PROCEEDINGS

IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
FOR STUDENTS OF DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION

Nis, 27 - 28 September 2012

UNIVERSITY OF NIS
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

EDITORS:
Prof. Zoran Grdic
Ass. prof. Gordana Toplicic-Curcic

ORGANIZATION BOARD:
Chairman:
Ass. prof. Gordana Toplicic-Curcic
Co-Chairman:
Assoc. prof. Mirjana Malesev
Members:
Prof. Dragan Arandjelovic
Assoc. prof. Snezana Djoric-Veljkovic
Milan Gocic, assistant
Ljiljana Jevremovic, assistant
Nenad Ristic, assistant
Aleksandar Vasilic, ecc.

TECHNICAL EDITORS OF THE PROCEEDINGS:

Layout:
Printing:

Ljiljana Jevremovic
Nenad Ristic
University of Nis
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture

CIP -
,
624(082)
72(082)
502/504(082)
INTERNATIONAL Symposium for Students of Doctoral Studies in the Fields of Civil
Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Protection (4th ; 2012 ; Ni)
Proceedings / IV International Symposium for Students of Doctoral Studies in the Fields of Civil
Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Protection - PhIDAC 2012, Nis, 27-28 September,
2012 ; [organizers] University of Nis, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture ... [et al.] ;
[editors Zoran Grdic, Gordana Toplicic-Curcic]. - Ni : Faculty of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, 2012 (Ni : Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture). - 486 str. : ilustr. ; 30 cm
Tira 100. - Editorial note: str. 5. - Napomene uz tekst. - Bibliografija uz svaki rad. - Rezimei.
ISBN 978-86-88601-05-4
1. Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture (Ni)
a) - b) - c) -
COBISS.SR-ID 193543948

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE:
Professor Zoran Grdic
Professor Emeritus Radomir Folic
Professor Djordje Vuksanovic
Associate Prof. Milos Knezevic
Professor Dragan Milasinovic
Professor Dragica Jeftic
Professor Dubravka Bjegovic
Professor Dan Georgescu
Associate Prof. Ivan Damnjanovic
Professor Ndja Kurtovic-Folic
Associate Prof. Vlastimir Radonjanin
Associate Prof. Meri Cvetkovska
Professor Aneta Hristova-Popovska
Professor Kiril Gramatikov
Professor Aleksandar Prokic
Professor Dragoslav Sumarac
Assistant Prof. Damir Zenunovic
Associate Prof. Radomir Zejak
Professor Verka Prolovic
Professor Dragoslav Stojic
Professor Petar itkovic
Professor Veliborka Bogdanovic
Professor Tomislav Igic
Professor Marina Mijalkovic
Associate Prof. Slavisa Trajkovic
Associate Prof. Ljiljana Vasilevska
Assistant Prof. Danica Stankovic
Assistant Prof. Srdjan Glisovic

Serbia
Serbia
Serbia
Montenegro
Serbia
Serbia
Croatia
Romania
USA
Serbia
Serbia
Macedonia
Macedonia
Macedonia
Serbia
Serbia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Montenegro
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia

ORGANIZER:
UNIVERSITY OF NIS
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
CO-ORGANIZER:
UNIVERSITY OF NOVI SAD
FACULTY OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND GEODESY
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
DONATORS:
VODOGRADNJA D.O.O. PUKOVAC
PUT A.D. ZAJEAR
BIRO ZA PROJEKTOVANJE I INENJERING KS-2 ZAJEAR
ARHIBET D... NI
TOURIST ORGANIZATION OF NIS

EDITORAL NOTE:

Faculty of Civil engineering and Architecture of University of Nis organize the Fourth
International Symposium of Doctoral Studies Students in the fields of Civil Engineering,
Architecture and Environmental Protection PhIDAC 2012.
The first Symposium of the Doctoral Studies Students PhIDAC 2009, held in
September 2009 in Nis, confirmed the expectations of Prof. Slavisa Trajkovic and Professor
emeritus Radomir Folic, the founders of this symposium, that the two-day meetings of the
students of Doctoral studies and their professors would be of invaluable use both for young
researchers and their tutors. Namely, a great number of published and presented papers, as well
as open discussion on the quality of paper, directions in further researches and relationships
between doctoral students and tutors demonstrated that the Symposium fulfilled the expectations
of the participants and that the organiyation of new meeting should be continued.
At the Second Symposium PhIDAC 2010 the symposium programme was enlaged, i.e.
the field of enviromental protection was also introduced as the third thematic field with the
expectation that this multidisciplinary area should be more closely introduced to young
researches in the fields of civil engineering and architecture.
The organizers of the Third Symposium PhIDAC 2011 have decided the symposium to
be international and thus they had opened new possibilities for affirmation and developments of
young researches from Serbia, as wel as for their colleagues from the Balkans.
There are 90 papers dealing with topics in the fields of civil engineering, architecture
and environment protection that have been submitted for the fourth international symposium of
students of doctoral studies PhIDAC 2012. The papers covered a wide range of scientific
topics. All the papers have been reviewed. On the basis of the reviews, it was concluded that the
young researchers provided a significant contribution to the development of scientific thinking.
We would like to thank all the authors and co-authors of the papers and to their mentors,
and it is our wish that the young researchers would continue their successful careers and persist
in realization of the goals they have set.

Nis, September 2012

Editors

THE CONTENT:

Session ARCHITECTURE
1.

2.

Bandi Aleksandra, Krklje Milena

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE HOUSING - A CASE STUDY OF TRANSFORMED
NEIGHBOURHOOD "GRBAVICA" IN NOVI SAD


Batakoja Meri

12

19

SKOPJE - IN SEARCH OF AN URGENT THEORETICAL STANCE

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Bjeli Igor, Momilovi-Petronijevi Ana

DATA MENAGEMENT IN DIGITAL APPROACHES TO CULTURAL HERITAGE

Bogdanovi-Proti Ivana
URBAN OPEN SPACES CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUALITY OF LIFE IMPROVEMENT

Bulut Nataa
A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF PUBLIC SPACES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF NOVI SAD

Dimitrovska Daniela
ARCHITORTURE SPACE AS NON-PLACE OR PLACE

Dmitrovi Jelena
ARCHITECTURE AND ITS ICONS

Foljanty Katarzyna

25

33

40

48

55

59

FORMER RAILWAY AREAS IN BERLIN AS AN EXAMPLE OF URBAN REGENERATION

9.

10.

11.

12.

Grubi Nevena
BROWNFIELD AS THE INSTRUMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE LOCAL DEVELOPMENT

Igi Milica
CONVERSION AND REVITALIZATION AS MAIN METHODS OF PRESERVING
ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE


Jevremovi Ljiljana, Vasi Milanka, Jordanovi Marina
AESTHETICS OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE CONTEXT OF INDUSTRIAL
BUILDINGS CONVERSION


Jordanovi Marina, Jevremovi Ljiljana, Vasi Milanka
SUSTAINALBLE DESIGN: PROCESSING OF SOLID WASTE AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
:

66

72

80

88

13.

Jovanovi Aleksandar, Madadi Elham, Dai Milo

CONNECTION OF SPACES IN CAMPUS PLANNING AND DESIGN

93

14.

Jovanovi Marko, Tepavevi Bojan

INFLUENCE OF BIOLOGICAL METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES ON
CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN APPROACH


Jovanovi Milena, Miri Aleksandra
THE OLD CEMETERY GORICA IN NIS MEMORIES THAT FADE
-
Kamasi Milena
IDENTIFICATION OF CITIZENS WITH THE MAIN CITY SQUARE IN NOVI SAD

Krsti Hristina
PIXEL ARCHITECTURE AS A NEW TYPOLOGICAL CATEGORIES OF FACILITIES IN
MODERN ARCHITECTURE


Koneski-Mladenovi Aleksandra
CRITICAL COMMENTARY OF THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE RESIDENTIAL
DISTRICTS: EXAMPLE OF SOLAR CITY OF LINZ AND POTENTIAL FOR
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONCEPT IN SERBIA


Konstatinovi Dragana
DEALING WITH THE PROGRAMME OF THE SOCIALIST CITY SYNTHETIC
URBANISM OF VJENCESLAV RICHTER

Lukarevska Maja
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC SERVICES IN THE CITY
OF SKOPJE

Mikei Karl, Peterac Aleksandra, Pilipovi Dragana
LIFE IN 'NEW' CITIES AS A FORM OF SPECIAL DWELLING
,
Mihajlovi Milo
INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR ADAPTATION TO FLOODING - SYSTEMS TO SAVE
THE CITIES
-

Mihajlovi Milo, Pareanin Vladimir

MODELS OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

Milojkovi Aleksandar, Nikoli Marko, Stankovi Vladana
IMPROVEMENT OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN HOSPITALITY - TOWARDS
SUSTAINABLE HOTEL

Miloevi Vuk
INCREASING ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BY APPLYING DIFFERENT ENERGY
REMEDIATION METHODS


Miri Aleksandra, Vasi-Petrovi Elena

99

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

PRESENTATION OPPORTUNITIES OF RESIDENTIAL AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS

FLOOR MOSAICS FROM LATE ANTIQUE NAISSUS AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

107

114

122

129

136

143

151

159

165

170

178

186

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

Momirov Marija
DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS THROUGH ARCHITECTURAL
PROGRAM STRUCTURE COMPLEXITY


Nikoli Olivera, Nikoli Vladan
THE APPLICATION OF COLOR IN THE HOSPITAL INTERIOR

Nikoli Vojislav, Kondi Slavia, Bjeli Igor
APARTMENT ADAPTABILITY AS A MEANS OF MEETING THE DEVELOPING NEEDS
OF A FAMILY
AOO AA AOJ OEAA OOE
Peterac Aleksandra, Pilipovi Dragana, Mikei Karl
TRANSFORMING THE LANGUAGE OF ARCHITECTURE OF COMMUNITY CULTURAL
CENTRE BUILDINGS IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA


Petkovi Nataa, Stoiljkovi Branislava, Stankovi Vladana
SOCIAL HOUSING: KEY ISSUES AND ARCHITECTURAL MODELS THAT MAY
OVERCOME THE PROBLEMS
:

Ranelovi Duan
BIOCLIMATIC PRINCIPLES OF URBAN DESIGN AND PLANNING

Stanii Jovana, Kamasi Milena
IMPACT OF URBAN SPACE ON PRE-SHOOL FACILITIES IN NOVI SAD


Stankovi Vladana, Petkovi Nataa, Stankovi Milena
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF ZERO ENERGY HOUSE

krinjar Lea, Jovanovi Marko, Tepavevi Bojan
DEVELOPMENT OF SHAPE GRAMMAR AS A TOOL FOR HOUSING DESIGN

Vrani Petar
STRUCTURAL CHANGES AND THE CRISIS OF PUBLIC SPACE: A CASE STUDY OF NI
:
Vrani Petar
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AT THE COST OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION - A CASE
STUDY OF THE STOKHOLM ROYAL SEAPORT DEVELOPMENT
-

Vujoevi Milica
ABOUT SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE

ugi Vinja
ARCHITECTURE AND SPACES OF ILLUSION: THE DISSOLUTION OF CONTEXT
:

193

199

206

213

220

226

234

242

248

256

264

271

279

Session CIVIL ENGINEERING and ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

40.

Ahmed Ashar

287

SOLVING THE SINGLE LANE PARALLEL QUEUING PROBLEM FOR CAPACITY

ESTIMATION OF UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
41.

Despotovi Iva, Grdi Zoran

TIME DEPENDENT DEFORMATIONS OF SELF - COMPACTING CONCRETE

294

42.

43.

Dolev Igor, Momirov Maja

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE OPTIMUM INSULATION THICKNESS OF FAADE
WALL

Ivan Marin, Ivan Adrian, Precupa Vinicius

299

305

THE NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF A DOME WITH ARCHES AND RINGS

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.
53.

54.

55.

56.

Koblika Dejan, Boni Zoran, Prolovi Verka

STATNAMIC LOAD TESTING

Lainovi ore, Vukobratovi Vladimir
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE SEISMIC RESPONSE OF GROUND-SUPPORTED
CONCRETE CIRCULAR LIQUID STORAGE TANKS


Lemenkova Polina
WATER SUPPLY AND USAGE IN CENTRAL ASIA, TIAN SHAN BASIN
,
Luki Ivan, Bulatovi Vesna, Kovaevi Duan
DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC MODULUS OF CONCRETE USING COMPOSITE AND
FEM MODELS


Marjanovi Miroslav, Vuksanovi ore
TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF CROSS-PLY LAMINATED COMPOSITE PLATES
CROSS-PLY
Markovi Nemanja, Stoji Dragoslav, Nestorovi Tamara
DAMAGE DETECTIN OF STEEL STRUCTURES WITH PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
AND LAMB WAVES


Matejevi Biljana
CRITICAL PATH IN RESOURCE-DEPENDENT SCHEDULE
-
Mati Bojan, Okuka Ranko, Sremac Sinia
IMPROVED MODEL FOR PREDICTING MAXIMUM SURFACE PAVEMENT
TEMPERATURE

Milanovi Mladen, Goci Milan, Trajkovi Slavia

ANALYSIS OF THE SPI IN THE AREA OF NIS FOR THE PERIOD FROM 1980 TO 2010
Miloevi Bojan, Mijalkovi Marina, Petrovi arko
ANALYSIS OF LIMIT BEARING CAPACITY OF FRAMES EXPOSED TO THE ACTION OF
VARIABLE REPEATED LOAD


Miloevi Vuk, Kosti Dragan
THE PROBLEM OF LARGE DEFLECTIONS IN MEMBRANE STRUCTURES

Miljojkovi Ivana, Goci Milan, Milievi Dragan
DEFINING THE PROBLEMS, OBJECTIVES AND MEASURES FOR DECISION MAKING
IN INTEGRATED PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES QUALITY OF BASIN - A CASE
STUDY OF TOPLICAS RIVER BASIN
Milju Milutin
TREATMENT OF STONE FACADE THROUGH EXAMPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL
HERITAGE BUILDINGS OF THE KOTORS OLD TOWN

319

325

331

339

345

353

359

365

371
379

388

395

403

57.

Momilovi-Petronijevi Ana, Petronijevi Predrag

SYSTEMATIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF CHIMNEY DEFECTS AFTER MANY
YEARS OF EXPLOITATION

410

58.

Okuka Ranko, Mati Bojan, Dolev Igor

NUMERICAL MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF MASONRY STRUCTURES USING FEM

Petronijevi Predrag, Petrovi arko, Stanojev Milovan
INFLUENCE OF VERTICAL DISCONTINUITY REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL ON
THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PREFABRICATED REINFORCED CONCRETE
STRUCTURE


Proti Milan, Miti Dragan
EMISSIONS FROM RETROFITTED MULTIFUEL BOILER AFTER FUEL SWITCH
FROM OIL TO WOOD PELLETS


Risti Nenad, Grdi Zoran, Toplii-uri Gordana
PHYSICAL-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE MADE WITH THE ADDITION
OF GRANULATED RECYCLED RUBBER
-

Sadovi Enis, Foli Radomir, Luki Dragan
EFFECTS OF CORROSION ON THE INTERACTION OF CONCRETE TUNNEL LINING
AND THE ROCK MASS

elija Milo, Kovaevi Duan
FE MODEL OF FLEXIBILE PAVEMENT WITH HOT RECYCLING

Sremac Sinia, Mati Bojan, Ranitovi Predrag
APPLICATION OF COMBINED TRANSPORT IN ORDER TO IMPROVE ENERGY
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT IN SERBIA


Stanojev Milovan
HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE

Tatomirovi Tiana, Radeka Miroslava
INFLUENCE OF METAKAOLIN ON IMPROVING THE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

418

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

426

432

438

446

456

464

471

479

IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Aleksandra Bandi1
Milena Krklje2

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE HOUSING - A CASE STUDY OF

TRANSFORMED NEIGHBOURHOOD "GRBAVICA" IN NOVI SAD
Abstract: Housing is a primary function of residential areas and an important part of a developed
society. In addition to the social inequalities that are observed in multifamily housing, rapidly changed
urban areas in the city, that are from the economic point providing a certain level of satisfaction with
housing for a growing number of families, become a burning issue in the community in the ecological and
sociological sense. A case study of "Grbavica" neighbourhood in Novi Sad, which until the last decade of
the 20th century represented an area with mostly single-family houses, narrow streets, low level of
construction density and cosy ambiences, shows an intensive urban and social transformations, as well as
influences of environmental factors on housing quality. Nearly complete replacement of old single-family
houses with new multi-family dwellings in this area, represents a model for research of housing quality
from the aspect of environmental values. Based on predefined set of environmental criteria, through
analysis and evaluation of this transformed area, it is possible to establish a platform for comparative
analysis to examine and value housing conditions in other parts of the city.
Keywords: urban transformations, environmental factors, single-family housing, multifamily housing,
housing policy

:
. ,
,
,
.
, 20.
, ,
, ,
.
,
.
, ,

.
: , , ,
, stambene politike

1
MArch, teaching assistant, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Architecture and Urban
Planning, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, aleksandrabandic@gmail.com
2
PhD, assistant professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Architecture and Urban
Planning, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, milenakrkljes@gmail.com

-12-

1. INTRODUCTION
Novi Sad has never been a xenophobic environment, but one in which constantly collide and
interconnect various types of diversity [7]. The urban image that is now known to its inhabitants is a
result of decades of maturing and of long-term transformations that happened in the city. From the point
of urban planning, city clearly reflects the modern concept of territorial development of European cities.
Although the formation of city districts is mostly completed in the line with contemporary trends and
needs of population, the transformation within each of them is still actively occurring.
Housing is one of the most important social phenomena. It represents the primary function of
residential areas and important part of every developed society. When Novi Sad was faced with a short
break in housing construction after the disappearance of residential funds, it was difficult to predict that
this branch would start blooming shortly after [7]. A rapid transformation of residential areas with singlefamily housing to the multi-family one is still actual image in some parts of the city. Therefore, the
housing policy is a multi-layered issue that requires a strategic solution with many environmental factors
included in the processes that are also including a number of functional urban and architectural issues,
social and economic factors at different levels of thinking. Housing function is also dominant in the city
from the point of land use, and thus it is easier to spot any changes.
The replacement of single-family houses with multi-family dwellings, as well as the quality of the
transformation concept, is one of most important issues in the development of the city. Although
completely different in many criteria, these two typologies are most common in the urban area. Novi
Sad's old villas and single-family houses are nowadays becoming relicts of past times and of the spirit
that once existed. Bustling growth of urban settlement and increased number of inhabitants resulted in a
lack of residential areas for numerous families. Therefore, urban and architectural transformations were
necessary in order to replace single-family houses with multi-family dwellings that will be able to
accommodate an average number of 20 families. This kind of urban development, led to the almost
complete transformation of the area with huge benefits from the point of solving the housing needs for
new inhabitants, but also a number of shortcomings in the sociological, psychological and environmental
terms. One of the most significant examples of these changes in Novi Sad is Grbavica neighbourhood,
which gone through almost a complete replacement of single-family houses with multi-family dwellings
in the last two decades. The aim of this research is to define a set of criteria for the analyses of housing
quality in this area in terms of environmental values and to valorise the current urban image afterwards.
2. GRBAVICA NEIGHBOURHOOD WITH NEW SPIRIT
The city area of Novi Sad is divided in 25 neighbourhoods that are the best represent of social and
urban heritage of a city. Each neighbourhood is developed as a concept of city within a city, creating
with other ones a network of spatially explicitly differentiated, but economically, architecturally and
socially highly connected urban fragments. The problem of existential needs of inhabitants is solved in
each area, but not in a classical manner of single-functional zones. Concept on multi-functionality is
applied in almost all areas, but each one has one predominant function. Thus, aside from socio-economic
and business centre of the city, sports and recreational areas, residential areas, cultural and health areas
are developed, but none of them is mono-functional area in general. Inhomogeneity of urban areas raises
the general quality of urban neighbourhoods, satisfying a large number of inhabitants needs.
In the nineteenth century, Grbavica neighbourhood was the periphery area of Novi Sad, built after the
model of certain areas in Sarajevo. Intensive construction of residential buildings was possible due to the
implementation of many typified projects. Even the name of the neighbourhood, at first unofficially used,
was adopted from the Sarajevo's model. As the area has acquired its ambient character, so the name was
accepted by the population.
The border of Grbavica neighbourhood is set between Boulevard Oslobodjenja in the east, Boulevard
Cara Lazara in the south, Futoska Street in the north and Vojvode Knicanina Street in the west. The area
is irregularly shaped and located in the central part of Novi Sad. Its indirect connection with the city
centre and the oldest part of Novi Sad is one of the biggest benefits for all of residents. According to data
from 2010, there are a total number of 14 120 inhabitants in this dominantly residential neighbourhood.
Residents of family houses in the territory of Grbavica at the end of the twentieth century have had the
opportunity to review the affordability of housing in the human area, primarily intended for quiet family
life. Various non-residential facilities were the urban landmarks or gathering places that contributed to the
-13-

identity creation of the entire area. Despite numerous other facilities, housing, just like nowadays, was the
dominant function.
For the citizens of Novi Sad, the city centre was a place with institutional and functional facilities, as
well as with monumental buildings of different purposes [7]. On the other side, each peripheral district in
the period of construction had primarily residential function, and gradually, by moving the boundaries
and the formation of new peripherals, these areas became almost inseparable from the city, getting the
other, non-residential functions. Representative family houses, with the spirit of old settlement, have been
almost entirely replaced with multi-family buildings. The Genius Loci which Grbavica once had, is now
almost impossible to be recognized. The neighbourhood received its new features and an old identity has
been replaced by another one.

