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4.Thesunfactor
Orientation
Shading
Facades
Openings
Theroof

Orientation
Inhotclimates,thesunisthemajorsourceofheat.Toplananysite,thepositionofthesunmustbe
determinedforallhoursofthedayatallseasonsaswellasthedirectionoftheprevailingwinds,
especiallyduringthehotseason.Forthedirectraysofthesun,itissufficienttoknowtheanglesof
declinationandaltitudeforthesummerandwintersolstices(21Juneand21December,respectively)and
theautumnalandvernalequinoxes(21Septemberand21March,respectively),fromwhichtheposition
ofthesunatanytimeofdayonanyintermediatedatecanbededuced.Thesedates,ratherthanaverages,
representtheextremecaseswhichthearchitectmustconsider.Appendix4givesthisinformationforthe
cityofCairo,Egypt,whichislocatedatlatitude30N.Similartablesforanycitycanbeobtainedfrom
thelocalmeteorologicaloffice.Inaddition,foranensembleofbuildingsformingasector,therewillbe
reflectionfromadjacentbuildingsandwindscreeningbyclustersofbuildings,whichcontributetoa
specificmicroclimateforeachlocationinthesector.Windmovementandhumidityalsoareimportant
andshouldbeconsideredsimultaneouslywiththedirectandindirecteffectsofthesun.
Themainobjectiveistoestablishtheoptimumorientationwithregardtothesunandtheprevailingwind.
Theproblemiscomplex,anditisusefultobeginbyconsideringthesimplecaseofablockconsistingof
asinglerowofbuildings.Onthebasisofthis,morecomplexcasescanbeunderstood.
Appendix4indicatesthattheoptimumorientationofthebuildingblockwithregardtothesunfactoris
eastwest.Inthiscase,thenorthfacadeisexposedtothesun'sraysatthesummersolsticefromsunriseat
5:00A.M.toabout9:00A.M.Theserayshaveanangleofaltitudeof0at5:00A.M.,butat9:00A.M.
theangleofaltitudeis4930',theangleofdeclination8813',andtherayshitthefacadeatanangleof
only103'.Forthesouthfacade,theangleofaltitudeis8336'atnoon,whichis624'offthe
vertical.Solarradiationdoesnotpenetratethesouthfacadeopenings,andaslightoverhangproperly
positionedcouldeasilyshadetheopeningsandwallsurface.Theeastandwestfacadesconstitutetheend
wallsoftheentirerowandarenotprovidedwithopenings.Inwinter,theangleofaltitudeatnoonis
3634',whichallowsthesunlighttopenetrateintotheinteriorforwarmth.
MeteorologicalrecordsshowthatthecoolwindinCairoblowsfromthenorthwest.Thustheoptimal
orientationwithregardtowindissuchthatthelongsideoftherowisalignednortheasttosoutheastso
thewindcanbeasnormaltothelongsurfaceaspossible.
Atfirstglance,theobvioussolutiontotherequirementsofthesetwofactorswouldbetoorienttherow

fromnortheasteasttosouthwestwest,bisectingtheanglebetweenthetwooptimalorientationsasshown
infigure9.Thissolutionwouldbecorrectifthewindowsweretoserveaswindinletsandoutletsto
ensureairmovementindoors.However,peopleinthehotaridandwarmhumidzonesdevisedthemalqaf
orwindcatch,wherebyairhighaboveabuildingcanbecapturedandforcedthroughtheinterior,as
explainedinthenextchapter.Withthewindproblemsolvedwiththemalqaf,therowcanbealigned
eastwest,whichisoptimalforthesun,asindicatedinfigure10.Thisinnovationpermitsflexibilityin
designwithregardtothewindfactorandmakesitpossibleforthedesignertoconcentrateonorienting
hisbuildingswithrespecttothesunfactor.

