dry powder form onto useful

products.
52

Ceramics
Ceramics comes from Greek word keramos, which means
potters clay.
Ceramics are diverse group of nonmetallic, inorganic solid
compounds with a wide variety of compositions and
properties.
Ceramics are crystalline compounds made up of metallic and
nonmetallic compounds with properties that differ from the
constituents.
Ceramics in the form of pottery are among the oldest
products manufactured by humans.
Clay is inexpensive material and is found throughout the world.
Early clay products were sun dried not fired.
Firing as used in pottery dates back to around 2000 to 3000 B.C.
53

Ceramics Properties

Ceramics are crystalline like steel but have few free electrons
at room temperature and thus are low conductivity.
Ceramics strengths have higher compressive than tensile.
Ceramics are totally elastic, exhibiting no plasticity when
load is applied with little or no deformation prior to fracture.
In general ceramics have the highest melting points of any
materials. Range from 3500F to as high as 7000F.
Manufacturing of ceramics involves

blending fine starting materials with water to form mass that is shaped
formation includes extrusion, pressing, and casting,
use of potters wheel for cups, bowls, saucers, etc.
extruded to make bar shapes or poured into mold as slip slurry
after forming product is dried to remove water and fired for strength
forming provides fusion (sintering) and chemical reaction for bonding
glazing with ceramic coating for smooth surface

54

 Properties

Ceramics Materials

Vary depending on composition, microstructure, and processing.

Excellent resistance to
compressive loads, abrasion, heat, and staining
chemical attacks, weather attacks, bending (excellent rigidity)

Poor resistance to tensile loads, spalling (thermal cracking ceramics)

Most ceramics will crack if thermal cycled, except Pyrex glass which contains boric
oxide to provide expansion properties.

Applications
dielectric materials for capacitors with disk capacitors (mainly barium titanate)
being the most common.
Semiconductor applications with sintered oxides, e.g., thermistors, which are
thermally sensitive resistors used for temperature control
Piezoelectric ceramics (Barium titanate) is used in accelerometers and speakers. The
transducers convert input sound energy into electrical response or convert electrical
inputs into sound energy.
Nanocomposites for plastics and composites

55

Glass
Glasses are described as super-cooled liquids.
Glasses do not behave like metals but more like polymers when
cooled from molten condition
Metals exhibit a definite quantity of heat given off when cooled and form a
crystaline (or regular) structure when cooled.
Heat is called heat of solidification
Polymers exhibit changes in volume when cooled which may form a crystalline
or amorphous structure depending upon the nature of the polymer and versus
temperature that has an inflection point, know as glass transition temperature.
Glass is a transparent silica product which may form an amorphous or
crystalline structure depending upon heat treatment during production.
Glass do not exhibit any indication of transition or a clear point of inflection
when cooling from molten state.
Glass is considered a viscous liquid when cooled from molten state.
Glass has the appearance and feel of a solid material but will flow like a liquid
given time, e.g., thicker glass at bottom of window pane.

Crystallinity of glasses is measured with X rays and X-ray diffraction.

More crystalline the glass the more rays are diffracted

56

Glass Manufacturing
Glass blowing process
Glass blowpipe is a hollow iron tube from 4 to 5 ft long with a knob at
one end and a mouthpiece at the other end.
Dip knob end into melted glass, where glass sticks to the end of pipe.
Air is blown gently while rotating pipe which produces a hollow bulb
of glass, where the thickness of the bulb depends on size of bulb.
The bulb cools and solidifies into a number of symmetrical shapes.
Molds are used to rapidly cool glass and allow more many shapes,
including, bottles, dishes, lamps, and jars.

Composition
Glass is made primarily of sand (silicon dioxide)
Silica or quartz glass is pure silicon dioxide (very stable)
Window glass is made of sand (SiO2), limestone (CaCO3), and soda ash
(Na2Co3)

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