Figure 1 Areal view to the urban blocks of Grbavica neighbourhood

3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS OF THEIR INFLUENCE ON HOUSING QUALITY

Housing, as a social phenomenon, has a dominant role within every developed society. Together with
housing polices defined in the state legislations, it gives a sense to the overall research within housing
sociology, and from the methodological point imposes the necessity of applying a comparative approach
[6]. Grbavica as a conveniently located district on the outskirts of the citys core, predominantly
consisting of ground-floor single-family and complex housing of diverse quality became an attractive
location for the construction of multifamily buildings in a regime of reconstruction [5]. A number of
investors is growing, whose construction of multi-family dwellings completely changes the
neighbourhood as a whole. Among the most important influences that affect the health and human life in
such areas are environmental factors.
Regarding housing quality of single-family houses, on each single lot, beside main house, there are
several smaller structures with different associated functions, such as disposal and storage of various
items, but there are also green areas meant for rest and leisure or even small gardens. Such spatial
organisation is visible also in urban settlements. Moreover, among these spatial organizations, as an
extension of the housing function might be seen swimming pools, summer houses, children's
playgrounds, barbecues and seating furniture. The important fact is that percentage of quality housing, in
the majority of lots with single-family houses, according to the urban parameters is a convenient place to
live.
On the other side, there is a burning question, weather on the same area that is convenient for a singlefamily house, could be achieved the same quality level after the transformation to the multi-family
housing neighbourhoods. Although most of the urban parameters and requirements are fulfilled, changes
within the several Master Plans [2, 3, 4], brought this area to the serious environmental imbalances from
one lot to the another one.
Therefore the paper will analyse the current state of housing in relation to:
Degree of construction density of blocks and lots;
Orientation of streets and buildings;
-14-

 Insulation;
Ventilation;
Landscape design.
Each one of above-mentioned criteria will be used in the global manner to the overall neighbourhood,
as well as to the specific examples that are representing the actual problems of housing quality in
analysed area. Comparative study in Grbavica neighbourhood, aims to highlight the values, but also to
indicate the level of awareness within population in the area of environmental housing conditions.
4. IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS A CASE STUDY OF GRBAVICA
NEIGHBOURHOOD
4.1. Construction density
According to the Master Plan [4] and Regulation plan [8], Grbavica neighbourhood is completely
defined through several urban parameters. The largest area within the plan is central part of Grbavica that
is considered as a reference one in this research. Land use is in a correlation with other urban parameters,
defining that 63% of total area are planned for residential purpose, 32% for public areas within the blocks
and the remaining 5% for business purposes on local level. Considering the balance of land use in the
whole area, the major number of multi-family buildings is predicted to be built on former single-houses
lots.
Construction density that represents balance between built and inbuilt area at a single lot, showing in
the urban sense quality of living conditions is at average level of 40% for Grbavica neighbourhood.
Although the above-mentioned percentage represents an image of urban fragment with various
possibilities for systematic design of inner courtyards, the case study on the field shows totally different
situations.
The large number of inner courtyards of multi-family buildings is designed only for parking. The lots
are fully enclosed and thus leave no possibility of connecting inner courtyards spaces and formation of
sport and recreation courts, children's playgrounds or cosy green areas. In environmental terms, there is
an overall problem of inadequately designed open spaces that are dysfunctional and environmentally
inappropriate.
4.2. Orientation of streets and buildings
The longest street in Grbavica neighbourhood is Mise Dimitrijevica Street, dividing observed area into
two approximately equal parts. With network of other streets, both parallel and perpendicular ones, it
creates a system of streets that have different orientations. The largest numbers of streets, parallel with
Misa Dimitrijevic Street, have northeast-southwest orientation, while others are oriented to the southwest, connecting this area with other parts of the city.
If an entity needs to "has a clear and strong character" that "may not seem like it was made up of
individual parts"[1] it is Grbavica neighbourhood to be said that the whole area has an unified outlook
and spirit, but in the negative sense. Almost all streets look the same, an orientation in space is hard to
define and it is easy to become lose because of the lack of landmarks.

Figure 2, 3, 4 - North and south oriented facades, as examples of inappropriate orientation of streets and buildings

-15-

This street network and its orientation, as well as positions of lots, directly affects the system of
constructing multi-family residential dwellings, which are therefore mostly with one-sided orientation of
apartments. This design system has an impact on the psychological experience of space and quality of
living. North oriented apartments are mostly unfavourable due to the negative psychological effect and
low housing quality, caused by small amounts of daylight and reduced amounts of sun heating. The
appearance of moisture and mould, from the medical, aesthetic and ambient point, decreases the quality
of housing in these buildings. On the other hand, the southern orientation of dwellings brings too many
disadvantages due to the strong insulation and bad thermal comfort in summer.
4.3. Insulation
The orientation of buildings is conditioned by the disposition and shape of the lot and also by the set
of parameters within the applicable Master plan. It directly affects the daily and annual insulation of
dwellings. Sunny side of buildings, in environmental terms, is providing a healthier living space, but this
factor can not be observed independently of other ones. From urban point, in addition to insulation,
orientation is affected by the cross section of the street. In this sense, problem has occurred in the very
concept of transformation of the Grbavica neighbourhood. The former access streets are now
inadequately dimensioned according to the increased frequency of traffic due to the replacement of
single-family with multi-family housing. The cross sections of streets range from 20 to 35 m, which
provides a variety of options when it comes to insulation. The two opposite buildings, the height of 4
storeys, in narrow streets of 30 m, are disabling each others sufficient insulation, especially on lower
floors. As excessive sunlight on a daily and annual basis is unfavourable for quality housing, so it is the
lack of sunlight negative for health and psychological sense.
Low level of insulation is influenced by small lots on the one side, and a higher number of floors of
buildings on the other, that are creating a strong shade of neighbour multi-storey buildings for most of the
day. A significant problem is also an insufficient daily light in corridors and other areas of multi-family
dwellings, caused by wrong position of building in relation to the lot or other surrounding structures. The
spatial organization of apartments in these buildings also has the effects of insufficiently sun lighted
rooms, sometimes even causing the difficulties in daily functions. There is also a significant difference in
a quality of living comparing the lower and upper floors apartments and the most unfavourable in the
summer months are those on the last one.

Figure 5, 6 - Awnings and aluminium foil on the terraces - improvised protection from the sun

The consequences of rapid and market-oriented construction are numerous problems that reflect on the
housing conditions. Poor quality of building materials, as well as low-quality of windows and doors and
other applied materials, reduces the thermal comfort in dwellings. Brightness and insulation depends on
the size of the installed windows and all openings on the facade. A large number of buildings do not have
any protection from direct sun outside windows in the form of shades or blinds, and thus protection from
increased solar radiation is more difficult. No residential building in Grbavica has any horizontal or
vertical soleil on the faade as sun protection, while many of those have a glazed terrace. Closing the
balcony without the approval of the architect, not only changes the ambience and aesthetic appearance of
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the facade, but in environmental terms it offers a solution of one problem and at the same time might
causes the other one. In winter, closed balcony provides better comfort and temperature inside dwellings
and save the amount of energy consumed for space heating. On the other hand, in summer,
inappropriately glazed terrace creates a greenhouse effect and stops the flow and exchange of fresh air in
the apartment.
4.4. Ventilation
Exchange and flow of fresh air is important for good microclimate in residential areas and healthy
environment. It has already been mentioned that streets in Grbavica have a northeast-southwest and
northwest-southeast orientation, which is partially negative when it comes to ventilation, because of the
dominant southeast and northwest wind in the area of Novi Sad. It is particularly difficult situation in the
streets that are perpendicular to the wind direction during the summer, due to extremely low air flow. The
narrow street cross sections reduce the possibility of airing, and this situation also adversely reflects on
the impact of noise in residential blocks. High frequency of car traffic in all streets after the
transformation of single-family to multifamily housing caused the level of pollution from traffic to be
drastically increased. One of the most effective ways to reduce the effect of pollution is to allow
ventilation. However, solving the problem of pollution is difficult due to the inadequate width of streets
cross sections. Adequate ventilation occurs only in streets where the lower buildings allow better air
movement.
4.5. Landscape design
Mutual coherence of green areas and built structure provides better hygiene and environmental living
conditions, better functionality and a better image of a city. Building in Grbavica neighbourhood, did not
left enough opportunities to create a large park areas. Each area designed for greenery, is taking away a
construction of parking spaces, which are due to the increased number of inhabitants much needed. Inner
courtyard's small spaces with very few plants are often poorly taken care of. This pattern in addition to
the ambient and creates unacceptable adverse effects in terms of microclimate, hygiene and socialization
of the population.
In particular, conditions in Grbavica highlight the importance of greening on main roads in the area.
High, medium and low vegetation reduces the impact of traffic noise and pollution levels on all surfaces.
But there should not be a large number of trees in all of the streets in this area, because some crosssections do not provide any space for planting of even a narrow zone with low vegetation. In particularly
inadequate situation is in Puskinova Street, where in cross section does not have any plants, making the
hours of sunshine and noise pollution greatly increased. On the other hand, part of the Mise Dimitrijevica
Street, from Gogoljeva to Brace Ribnikar Streets, has dense and high vegetation that provides very
pleasant ambience, but in terms of housing this solution is unfavourable due to the dwellings that are fully
shaded.

Figure 7, 8 - Cross section of Puskinova Street without any greenery and Mise Dimitrijevia street with trees along both sides

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5. CONCLUSION
Following the above-mentioned, a several negative aspects of urban transformation from
environmental point of view can be remarked. As construction in the last decade has been insufficiently
regulated by the planning documentation and mostly profit oriented, numerous residential buildings and
urban blocks in Grbavica neighbourhood became an unpleasant living environment. Most of problems
came with raised construction density that is much larger than it is appropriate for the existing street
network. Moreover, most of street sections remained from previous periods when this area was mostly
with single-family houses. At the same time, lack of thoughtful urban settings have contributed to the
development of inadequate environments, which was actually caused by inappropriate practice in both
architecture and urban design, as well as in construction that used poor quality materials.
Not only inside the dwellings, but also the surrounding spaces are important for a comprehensive
quality of life. Within Grbavica neighbourhood, an absence of high-quality public spaces within the
residential blocks was observed. Excluding few examples, greenery and open spaces intended for
socialization of inhabitants of all ages, as their value could hardly be charged by the square meter, have
been neglected. This also reflects to the ambient values and image of a city and causes that citizens tend
to move to other areas.
It may be concluded that the alterations in urban tissue through replacement of single-family houses
with multi-family type of dwelling, in case of Grbavica brought to the collapse of environmental values.
Insufficiently thoughtful urban planning raised the question about environmental problems such as
orientation of streets and buildings, insulation, ventilation and landscape design. Even though some of
environmental factors are adequately solved, only their overall correlation in the whole area might bring
good quality of housing. It is shown that the current issues and problems are not always the same at all
spatial levels and in terms of all aspects (architectural, social, economic, environmental, health...).
Therefore, Grbavica may be a model for identifying problems and mistakes of previous transformations
and constructions of an area, and for establishing of recommendations for future transformations in other
parts of the city.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The paper was done within the project Optimisation of architectural and urban planning and design in
function of sustainable development in Serbia, (TR36042) funded by the Ministry of Education and
Science, Republic of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]

Haberer,G : Die architektonische Gestalt, Buchhandlung Walther Konig, Koln, 1986, p. 40

Master Plan of the City of Novi Sad until 2000 - Generalni urbanistiki plan, Novi Sad do 2000.
godine (1973), Urbanistiki zavod Novog Sada, Novi Sad
Master Plan of the City of Novi Sad until 2005 - Generalni urbanistiki plan Novog Sada do
2005. godine Predlog (1985), Skuptina Grada Novog Sada, Novi Sad
Master Plan of the City of Novi Sad until 2021- Generalni plan grada Novog Sada do 2021.
godine (1999), JP Urbanizam Zavod za urbanizam Novi Sad, Novi Sad
Neduin, D., Cari, O., Kubet, V: Influences of gentrification on identity shift of an urban
fragment: A case study, Spatium, No. 21, 2009, p. 70
Petrovi, M: Sociologija stanovanja, Institut za socioloka istraivanja Filozofskog fakulteta u
Beogradu, Beograd, 2004, p. 9
Pui, Lj: Grad bez lica, Medi Terran, Novi Sad, 2009.
Regulation Plan for Blocks surrounding the Danila Kia Street in Novi Sad - Regulacioni plan
blokova oko ulice Danila Kia u Novom Sadu (2003), Slubeni list Grada Novog Sada, 9/2003,
Novi Sad, 2003, pp. 249-285

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Meri Batakoja1

SKOPJE - IN SEARCH OF AN URGENT THEORETICAL STANCE

Abstract: Skopje is experiencing the effects of the post-socialist transition in the last twenty years (19912011), being currently challenged by an imposed political agenda of national revivalism (project Skopje
2014) that is aggressively implemented through the architectural practice for the last two years.
Constantly imposing questions and simultaneously seeking for the answers, this study unfolds animation
track (prior and after 1991) that juxtapose sequences of present and past, confronting the changing
images of ideas and meanings of public space in Skopje seeking for the gaps of thought, for the
ideological conflicts whose consequences we face after 1991, but were "prepared" unconsciously in its
biography long time ago. Apprehending the unconscious and bringing it foreground, the commonly
accepted viewpoint of Skopje being a post-socialist city is broken down, opening new perspectives with
aspects of posttitoism and postcolonialism.
Key words: Skopje, post-socialist city, transitionism, posttitoism, postcolonialism, Yugoslavian
modernism, fragment

Figure 1 - Skopje 2009 a view across the Stone Bridge / Skopje today a view across Tsar Samuel monument, the Stone Bridge,
the building for State Archives, Supreme Court and Archaeology Museum (all in one), Personal archive

1. SUBJECT OF RESEARCH
The main subject of this research is the theoretical treatment of city of Skopje in general, with the
accent put on the complex processes that create and transform its semantic voltage after 1991. The city
of Skopje after 1991 is being observed and interpreted solely through generally accepted viewpoint of
city in post-socialist transition. Post-socialist transition as a standpoint is able to recognize and
appoint, incomprehensively, but yet partially to even decode the phenomenons that are otherwise visible
and clearly registered in the physical fabric of the city. But, this standpoint of post-socialist transition
recognizing only the obvious, often interprets something that is not the deep structure of the problem, but
only an effect of the transition`s processes, such as privatizations, denationalizations, selling offs and
1

MSc. - Assistant researcher at Institute of Architectural Design at Faculty of Architecture, University of Ss. Cyril and
Methodius Skopje, Partizanski odredi Blvd. 24, PO Box 303, 1000 Skopje, Email: meri.batakoja@gmail.com

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legitimated burglaries [7]. After twenty years of this post-socialist transition (1991-2011), Skopje faces
new conceptual frame of architectural and urban practice, declared to be national frame (by the state
authorities) that should confirm the city of Skopje not just as a capital of the state, but should reconfirm
its significance as a neuralgic node of all national values expressed through a national architecture in form
and style. This national classification of city`s architecture is followed by the term identity, in context
of collective national identity of proud Macedonian-ship. The term identity quickly succeeded to be
imposed as an only imperative in architectural practice for the last two years and managed to even emerge
into real building constructions while not being able to construct its own meaning yet.
The main motive of this research was precisely that unclearness and unbearable lightness Skopje
spends the most valuable historical and memory layers with, in the name of this national identity (at least
in declarative form). Can this architectural and urban constellation be observed as an effect of some post
1991 situation that deserves a distinct name and definition, or is it some kind of mutation of the already
accepted post-socialist viewpoint? Which are the roots of this post 1991 phenomenon? How should
we observe it, how should we interpret it, how should we theoretically treat it? How will we talk and learn
about it in architectural schools now when it is already part of our everyday living space? Is architecture
really capable of constructing identities?
2. BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH
The master thesis Cultural Processes in the Treatment of Public Space in Skopje after 1991 is
interdisciplinary research [2] that has set the wider context of the subject of this study:
What does public space mean in relation to contemporary (semantic) communications?
How is the idea of physical public realm being transformed after 1991 in European context and
how does this transformation affect the architectural thought of the same period?
Which are the spheres of influences that reshape it in first place? Which are the themes that arise
from these spheres of influences? Which are the conceptual challenges towards twenty first
century for the public space of the city that specifically affected the architectural profession?
Can we recognize these influences in our context of Skopje`s public space after 1991? Is Skopje`s
public space able to communicate at the same frequency as European? What did we (as
architects) do to cause such noises and send so many unclear confusing messages through public
space in Skopje?
The master thesis detected the broad spheres of influences that transformed the conceptual idea of
public space in European context (consumerism, technological revolution, necessity of continuity), with
an accent on extracting specific historiographic and memory discourse in architecture (of the city)
which includes the theme of identity in the context of architecture and the city.
The historical method biographical diagram (as part of the newly created discourse) was used to
analyze the city of Skopje and to detect not only the historical fragments worthy as an evidence of its
duration through time, but to detect and critically comment on the gaps of thought accumulated through
time which resulted in today`s condition. The term biographical highlights two characteristics of this
historiographic method: architectural history of the city must be read in a way to determine the
uniqueness of physical traces/fragments and their formal logic; architectural history must determine what
makes one city to be distinguished as biographically specific one, what differentiates it from other cities
with a very similar geographical and historical backgrounds, and what transforms its history into
biography. The term diagram indicates the relational character of this historical sketch, so every present
transformation can be traced back to the concrete and reconstructed historical moment of time and space,
critically searching for the right of architecture to be interpreted as answering to the theme of identity,
part of the broader (already elaborated) historiographic and memory discourse in architecture (of the city).
The conclusion of this historical analysis is interesting, yet disappointing - it is the gaps in
architectural thought that are biographically specific for the city of Skopje more than anything else, and it
is these conflicts that are mutating even today. It is an interesting fact that Skopje`s repertoire of public
space types is continuously increasing from the beginning of twentieth century till mid seventies. From
then onwards Skopje has not offer any new type of public space nor has offer any novelty in the
theoretical treating of public space. The disappointingly few publications in form of architectural journals
and daily newspapers prove that the last ongoing theme before this theoretical shut down is the call for
authentic Macedonian expression in architecture, manifested in the same period of post-earthquake
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reconstruction under the famous Kenzo Tange`s plan. As Ivan Shtraus notes, Skopje`s building activities
continued to result in many buildings of public and residential character, but the urban frame imagined by
Kenzo Tange went blurry because the architects did not gather any strength and authority, nor showed
any urge to grasp for the overall idea of the city, being concentrated on their individual architectural tasks
in the ambition to creatively dominate the neighborhood surrounding [8]. The prices we are still paying
today because of this new obsession authentic Macedonian architecture are losing the overall idea of
the city of Skopje and disintegrating the imagined future of Skopje as much as shutting down the last
theoretical novelty in the treating of public space as part of the Japanese mega structures. What we get
as a result of this new obsession is the new pedagogy instructing how to transpose traditional motives into
contemporary materials and how to reuse and contemporarily reshape traditional forms without any
systematic understanding of these procedures, their potential, but also the consequences of the normative
character this teaching unintentionally recruited leading to complete uncontextualising in the name of the
context of tradition and authentic values of the region. Since then, Skopje does not only stagnate in the
field of public space (both physically and theoretically), but has already lost most of its worthiest historic
fragments (authentic physical evidences of its duration through time) becoming disturbingly fragmentary
entity.
Having in mind this broader context of public space in general and public space in Skopje, this
research can continue to refine the most important aspects of the problem of theoretical treatment of the
city of Skopje after 1991 and give recommendations for applicative use.
3. RESULTS IN PROGRESS
If the city in post-socialist transition is the most commonly, if not the only accepted viewpoint, it
means that it is also the only one responsible to understand and explain the newly invented city of Skopje
built after 1991 in national architecture in form and style. If the post-socialist transition is defined as
simultaneous and very rapid transition from a centralized and state-run and largely nationalized economy
towards a marketwise and privatized economy, a highly centralized and relatively closed polity towards
pluralist democracy, from a society largely devoid of a bourgeoisie towards a society with a powerful
capitalist class [3], then which of these processes can directly influence the theoretical treatment of the
architecture of the city?
The process of state-run nationalized economy transforming into marketwise and privatized economy,
or the economic transition is the only process visibly present in the city of Skopje after 1991. It is
recognizable through semi-legal buildings, residential buildings converted into administrative and
commercial uses, ephemeral interventions that somehow persist forever, and consumerism`s intrusions
like urban billboards and cappuccino enjoyment [9] that has invaded the most precious parts of the city,
instantly created private plots from what previously was a public space, or simply put the highly private
and marketwise interests in all of their architectural appearances. Although it is a process that offers a
deeper insight into the physical patterns of city transformation, it is totally insufficient to be used in
theoretical treatments of the city`s architecture, as it is capable of answering the how question, but not
the why.
The goal of this research is to generate specific theoretical body for the city of Skopje after 1991 that
will manage to operate in qualitative (not quantitative) terms. Starting with a proclamation that city of
post-socialist transition is insufficient, the results (in process) show that two new viewpoints promise to
answer more questions - Skopje as postcolonial city and Skopje as posttitoist city.
Skopje, as the other cities from former Yugoslavian block, cannot be treated equally with the cities of
Eastern (Stalinist) block. Firstly, they have avoided the soc-realism, both in architectural realizations and
more importantly in architectural thought; secondly, Yugoslavia promoted completely different hybrid
model of society - socialist life style with westernized consumer`s culture, on the boundary in-between
the Eastern and Western block; thirdly, the posttitoism shows a darker side of the same coin depicting
the cultural sphere formed as a result of the Yugoslavian bloody implosion and isolation as a result of
the stressed ethno nationalism. For Skopje, these period of Tito`s Yugoslavia means political,
administrative and cultural centre of Socialist Republic of Macedonia. It means forty-six years under one
social system that affected architecture and the city in relatively steady way. It means introduction of the
modern city, the superblock consisted of infinite public space with linear-punctate grid extruding in form
of blocks and towers, it means shock of modernity, of getting used to observe the city through the speed
of automobile, to observe the city from the top of the tower, from the escalated passarella, from the
-21-