Shading
Althoughtheoptimalorientationforsinglebuildingsandblocksofrowhousesiswiththelongside
alignedfromeasttowest,formanyreasonsthiscannotalwaysbeappliedsosimplyovertheentireplan
ofacityorsector.Somesinglebuildingsorrowhousesmustfacestreetsandsquaresthatmaybe
orientedatanyanglefromthenorth,witheachcaserequiringanappropriatemeansofshading,
dependingonitsorientation.
Generally,abuildingwithafacadeopeningtothewestistheworstcaseencountered,owingtotheheat
gainofthesurroundingenvironmentduringthedayandtheangleofaltitude,whichallowsthesun'srays
topenetrateintotheinterior.However,forasectorwiththelongfacadefacingwestandeast,blocksof
buildingscanthemselvesshadeoneanother.Toensurethis,theheightoftheblocksmustbedesigned
accordingtothewidthofthestreetandtheangleofaltitudeofthesun,whichcanbeobtainedfromdata
likethatcontainedinAppendix4foranygeographicalsite.Inthisway,areasthatwillbeexposedtothe
suncanbedefined,eitherforthefacadesorforstreetsurfaces,andthedurationofexposurecanalsobe
calculated.

Facades
NorthernFacade
Thisfacadeisleastexposedtothesun.Infact,exposureoccursonlyintheearlyandlatehoursof
summerdayswhentheangleofaltitudeislowandtheangleofdeclinationissuchthatthesun'sraysare
almosttangentialtothesurfaceofthewall,asillustratedinfigure11.Anadvantagetoroomsopeningon
thisfacadeisthattheirilluminationisalwaysevenlydistributed,makingthemidealforhospital
operatingroomsandforschoolclassrooms.
SouthernFacade
Withregardtothesunfactor,anadvantageofsouthernexposureintheTropicsandSubtropicsisthatthe
sunishighoverthehorizoninsummerandcanbeshadedusingarelativelysmalloverhang.Inwinterit
islow,allowingthesunshinetopenetratewhenitismostdesirable.Thissituationisoutlinedfora
particularcaseinfigure12.However,withregardtothewindfactor,adisadvantageofthesouthern
exposureisthatitreceivesnowind,sincethecoolprevailingwindsgenerallyblowfromanortherly
directionintheNorthernHemisphere.
Althoughthesun'srayscannotbemanipulatedanddirectedatwill,therearewaysofdirectingairflowto
roomswithasouthernexposure,eitherbyarchitecturaldesignorbysuchdevicesasthemalqaf,the
windescape,andeventheindoormashrabiyaasseeninsometraditionalhousesinJeddah,SaudiArabia.
EasternandWesternFacades

Theeasternfacadeisexposedtothesun'sraysonlyfromsunrisetonoon.Thewallscooldown
considerablybyevening,makingthisexposuremoresuitableforbedroomsthanthewesternexposure.
Shadingofthefacadesofbuildingscanbeachievedbycoveringthestreets,asisoftenfoundinolder
citiesandoasisvillagesofWestAsiaandNorthAfrica,examplesofwhichareillustratedinfigures13
15.Forasinglebuilding,shadecanbeprovidedbyarchitecturalelementssuchasbalconies,covered
loggiasoropengalleries,andverandastoshieldthefacade,orbyintroducingspecialdevicessuchasthe
venetianblind,thebrisesoleil,andthemashrabiyatoshieldtheopenings.InIraq,wallsventilatedand
cooledbysurroundingtheroomswithanoutsidecorridorwitharcadesandcolonnades,asshownin
figure16.

Openings
Windowopeningsnormallyservethreefunctions:toletindirectandindirectsunlight,toletinair,andto
provideaview.Inthetemperatezonesthesefunctionsareconvenientlycombinedtogetherinthe
window,thesize,form,andlocationofwhicharedeterminedbylocalclimaticconditions.However,
sinceinhotaridclimatesitisrarelypossibleordesirabletocombinethesethreefunctionsinasingle
architecturalsolution,severalsolutionsweredevelopedwhichconcentrateoneachfunctionseparately.
TheVenetianBlind
Onedevicewhichcanbeaddeddirectlytothewindowisthevenetianblind.Thisblindismadeofsmall
slats,about45cm(1.62inches)wide,closelysetinawoodenframeatananglethatwillinterceptthe
sun'srays.Theslatsareoftenmovablesotheanglecanbechanged.Thisfeatureofadjustabilityrenders
venetianblindsveryusefulinregulatingsolarradiationandwindflowintorooms.Usingthevenetian
blind,thesun'srayscanbeblockedoutwithoutobstructingthebreeze,whichgenerallyblowsfromthe
northwestinmosthotaridareas,includingEgypt,Iraq,andNorthAfrica.Whentheblindsaredrawn,
theycompletelyobstructtheviewtotheoutsideaswellasconsiderablydimthelightreachingthe
interior.
However,sometimesthevenetiansblindisnotasatisfactorysolutiontotheproblemofadjusting
radiationandairflow.Insummer,theblindcanbeadjustedtodeflectthewinddownwardontothe
occupants,butthispermitsthesuntoshinedirectlyintotheroom,asshowninfigure17a.Alternatively,
bychangingthepositionoftheblindtoblockthedirectsunlight,thewindisredirecteduselesslyoverthe
headsoftheoccupants,asfigure17billustrates.Also,iftheslatsaremadeofmetal,theythenabsorb
someincomingradiationandreradiateitintotheroomasheat.
TheBrisesoleil
Thebrisesoleilorsunbreakerisanewshadingdevicethatrequiresaspecialsophisticatedsupport.Itis
generallyusedtoshieldentirefacadesofglasswallandconcreteorsteelframebuildings.Originally,the
glasswallconceptwasintroducedtoprovideanoutsideviewthroughtheentiresideofaroom.Standard
glassistransparenttoultravioletradiationandopaquetoinfraredorheatradiation.Therefore,whena
glasswallofaroommeasuring,say,3x3m(about10x10ft)isexposedtothesun'srays,itletsin2000
kcal(nearly8000Btu)perhourthroughoutmostoftheday.Thislightstrikesthesolidmaterialinside,
includingthewalls,floor,andfurniture,andistransformedintoinfraredradiationtowhichtheglassis
opaque.Theglasswallthustrapstheheat,creatingaphenomenonknownasthegreenhouseeffect,and
twotonsofrefrigerationperhourarerequired.Thusadditionalenergy,andthereforecost,isrequiredto
maintainacomfortablemicroclimateintheroom.
Abrisesoleilproperlydesignedtointerceptthesun'sraysreducesthisheatgaintoatmostonethird,

whichalthoughanimprovementisstillinadequate.Furthermore,thereistheadditionaldisadvantageof
usingthebrisesoleilwithregardtotheviewtotheoutside,whichwastheoriginalpurposeforusingthe
glasswall.Thebrisesoleilisinfactatranspositionofthevenetiansblind,withtheslatwidthincreased
from4toabout40cm(1.6toabout16inches)tosuitthescaleoftheentirefacadeinsteadofjustthe
windowopeninginasolidwall.Whentheanglesofaltitudeanddeclinationforscreeningdirectsunlight
arecalculated,therequiredspacebetweentheslatsismuchlargerthanforthevenetiansblind.Theresult
isaviewslashedbylargedarkstripesinterspersedbyoffensiveglare.Thisiswhyphotosshowingthe
brisesoleilinarchitecturalmagazinesandbooksarealwaystakenfromtheoutsideandneverfromthe
insidelookingout,asinfigure18.Nevertheless,thebrisesoleilconceptneednotbediscarded.Itmaybe
usedadvantageouslyinsomecasesofmodernarchitectureifcomprehensivelyarticulatedinthefacade
withdueregardforreductionofphysicalglareandforaesthetics.
TheMashrabiya
ThenamemashrabiyaisderivedfromtheArabicword"drink"andoriginallymeant"adrinkingplace."