airplane It means camera eye, extended machine perspective, maybe even too much extended for the
small citizens of Skopje. For Skopje, these period of Tito`s Yugoslavia means international popularity
through the solidarity model of post-earthquake reconstruction and the international exemplar it left
behind. It is the same period when another local idea of post-earthquake reconstruction occurred - the idea
of the synthesis of all arts as a joint creative power in the upcoming renewal. This native idea of the
same period is almost completely forgotten, rarely mentioned and oftenly misinterpreted due to the lack
of knowledge. However, the results in progress verify that this chapter of architectural theory in Skopje is
probably crucial why the ambitious internationally supported Tange`s megastructures turned into
fragmentary buildings with traditional motives frozen in natural concrete (just to name one of the gaps of
thought). The results in progress also show that there wasn`t any integral approach on this subject in the
architectural education of Skopje (although the school was dominantly modernist), and what is worse the
found materials after 1991 show that there is highly antagonistic approach towards the Modern in general,
never appointing on the specific circumstances the Yugoslavian modernism was developed and
characterized by. Shortly put, the viewpoint Skopje as posttitoist city should answer the main question
about what is specific and different in the architectural thought of Yugoslavian modernism and what is
specific and different in the post-Yugoslavian period? What is the lesson learnt from this regional
common history and latter regional impact? Is there any lesson learnt? If there is, then why didn`t citizens
of Skopje ever learnt to be modern? Why Skopje is never accepted as an essentially modern city (as it
really is)?
Apart from the posttitoist standpoint analysis consisted of rereading, filling up and reinterpretation
of existing materials on architectural thought during and post Yugoslavian period (as the last, the biggest
but sadly ignored architectural legacy), the postcolonial city viewpoint is controversial in a way that
tries to analyze the architectural unconscious - what makes the city of Skopje be prone to fetishisation of
particular forms that rarely or never existed in Skopje, while completely forgets or neglects the ones that
are real witnesses of the life and culture of Skopjans in the period when they were realized. The
postcolonial condition is a condition of continuous displacement of people and time and continuous
desecration of the culture and the territory of the colonized. In the colonial space there are always rips (as
rip through the conscious of the whole society) metonymical figures of disappeared or invisible
phenomenons peek from and continuously question the identity that is being denied [1]. This postcolonial
viewpoint should firstly differentiate authentic historical fragments of city of Skopje from the
processes of fragmentation that result into fragmentary entities. As Maurice Blanchot points out the
fragments are destined partly to the blank that separates them, finding in that gap not what ends them but
what prolongs them causing them to persist on account of their incompletion [4]. Because the fragment
itself is recognizable; it is a whole; it represents something, while fragmentation (passing in plural) is only
a disturbing entity.
The discontinuity in the urban fabric due to the rapid changes of different social systems in Skopje`s
history resulted in fake professional dogma that Skopje architecturally represents some kind of historical
recession (with the architectural legacy of modernism not taken into account as valuable one). If we are
open enough to break down this stance, we can easily understand that the grieving over the historical
recession and proclaiming the city of Skopje as hardly historical opened up an alibi to mistreat even the
clear architectural fragments that the history left behind. The discontinuity in the urban fabric does not
equal the discontinuity of architectural thought, it equals the dense conflict history which did not succeed
to be incorporated in full in any part of the city of Skopje, because the forces that were destroying it (just
as all destructions) were stronger and faster than those that built it. The lack of acknowledgment of the
only honest quality the city of Skopje offers, the quality of the fragments, contributes to its direct conflict
with this unconscious, yet eternal ambition to construct another city over the existing one, guided by the
idea of totality, stability, predictability and permanence, concepts that were intensively reviewed after
Berlin`s reunion while being confidently constructed in Skopje after 1991. There is a big difference
between a city that was fragmented over and over again by the destructive forces of history, and a city
which is fragmentary due to the lack of conscious thought. Skopje city of fragments or the fragmentary
city? - is a question we are responsible to answer now while there is still some recognizability to be
sustained. The search of a theoretical stance was never more urgent and never more late. If there is any
lesson learnt it is a lesson of painful awakening that we came to the point of disappearing city to
understand how little and dusty was our collective commitment to the thought, to the idea of our own city
and ourselves.

-22-

Figure 2 One street of Skopje yesterday and today the shock of modernism, [5]

Figure 3 Department store Nama in Skopje 1960s. Hybrid condition of socialist-westernized market are read in the city as a
competition between established political messages (note the picture of Lenin on the building facade) and the commercial
marketing that became usual decoration of Skopje`s urban image (note the proudly redesigned truck and the advertising sign on
the top of the building above Lenin`s picture)
Left: [3] Right:Unknown source

Figure 4 Skopje the city of solidarity; Foreign ambassadors in the destroyed city; U.S. Army unloading prefabricated
hospital from a plane; Soviet Army soldiers (Skopje was the first place U.S. and Soviet Army met in the Cold War Era), [7]

-23-

Figure 5 From the synthesis of arts towards Macedonian authentic expression in architecture
(Macedonian Post Office Building by architect Janko Konstantinov), [7] [6] Personal archive

4. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Specialized literature, original documents, interviews and questioners;

Daily newspapers, architectural journals, films and documentaries;
Personal photo archives;
Everyday observations.

5. GOALS

Detecting the conflicts in architectural-ideological thought of the city of Skopje and contribution
to the starting process of exposing, understanding and suspension of that conflict;
Mobilizing new terminological apparatus for rereading and reinterpreting the city of Skopje;
Methodology that will help not only to read and interpret, but also to set criteria and evaluate the
Skopje`s phenomenon;
Recommendations for an applicative use in architectural education (the author is aware that the
suspension of the conflict of ideas in Skopje is a long-term process which must begin to disappear
firstly in the heads of future architects, then in the heads of future citizens of Skopje and
somewhere in the end it will disappear from the face of the city).

REFERENCES
[1] Babha, Homi: The location of culture, London, Routledge, 1994
[2] Batakoja, Meri: Cultural processed in the treatment of public space in Skopje after 1991, Master
thesis, Interdisciplinary Cultural Studies at Institute of Macedonian Literature, University of St.
Cyril and Methodious,Skopje, 2011
[3] Blau, ve and Ivan Rupnik: Project Zagreb (City as condition, strategy and practice),
Barcelona, Actar,2007
[4] Elias, Camelia: The Fragment: Towards a history and poetics of the performative genre,
http://www.nietzschecircle.com/Fragment_Hyp_Jun_08.pdf
[5] , ed. . : , 1970
[6] , : .
. : , 1981
[7] Velikonja, Mitja: Povratak otpisanih (emancipatorski potencijali jugonostalgije), In olovi,
Ivan. Zid je mrtav, iveli zidovi!, Beograd, igoja tampa, 2009
[8] traus, Ivan: Arhitektura Jugoslavije 1945-1990, Sarajevo:Svjetlost, 1991
[9] Zukin, Sharon: Whose culture? Whose city?, In .LeGates and Frederic Stout,ed., The city
reader, London: Routledge, 199
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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Igor Bjeli1
Ana Momilovi-Petronijevi2

DATA MENAGEMENT IN DIGITAL APPROACHES TO CULTURAL

HERITAGE
Abstract: Data management - how do we organize, store and archive the harvested data - becomes a
main question with increasing amount of data in digital applications which concerns a relationship of
modern society toward cultural heritage. In Europe, there were several programs which had concerned
this issue in a manner of active discussion, comparison and reference to case studies, also brought by a
series of insights or opinion pieces. It led to the establishing of effective metadata. This paper will try
to provide a way of solution of organizing metadata in such cases. he value of digital tools and digital
content is not in their complexity, innovative level or quantity, but the measure of their usability and their
capability to serve as media for scientific work. Thus, there must be space for re-purposing data collected
for one purpose - for use in a possible different scientific context, corresponding with future science
progress.
ey words: data management, digital application, cultural heritage

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1. INTRODUCTION
The main The relationship of Photogrammetry and Terrestrial Laser Scanning systems to the recording
of cultural heritage have been changed. Since recent developments in digital imaging and photomodeling
software packages have been established, architectural photogrammetry is now available for any user
involved in the surveying, the documentation and 3D modelling of important heritage sites. The main
purpose of the documentation and conservation works is usually to generate geometric and photorealistic
3D models for both accurate reconstruction and visualization purposes. Although various techniques of

Igor Bjeli, PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, office
111, 18000 Ni, Serbia, igor_bjelic@yahoo.com;
2
Ana Momilovi Petronijevi, PhD assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Ni, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14, office 330, 18000 Ni, Serbia, ana.momcilovic.petronijevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
i
momcilovicanact@yahoo.com
-25-

recording have been available, the approach discussed in this paper is based on photogrammetric and
Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) techniques.
Photogrammetric approach, which we have applied, considers modern data obtained by calibrated
digital cameras, and sometimes archive images if available. The varieties of systems are based either on
digital image rectification, stereoscopic or dense matching in depending on the specific needs in
architectural documentation. For the reason of accuracy, for data recording of large and complex objects
or sites, TLS techniques are mostly used. Due to the rapidity of data capture and the ability to get the
point cloud in a short period of time, laser scanning has become an essential tool beside image based
documentation methods, total station and GPS surveys. Both techniques have their benefits and
constraints, and criteria as geometry, texture, accuracy, resolution, recording and processing time are
often compared.
As with many technical challenges, in undertaking data recording and the range of solutions may lead
themselves to addressing various heritage applications, there are significant issues of price/ performance.
In this context we started to deal with metadata. Metadata can be defined as data about data [3][12]. In the
present context metadata exists at a number of levels i.e. of data concerned with the provenance of an
individual artifact. This would include items connected to the artifact of legal interest (owner, copyright
status, fee for re-use etc.). There may also be data about the producer; the methods of capture; the
conditions at the time of capture; information on the settings used for equipment; perhaps on the
algorithms used (e.g. for stitching partial scans), etc [1].
The main essence in this step of work is that we need also to think about the metadata and provenance
of level of hierarchical artefacts. For example, a large city architectural reconstruction may be established
upon the informations on fragments of masonry collected at one time; on the archaeological data; on
materials properties; on accurate style for specific place and period of development of architecture, etc.
Each part of this kind of the reconstruction may have various authors and these can be different from the
creators of the stories about the environment.
2.

3D RESTITUTION FROM MODERN AND ARCHIVE IMAGES

The archaeologists are dealing with destructive methods in their work so the most of evidences will
never be available on the site again. In terms of that, data recording on site is the only chance to preserve
most of data about site. Especially in cases of archeological sites which have been digging out for a long
period, archive pictures can have an important roll for completion of archive documentation. In most
cases, the final goal of the project is to use this archive documentation in order to make a 3D restitution of
the destroyed and buried historical structures of the castle within a photogrammetric project including
both modern and archive images. A comparative restitution makes it possible to locate in a precise way
the visible archaeological tasks. The aim of the restitution is to help the consultant to establish the
framework of the excavation and restoration tasks, by showing the destroyed historical structures. The
person who will be in charge of the restoration will then have the most validated information to release
the great amount of fill around the excavated buildings in order to keep protected the historical and
archaeological structures which would be still in-situ below the surface of terrain.
The combination of the two restitutions can highlight the field of interest for archaeological
investigations and to calculate the necessary work of civil engineering (fill, cubature, rebuilding, etc).
After that processes, the restitution of the site in wire frame and mesh model can be supplemented by the
addition of textures, which are coming either from the images of the beginning at the 20th century or
those of earlier time. From the resulting 3D photomodels, orthophotos can be calculated for the two
periods, as e.g. for the frontages of the building structures or the installations around the site covering the
archaeological structures.
After many crumbling and destructions of historically and cultural important sites, many scholars
worried about conservation of old heritage structures, or at least documenting them. In most cases, very
poor documentation about the many of them existed, a 3D modeling and complete data capture of these
kinds of sites was requested [10]. This undertaking is risky, especially about medieval structures of
fortifications because of the constraints implied on the one hand by the steep and abrupt terrain
surrounding the castles and strongholds and on the other hand by the dense and broadening vegetation
surrounding it.
Today we can recognize several different techniques for digital data capture of heritage structures:
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3D data acquisition integration of different techniques

o Web based reconstruction (photogrammetry)
o Terestial Laser scanner acquisition
o Structured light acquisition
o In-hand scanner
New technologies:
o Dome, portable dome
o Bidirectional Texture Function

Fig. 1 Comparation of schemes of photogrametry data flow and laser data show

The main advantage of this photogrammetric methodology (Fig.1.) is to get at the same time a point
cloud (the resolution depends on the size of the pixel on the object), and therefore an accurate meshed
object with its texture [8]. After the matching and processing steps, we can use the resulting data in much
the same way as a TLS point cloud, but with really better raster information for textures.
Terrestrial laser scanning is proven as a very effective technology for capturing 3D geometry data of
cultural heritage [2]. Compared to TLS, the photogrammetric solution is a low cost one as the acquisition
system is limited to a digital camera and a few accessories only.

Figure 2. The Latin Church in the Upper Matejevac: point cloud, mesh model, plan of church [5]

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As in most sciences, combination of applied methods can lead to the most accurate results. During the
practice within Institution for protection of heritage in Ni, multi-image restitutions have been chosen
(Fig.2.) for this kind of projects in order to process in one block the sets of convergent photos taken from
the different types of cameras or in other case - terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). We used the Photosynth
software package, well known for its applications in close range photogrammetry, architecture and
archaeology [5]. There were several things to care about during the observing the objects of cultural
importance:
Calibration of the cameras
Adjustment of the block of the images
Adjustment of a block of archive images
Merger of the two projects and preparation of the restitution
For the complex volumes of buildings, a single point of view is not enough for a total coverage of the
object. Thus, we have to multiply the points from which we observe the whole building. As was expected,
some parts of the historical buildings cannot be captured by the TLS. For instance, due to the limitations
of environment (relief) and the limited field of view of the scanner, most often no station is high enough
to acquire the upper parts of structures. Thats why photogrammetric and geodetic surveying techniques
are being combined with the laser scanning for the recording of the complex shaped buildings [9]. For
obtaining a geometric accuracy aspects as well as completeness or level of details, that superposition of
two methods is temporarily the best possible way which we know. In cases of flat and regular shaped
objects, the results show low differences between the laser scanning and the photogrammetric model, at
least for.
For at least the last 40 years generating realistic images of objects represented in these sorts of formats
has been a challenge. Methods which take into account (progressively) have gradually improved the
images of artificial objects, but as yet have not quite captured a truly life-like feel of the actual
appearance.
To get the best possible visualization and accurate documentation, the best method is to generate a
geometric and photorealistic 3D model from the combination of point clouds and photogrammetric
images, for both. The buildings are linked to the surrounding terrain thanks to surveying techniques,
allowing accurate geo-referencing in the Global (or national) Geodetic Reference System. The scanner
must be set up and oriented over known geodetic points in the environment. In doing so, the point clouds
were directly georeferenced and visualized in the field.
In the next step, the point cloud can be cleaned (denoised from unnecessary points of surrounding for
modeling), meshed and textured in softwares for 3D reconstruction Meshlab. 3D data can be exported
in various of types of 3D formats. In this project, we used OBJ, and 3DS.
After building a digital model there is an obvious possibility to re-use our efforts in any other desirable
context of science. It is also a chance to extend to applications that were not used for the period of
collecting data. It is often a case that applications we were investigating can not copy as fully detailed or
also with no volume of data that has been digitalized. This is the common situation when structures
digitalised for scholastic documentation are to be used in web applications, including on-line publication.
There are many methods that have been improved here on by computer scientists for years. In this
context, almost every year there will be new information in improving mesh simplification at the annual
ACM SIGGRAPH conference (see www.siggraph.org).