Thiswasacantileveredspacewithalatticeopening,wheresmallwaterjarswereplacedtobecooledby
theevaporationeffectasairmovedthroughtheopening.Nowthenameisusedforanopeningwitha
woodenlatticescreencomposedofsmallwoodenbalustersthatarecircularinsectionandarrangedat
specificregularintervals,ofteninadecorativeandintricategeometricpattern.Figure19showssucha
mashrabiyathatoftheAsSuhaymihouseinCairo.
Themashrabiyahasfivefunctions.Differentpatternshavebeendevelopedtosatisfyavarietyof
conditionsthatrequireemphasisononeormorethesefunctions.Thesefunctionsinvolve:(1)controlling
thepassageoflight,(2)controllingtheairflow,(3)reducingthetemperatureoftheaircurrent,(4)
increasingthehumidityoftheaircurrent,and(5)ensuringprivacy.Eachmashrabiyadesignisselected
tofulfillseveralorallofthesefunctions.Inthedesign,itisthesizesoftheinterstices(spacesbetween
adjacentbalusters)andthediameterofthebalustersthatareadjusted.Differentnamesidentifycertainof
thesepatterns.
Daylightenteringaroomwithanopeningfacingsouthhastwocomponents,thedirecthighintensity
sunlightthatentersatverylargeanglesnormaltotheplaneoftheopening,andthelowerintensity
reflectedglare,whichcanenternearlynormaltotheopening.Sincedirectsunlightpassingthroughthe
openingwillheatsurfacesintheroom,itisbesttoblocksuchradiation.Thereflectedglare,whileless
intenseandnotveryeffectiveinheatingroomsurfaces,doesproduceuncomfortablevisualeffects.
Thesizesoftheintersticesandthebalustersofamashrabiyaplacedinsuchanopeningareadjustedto
interceptdirectsolarradiation.Thisrequiresalatticewithsmallinterstices.Thebalusters,roundin
section,graduatethelightreachingtheirsurfaces,thussofteningthecontrastbetweenthedarknessofthe
opaquebalustersandthebrightnessoftheglareenteringthroughtheinterstices,asillustratedinfigure
20.Therefore,withthemashrabiyatheeyeisnotdazzledbythecontrastasinthecaseofthebrisesoleil.
Figures21and22showtheeffectofamashrabiyaunderconditionsofsevereglare.Thecharacteristic
shapeofthelatticewithitslinesinterruptedbytheprotrudingsectionsofthebalustersproducesa
silhouettewhichcarriestheeyefromonebalustertothenextacrosstheinterstices,verticallyand
horizontally.Thisdesigncorrectstheslashingeffectcausedbytheflatslatsofthebrisesoleiland
harmoniouslydistributestheoutsideviewovertheplaneoftheopening,superposingitonthedecorative
patternofthemashrabiyasothatitresemblesadarkenedglassmadeoflace.Thiseffectisshownin
Figure19.
Ateyelevel,thebalustersofthemashrabiyaaresetclosetogetherwithverysmallinterstitialspacing
bothtointerceptdirectsunlightandtoreducethedazzleofcontrastingelementsinthepattern.Butto
compensatefortheaccompanyingdimmingeffect,theintersticesaremuchlargerintheupperpartofthe

mashrabiya,asintheexamplefromtheJamlAdDinAdhDhahabihouseinCairo,showninfigure23.
Figure24showsthestrikingeffectthatcanbeachievedforaroomwithahighceiling.Thisarrangement
permitsreflectedlighttobrightentheupperpartoftheroom,whileanoverhangatthetopoftheopening,
asseenintheoutsideviewofasecondstorymashrabiyainfigure25,preventsdirectsunlightfrom
entering.Similarly,inopeningsonanorthernfacade,wheredirectsunlightisnoproblem,theinterstices
arequitelarge,toprovideadequateroomlighting.