Figure 3 . The EPOCH Information Store Concept [4]

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Scientist in Europe have undertake much of the work of planning archive of digital objects for long
period of time has from a base in the digital libraries community [6]. The way how we manage collections
of 3D cultural heritage objects is at an earlier stage. There remains important debate about the approaches
adopted for digital libraries; whether they are in fact suitable for related, but different, domain of cultural
artefacts. One clear example in the field of digital libraries is a case of the success of the Dublin Core
Metadata Initiative. The Knowledge Base was initially a crucial instrument in the knowledge transfer
activities of the expertise centers in whole Europe. The holistic developed approach allowing the creation
of a well documented workflow to outline can also predict or measure the amount of impact of Cultural
Heritage Projects to their environment and the population involved.
One of the most noticed Network of Excellence has been EPOCH funded by the European Union
under the Sixth Framework Programme. It was consisting for period from year of 2004 to 2008. The
network integrated about a hundred European cultural institutions. These organizations joined their efforts
to improve the quality and effectiveness of the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
for applications to the tangible Cultural Heritage of monuments, sites and museums. In short sentences we
will summarise here the activities and noticed achievements of EPOCH. Shortly after establishing
EPOCH Network, similar programme was founded by European Community's Seventh Framework
Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under agreement 231809: 3D-COFORM, that assumes the making 3D
documentation an everyday choice for the Cultural Heritage sector [8]. In this kind of organisation we can
see the comon type of stages of the EPOCH pipeline and contributing technologies (Fig. 3. and Fig. 4.)
Through regional meetings, technical events, publicity, publications and training, the Network of
digital libraries of cultural heritage has spread a very wide part of the community. For example, we can
observe what is achieved in by 3D-COFORM repository:
3D digital library
Provenance and long term data preservation
Multi-lingual aspects

Figure 4. Stages of the EPOCH pipeline and contributing technologies [4]

3. MULTILEVEL DISCIPLINE IMPACT OF DIGITAL RECORDING

Another improving development is that a significant part of community has been established which
spans disciplines and organizations. There have also been real advances in functioning of the business of
cultural heritage (Fig. 5.). Finally there is a published a great amount of work, which will remain
available. These publications will be available for at least 2 years through the Eurographics Digital
Library (www.eg.org) and on the UNESCO website (whc.unesco.org) where public community can
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approach to new improvements at least by watching 3D representation for research versus public
outreach. This is mainly based on several items:
Story telling
Evolution of a multi-stratified site
Implementation of London Charter principles
Re-contextualization of finds

Figure 5. Business strand within 3D-COFORM [8]

Socioeconomic impact models have been developed for Information and communication technologies
(ICT) investment at heritage sites, the impact of the site itself and the impact of the heritage city, with
reference to ICT. These three principal models highlight the multilevel impact modelling approach that
was taken in this activity. The models have been further developed into training tools and have even been
applied to both heritage organisations and closely allied sectors such as social enterprise.
Information and communication technologies can provide a (virtual) stage for presenting an attractive
brand image of the historic town, improving its legibility, and telling stories about its tangible and
intangible cultural riches. The Internet is rapidly becoming a major factor, already being consulted by
17% of tourists in 2002 which is the same percentage as in the case of informed persons by brochures.
4. THE VALUE OF ASSOCIATED RESEARCH
More than 50 EPOCH partners have received contributions from EPOCH funds in undertaking
activities on behalf of the Networks Joint Programme of Activities. The combined worth of the research
activities of these people is much greater than the Commission contribution [7]. The draft final accounts
for EPOCH show that the Commissions contribution of 7.88MEuros has been used as a contribution to
the 9.052MEuro of eligible costs incurred by the partners. This result means that the total gearing on
funds used in EPOCH is almost 25 to 1 for each Euro invested in EPOCH probably 25 Euros of
research effort has been influenced. Given that the number of researchers reported in the network is the
equivalent of the staff of a small university an estimated value of almost 50M Euro per year does not
seem unreasonable.
5. CONCLUSION
The needs for wide application of new data recording technologies are growing, and the development
of 3D visual contents using the data is more and more important. Hence, a better understanding of users
with this technology or technique for the various possible applications is a big challenge as it worth the
investment with vast improvement in terms of quality and accuracy of data and cost effectiveness.
The digital 3D model of the monument can helps in future preservation work such as reconstruction
and renovation. It is beneficial to have this real 3D environment model to act as the guideline to
responsible authority as reference for better documentation planning and tourism purposes. In order to
have a complete detailed 3D model of a historical building, a well proper combination of close-range
photogrammetry and laser scanning method can be applied in high quality 3D recordings of heritage
documentation.
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To main aim is to advance the state-of-the-art in 3D-digitization and to establish 3D-documentation an

affordable, practical and effective everyday choice for long term documentation of tangible cultural
heritage. The procedures described are technology driven but in accordance with the needs of the
archaeologists or architects in charge of the projects. Although laser scanning and photogrammetry can be
considered as mature techniques, this paper shows the need of the users in such a multidisciplinary
project.
It is recommended that this project can be further towards the modelling of heritage monument using
TLS data. The capability of terrestrial laser scanner has been documented widely due to its fastest
capturing speed, high accuracy and high resolution features among the modern terrestrial laser scanner.
There is major improving in recent business models for exploitation of 3D assets. We can notice it in
recent creation workflow planning and execution for mass digitization. A final result in this action should
be socio-economic impact assessment which is expressed in one or more demonstrator activities
involving real exhibition and the creation of a Virtual Centre of Competence in 3D digitization.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The paper was written within the project Optimization of architectural and urban planning and design in
function of sustainable development in Serbia, (TR36042) funded by the Ministry of Education and
Science, Republic of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] Addison A. C., The Vanishing Virtual, in New Heritage: Beyond Verisimilitude, Conference on
Cultural Heritage and Ned Media. Edited by Thomas Kvan and Yehuda Kalay, Faculty of
Architecture, University of Hong Kong, 2006. pp.
[2] Alshawabkeh Y., Haala N., 2004. Integration of Digital Photogrammetry and Laser Scanning for
Heritage Documentation. Proc. of XXth ISPRS Congress, Volume 35, Part B, Istanbul, 2004. pp.
424-429.
[3] Arnold. D., Digital artefacts possibilities and purpose. Digital Applications for Tangible Cultural
Heritage, Report on the State of the Union Policies, Practices and Developments in Europe,
Volume 2, Edited by Franco Niccolucci, ARCHAEOLINGUA, Budapest, 2007. pp. 15-25.
[4] Arnold D., Kaminski J., Rodriguez K., Publishable Final Activity Report, EPOCH -Excellence in
Processing Open Cultural Heritage, Information Society Technologies, Budapest, 2008. pp.22
[5] Bjeli I., Krasi. S., Significance of digital photogrametry in protection of cultural heritage, 3rd
International Scientific Conference MoNGeometrija 2012, Proceedings, Faculty of Technical
sciences, Novi Sad, June 21st 24th 2012, pp. 81.
[6] Dieter F., Digital Preservation of Cultural Heritage: When the Acquisition Part will be under
control whats the next Grand Challenge? Abstract for the VAST 2005 Keynote, in Proceedings
of VAST 2005, Edited by M.Mudge, N. Ryan and R. Scopigno, EUROGRAPHICS Association,
2005. pp. 11-12.
[7] Grussenmeyer p., Abdallah T., 1997. The cooperation in architectural photogrammetry between ENSAIS
(France) and ECAE (Egypt) : practical experiences on historic monuments in CAIRO. International archives
of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Vol. XXXII, Part 5C1B, Gteborg, 1997, pp. 215-221.

[8] Grussenmeyer, P., Hanke, K., Streilein, A. Architectural photogrammetry, Digital Photogrammetry, Edited by M. Kasser and Y. Egels, Taylor & Francis, 2002. pp. 300- 339.
[9] Grussenmeyer, P., Landes, T., Voegtle, T., Ringle, K.. Comparison methods of terrestrial laser
scanning, photogrammetry and tacheometry data for recording of cultural heritage buildings. Int.
Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Beijing, China,
Comm. V, Vol. XXXVII, part B5, 2008. pp. 213-218.
[10] Stojakovi V., Virtuelne trodimenzionalne reprezentacije arhitektonskih objekata kreirane na
osnovu perspektivnih slika, Nauka i praksa, Gradjevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet, Ni, Serbia, 2009,
pp. 208-211.

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Web sites:
[11] Excellence in Processing Open Cultural Heritage A Network of Excellence funded under the
European Unions Framework Program FP6. See www. epoch-net.org for more information.
[12] METS Metadata Encoding & Transmission Standard http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets/

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Ivana S. Bogdanovi Proti1

URBAN OPEN SPACES CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUALITY OF LIFE

IMPROVEMENT
Abstract: During the whole mankind evolution of open spaces have always played a non-negligible role
in the process of urban development. With their design quality, equipment and diversity, they significantly
influence the quality of life of citizens. The open spaces serve as a representative areas of the city,
provide places for outdoor living space within the built environment and contribute to the vitality of the
area in which they are located. With the rapid urban development, the role of open spaces has gone
through major transformations. From spaces where citys social activities are held, they received a wider
significance - spaces that people use for very day needs, especially for the performance of urban
recreation. They represent the potential of each city and given to allow flow of social interaction and
recreational activities, providing favorable conditions of insolation and ventilation, as well as the high
quality of visual perception of space, highly influence the quality of life. Numerous studies suggest that
when considering where they want to live people prefer locations in the vicinity of well-designed and
attractive open spaces. Unfortunately, adequate importance is often not given to their regulation and
their contribution to the quality of life is often neglected. Their alignment with the constantly changing
needs of users has particular importance. The aim of this paper is to emphasize the need for systematic
approach to the design and editing of open spaces and alignment with customer needs.
Key words: urban open spaces, quality of life, city, urban recreation, community

DOPRINOS GRADSKIH SLOBODNIH PROSTORA UNAPREENJU

KVALITETA IVOTA
Rezime: Tokom itave evolucije oveanstva slobodni prostori su uvek igrali nezanemarljivu ulogu u
procesu urbanog razvoja. Kvalitetom ureenja, opremljenou i raznovrsnou, viestruko utiu na
kvaliteta ivota graana. Slobodni prostori slue kao reprezentativni prostori grada, omoguavaju mesta
za boravak na otvorenom prostoru u okviru izgraenog okruenja i doprinose vitalnosti podruja u kojem
se nalaze. Sa ubrzanim urbanim razvojem, uloga slobodnih prostora je prola velike transformacije. Od
prostora gde se odvijaju gradske drutvene aktvnosti, dobili su iri znaaj prostori koje graani
svakodnevno koriste za svoje potrebe, a naroito za odvijanje urbane rekreacije. Oni predstavljaju
potencijale svakog grada, a s obzirom da omoguavaju odvijanje socijalnih interakcija i rekreativnih
aktivnosti, pruaju povoljne uslove provetravanja i osunavanja, kao i visok kvalitet vizuelne percepcije
prostora, izuzetno utiu na kvalitet ivota graana. Brojna istraivanja ukazuju da prilikom razmatranja
gde bi eleli da ive ljudi prednost daju lokacijama u ijoj se blizini nalaze dobro dizajnirani i atraktivni
slobodni prostori. Naalost njihovom ureenju se esto ne pridaje adekvatan znaaj, a njihov doprinos
kvalitetu ivota graana se esto zanemaruje. Od posebne je vanosti njihovo usklaivanje sa stalno
promenljivim potrebama korisnika. Cilj ovog rada je da se ukae na potrebu za sistematinim pristupom
u projektovanju i ureivanju slobodnih prostora i usklaivanjem sa potrebama korisnika.
Kljune rei: gradski slobodni prostori, kvaliteta ivota, grad, urbana rekreacija, zajednica

Mr Ivana S. Bogdanovi Proti, Assistant, Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering of Nis
Note: This paper was done under the project of the Ministry of Science and Technology of Serbia ''Optimization of the
architectural and urban planning and design in the function of sustainable development of Serbia'', (TR36042), project Manager
prof. dr Naa Kurtovi-Foli

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1. INTRODUCTION
In modern urban practice, there is a tendency of return of interest in the urban open spaces.
Space as a basic and dominant part of the historic urban structures and physical fabric of contemporary
cities is important in providing and maintaining a broader human dimension in the building, living and
working environment. It is also a vital factor in retention, meeting and social interactions. The human
species is a friendly group which took place thanks to continuous interaction. Throughout the evolution of
mankind, urban open spaces have always played a key role in the process of urban development and
quality of life. Explicitly or implicitly, open spaces serve as a representative urban areas, representing the
standard areas, allowing the outdoor space within the built environment and providing the vitality of the
area and its environs. The open spaces express the collective life of the city and they are elements of
social cohesion and when well-equipped attract people and provide their encounter.
The quality of urban open space is an important component of quality of life. Quality of life is a term
widely used in various contexts, and largely depends on the urban environment in which we live.
Indicates how good life in the city works, and is influenced by social, economic, political, and other
environmental factors. Cities are not only made of buildings - open spaces are fundamental parts of the
urban environment and historical heritage of cities. They represent the potential of each city, allowing
flow of social interaction and recreational activities, good ventilation and insolation conditions, as well as
the high quality of visual perception of space, all of which reflects the quality of life. Numerous studies
suggest that people when considering where they want to live give priority to locations in the vicinity of
attractive free areas.
2. DEFINITION OF OPEN SPACE
Spaces where people spnex their spare time and leisure activities leisure were the subject of various
studies of quality of life of residential communities of the postwar period of rapid urbanization and
suburbanization. Notwithstanding the numerous studies of open space, their universal definition exists. In
the UK the term open space is defined by Town and country planning act - with the 1962 as:'' any land
planned as a public garden or used for public recreation''. In the United States it is defined as:'' any land or
land primarily unused or reserved for public or private use or land-use and fun for owners and users of
adjacent land that open space''. In Honk Kong is defined as:'' open spaces that provide opportunities for
active or passive recreation for many users''.
In this paper, the emphasis is on open spacesas spaces in which a man spends his free time. The
etymological meaning of leisure - leisure-linked to the Latin word meaning licere be free. The presence of
free time means having the freedom of free-time behavior and an important element of daily life cycle of
each individual. Miller / says thet the leisure time is time available to individuals after work and other
daily duties and the conduct of recreational values [11]. He says further that leisure is the time used for
the fulfillment of their own values that individuals themselves choose to be recreated. Besides Miller, the
importance of free time for the citizens indicated many studies, in terms of time when people are not
working and, '' the availability of recreational facilities'. It was found that the diversity of leisure time,
participation in leisure behavior and leisure time have the most impact on the quality of life. Several
authors have found that a positive relationship between participation in leisure activities (Baldwin and
Tinsley), sport (Wankel and Berger), physical activity (Dowall) influence the improvement of quality of
life, which results from social interaction during the activity free time. Social interaction is a central
component of free time for all categories of users.
The open term space is more recent and involves the use of open space, which does not constrains,
free for selected activities, the movement ... The new name for this spaces is undeveloped areas - left,
open spacesbetween buildings, with the exclusion of traffic areas, pedestrian areas, street. These are open
spaces (excluding traffic areas), which are not physically closed, natural or undeveloped areas. The open
space is identified with the outside areas, as well as recreational open space [15]. They are a physical
component of space, functional spaces, recreational areas, urban greenery, as well as part of urban
infrastructure. These areas complement the residential environment, let rest, play, relaxation, recreation
and urban social interaction and provide important determinants of quality of life.

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3. IMPORTANCE OF OPEN SPACE

Urban open spaces are essential urban facilities participating in the development of urban areas. Free,
open space as a functional space means space of particulare type of use, having the role in shaping the
city and provision of ecological conditions of healthy life [3]. Their roles are: the areas of
communication, leisure and recreation facilities of different ways of using space as an integral urban
facilities, environmental protection, bio-environmental protection, urban design image of the city,
breaking-up of built space, the elements of the expanded housing. Urban open space, understood as places
in which to carry out various categories of free time in which place urban recreation is placed have
multiple significance for the quality of life and health of each individual [9]:
recreation and health
social
environmental
educational
economical.
3.1. Recreation and health significance
It is not necessary to emphasize the influence of physical activity on health. But the last decade, major
technological innovation - automation, reduction of manual labor employees, appliances that replace
manual labor, dependence on cars, life style that involves increased television viewing and related
activities of sitting, significantly reduced daily physical activity [8]. The influence of physical activity on
health is a subject of interest of various scientific research. These researches confirmed that regular
physical activity reduces the risk of various diseases, such as physiological mental, that has a positive
impact on mental and physical health and quality of life. At the same time the built environment, in
addition to individual characteristics and social environment affects the level of physical activity [5].
Recreational importance of open space is reflected in the following:
provide access to recreational areas for all citizens as an alternative to the recreational
activities that may be charged
provide various forms of informal recreation and play to formal events, activities and games,
as an ongoing process of comprehensive development of personality
allow the children to come into contact with nature, and the ability to play a vital factor for the
development of the child [1].
The progress of urban recreation areas on the urban open spaces is of particular importance (figure 1).
Seen from the medical - sanitary point of view, the main task of recreation is to create optimal conditions
for rest, refreshment and recovery of the organism in physiological and psychological terms, the
regeneration of all the disorders that occur due to different types of fatigue and negative impacts of air
pollution. In the current circumstances, the man spends most of the day indoors, often in a sitting position
(at work), in vehicles, surrounded by a large degree of development areas, asphalt, on a constant hurry.
Open spaces in the everyday life of modern urban man have the potential to compensate for the lack of
movement and physical exertion by the gym to release stress through a variety of activities for nonproductive labor in the open area, open space, that its design and to give the elements of nature
atmosphere to the surrounding locations [17].

Figure 2: Citizens participation in greening

Figure 1: Urban recreation

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The release of stress is identified with the'' relaxation and sitting in a quiet place'' and'' escape from the
phone and TV'' that can be achieved at open spaces, which design and elements of nature can give the
space the image of nature environment [9]. Extensive literature indicates the importance of contact with
nature for health and proximity to growing residential area. The study conducted in the Netherlands
confirmed that people whose immediate surroundings are green spaces and vegetation have better overall
physical and mental health. Consequently, many local governments have begun promoting the importance
of open space in order to improve the health of its citizens.
3.2. The social significance
City open spaces provide opportunities for a safe stay in the open air, available to all age categories of
users and contribute to social cohesion and foster a sense of community, which makes the social
component of quality of life [9]. The open spaces provide opportunities for the maintenance of various
community events, volunteer activities and income to charities, as well as opportunities for improving
health through participation in sports activities outdoors [1].
Various surveys indicate the social importance of open spaces. For open space users it is very
important to know that open spaces and green areas exist in their immediate environment, so that they do
not have to go out to the country. They also contribute to social inclusion by encouraging social and
cultural interaction, including social contacts and participation in various types of social, cultural and
communal activities. Of particular importance is the free access to all categories of users, a sense of
identity with the local environment and enjoyment of the aesthetic component of the space in which to
reside [17].
A sense of belonging to a residential community of individuals is especially important in residential
neighborhoods [4]. Sense of community important component of satisfaction of tenants and residential
neighborhoods manifestation of personal satisfaction lifestyles [13], and various researches have shown
that open spaces contribute to the feeling of community and social cohesion [16]. Granovetter believes
that casual, everyday contacts in the open spaces often connect different social structures in the
community and encourage a sense of community [10].
Community cohesion is often reflected in the scope of activities in a residential neighborhood
neighborhood [13]. Sense of community is the extent to which people feel that they belong to easily
accessible, reliable and fully supportive social structure. Social interaction within the community reduces
social isolation and promote community connectivity (figure 2). The reduced interaction may have a
negative effect on social capital, reducing the social ties and sense of belonging to the neighborhood [4].
Attachment to the neighborhood in terms of social ties that connects people in the neighborhood is still a
strong sense of community reflection. (Buckner) emphasizes that factors such as length of stay in the
neighborhood, the ownership of an apartment where you live, marital status, presence of children and
especially the physical attractiveness of open space contribute to the strong social ties[6]. Opportunities
for interactions, which provide social contact and sense of community are created by connecting people
through various activities, (Talen) [14]. In that sense the presence of an adequate and well equipped open
space can initiate outdoor activities and influence to promote the interaction of citizens and promote
social connection (Calthorpe) [7].
3.3. Ecological significance
With expansive urbanization, the built environment is increasingly begining to affect the local climate
conditions. Urban structures that man build as a substitute for the natural habitat characteristics affect the
environment and change in the physical and the chemical sense [9]. Every day people are exposed to
environmental conditions in urban areas that produce hazardous effects for health from toxins, heavy
metals, poor ambient quality and lack of open space / green in particular. At the same time increase and
decrease of hard surfaces leads to higher temperatures in cities, known as the'' heat island'' effect.
Vegetation, as an element of open space can greately reduce this effect sand what is equally important, it
can allow citizens to feel closer to nature. Other ecological significance of open spaces is reflected in the
following [1]:
reduce dependence on cars and cutback providing transportation facilities in the vicinity
provide habitat for wildlife as well as help local biodiversity
assist the stabilization of temperature and humidity
-36-

allow the recycling of organic matters

vegetation, as an element of open spaces is important aesthetic component of the surrounding
space and the life environment in general.

Figure 3: Protective effect of vegetation

Vegetation, especially trees play a significant role in reducing air pollution and the absorption of
gaseous pollutants and heavy metals. Trees, as an element of open space, improves the chemical
composition of air, filters it, reducing air pollution and the absorption of gaseous pollutants and heavy
metals [3]. The best effect is achieved when trees are planted close to pollution sources (eg traffic along
the road). Evaporation of the leaves increases the humidity. The concentration of buildings and paved
surfaces creates specific microclimate high temperatures, especially at night, limiting wind dispersal of
pollutants in the air. The green has an important role in mitigating these effects and create derivative
favorable microclimate - temperature decrease in summer, enabling air ventilation, cooling effect through
the shadows of the trees, and also protects the asphalt pavement surface of the heating effect of creating
a'' cold Island park ''as opposed to'' urban heat island'' [2]. At the same time the green color and smell
affects the regeneration vision, refreshed, mentally and physically regenerate man. It is known that noise
is a very bad influence on the physical and mental health of man, especially a severe housing conditions
occur near major roads. The green has a role of absorber of sound energy, and also protects from the wind
blows and the smoke (figure 3). The impact of vegetation and green spaces as aesthetic components of
space must be especially mentioned [12]. The green aresa comes alive with their colors and contrast as
constructed, artificial, gray, noisy, polluted environment initiate enjoy the aesthetic component of the
space in which to reside (figure 4).

Figure 4: The vegetation visually resuscitates the surrounding built environment

3.4. Educational significance

Urban open spaces play an important educational role in promoting understanding of the nature and
possibilities of learning about the environment [1]. Addition may affect the fingering advantages of
sustainable development and the promotion of health awareness among citizens. In urban areas people
can acquire a variety of horticultural skills, can participate in artistic activities and maintain various
events and spectacles [9]. Open spaces in a residential environment conditions of modern urbanization are
optimal and necessary facilities for mental and physical development of children. Through various
activities and games many children acquire knowledge for life, developing communication skills,
teamwork and creative activities (figure 5). There is a problem of safety and hygiene of open space for

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children to play, and the lack of adequately equipped space, but very often the case children play in the
street or anxious, paved courtyards [12].
Research suggests that open spaces significally improve sensore perception, social skills, skills of
cooperation and collaboration, reduce aggressive behavior, improve the behavior of children, stimulate
better showing emotion, and offer great opportunities to play.

Figure 5: Children playing in the park

3.5. The economic significance

The contribution of open spaces to the city economy is often overlooked and not noticed.
Nevertheless, in urban areas where they are properly valued, their economic importance is not neglected.
The economic importance of open space arises from the potential to influence [1]:
increase in commercial or residential real estate in the region, increasing income taxes and
increases local budget
contribute to the projects of urban renewal and regeneration
contribute to attracting visitors and tourists / one way is to use parks for the maintenance of social
events
promote employment.

Figure 6: Location near the city park

High quality open spaces can significantly affect the economic life of the parts of the city or cities as
the whole and thus present essential parts of urban regeneration strategies [5]. Keeping in mind that cities
are competing to attract investments, presence of parks, squares, gardens and other open spaces becomes
a vital business tool and marketing (figure 6). Companies are drawn to locations that provide either good
equipped, maintained, open space and in turn attracts customers, users, and employee services. In urban
centers, friendly and kept open spaces increase the number of visitors, while local open spaces provide a
clear benefit to the local economy in terms of stimulating property prices, given that the buyers of
apartments ready to pay more for housing near open and green spaces.
4. CONCLUSION
Urban open spaces are integral parts of the urban fabric and elements of everyday life for citizens and
as such are important factors of city '' image'' and indicators of quality of life. Their contribution to the
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quality of life stems from that sense of community contributions, conduction of the interpersonal contacts
and good neighborly relations and in terms of identity and the creation of adequate spatial conditions for
various types of activities of daily free time, especially physical activity progress of psycho-physical
health. Adequately designed and equipped open spaces provide citizens to actively participate in the
development of their living environment, allow performance of sports and recreational activities and
healthy lifestyle, and can contribute to environmental education and training of local groups and
individuals. They are also important in fostering the quality of local businesses, sales development and
recreation, and locations which are placed in tehir vicinity are more attractive to potential investors,
customers and consumers. Regardless of the modern information and telecommunication technology, the
popularity of making friends through the computer, which encouraged'' virtual'' company based on
business and social networks, friendships and common interests regardless of geographic distance, the
people need immediate mutual contacts, open spaces are precisely the places that make it possible. Their
organization should be given much more importance, which will provide more human dimension of cities
and increase the quality of life, which is the primary task of any society.
REFERENCES
[1] Audit of open space, sport and recreation facilities and assessment of local needs, Report by
Pmp, 2006., pp. 24
[2] Bjelikov V.: Nain stanovanja u gradu.Urbano programiranje, Zavod za udbenike i nastavna
sredstva Beograd, Beograd, 1983., pp. 15-20
[3] Bogdanovi I., Mitkovi, P.: Revitalizacija slobodnih i rekreativnih prostora u kontekstu
unapreenja kolektivnog stanovanja, Zbornik radova simpozijuma ''Rekonstrukcija i
revitalizacija grada'', Beograd, 2006., pp. 361-364
[4] Bogdanovi Proti, I.: Urbana regeneracija viespratnog stanovanja, Zadubina Andrejevi,
Beograd, 2009., pp. 62-68
[5] Braubach M.: Residential conditions and their impact on residential environment satisfaction and
health: results of the WHO large analysis and review of European housing and health status
(LARES) study, Int. J. Environment and Pollution, Vol. 30, Nos. 3/4, 2007., pp. 189-192
[6] Buckner J.C.: The development of an instrument to measure neighbourhood cohesion. Am. J.
Commun. Psychol. 16 (6), 1988., pp. 771791
[7] Calthorpe P.: The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream.
Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 1993., pp. 4345
[8] Does the built environment influence physical activity? Examining the evidence, Committee on
Physical Activity, Health, Transportation, and Land Use, Transportation Research Board.
Washington, D.C., 2005., pp. 5961
[9] Dunnett N, Swanwick C., Woolley H.: Improving Urban Parks, Play Areas and Open Space,
Department of Landscape, University of Sheffield Department for Transport, Local Government
and the Regions: London, May 2002., pp. 7890
[10]
Granovetter M.S.:The strength of weak ties, Am. J. Sociol. 78 (6), 1973., pp. 13601380
[11]
Lloyd K., Auld K.: The role of leisure in determining quality of Life: issues of content
and measurement, Social Indicators Research 57, 2002., pp 4371
[12]
Maksimovi B.: Funkcionalne vrednosti slobodnih prostora u stambenom kompleksu,
Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1969. , pp. 100-103
[13]
Oliver G., Sukolratanametee S.: Neighborhood design and sense of community:
Comparing suburban neighborhoods in Houston TexasRogers, Landscape and Urban Planning,
Volume 92, Issues 34, 2009, pp 325334
[14]
Talen E.: Sense of community and neighborhood form: an assessment of the social
doctrine of new urbanism, Urban Stud. 36 (8), 1999., pp. 13611379
[15]
Vesni Neeral .: Urbana rekreacija, Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu,
Beograd, 1993., pp. 17-25
[16]
Wirth L.: Urbanism as a way of life. Am. J. Sociol. 44 (1), 1938., pp. 124.
[17]
www.developmentguidlines.com
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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Nataa Bulut1

A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF PUBLIC SPACES IN THE CENTRAL

AREA OF NOVI SAD
Abstract: Presented paper offers the critical valorization of open, public spaces of the central area of
Novi Sad, as well as examination of their potentials. The research is based on an analysis of the current
state of public spaces of the central area, which all belong to different typological categories, so they
represent a complex web of public city environments. The central area of Novi Sad is characterized by
very specific properties - determined by many complex factors and numerous layers, unique character,
spirit and atmosphere. This area represents a place with most intense and highest quality of social life in
the city. Social changes through history had been reflected on the transformation of public spaces in the
city, both in the physical sense, and in their importance to users. The last ten years are a period of
greatest expansion of city tissue, ever recorded in Novi Sad. The aim of the presented paper is to perceive
the present state and the dominant characteristics of this specific entity through the several aspects. A
critical evaluation, through the established criteria, indicated both, the potential and the shortcomings
that characterize the entity observed.
Keywords: central area, Novi Sad, open space, public space, the potentials

KRITIKA VALORIZACIJA JAVNIH PROSTORA CENTRALNOG

PODRUJA U NOVOM SADU
Rezime: Priloeni rad bavi se kritikom valorizacijom otvorenih javnih prostora centralnog podruja
Novog Sada, kao i ispitivanjem njihovih potencijala. Istraivanje se bazira na analizi postojeeg stanja
javnih prostora centralnog podruja, koji spadaju u razliite tipoloke kategorije, te ine sloenu mreu
javnih ambijenata u gradu. Centralno podruje Novog Sada karakteriu izuzetno specifina svojstva determiniu ga sloeni i brojnim faktori i velika slojevitost, stvarajui jedinstveni karakter, duh i
atmosferu. Predmetno podruje predstavlja mesto najintenzivnijeg i najkvalitetnijeg socijalnog ivota
grada. Drutvene promene kroz istoriju odraavale su se na transformacije javnih prostora u gradu, kako
u fizikom smislu, tako i u njihovom znaaju za korisnike. Period od poslednjih deset godina predstavlja
period najvee ekspanzije gradskog tkiva, ikada zabeleene u Novom Sadu. Cilj priloenog rada je da sa
nekoliko aspekata sagleda trenutno stanje i dominantne karakteristike ove specifine celine. Kritika
valorizacija, kroz ustanovljene kriterijume, ukazala je na potencijale, ali i na nedostatke koji odlikuju
posmatrano podruje.
Kljune rei: centralno podruje, Novi Sad, otvoreni prostor, javni prostor, potencijali
1. INTRODUCTION
The ultimate goal of any city is to provide a safe, humane, attractive, and inspiring environment to
its residents. It is expected that, beside offering a safety, shelter and habitat2, the city offers a wide range
of options and variety. That also implies the possibility of freedom and choice. Therefore, the city has to
offer spaces in which interconnection and integration of the population could be achieved, but also the
integration of people with their environment.

1
2

MSc, Faculty of Technical sciences, Novi Sad, 6th Dositej Obradovi sq, natashabulut1219@yahoo.com
Radivojevi, R., Sociologija naselja, FTN izdavatvo, Novi Sad, 2004, str.105

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Public spaces, in that sense, have a crucial significance for the general socialization and integration
of people in cities. They are the pulsating spots3 and heart of any settlement. To what extent they will be
eligible for these functions depends, however, on many factors. How much are the existing public spaces
attractive and in fact suitable for its own population depends from a wide range of factors and elements.
2. CRITERIA ANALYSIS
The observed fragment of the central area of Novi Sad is characterized by very specific properties. It is
determined by complex and numerous factors and high layers, which all shape its unique character, spirit
and atmosphere. It is, therefore, necessary to establish criteria that will be the guideline for analyze the
web of public spaces of the central area. The main aim of selected criteria is to help perceiving the value
and potential, to set guidelines that would enable verification, testing and evaluation of the current state in
the future, but also to set the basis for the further transformations. In the process of analyzing, the
observed area was treated on several bases:
1. Analysis of settlement and the observed fragment within it.
2. Analysis of selected fragments as characteristic micro unit of the settlement.
3. Analysis of individual environments for socialization within the selected fragment.
On each of these steps different criteria has been used. Each of the selected criteria was introduced in
order to enable the creation of the most complete insight into the reasons for the current state, including
all relevant aspects.
3. ANALYSIS OF SETTLEMENTS AND THE OBSERVED FRAGMENT WITHIN IT
HISTORICAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF DEVELOPMENT AND POSITION OF FRAGMENT IN
THE SETTLEMENT
At the beginning of the analysis is was of great importance to determine the basic characteristics of
the settlement with the observed fragment in it. For these reasons, this step was analyzed through
historical and morphological criteria.
The oldest data related to the city is from the 17th century, from the period of construction of the
fortress in Petrovaradin, and the Bridgehead on the opposite, left side of the Danube. Year 1849th
represents a significant milestone in the historical development of the village, because then, the settlement
developed around the Bridgehead, was bombed from the fortress. The largest number of valuable
examples of baroque and classical buildings was destroyed in this occasion, so today's Novi Sad gains its
identity and character in the period after the revolution. Today's urban core is mostly built in period that
followed.4
The specific terrain configuration had a significant effect on the formation of the city. The first streets
were completely irregular. Marshy fields required streets to be built on higher ground, on the so-called
dry beams. Street, which was back then the backbone of the system, was linking the growing town with
the river and Bridgehead. That main street was the Danube street, from which, all the other streets
outreched in the directions suitable for building.
As the central urban area formed by the river, urban tissue was expanding on the surrounding areas
suitable for construction, mostly on the west. For this reason, today's city center occupies fully eccentric
position in overall urban tissue - planimetry that is characteristic for settlements built on the banks of
rivers, seas, and terrain with unsuitable configuration .

3
4

Halprin, L., Gradovi, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1973, p. 5

Srbulovi, ., Kratka istorija Novog Sada, Prometej, Optinski zavod za zatitu spomenika kulture, Novi Sad, 2000, p. 93

-41-

Figure 1 - The situation of the city eccentric

position of the city center (orthophoto image)

Figure 2 - The central area

(orthophoto image)

One of the major attributes of today's Novi Sad is its mono-centric character. This means that the
narrow space in the city center integrates most important contents and functions of the city, as well as the
best open public spaces. The rich cultural, historical, traditional, and architectural background, but also its
urban and nucleus like character, make this central area the most valuable urban entity of Novi Sad.
Mono-centric character and the growing size of the town, make the connections and contacts of the center
area and other territories, today, not either good or efficient. Most of the population of the city,
neighboring towns and periodic visitors, come every day to the center to regulate different needs or to
socialize, relax or just enjoy the day, which automatically increases the intensity and frequency of traffic
routes. This burning issue is being treated in many ways, in recent years, but the truth is that interventions
to expand the existing traffic routes are only temporary solution. The degradation and devastation of
central core by constant increase of traffic violates its environmental values and damage the spirit of the
place. On the other hand, the remote parts of the settlement remain only peripheral and social life in these
parts is very low.
4. ANALYSIS OF SELECTED FRAGMENT AS CHARACTERISTIC MICRO UNIT IN THE
SETTLEMENT
. Danube
. Danube park
. Serbian National Theater
. City hall
. Cathedral
. Main Post office
. The Executive Council
. City library
. Bishop's Palace
. Church Saborna
. Youth theater
. Gallery
. useum
. School
. Other sacral objects
Figure 3- Public areas of the central with landmarks (the author)
Main road
Pedestrian street
Squares: 1. Liberty Square, 2.Sq Catholic port, 3. Theater square, 4. Sq Trifkovi, 5. Newlyweds Square, 6.
Gallery Square, 7. Square of the Republic, 8. Unknown hero Square

In order to produce complex and comprehensive image of observed fragment, which is crucial for
further research, the fragment was analyzed by the following criteria:

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4.1. Spatial analysis - a web of public spaces of the central area

Fragment of the central city area, which is the subject of critical evaluation of this work is the
narrowest urban core and includes the blocks around original and oldest streets of the city - the St.
Dunavska and the St. Zmaj Jovina, which still represent the most dominant and the best pedestrian streets
of the area. In that sense, fragment is defined by: the Danube river and The Belgrade promenade on the
east; on the west side with St. Uspenska, witch is extending to the north and St. Potanska, extending to
the south; on the south, this segment includes the first block on the sout side of Mihajlo Pupin boulevard;
and on the north the fragment spreads to the Square of the Republic, limited by St. Milos Bajic and St.
Danicic. Represented space with dimensions that are barely the total square mile area, integrates layers of
different ages, values and qualities of Novi Sad as in the physical, much more in historical, cultural,
spiritual and traditional terms.5
From planimetry, it is easy to notice that observed fragment has completely irregular structure of the
streets, in its mayor part. The only significant difference can be seen in the form of Mihajlo Pupin
boulevard, which, due to the direction and the size of the profile, stands as a limit. However, the
mentioned blocks on the opposite side of the boulevard constitute an inseparable whole in the cultural,
traditional and sense of value.
The largest number of streets in the center, around the main square, are pedestrian. Irregular web of
streets, human-measure profiles, as well as a layered architecture of previous eras are the main creators of
the spirit and character of this unique area. Entangled and irregular web of streets is the reason for the
existence of a large number of public spaces in this area. The segment has 7 squares. The state in which
certain number of this squares remain today is the main reason for their recognition as such. The squares
of the central areas can be classified by morphology, purpose and overall character.
In addition to streets and squares which are primar and dominant type of public space in this segment,
there are still some good quality spaces that are identified as sites of socialization, and that represent an
integral and inseparable element of this entity. This is primarily the Danube park, promenade by the
river Danube, but also, more and more widespread and popular phenomenon in recent years, maintained
inner-block yard.
4.2. Analysis of the programs in fragment
Program characteristics are very different in this area. Because of the mono-centric character of the
city this area is business, economic, social and cultural center of the city and almost all of these activities
are equally represented. Mentioned public spaces are places of the most intense socialization in the city.
They are places for meeting, contact, exchange, relaxation and enjoyment. Natural environment of park
and river promenade, are used everyday for gathering, recreation and relaxation. Central pedestrian streets
and inner-block yard predominantly have commercial character and they are extensively visited in Novi
Sad, which is also the case with some squares. However, some squares, as well as spaces in front of
public buildings (especially cultural), and certain number of central streets are degraded under the
influence of growing traffic and as such, are not adequate for socialization. Other than the places for
spontaneous daily events, quality spaces in central area are spots for numerous organized programs during
the year (concerts, festivals, cultural, political events, etc.).
4.3. Analysis of traffic infrastructure
As already mentioned, the web of streets in the area is highly irregular as a consequence of the terrain
configuration. In addition, most streets have small cross section. This situation is extremely unfavorable
to the operation of the present volume of traffic. The streets around the main square are pedestrian and
best quality streets in the area. The only real traffic road, according to the size of the cross section and
the frequency, is boulevard Mihajlo Pupin. Due to the intensity of traffic on this boulevard, it represents
an obstacle and limit line in area observed. As all the other streets in the area have significantly narrower
cross section, the impact of such extensive and still growing traffic, has degrading affacet on them, as
well on the whole central tissue. The scope of traffic is reflected also on the efficiency and quality of
public transport in this part of town. The volume of stationary traffic, is another major problem for today's
5

Reba, D., Urbana morfologija i ulini sistemi centralnih podruja vojvoanskih gradova, doktorska disetracija, Fakultet
Tehnikih Nauka, Novi Sad, 2005.

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city. From the above mentioned facts it can be concluded that the present state is more than worrisome. In
contrast to all this, bicycle traffic, which is rated as high potential type of traffic for the area of Novi Sad,
is poorly represented.
4.4. Environmental values of public spaces
In this fragment of the central area of Novi Sad, the greatest cultural values and the most important
layers of urban settlement are intergraded. It carries a large number of objects of cultural and social
significance (Figure 3) and a numerous elements of identity. The overall architectural structure makes one
of the most striking feature of these environments.6 Layered base on which history, tradition and culture
is being interrlated is also the place of the greatest social potential in the whole city. However, it is not
fully utilized and implemented. Some ambience of the area, in spite of all its potential, today are in very
poor condition.
5. ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL AMBIENCE FOR SOCIALIZATION WITHIN THE
SELECTED FRAGMENT
The last unit in the case study is an analysis of specific public ambience in the area. In this section
appropriate criteria has also been applied. On that occasion focused attention was directed on: spatial
characteristics and spirit of the ambience, the elements of identity and urban details, social aspects,
programs and contents within the monitored environment. All results are presented in Tables 1 and
2.7
6. RESULTS OF CITIZENS SURVEY
In order to create a complete and realistic picture of the current state, beside all the theoretical
research, the survey among the citizens of Novi Sad was carried out in this work too. The survey was
conducted on a group of 50 citizens of Novi Sad in the age category of 15 to 70 years.8 Interpretation of
survey results obtained an insight into public opinion, and their relations, requirements and needs in
relation to the existing public spaces.
The analysis showed that the attendance of public spaces in Novi Sad is great and that it does not vary
much in different day time. However, a certain number of citizens believe that Novi Sad lack in adequate
and arranged public spaces and that the quality of existing once is only satisfactory. It is also noticed that
the pedestrian streets are the most attractive and most visited areas of the city, and a favorite place where
people spend their leisure time. In contrast to the pedestrian street, the main town square is much less
favorite. Many people in the square during the day, is a result of the central contents of the surrounding
environment, the central position and the quality of public space close by. Mostly indispensable activities
are conducted at the main square during the day, such as arranged meetings and integration in the passing.
A small number of people choose this place as a destination of choice for their activities. Its primary role
is manifestation, so its highlights stand out best during organized events. What amazes, is the fact that the
smaller squares in the city remained unrecognized as a public places. A small percentage of people who
pleaded for a small town square as their favorite place, meant the Catholic port. This fact should not be
surprising, given that most small squares are now converted into parking spaces - a rich architectural and
cultural stage for the vehicles.