Toprovideairflowintoaroom,amashrabiyawithlargeintersticeswillensureasmuchopenareainthe
latticeaspossible,asshowninfigure26.Wheresunlightconsiderationsrequiresmallintersticesandthus
sufficientairflowisnotprovided,anopen,largeintersticepatterncanbeusedintheupperpartofthe
mashrabiyaneartheoverhang.Forthisreason,atypicalmashrabiyaiscomposedoftwoparts:alower
sectionwithfinebalustersinclosemesh,andanuppersectionfilledwithawidemeshgrillofturned
woodinapatterncalledsahrigi,asshowninfigures23and25.Ifthissolutionstilldoesnotprovide
sufficientairmovementduetothesmallintersticesrequiredtoreducetheglare,thedimensionsofthe
mashrabiyacanbeincreasedtocoveranysizeopening,eventothepointoffillinguptheentirefacadeof
aroom.Figures27and28showinsideandoutsideviewsofafacadesizedmashrabiyadesignedtosolve
thisproblemintheAsSuhaymihouseinCairo.Theverylargesizeofsuchamashrabiyaalsohelpsto
compensateforthedimmingeffectofthescreen.Insomeplaces,themashrabiyaisusedindoorsbetween
roomsforcrossventilation,asinsomehousesinJeddah,SaudiArabia.Themashrabiyaconcepthas
beenuniversallyusedinhotaridareas,particularlythroughouttheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica,but
eveninIndia,whereitiscalledthejli.
Itscoolingandhumidifyingfunctionsarecloselyrelated.Allorganicfibers,suchasthewoodofa
mashrabiyareadilyabsorb,retain,andreleaseconsiderablequantitiesofwater.Plantscanprovidesome
regulationoftheirskintemperaturesbythesuccessiveprocessesoftranspirationandevaporation(called
evapotranspiration).Thus,thesapflowsthroughthefiberstotheplantsurfaces,whereitevaporatesand
coolstheskin.Woodfibersretainthisabilityevenaftertheyarecutfromthetreeandusedinbuildings,
aslongastheporesarenotcoveredbyanimperviouspaint.
Windpassingthroughtheintersticesoftheporouswoodenmashrabiyawillgiveupsomeofitshumidity
tothewoodenbalustersiftheyarecool,asatnight.Whenthemashrabiyaisdirectlyheatedbysunlight,
thishumidityisreleasedtoanyairthatmaybeflowingthroughtheinterstices.Thistechniquecanbe
usedtoincreasethehumidityofdryairintheheatoftheday,coolingandhumidifyingtheairatatime
whenmostneeded.Thebalustersandintersticesofthemashrabiyahaveoptimalabsoluteandrelative
sizesthatarebasedontheareaofthesurfacesexposedtotheairandtherateatwhichtheairpasses
through.Thusifthesurfaceareaisincreasedbyincreasingbalustersize,thecoolingandhumidification
areincreased.Furthermore,alargerbalusterhasnotonlymoresurfaceareatoabsorbwatervaporand
serveasasurfaceforevaporationbutalsomorevolume,whichmeansthatithasmorecapacityandwill
thereforereleasethewaterforevaporationoveralongerperiodoftime.
Inadditiontothesephysicaleffects,themashrabiyaservesanimportantsocialfunction:itensures
privacyfromtheoutsidefortheinhabitantswhileatthesametimeallowingthemtoviewtheoutside
throughthescreen.Therefore,amashrabiyacoveringanopeningthatoverlooksthestreethassmall
intersticesexceptatthetopfaraboveeyelevel.Astrikingexampleofthefeelingofsecurityandexternal
viewamashrabiyacanprovideisshowninfigures29and30.Withthefocusonthelattice,the
mashrabiyaappearsasalightedwall.Whenfocusingbeyondthelattice,theexternalviewisquiteclear
andonlyslightlyobstructed.