The central core of Novi Sad is protected for its unique architectural and environmental values (Decision on the old city
center of Novi Sad for the spatial-cultural-historical ensembles, "Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia", No. 7, dated 18
January 2008. Year).
7
Because of the scope of this work, only the most characteristic examples of squares and streets are presentet in tables.
Characteristics of other public space areas, are given globally through the text.
8
The survey and results can be found in the master work of the author, titled "A study of urban public spaces as sites of
urban life - a critical evaluation of the central area of Novi Sad", Faculty of Technical sciences, Novi Sad,2010.

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Table 1 Square classification

LIBERTY SQUARE

CATHOLIC PORT

SQUARE
TRIFKOVI

NEWLYWEDS
SQUARE

GALLERY
SQUARE

The geometric
shape

Rectangular shape.

Rectangular shape.

Rectangular shape.

Triangular shape

Triangular
shape

Open space of the

square. Pouring 5
pedestrian street (st.
Modena, King
Alexander, Zmaj Jovina,
Njegoeva and passage.

Closed structure.
Pouring a pedestrian
street Mite Ruzic, two
passages.

The openness of the

sides. St.Njegoeva
and Svetozar Miletic
are the tangent lines,
a pedestrian st.Laze
Telekog flows into
the square.

The open space

of the square.
Define by st.
eleznika and
Potanska.

Open space of
the square.
Square is
tangented by
st. Miroslav
Antic.

Cathedral , The city

municipality building,
Monument of Svetozar
Mileti

Cathedral , fountain,
architecture of
surrounding buildings,
ground floor.

The building of the

music school, a new
office building.

Adamovic palace,
statues in the
square, garden.

Gallery
buildings.

Manifestation Square
(main square)

Social square (social

integration, leisure,)

Traffic Square
(parking space)

Social Square.

Parking space.

Dominant indispensable
activities.

Mainly selected and

social activities.

Only the necessary

activities.

Mainly the
necessary
activities.

Only the
necessary
activities.

Organized programs
(concerts, festivals ...)
and stay on the square to
a lesser extent.

Spontaneous social
activities, organized
activities and cultural
programs, concerts.

Business objects and the

Roman Catholic Church,
ground floor mostly
closed, with no content.

The religious,
cultural, residential
and commercial
character. Ground
floor is open,
commercial and
service activities.

Objects of residential
and commercial
character. Closed
ground.

Mainly office
buildings. The
open ground floor
- a commercial
service and
character.

The buildings
of culture and
business
facilities. The
open ground
floor of
galleries.

Benches, lighting, trash

cans, flower pots with
flowers, memorial

Benches, lighting,
trash cans

Lighting

Benches, lighting,
trash cans,
sculptures in the
square, balustrade
railings of the
garden.

Lighting

Urban
furniture

The elements of
nature (water
and vegetation)

Several trees, tall

vegetation, and floral
flower pots on the square

High shrubs, flower

garden box, a water
el.- fountain.

High vegetation.

High and low

shrubs, flowers in
flower pots, a
small garden in
the square.

High and low

vegetation
within the
existing park.

Asphalt, a red stone on

the central square around
the monument.

The urban mosaic behaton elements in

several colors.

Asphalt

Materialization
of ground

Asphalt and
concrete paving

Asphalt and
cobblestone
streets
completion.

Pedestrian

Only pedestrian traffic

Stationary and
moving traffic

Pedestrian traffic.
Vehicle and
stationary traffic
around the
square.

Stationary
traffic

Social importance, rich

historical and
architectural background,
underrepresented urban
detail and comfort
elements, inadequate
ground.

Social importance,
rich historical and
architectural
background, adequate
design of urban
furniture, rich
contents.

The rich historical

and architectural
background,
availability, good
position in the urban
tissue. Prohibited use,
poor quality

The rich
architectural
background,
excellent
location, good
and adequate
design of urban
furniture, quality
greenery.

The rich
architectural
background,
cultural
identity, a
great location,
good
vegetation.
Inadequate
use.

Morphological
characteristics

Public space

Containment
of the
structure
(streets that
empty)

Elements of identity

Social aspects

The primary
function
Type of
activities in the
area
Programs in the
area

Urban details

Surrounding
objects
(contents and
program of the
ground floor)

The dominant type

of transport

The sociological and

total value of the
ambient

-45-

Rest, leisure. The

envisaged
program of
marrying in the
open is not
implemented.

Table 2 Classification of pedestrian streets

St. ZMAJ JOVINA

St. DUNAVSKA

St. LAZA TELEKI and St.

MITA RUI

Cathedral, Bishop's Palace, a

monument to the poet Jovan
Jovanovic Zmaj, the architecture
of surrounding buildings

Danube park, museums, city

libraries, the architecture of
surrounding buildings

The architecture of buildings,

gardens, cafes, colors.

The primary
function

Pedestrian street, the social

character (leisure, rest )

Pedestrian street, social activities

(leisure, rest, enjoyment), the part
closer to the Danube has traffic
function

Pedestrian streets, social activities

(leisure, enjoyment)

Type of activities in
the area

The activities of choice and social

activities

The activities of choice and social

activities

The activities of choice and social

activities

Programs in the
area

Spontaneous social activities,

organized activities and events
(Cinema city, cultural events,
festivals, honey festival, flags
festival, street musicians ...)

Spontaneous social activities,

organized activities.

Spontaneous social activities,

organized activities.

Surrounding objects
(contents and
program of the
ground floor)

Business and residential

character. Ground floor is open,
mostly commercial and service
facilities.

Business and residential character.

Ground floor is open, mostly
commercial and service facilities.

Business and residential

character. Ground floor is open,
most commercial service, bars.

Urban furniture

Benches, lighting, trash cans,

flower pots with flowers, summer
and outdoor cafe, umbrellas ...

Benches, lighting, trash cans,

flower pots with flowers, summer
and outdoor cafe, billboards ...

Cafe equipment, umbrellas,

advertising ...

High vegetation.

High vegetation, flower garden

box.

Weakly present.

Behaton tiled cubes, prisms and

stone elements.

Behaton tiled cubes, prisms and

stone elements, traffic part has
asphalt.

Paved with behaton cubes and

prisms.

Only pedestrian traffic.

Only pedestrian traffic in the area

closer to the center, vehicular
traffic in the street near the Danube
area.

Only pedestrian traffic.

Great social impact, rich

historical and architectural
background, good and adequate
design of urban furniture, rich
contents.

Great social significance, rich in

historical and architectural
background, good and adequate
design of urban furniture, rich
contents and elements of nature.

A special spirit of place, rich

contents and good position in the
tissue.

Public space

Urban details

Social aspects

Elements of identity

The elements of
nature (water and
vegetation)
Materialization of
ground

The dominant type of

transport

The sociological and total

value of the ambient

Interestingly, it was shown that the majority of the citizens described urban detail as particularly
important for the quality and humanization of public spaces. As the highest quality elements of public
spaces in Novi Sad, people have recognized the interesting features of facilities surrounding the area and
easy accessibility of the area. The biggest drawbacks are the poor equipment of the urban furniture, lack
of interesting content in certain public places, and poor observance.
a

68%
16% 16%

Chart 1 - Rating the quality of public space,

a. good b. satisfying c. bad

72%
44%

16% 12%

Chart 2 - Representation of adequate public areas

a. yes b. no c. don't know

46%
10%

Chart 3 - The importance of urban detail

a. exceptional b. great c. medium d. Insignificant

7. FINAL REMARKS
Presented analyzes confirmed the thesis that Novi Sad, though the city with great potential, rich
history and heterogeneous architecture, has a problem with certain spaces of the central area. Modern life
and the growing urban problems extinguished the life in some, once lively, dynamic and attractive areas
-46-

of the city. The need for transformation of the destroyed and degraded areas, especially in the protected
area of the center, into new public areas that will improve quality of city life, can easily be seen. The
preservation and enhancement in accordance with existing spatial and environmental context is the only
acceptable form of future transformation.
From all that has been said so far it can be concluded that the condition of public spaces in Novi Sad is
only satisfactory. The most convenient and attractive spaces are pedestrian street in the city center. On the
setting of the historical architecture, with an attractive ground floor, rich urban furnishing, good
materialization and enough green elements, those streets have managed to preserve the true spirit of the
place and to become a focus of the events - the soul, but also pictures of this city. The overall quality of
fragment is contributed by the Danube Park and the pedestrian part of the promenade near river. Innerblock yards of central area are the real attraction and focus of socialization in the city. Tucked into the
urban fabric, with rich commercial activities and various programs, they have become increasingly
common and popular kind of space for gatherings, especially during the summer.
On the other hand, it is worrying in which situation are squares in the city, especially the smaller ones.
The survey results confirmed that the most vulnerable places in the tissue are the smaller squares, which
were unrecognized as such by their own citizens. Although they have great potential, great architecture,
good position in the tissue, and high availability, they are released and unused, or worse, occupied by
cars. The survey made a number of interesting proposals, which have only confirmed the necessity of
urban interventions in public spaces. Traffic in the city center is more than obvious and serious problem,
threatening to jeopardize the overall quality of the fragment. That is a matter that needs to be addressed
very soon so that life could go down from pedestrian street into open, undeveloped area of urban tissue,
places originally created for that role.
8. CLOSING REMARKS
This work presents a part of a larger master research by the author, and entitled "Study of urban public
space as a place of urban life - a critical evaluation of the central area of Novi Sad", Faculty of Technical
Sciences, Novi Sad, 2010. Extensive research, details, survey and its graphicly presented results, can be
found in the work.
REFERENCES
[1] Halprin, L., Gradovi, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1973.
[2] Srbulovi, ., Kratka istorija Novog Sada, Prometej, Optinski zavod za zatitu spomenika
kulture, Novi Sad, 2000.
[3] Radivojevi, R., Sociologija naselja, FTN izdavatvo, Novi Sad, 2004.
[4] Reba, D., Urbana morfologija i ulini sistemi centralnih podruja vojvoanskih gradova,
doktorska disetracija, Fakultet Tehnikih Nauka, Novi Sad, 2005.

-47-

IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Daniela Dimitrovska1

ARCHITORTURE SPACE AS NON-PLACE OR PLACE

Abstract: This paper is about researching architecture as a spectacular event of specific political
ideology in a given public and urban context. On the one hand, emphasis is placed on the presence of
architecture for creating a city in an image of something that should represent a cultural and ideological
spectacle of places-architecture as archiTORTURE, while on the other hand it elaborates on its effects on
society, thus sending messages about the area and the people that reside in it. This phenomenon of
architecture as archiTORTURE is articulated in space, structure, time and identity. Their mutual
activities in public space define its identity or perception, reading their inner connections helps us
recognize that a particular space as a place or non-place. (Non)places are areas in which a person finds
their other nature because they serve as the continuance of an individual existential world. They raise the
levels of functionality and aesthetic quality of space and therefore they outshine as individual locations of
cities that are attractive. Our experience of these places generates a feeling of belonging i.e. we sense the
individual public spaces of the city as our own. The goal of this paper is to make us realise the power of
space as place. Therefore, the paper is composed as an interactive act of surveillance and analysis of the
project Skopje 2014 that uses architecture as means for the goals of creating nonexistent identity that
points out the role of architectural space and ideology as an event in the process of creating; readingsunderstanding and experiencing public space as non-place or place.
ey words: ideology, culture, space, identity, non-place, archiTORTURE

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Teaching Assistant, PhD Student, Architect-master, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovic 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, e-mail: @ 4danny.ela gmail.com

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1. (NON)PLACE IN PUBLIC SPACE

The public space in a city is a representation of our common existential, personal space and as such
brings about a specific quality to our daily lives. Those are places that come in expressive and emotional
forms, a type of theatres where daily urban life is staged. Usually they are the central areas of the city,
squares that unite the physical and social dimensions of space. Areas promoted as attractive, dynamic
places that entertain, educate and transmit various messages.
The City Square can be seen as a place in the sense that it represents a significant landmark of the city
and has attributes which, according to Marc Aug, define a place: '' If place can be defined as relational,
historical and concerned with identity, then a space which can not be defined as relational, or historical,
or concerned with identity will be a non-place. [1] Therefore, we can conclude that the author places
emphasis on three components that are significant and create a place: the existence of the place, then the
character of the place (created through the elements of architecture and urbanism) and finally, perhaps the
most important: the potential significance of the place (the experience of the place). If the place lacks one
or several of these parameters, he defines it as a non-place, dominated by the character of
transience which influences the disappearance of public space in the city. In his book, Marc Aug uses
the term non-place in supermodernity- characterized as a period abounding in experiences, abounding in
space and individuality. In other words, what the author is trying to say is that today, in the context of
globalization, cities are abundant in places which are a form of improvisation, created as a result of the
aforementioned supermodernity. They are quasi-public spaces creating the image of a commercial
culture, the space of ephemerality. It is here that the individual has nothing to identify with, thus resulting
in a sense of alienation, a world of the lonely individual, a world of temporality and transience.
Nonetheless, city squares are areas that the individuals use as places for relaxation, a respite from the
artificial purposes of the city, where they come in contact with the essence of the city, its cultural history
and memory.
Therefore, the differences and contrasts between a place and a non-place are based on the dialogue
between the user of the space and the vacancy of its surroundings. The language of architecture and
sociology is the only resource pointing to the textual message of the essence of a place, as follows: the
existence of the place, the character-atmosphere of the place and the experience of the place. A place is
not just a geometrical space, above all it is an anthropological space as well as an existential space. A
place of experienced relation towards the world of an individual, primarily determined by their attitude to
the environment [2].
Therefore, the knowledge and the understating of a place as a non-place, according to the theory of
Marc Aug is the starting point of exploration, i.e. the study on the project ''Skopje 2014''. A case where
architecture is the basic means of a political ideology, thus resulting in archiTORTURE and shaping the
public space into a non-place or place.
2. SKOPJE 2014 (NON)PLACE
2.1. In the search for the (non)existing identity
Nowadays it is a popular for cities to use architecture to attain development of social and economic
urbanization of the city. Thus, they influence the collective experience of the city, creating an image that
can be received as both positive and negative.
As a case study, Skopje is observed in a given context as a city which for a longer period of time has
been in a continuous process of redefining identity as well as repositioning on both regional and global
level. In fact, Skopje is an example where architecture is used as a means of the urban and social
regeneration of the city and the country, itself. It is a fact that the city is threatened with a new removal
of layers of history, narration and memory of individual areas - which is especially emphasised in the
central area of the city, following the accelerated development of the city, i.e. the increase in construction
work and modernization in the last few years, all with the goal of creating an image of Skopje as a
European city. The need for such an approach has always been present in the history of the Republic of
Macedonia, since it has never had the space or the possibility to express its national identity. It is known
that the Republic of Macedonia was the last nation freed from Ottoman rule in 1912. This was followed
by a period of invasion by the Bulgarian army during the First and Second World War, ending as part of
the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. This process has had consequences and its national identity has always been
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undermined. In 1945, Macedonia received its chance to develop its own individual identity, different from
other Yugoslavian neighbours. Until 1991, Macedonia was a federal republic within Yugoslavia and from
2005 is a candidate for EU membership. From that period to today, Macedonia has been in constant
conflict with its neighbours. As a result of the name issue with Greece (where a region is also called
Macedonia), Macedonia is recognized as FYROM (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) by the
European Union. These provocations have influenced the country of Macedonia, as a new and
independent country, to decide on revising its national identity. Therefore, the government of the
Republic of Macedonia started claiming its succession rights from Ancient Macedonia- believing that the
modern Macedonian nation has developed from the Antic Macedonians and the Slavic people that moved
to its territory.
Since 2010, under the motto A European city needs a historical centre, the city has been given a
new image in the direction of promoting a new architectural- urban concept, i.e. the project Skopje
2014. This is a megalomaniac project that includes a large number of state objects and memorials, using
architecture as an expression of the authoritys goal, promoting and validating the national identity. It is a
pompous and theatrical product based on the reanimation of the architectural eclecticism in the central
area of the city. The project Skopje 2014 is based on the construction of facades, an eclectic
performance of distaste and emphasis of the historical and artistic baroque style that has never been
represented in Macedonia. In other words, baroque with all its features cannot be a part of the national
identity. Instead of preserving certain buildings that represent the temporal development of the city, and
which are moreover representatives of a certain historical and artistic period, which is evaluated on a
global level and as such contributes to the shaping of a place in space, today in the centre of Skopje an
artificial and fictitious place is being constructed. Skopje 2014 is a non-place, an example of the instant
consummation of culture where architecture becomes archiTORTURE!
2.2. Skopje 2014 or a caricature of a European city
Remember todays look of the square in the capital. It will never be the same. These are the words
of Branko Gjorcev, an actor at the video presentation where the government project Skopje 2014 was
displayed for the first time. Firstly, this is a great political and state project that implements the principle
of non-selection and the procedure of selection of architects and artists for the project, i.e. there was no
public tender, and another matter is that all the included facilities and memorials are rough, vague copies
of styles and forms that have already been elaborated in museums. Skopje 2014 formulates matters based
on the principle that all constructions and memorials have been protected in advance since they have
national and state immunity, hence no artistic and aesthetic review can remove or revoke their right, not
even the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Macedonia, who did not support the project. Yet, Skopje
2014 has become a reality. Therefore, I wish to stress that the planning of this project was not transparent.
The only announcement for it was transmitted via television and Youtube where the draft-plan for the
newly planned buildings was shown. Naturally, the same drafts in horizontal and vertical plans are not
available to the public, as well as the expenses for this project. The Minister of Culture, Elizabeta
Kancevska Milevska, says that the new look of Skopje will show everything that is worth seeing and
talking about. She claims that these new buildings will be the rebirth of Macedonian identity. This is
where architecture and urbanism will define the new physiognomy of the city that does not express its
historical continuity.
Most of us remember Skopje as a city whose architectural mark was made by Kenzo Tange and his
architectural-urban plan from 1965. After the earthquake on July 26th 1963, when approximately 80% of
the buildings were destroyed, the United Nations opened a tender for the construction of a new Skopje
which was won by the team of the great Japanese architect Kenzo Tange. Considering the authors
Gradski Zid- the eight-storey residential blocks positioned near the city centre- the reconstruction of
Skopje started in the spirit of the sixties. Nevertheless, Kenzos plan was never fully conducted. Problems
were resolved in time and the projects functionally is still limited today. The insignia of the worldrenown architect Kenzo Tange is still present in Skopje: Gradski Zid, the Post Office, the University
Campus, the Railway Station and many others marking brutalist architecture as well as many modern
characteristic features that still shape the look of the city. This heritage, the so-called International
Kenzo City is a heritage worth protecting, but instead of being protected it is being replaced with a
contemporary architectural interpretation of baroque, the intention of which is to make Skopje look like
a European city. (Figure 1).
-50-

Figure 6 - Contemporary Skopje

In other words, if you would go to Skopje today, you will realise that these contemporary architectural
landmarks are in secondary, even tertiary plan since Skopje is creating a new image at an accelerated
pace. This image is inspired by architectural styles from neo-classicism (Roman neo-classicism, that is
imperialism), i.e. the process of antiquation. The project predicts the construction of approximately 20
objects, including museums, theaters, concert halls, hotels and public and administration buildings.
Furthermore, it includes a large number of bronze and marble sculptures to decorate the environment. In
addition, there is the construction of the Triumphal Arch. The peak of the project is the 22 meter bronze
statue called the Warrior on a Horse depicting the face and work of Alexander the Great standing on top
of a white marble column, positioned in the middle of the central square, i.e. Macedonia Square. The
project Skopje 2014 is not naive, on the contrary the construction works are in full progress. The
politics of the government is to use architecture and urbanism as a means of creating an image that does
not exist and has never existed. An image of a non-place.
2.3. The character of a place- architecture and ideology or archiTORTURE
The space where the place is positioned is part of the peoples daily life, which through visual and
psychological means emphasises the significance of the space. Architecture is meant to glorify. Where
there is nothing to glorify, there is no architecture [5], said English philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Architecture has always been a means to specify certain space for the purpose of a given political idea,
will or power. Seen as such, when marking a new system of value, architecture has the same power as
politics itself. Skopje 2014 is an example of how architecture can be used for political and demagogical
goals, architecture that demonstrates the power of the government.
To try and explain or re-tell the character of the place in the project Skopje 2014 is a challenge.
Firstly, it includes a great number of newly constructed buildings as well as monuments that create
extreme confusion and spatial and urban chaos. Here architecture is a physical image, the visual form of a
society that speaks of form and not functionality. Therefore, instead of dealing with the analysis of the
great urban image of Skopje 2014, we will deal with the analysis of aesthetics, contents and the
significance of the two capital architectural and urban landmarks.
Firstly, the Triumphal Arch or Porta Macedonia. The Triumphal Arch is monumental architecture,
characteristic of the Roman period in construction. The original idea is the Titus Arch from the 1 st
century, located in Rome. This arch was built in the honour of Emperor Titus and his victories. In the art
of architecture, this arch becomes a model for another three arches in London, Paris and Munich. The
first two are built at the start of the 19th century to glorify the victories of the English over the French, and
vice versa. On the other hand, the arch in Munich dates from the 18th century and is part of the
fortification of the city. What exactly does Porta Macedonia represent?
Porta Macedonia is located on Pella Square and is 21 meters high. Its sides are decorated with a relief
depicting historical motives, starting from Ancient Macedonia to the declaration of independence in 1991.
In addition, there are reliefs on the sides depicting cultural motives, scenes from traditions and folklore. In
fact, it is the relief that makes Porta Macedonia different from all the rest, but it can not be denied that
Porta Macedonia is a plagiarism of Roman architecture. Moreover, there is no great emperor in the
national history of Macedonia who was welcomed back with a grand spectacle. In other words, Porta
Macedonia is not just an architecturally artificial monument nor is it architecture glorying national
history. (Figure 2).
-51-

Figure 7 - The look and the atmosphere of the Triumphal Arch, a place to celebrate the triumphs of the country

The character of the place is created by architecture and urbanism. However, what exactly happens
when architecture is not real, when it is just a replica, or simply an image of something, or search for
identity? Unfortunately, this Triumphal Arch (due to its size, architectural style and urban location) is one
of the dominant pieces in the central city area. However, all these features create the character of the
place as a non-place. They create non-architecture, non-triumph, non-place.
Secondly, the analysis of the statue called Warrior on a Horse. The statue is 13 metres high, weighs 35
tons and is placed on a constructed 15 meter column in the centre of Macedonia Square. It is made of
bronze, where apart from the sculpture of the horseback warrior, there is a base enriched with lions and
soldiers from the Macedonian phalanx. The statue is placed in the centre of a marble fountain, the
construction of which costs 4.1 million EUR, while the entire project is worth 9.1 million EUR. This
entire project is based on an artistic concept where every detail carries a message. (Figure 3).

Figure 8 - The placement of the statue Warrior on a Horse, Macedonia Square, Skopje 2011- the visitor is identifying with
the cultural and historical landmark

The column, i.e. the pedestal on which the warrior is placed, has three rings representing three battles.
Between them there are three bronze rings abounding in decorations and relief figures. The last ring,
which is located on the top part, rains water. Furthermore, there are 8.3 meter bronze soldiers around the
fountain. The decoration is completed with eight, two and a half meter lions, four of which are facing the
fountain. They spout water, while the other four lions are placed as guards and positioned on the stairs.
The author of this masterpiece, Valentina Karanfilovska Stefanovska claims that this statue will be
attractive to a large number of tourists and that future generations will be proud of it and will identify
with it.
Placing such a hypertrophy landmark in the very centre of the square has indefinitely changed the
surroundings. The square is not completely visible from any side and its atmosphere cannot be felt due to
the dominance and the theatrical presence of this statue. There used to be architecture here, now its
architorture! The dominance of political power uses architecture to send a clear message of its ideology,
policy and power or in other words, eclectic architecture to suit the glorification of this particular project
and the power of the government.

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2.4. The experience of a place- the Bilbao effect in Skopje 2014

It is known that the identity of a place is a social and cultural fragment which can be directly presented
or recognized in national architecture and art, however, art and architecture can create a new dynamic
identity of a city. The best example of this effect is the project of architect Frank Gehry in the
construction of the Solomon Guggenheim museum that marked Bilbao as an exceptional architectural
attraction, awarding it new visual recognition even though it is no manner connected to the existing
national history. Thus, it is proven that architecture can transform a city, in this case awarding it with a
place on the map of architectural destinations in the world.
Being aware of this effect, we can implement it on the Skopje project.
Skopje or Skopje 2014 received its publicity and its recognition on a regional and global level by
becoming a new tourist destination through the use of architecture. Consciously or not, this architecture
and ideological project has made Skopje into a popular tourist attraction and destination, more so today
than ever before. We expect that the project 2014 will provide futuristic effects, since it will be
interesting and people would like to come and see them (the new buildings) in person [3], is the
prediction of Vasilka Dimitrovska, tourist guide and archaeologist. In other words, Skopje 2014
initiated the Bilbao effect in experiencing it as a place or non-place. On the one hand, being aware of all
the facts, the government of Macedonia recently passed a plan to reduce tax expenses by offering reduced
tax to hotels from 18 to 5%, hoping for interest from foreign investors. On the other hand, statistics shows
that Macedonia has been treated only as a stop on the tour of the Balkans, where tourists only stay for a
day. Whereas, since the beginning of this project (at the end of 2010) the number of nights spent in
Macedonia by tourists has been increased.
Zoran Strezovski, Director of the goverment agency for the promotion of tourism, says that millions in
visitors are still in our distant future, but that Macedonia has started to feel a significant rise in the number
of visitors since 2011. This is definitely a year when foreign tourists are coming to Macedonia, he
says. We expect that there will be 300 000 by the end of the year. Thanks to the project Skopje 2014,
Skopje is becoming an attractive destination [4], Strezovski added. In other words, visitors used to come
for the authentic national heritage as Kameni Most or the old Hamam, or Kenzos city, while today the
most photographed and the most visited (non)places belong to the project Skopje 2014. They are already
part of the tourist map of Macedonia and are showing increasing cultural and tourist potential. Proof of
the success is that in order to increase interest in the memorials of Skopje 2014 the city authorities have
announced the sale of mini-replicas of the statues and buildings of Skopje 2014.
The experience of Skopje 2014 as a great tourist and cultural attraction has enabled individual
architectural capital works of this project to be transformed into brands of tourist products. Thus,
architecture becomes a product that is an advertisement in itself, an experience that draws attention and a
must-see tourist destination. Architecture in a controversial form attracts the attention of visitors. In other
words, all the world media when reporting on Macedonia, whether in printed or electronic form, show an
image of Porta Macedonia or Warrior on a Horse. Thus they present a false image that is imposed, that is
physically present and which due to its size, aesthetic style and theatrical effect cannot be avoided,
together with the experience it imposes. However, is this experience enough to characterize this location
as a place?
3. CONCULUSION
Is the project Skopje 2014 a place or a non-place?
Based on this study and Marc Augs theory of (non)place, Skopje 2014 does not meet the two out
of three criteria. In fact, the only aspect that functions in relation to this project is its co-existence, the fact
that it exists, that it is part of reality and that most of the people that reside in this space have accepted the
changes that were imposed. On the other hand, as far as the character of the place is concerned, the
project is just an attempt to function as a square of a European city, however, instead we have a counter
effect- a caricature of an European square. Nevertheless, as far as the potential memory of the place is
concerned, that is the experience of the place, it is real, but not in a positive connotation. The emotions
that affect this atmosphere are confusion and exertion. It all contributes to the classification of this space
as a non-place.
It is a curios fact that with every passing day, with each personal photography taken alongside these
landmarks or at a public event, or a manifestation taking place in this area, this non-place is becoming a
-53-

place. Architorture has that power of transformation. It is means of manipulation that clearly states that in
the future this non-place will become a place to generate a new self-sufficient and self-recognizable
country. The role of architecture is to glorify. Where there is nothing to glorify, there is no architecture
[5]- If architecture lacks the spirit of the place, the sense, it is in vain to ignore it The only thing that
remains is to glorify it.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

Aug M., Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity , 1995, page 52.

Aug M., Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity , 1995, page 103.
Ilijevski K., Bronza i mermer e zauvek transformirati lice Skoplja, www.Balkaninsight.com
., , , .73 .1,
2010, page 9.
[5] Wilson C.St.J., Architectural reflections: Studies in the Philosophy and Practice of Architecture,
2000, page 55.

-54-

IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Jelena Dmitrovi1

ARCHITECTURE AND ITS ICONS

Abstract: Architectural representation has always been one of the important aspects of architecture.
There is no doubt that architecture is a representation of a certain idea, in a matter of fact, according to
Plato, the whole world is. Whether this representation is intended or no, idea, message or just pure
symbolic image comes out of whatever we call architecture. Representations are the most obvious in
iconic buildings, which have significantly marked architectural practice in the last 10 years. When
communication through media and images became dominant, architecture has found its way of operating
in this new world of images through iconic architecture. The aim of this paper is to analyze modern
iconic buildings and their strong connection with images. The term "image" in this paper refers to any
kind of form, motif, sign or representation that appears in some medium or other. Architectural imagery
is questioned through the use of images in iconic architecture, whether as a starting point of design or as
its final result.
Key words: Iconic buildings, architecture, images, pictorial turn, media

IKONE ARHITEKTURE
: Arhitektonska predstava je oduvek bila vaan arhitektonski aspekt. Nema sumnje da arhitektura
predstavlja odraz ideje, kao, izmedju ostalog, po Platonu, i ceo svet. Bilo da je ova predstava sluajna ili
namerna, ideja, poruka ili isto simbolina slika proizilazi iz predstavljenog. Simbolike predstave su
najoiglednije na primeru ikonikih graevina, koje su, u poslednjih deset godina, znaajno obeleile
arhitektonsku praksu. Onda kada je komunikacija putem medija i slika postala dominantna, arhitektura
je nala nain delovanja u tom svetu slika, kroz arhitekturu ikona. Osnovni cilj ovog rada je analiza
modernih ikonikih graevina kroz njihovu slikovitost. Pod terminom slika se podrazumeva bilo koja
forma, motiv, znak ili predstava koja se javlja u nekom od medija. Slikovitost arhitekture je ispitana kroz
upotrebu slika u arhitekturi, bilo kao polazne osnove ili njenog konanog rezultata.
: Ikonika graevina, arhitektura, slike, vizuelni obrt, mediji
1. ON IMAGES
Where the real world changes into simple images, the simple images become real beings and
effective motivations of hypnotic behavior- Guy Debord [4]
The Iconic building can be perceived either directly, in real space, or indirectly, as an image (or
images), through various media. Architectural icons are explicitly positioned relative to a visual
consumer, considered either as the visitor standing in front of the building or, more likely, the viewer of
an image of the architecture in the printed press, on television, or on film, Paul Jones writes.[11] Since
experience of such building is in most cases distant and indirect and since image has central role in the
production and iteration of iconicity this paper deals not only with architectural icons but images in a
broader sense as well.
Our present society, according to Baudrillard, is a media society, a world saturated by images and
communication. The image has supplanted reality, inducing what Baudrillard has termed a condition of
hyperreality, a world of self-referential signs. [1] Guy Debord also wrote about domination of images. In
his book The society of the spectacle he argued that the tangible world is replaced by a selection of
1

Master of architecture, PhD student at The University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Architecture, e-mail: jeeleenaa@gmail.com

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images which exist above it, and which simultaneously impose themselves as the tangible par excellence.
As he declared everything that was directly lived has moved away into a representation. [4] Debord
also wrote about the consumption of images. This process has started with television and has increased
with the new media and internet technologies.
2. ON PICTORIAL/ ICONIC/ VISUAL TURN
Richard Rorty has characterized the history of philosophy as a series of turns in which a new set
of problems emerges and the old ones begin to fade away.( Rorty, 1967, see W.J.T. Mitchell) In Rortys
words ancient and medieval philosophy was concerned with things, the philosophy of the seventeenth
through the nineteenth century was concerned with ideas and the enlightened contemporary philosophical
scene with words. [8] He himself introduced the linguistic turn and argued that language plays the
central role in human interactions with the world.
In the late twentieth century the power of the visual is said to be greater than ever before. Under these
circumstances two professors, independently from each other, presented another theoretical turn which
surpassed once dominant linguistic turn. W. J. T. Mitchell introduced the phrase "pictorial turn"[8], while
Gottfried Boehm used the expression "ikonische Wendung", that is "iconic turn" [6]. Gottfried Boehm,
interpreted the significance of the notions picture (Bild), image (Abbild), pictorialness (Bildnis) and
imagination (Einbildungskraft). Boehms writing is about attaching greater significance to pictorialness,
which determines our epistemology. On the other side W. J. T. Mitchell, argues for the importance of a
pictorial turn, an independent picture theory. According to him the pictures that surround us do not only
transform our world and identity, but also form them more and more. In this way pictures are playing an
important role in the construction of our social reality. The way architecture, together with pictures,
participates in shaping our reality is through iconic buildings.
3. ON ARCHITECTURAL ICONS
an iconic building is one that shouts about its presence, that transcends its context and makes a
commanding statement. Dan Stewart [14]
As Charles Jencks defines it, the iconic building shares certain aspects both with an iconic object, such
as a Byzantine painting of Jesus, and the philosophical definition of an icon, that is, a sign with some
factor in common with the thing it represents. On the one hand, to become iconic a building must provide
a new and condensed image, be high in figural shape or gestalt, and stand out from the city. On the other
hand, to become powerful it must be reminiscent in some ways of unlikely but important metaphors and
be a symbol fit to be worshipped.[10]
There are iconic buildings and ones that are trying to be iconic. As Jencks points out good examples of
iconic buildings have many meanings (unlike the one-liner) that relate to their place, function and history.
[10] Similar to that Paul Jones describes a successful iconic building as one which necessarily develops a
strong association with place through an instantly recognizable form designed to be both distinctive and
widely disseminated [11], while Sklair argues that it is the unique combination of fame with symbolism
and aesthetic quality that creates the icon.[12]
The most common reference for modern icons is The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain,
designed by Frank Gehry. As Paul Goldberger, architecture critic, pointed out: Bilbao was one of those
rare moments when critics, academics, and the general public were all completely united. [2] Bilbao in
Spain has set a significant example for other cities in the world. It showed that it is the avant-garde design
of both buildings and open spaces that can make urban morphology in and of itself a tourist attraction. [3]
The use of a spectacular piece of contemporary architecture in an urban regeneration project to stimulate
the economy by attracting visitors is known as the 'Bilbao effect'. The emergence of icons consolidates a
transnational elite of starchitects, high-profile architects whose globally oriented business models and
prominence in public discourse situate them as a mobile, global elite whose capacity to define
transnational spacessuch as parliament buildings, airports, galleries, major shopping developments, and
sports stadiumsmakes them much in demand.[11]

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Figure 2 The Bilbao Effect, available at: http://cfa.aiany.org/index.php?section=calendar&evtid=1579,

[acceded February 2011]

4. WHAT DOES ICONIC FORM FOLLOW?

In his 1896 article, The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered, Luis Sullivan wrote:
It is the pervading law of all things organic and inorganic, of all things physical and metaphysical, of
all things human and all things superhuman, of all true manifestations of the head, of the heart, of the
soul, that the life is recognizable in its expression, that form ever follows function. This is the law. [13]
The debate about form and function is ongoing one. Well known phrase given by Sullivan was
interpreted in different ways and often rephrased, such as: Form follows fiasco (Peter Blake, 1977),
Form follows fiction (Bernard Tchumi, 1986, Jeffrey Deitch, 2001, Isaac Lerner, 2010), Form follows
force (Haresh Lalvani, D'Arcy W. Thompson), Form follows emotion (Ross Lovegrove), Form
follows processes (W. Patrick Edwards, 2001, Martin Hemberg, 2004), Form follows libido (Sylvia
Lavin, 2005), Form follows fashion (Liam Julian,2010)
With an easy play on words we can get the form following almost anything, depending on the way we
want to present it or how we want to define our theoretical position. If we look at the architecture of
iconic buildings it might seem that form follows fiction[5] design credo suits it the best, since
architectural icons are representations of abstract phenomena, materialization of the fiction. But actually,
if we reconsider the term function in architecture and take a closer look to various functions of
architecture (having in mind that "Function" is more than just a utility and that it encompasses not only
practical criteria of the use of a building but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural), we may even say
that form of the iconic building does follow its function, if its main function is to attract, amaze and
impress.
5. ICONIC ARCHITECTURE REVIEW
Iconic architecture is often conceptualized as a hegemonic project of the transnational capitalist class
and as such is highly criticized. As Leslie Sklair argued Unlike historical icons, icons of our time are
produced under conditions of capitalist globalization and the demands of culture-ideology of
consumerism.[12] Critics consider icon not as a monument than rather as a representation of capital
accumulation.
Apart from its negative aspects, the role of iconic buildings in constructing personal global scale
cognitive maps is nothing but positive. Kevin Lynch identified five elements crucial for building the
mental image of a city, and those are: path, edges, nodes, districts, and landmarks.[9] As he says, clear
mental map of the environment is needed to counter the always looming fear of disorientation and it gives
people an important sense of emotional security.[9] Iconic buildings are actually landmarks but not just
city landmarks but the ones of a world. They help us create our own imago mundi needed for overal
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orientation and self-positioning ina a global world. As Leslie Sklair concludes architectural icons can
have local, national or global significance and recognition, or any mixture of these three. What turns local
and national icons into global icons is a mixture of publicity and the peculiar symbolism/aesthetics of
iconicity. For him iconicity is simply a matter of publicity, self-promotion by the client or the developer
together with the architect and those who produce the images.[12]
6. CONCLUSION
The phenomenon of using iconic architecture to promote a city, an institution, or a real-estate
development was a product of the economic boom that began in the late 1990s and ended with the
recession in 2008. Era of the iconic buildings started with the Guggenheim museum in Bilbao and interest
for these kinds of buildings, as we said, decreased after recession. There were, of course, iconic buildings
before Gehrys museum and there are and will be iconic buildings designed after 2008, but it was in this
approximately ten years that iconicity in architecture was at its highest. After the crisis it seems like
sustainability together with new technology is taking the position of the absolute imperative in design.
The recession is forcing a reconsideration of what is planned and built in the past years. As architecture
critic Cathleen McGuigan announced: The trophy building is so over. Welcome to the era of design on a
diet. [7] What will replace both clients and architects interest in iconic buildings it is yet to be seen.
REFERENCES
[1] Baudrillard, J. in Leach, N. (editor) Rethinking architecture, Routlege, London, 1997. Pg.199.
[2] Goldberger, P. In Tyrnauer, M.: Architecture in the age of Gehry, 2010 [Online], Available:
http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2010/08/architecture-survey-201008 [February 2011].
[3] Gospodini, A. Urban design, in Hutchison, R. (editor) Encyclopedia of urban studies, SAGE
Publications, Inc., 2010, pg. 859-862.
[4] Debord, G.: The society of the spectacle, 1967. [Online], Available:
http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/debord/society.htm [July 2012].
[5] Deitch, J.: Catalogue of exhibition at the Castello di Rivoli Museo d'Arte Contemporanea, RivoliTorino, October 17 2001-January 27 2002.
[6] Hornyik, S. On The Pictorial Turn, 2002. [Online], Available:
http://exindex.hu/index.php?l=en&page=3&id=417#footer [July 2012].
[7] McGuigan, C.: Starchitecture: A Modest Proposal, 2010. [Online], Available:
http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2010/06/11/starchitecture-a-modest-proposal.html
[March 2011].
[8] Mitchell, W. J. T.: The pictorial turn. In: Picture Theory. Essays on Verbal and Visual
Representation. Chicago, 1994.
[9] Lynch, K.: Slika jednog grada, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1974.
[10]
Jencks, C.: An interview by Paul Comstock, [Online], Available:
http://calitreview.com/70 [July 2012].
[11]
Jones, P.: Architecture, in Hutchison, R. (editor) Encyclopedia of urban studies, SAGE
Publications, Inc., 2010, pg. 36-40
[12]
Sklair, L.: Iconic Architecture and Capitalist Globalization, City, Vol.10, No.1, April
2006.pp.21-47, Publisher: Routledge
[13]
Sullivan, L.: The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered [Online], Available:
http://academics.triton.edu/faculty/fheitzman/tallofficebuilding.html [July 2012].
[14]
Stewart, D.: Recession architecture: The icon era is over [Online], Available:
http://www.building.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=3135892 [July 2012].