Figure31showshowmashrabiyacanbeusedinthedesignofamodernvilla.ThisdesignforSaudi
Arabiaincludesmashrabiyahighinthetopofthedurq'aandothersatalowerlevelinadjacentrooms,
aswellasamalqafontheright.

Theroof
Iftheoutdoorairtemperatureishigherthantheindoortemperature,theoutersurfaceoftheroofexposed
tothesunisheatedasitabsorbsradiation,and,beingincontactwiththeoutsidehotair,alsoisheatedby
conduction.Theroofthentransmitsthisheattotheinnersurface,whereitraisesthetemperatureofthe
airincontactwithitbyconduction.Atthesametime,itradiatesheatthatisabsorbedbypeopleand
objectsindoors,therebyaffectingthermalcomfort.
Therefore,thereflectivityoftheoutersurfaceoftheroofandthethermalresistivityofitsmaterialsareof
primaryimportance.Shadecanbeachievedbyusingadoubleroofwithalayerofairbetweenorby
coveringtheroofsurfacewithhollowbricks.Insulatingmaterialssuchasfiberglass,styrofoam,and
lightweightblocksareoftenused.Thissolution,however,requiresspecialcommercialmaterialsand
increasesthecostofthebuildingbeyondthemeansofmostinhabitantsinhotaridzones.
Theideaofusingaroofwithalightweightcoverasalivingspacehasbeenfurtherdevelopedinthe
modernexampleoftheroofgardenwithatrellis.Soilisagoodheatinsulator,andplantscanprovide
shade.Plantsalsotranspireandcooltheairincontactwiththeroof.Again,thisidearequiresspecial
structurestoensureastrongandwaterproofroof,andisalsotoocostlyformostinhabitantsofthese
regions.Psychologicallyandaesthetically,peopleappeartoprefertoliveontheleveloftreetrunks,
branches,leaves,andflowers,ratherthantofeelasiftheywerelivingundertheroots.
Ausefulideaistoshadetheroofmorenaturallybydesigningittosuitpopulartraditions.Inhotarid
countries,sincetheairtemperaturedropsconsiderablyduringthenight,theinhabitantshavearrangedthe
roofarchitecturallyintologgiasoropengalleriesandlightweightroofcovers.Theseloggiasandroof
covershavethedoublefunctionofshadingtheroofduringthedayandprovidingphysiologically
comfortablelivingandsleepingspacesatnight.ExamplesfromIraqandRosetta,Egypt,areshownin
figures32and33,respectively.
Theshapeoftheroofisalsoofconsiderableimportanceinasunnyclimate.Aflatroofreceivessolar
radiationcontinuouslythroughouttheday,ataratethatincreasesintheearlymorninganddecreasesin
thelateafternoonduetochangesinbothsolarintensityandangleofthesun.
Pitchingorarchingtheroofhasseveraladvantagesoveraflatstructure.First,theheightofpartofthe
interiorisincreased,therebyprovidingaspacefarabovetheheadsoftheinhabitantsforwarmairthat
risesoristransmittedthroughtheroof.Second,thetotalsurfaceareaoftheroofisincreasedwiththe
resultthattheintensityofsolarradiationisspreadoveralargerareaandtheaverageheatincreaseofthe
roofandheattransmissiontotheinteriorarereduced.Third,formostoftheday,partoftheroofis
shadedfromthesun,atwhichtimeitcanactasaradiator,absorbingheatfromthesunlitpartoftheroof
andtheinternalair,andtransmittingittothecooleroutsideairintheroof'sshade.
Thislattereffectisparticularlyeffectiveforroofsvaultedintheformofahalfcylinderandthosedomed
intheformofahemispheresinceatleastpartoftheroofisalwaysshadedexceptatnoonwhenthesunis
directlyoverhead.Domedandvaultedroofsalsoincreasethespeedofanyairflowingovertheircurved
surfacesduetotheBernoullieffect,discussedinthenextchapter,renderingcoolingwindsmoreeffective
atreducingthetemperatureofsuchroofs.
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