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Katarzyna Foljanty1

FORMER RAILWAY AREAS IN BERLIN

AS AN EXAMPLE OF URBAN REGENERATION
Abstract: City administrations are yet to recognize the vast potential of abandoned post-railway terrains.
Very often these terrains, located in the very heart of the city, are sold to private investors who seek to
make maximum profits from developing these terrains into office buildings, housing estates or shopping
malls. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Senate of Berlin has been very successful in transforming many
former railway lands or building complexes into public areas of recreation and culture. The success of
these transformations is mainly due to opening the planning process to public participation. A formidable
example of this participation approach is Park am Gleisdreieck, which was opened in 2011. Residents of
surrounding neighbourhoods could submit their own suggestions that were discussed in-depth in
architectural workshops. With this approach, the inhabitants identity with the area was strengthened and
the integration between residents was increased.
This paper presents seven remarkable examples from Berlin and discusses lessons to be learned from
them and how they can be applied in other cities.
ey words: railway, train station, Berlin, regeneration, recreation, public participation, parks, landscape
design
1. INTRODUCTION
By the nature of their function, post-rail terrains are very often located in very centre of the city. Once
these terrains are abandoned, they can become a major problem for urban development, but at the same
time, they offer a great opportunity in urban areas of high density. City dwellers increasingly demand a
higher quality of life. City life is particularly attractive outside and the style of life of many urbanites
strongly includes public communication and consumption. However, in order for this to thrive, the public
spaces must be attractive and functional to these demands.
Most of the city centers in Eastern Europe still lack places of such quality. As many examples e.g. in
Spanish cities have proven, that improving the quality of public spaces that are accessible to all and every
day in order to create a good atmosphere, can become an attractive brand of the city. Many examples
have been successful in attracting more people to these places, so that adjacent restaurants and shops
benefited in their economic development.
In this paper, I would like to present how the Senate of Berlin dealt with post-rail areas. Berlin serves
as an interesting example, because similarly to many Eastern European cities, war turmoil caused massive
destruction and it was also partly under a Soviet rule for many decades.
After 1945, the railroads in Berlin (also in West-Berlin) fell into Soviet rule and later eastern part of
the Deutsche Reichsbahn. Limitation of connections between the western part of the city and its
surroundings in years 1945-1952 resulted in the closure and demolition of several major stations.
I would like to discuss some selected examples of transformation of former railway lands or building
complexes combined with recreational and cultural functions that were executed after the fall of the
Berlin Wall.

MSc. Arch. - Doctoral Student, Faculty of Architecture, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Koszykowa 55, 00-659
Warszawa, Poland, e-mail: kasia.k.kot@gmail.com

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2. CLASSIFICATION YARD TEMPELHOF

Natur-Park Schneberger Sdgelnde was designed on the areas of a former railway classification
yard. Until 1945, the classification yard Tempelhof was one of the most important sites in the Berlin
railway network. However, due to World War II, rail traffic declined and its importance was drastically
reduced. In 1952, the yard was closed. The terrain fell into decay afterwards and remained untouched
until 1989.
Half the population of wild animals and plants, which existed in Berlin, became extinct or is
threatened with extinction. To protect these species the inhabitants of the city voted for the establishment
of the natural park under special protection in the late 1980s. As a site, the former classification yard was
chosen, for it was overgrown by post-industrial spontaneous vegetation and therefore suited as a natural
habitat for these species.

Figure 9 The classification yard, 1935 (source: Carl Bellingrodt)

Starting in 1995, different types of endangered plants were collected throughout the city and brought
to the new site. The park itself was opened to visitors in 2000, in the same year when EXPO in Hannover
took place. Schneberger Sdgelnde, an area of 18 hectares, is characterized by a combination of nature,
railroad artefacts and art. Filling existing track ways with soil has created paths; some of them were raised
80 cm above the ground level to protect the existing flora. Several historical elements including
nineteenth-century turntable and 50-meter high steel water tower from 1927 are left. A hall for
maintaining and repairing trains built in 1910 will soon become a theatre-concert hall. This site is visited
annually by approx. 50 000 people. The development of the park is monitored by the sale of tickets
(entrance costs 1 euro), surveys and interviews with visitors.

Figure 10 Old locomotive and rails in todays park, 2011 (source: own work)

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3. HAMBURGER BAHNHOF
The station was completed in 1847 as the terminus of the Berlin-Hamburg Railway. It originated as a
terminal station, according to plans by Friedrich Neuhaus and Ferdinand Wilhelm Holz. The building had
two towers and two passes through which the locomotive could reach the turntable located on the square
in front.
Already in October 1884 after only 37 years of use, the station was closed, because of the
nationalization and fusions of railway companies in Germany. The nearby-located Lehrter Bahnhof took
over all passenger traffic in the direction of Hamburg. However, the railroad tracks were in use until the
late 80s of the XXth century, as freight companies settled and stayed there.

Figure 11 Hamburger Bahnhof approx. in 1850 (source: unknown)

Figure 12 Main exhibition hall of the

Museum of Contemporary Art, 2011 (source:
own work)

In December 1906, the Royal Museum of Construction and Communications was opened in the front
building. It was later renamed the Museum of Communications and Constructions. The Museum grew so
quickly that is was decided to build additional two side wings. In the mid-1980s, Berlin entrepreneur
Erich Marx donated his collections of art to West-Berlin authorities to be made publicly available. In
1987, the Senate decided to open Museum of Contemporary Art in the former Hamburger Bahnhof train
station. Josef Paul Kleihues won the architectural competition for the expansion and reconstruction of the
Museum. In November 1996, the museum was re-opened and has been ever since a very popular Museum
with almost 300 000 visitors annually.
4. GRLITZER BAHNHOF
Station was designed by August Orth, in palatial Italian Renaissance style. The construction was
completed in 1867. It was established as part of the connection between the cities of Berlin, Cottbus and
Grlitz. The new line became an instant success, with servicing over 70 000 passengers a day just a few
months after the opening. Such popularity stimulated the development of the surrounding area of the train
station and many shops, restaurants and cafs opened.
During World War II the station was bombed, however, already in 1945, rail traffic was restored. Its
quick revival did not last long though. In 1946, all long distance calls were transferred to Schlesischer
Bahnhof (now Ostbahnhof), and the rapid expansion of electric S-Bahn has replaced its regional role. It
came to no surprise when the GDR authorities decided to close the station in 1951. Construction of the
Berlin Wall in 1961 ended any chances to revitalize the station. By the end of the 1960s the station was
demolished. The only physical remains of the railway function are two freight platforms, one office
building and a railway bridge.
In 1987, on the former site of the main station building, the swimming pool Spreewaldbad was built,
which was designed by Christoph Langhof architects. Other parts of the railway terrain have been
converted to Grlitzer Park in the early 1990s. Currently the park of 14 hectares is a very popular meeting
place for young people and many mostly immigrant families use the park for barbeques. Unfortunately,
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the borough of Kreuzberg-Friedrichshain lacks sufficient funds to maintain the park properly so that
during the summer season the green areas of the park are in a very bad condition.

Figure 13 Aerial view of Grlitzer Park (source: www.berlin.de)

Figure 14 Grlitzer Park is a popular meeting

place for young people, 2011 (source: own work)

5. OLD NORDBAHNHOF (1950-1961 GTERBAHNHOF EBERSWALDER STRASSE)

Berlin Nordbahnhof was opened in 1877 as the southern terminus of the Prussian Northern Railway
Berlin-Stralsund. Its passenger function was taken over few years later by the newly built nearby Stettiner
Bahnhof. The latter was renamed Nordbahnhof in 1950 because of its role in Berlin's public
transportation system. The old Nordbahnhof was renamed as Nordgterbahnhof (English: North Goods
Station) or Gterbahnhof Eberswalder Strae. After the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, it was
ultimately closed and demolished one year later.
Nowadays on the eastern half of the former train station the Mauerpark is located, the western part
serves as a location for a flea market. The park of 8 hectares consists of many facilities for sport, music
and art. There are also two sport stadiums next to the park. A stone circular stage area with surrounding
amphitheatre is situated on the hillside where from 2009 karaoke takes place on Sunday afternoons.
Mauerpark is one of the most popular locations in Berlin on sunny days and the weekend scenes are
described as a peoples fair without an organizer.
6. POTSDAMER BAHNHOF
Potsdamer station in Berlin was the first station on the railway line to Potsdam. The station, opened in
1838, was expanded in 1869 due to the increasing traffic. In 1890 three million people used it. Despite the
close proximity to the much larger Anhalter Bahnhof, Potsdamer Bahnhof served many people.
During World War II Potsdamer Bahnhof was severely bombed. The station was never rebuilt and was
officially closed in 1944. At the end of the war it was decided to divide the city into four sectors occupied
by the Allies. The location of the former station became a place where the borders of the American,
British and Soviet sector converged. Many buildings at Potsdamer Platz could have been easily
reconstructed, however, due to unfavorable conditions it was decided to demolish them. With the erection
of the Berlin Wall on August 13, 1961, Potsdamer Platz was divided into two parts. This resulted in the
complete depopulation of this part of the city.
After 1990, once again attention focused on the square because it was a historically important,
attractive place, located in the city center. The Senate of Berlin decided to divide the area in four parts.
Each of them was sold to a different investor. The largest of the four plots of land was bought by
Daimler-Benz AG (today called Daimler AG). They hired the architect Renzo Piano to design the master
plan. While he designed the master plan, each building at Potsdamer Platz was designed by a different
architect (among them were Richard Rogers and Arata Isozaki). At the former Potsdamer Bahnhof site a
450 m long park, named after the Austrian actress Durieux-Tillie, was designed by Dutch landscape
architects DS Landschapsarchitecten.
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Beneath the surface of the square the S-Bahn station was re-opened on May 28, 2006. Potsdamer Platz
is visited daily by nearly 70 000 people, making it one of the largest and busiest squares in Berlin.

Figure 15 Aerial view of Potsdamer Platz and Durieux-Tillie-Park (source: WikiCommons)

7. ANHALTER BAHNHOF
Anhalter Bahnhof was opened in 1841 as the terminus of the Berlin-Anhalt Railway line. In 1880, the
first, rather modest station was replaced by Franz Schwechtens design and the concourse construction by
Heinrich Seidel. With its 62 meters wide, 170 meters long and 34 meters high main hall, it was the largest
railway station in Germany for many years. Anhalter Bahnhof handled connections to Dresden, Prague
and Vienna and later to Naples and Athens. The station was heavily damaged during the bombing of
Berlin in WWII. After the war train connections were partially restored but in 1960 the authorities
decided to demolish the station. The entrance portal was left as a memorial.

Figure 16 Pedestrian and cyclist bridge over Landwehr Canal,

2010 (source: own work)

Figure 17 View at Tempodrom concert hall through the

remains of the main portal, 2012 (source: own work)

Currently, most of the territory of the former station is a synthetic football pitch, right next to it is the
landmark concert-hall Tempodrom opened in 2001. From the south of Tempodrom extends a forested
area where one can find remains of tracks and platforms. In 2001 a new pedestrian and cyclists bridge
was built over the Landwehr Canal, to commemorate the former railway bridges between the former
Anhalter Bahnhof and its adjacent freight station. It was designed by Benedict Tonona and its concrete
balustrades form the words "Berlin" and "Anhalt" to commemorate the former railway link.

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8. ANHALTER GTERBAHNHOF
Between 1871-1874 the Berlin-Anhalt Railway Company built a freight train station on the terrains
called Gleisdreieck. After the devastation of World War II only the east front of the building remained,
now used as one of the buildings of the German Museum of Technology.
The name "Gleisdreieck" (German: triangular track) comes from a triangular intersection of the
elevated railway lines built in 1912. Following two serious accidents branching has been changed so that
the lines intersect at two levels. After World War II passenger and freight traffic was stopped, currently
only city trains (S-Bahn and U-Bahn) pass over this area. The area is gradually transformed into a green
space called Park am Gleisdreieck. Emerging development plans in the 70s were met with fierce criticism
of the residents.
The park occupies a key position in Berlins open spaces, filling a gap in the north-south connection of
the green belt in the center through the government quarter, Potsdamer Platz to the Gleisdreieck area. In
future, the connection is to be extended to the above-mentioned Natur-Park Schneberger Sdgelnde. In
the direct vicinity of the park are the urban spaces of exceptional attractiveness like Potsdamer Platz, the
German Museum of Technology, spa complex Liquidrom and music hall Tempodrom.
Long-distance railway tracks clearly divide the park into eastern and western parts, yet the concept
considerates the complex as a unity, that park visitors could feel the immensity of space. One of the most
important elements is the variety of usage divided in two speeds. The park has been considered a meeting
place of rest and contemplation as well as playground and sports field. An important point of this project
is to preserve ruderal species, and historical findings. Old railway tracks, signals and platform buffers can
be found. In 2011 the project won the silver prize of the Urban Quality Award.

Figure 10 Park am Gleisdreieck, 2012 (source: own work)

One might wonder how a plot in the centre of the city that is so attractive to commercial investors
willing to offer large amounts of money could be transformed into a public park? This space is located in
the vicinity of Potsdamer Platz, which became the site of numerous investments after the reunification of
Berlin. According to German building law, with such a large urban development on the green grounds
(and Potsdamer Platz was considered as a green space due to its emptiness during the separation of
Berlin), the investor must "replace" the destroyed green areas in another location (preferably nearby).
Funding for the construction of this park came from developers of Potsdamer Platz and Leipziger Platz
and German Railways (Deutsche Bahn) and not from taxes.
9. CONCLUSION
Post-railway terrain transformation in Berlin has been successful mainly due to public participation.
During the recent transformation of Park am Gleisdreieck, residents of surrounding neighborhoods were
invited to meetings with designers and the client (in this case, the Senate Administration for Urban
Development in Berlin) every 2 weeks. They could submit their suggestions, took park in architectural
workshops organized at a given location, they were also filling in special surveys. By such treatments the
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awareness of inhabitants and their identity with the area was significantly increased. Owners of nearby
dachas can organize the market in the park to sell self-grown fruits and vegetables. In other locations,
community gardens are used by the local residents to plant roses and to take care of them. This increases
the integration not only between the residents who are no longer strangers to each other, but they also take
responsibility for the designing and maintenance of the park.
Public space cannot only serve the function of communication and business, but also recreation. In
almost every city there is a post-industrial space that can be recovered and given back to the city
residents. In the nineteenth century, railway expansion led to the urban development on the outside, in the
twenty-first century revival may lead to the regeneration of city centres.
The examples from Berlin seem to be in accordance to the common German saying daring the gap
(German: Mut zur Lcke). Applied to the urban context it emphasises the importance of free spaces in
neighbourhoods with great density. Post-industrial terrains, and in particular post-railway terrains are a
rare opportunity to improve the quality of life in the very centre of the city, especially since these terrains
used to be places of high levels of pollution and noise over decades or even centuries. By working closely
together with the local residents and carefully listening to their needs and wishes, the results were of
greater quality and the people immediately identified themselves with the new places. By cross-financing
the transformation of these terrains through the compensation of the destruction of green spaces by major
development projects elsewhere in the city, urban development does not only benefit the investors, but
also the citizens.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Nevena Grubi1

BROWNFIELD AS THE INSTRUMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE LOCAL

DEVELOPMENT
Abstract: Activation and rehabilitation of facilities and premises that have lost their original manner of
use, and that are very little used or entirely abandoned, usually located in urbanized central areas,
represents a special challenge for local governments and potential investors. Recycling of construction or
rehabilitation of abandoned land, so called brownfields, represents an effective instrument for managing
the available resources of the city, and cost-effective and rational way of restoration of derelict areas of
the city, because the urban and architectural interventions in the existing, already built structures provide
positive changes. Re-use of brownfield sites brings great economic, environmental and social benefits,
and consequently their reactivation process can be considered as one of the key instruments for
sustainable development of cities.
Keywords: brownfield, land management, local development, sustainability

BRAUNFILD KAO INSTRUMENT ODRIVOG LOKALNOG RAZVOJA

Rezime: Aktiviranje i rehabilitacija prostora i objekata koji su izgubili svoj prvobitni nain korienja,
koji se veoma malo koriste ili su u potpunosti zaputeni, a po pravilu se nalaze u urbanizovanim
centralnim podrujima, predstavlja svojevrstan izazova za lokalne samouprave i potencijalne investitore.
Recikliranje ili revitalizacija naputenog graevinskog zemljita, tzv. braunfild lokacija, predstavlja
jedan efikasan instrument upravljanja raspoloivim gradskim resursima, odnosno ekonomian i
racionalan nain obnove zaputenih delova grada, jer se kroz urbanistiko- arhitektonske intervencije na
postojeim, ve izgraenim strukturama obezbeuju pozitivne promene. Ponovna upotreba braunfild
lokacija donosi velike ekonomske, ekoloke i socijalne koristi, pa se shodno tome proces njihove
reaktivacije moe smatrati jednim od kljunih instrumenata odrivog razvoja gradova.
Kljune rei: braunfild, upravljanje zemljitem, lokalni razvoj, odrivost
1. INTRODUCTION
In such an evident of social, economic and moral crisis, we can say without second thinking that our
society is at the crossroads where the ''latest period of industrial age becomes ecological age'' [9].
Nevertheless, numerous accumulated problems of the Earth are most frequently associated with
uncontrolled urbanization process and the expansion of cities, and according to that a special attention
should be paid on the theme of sustainable spatial and local development.
These new economic and social, demographic and ecological contradictions and constant changes of
political bases are dramatically manifested and seen through the overall development of our country. The
strategic priority of most local government units (municipalities and towns) in Serbia is the creation of the
convenient conditions for sustainable local development (economic, ecologic, spatial and urban, social,
etc.) to achieve a better quality of life for all citizens. One of the main promotion goals of local

Graduate Engineer od Architecture PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis,
ul.Aleksandra Medvedeva br. 14, 18000 Ni, e-mail: nevena_grubic81@yahoo.com

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government is the effective land management or land use as a resource that will form the basis for the
development of municipalities in the future, in the most rational possible way.
Activation and rehabilitation of facilities and premises that have lost their original manner of use, and
that are very little used or entirely abandoned, usually located in urbanized central areas, represents a
special challenge for local governments and potential investors. Recycling of construction or
rehabilitation of abandoned land, so called brownfields, represents an effective instrument for managing
the available resources of the city, and cost-effective and rational way of restoration of derelict areas of
the city, because the urban and architectural interventions in the existing, already built structures provide
positive changes. Locations and facilities that are physically and meaningful modernize by these
interventions raise the attractiveness of their urban environment.
Viewed from the aspect of strategic planning and smart space management, this type of space
rehabilitation brings great economic, environmental and social benefits, and thus provides a basis for
sustainable urban development because it directly contributes to the preservation of historical,
architectural and spatial resources of our cities.
2. THE ORIGIN OF THE GLOBAL SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT AND ITS
IMPLEMENTATION AT THE LOCAL LEVEL
The concept of "sustainable development" itself is relatively new, but the ideas it includes can be
found in the past. In spite of the different interpretations in the literature, this concept occupies the central
part in considering the long term prospects and progress of the mankind.
The term "sustainability" or "sustainable development" appears for the first time in international
framework in 1972 at The Conference on Human Conservation, organized by UN and held in Stockholm.
At the World Commission on Environment and Development, held in 1987 and organized by UN,
"sustainable development" was specially promoted through Our Common Future report, better known
worldwide as "Brundtland report". The most frequently quoted sustainable development definition is
exactly in this report and it says: "Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."[4]
Finally Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 manages to
formulate, to some extent, the innovative declared approach of sustainable urban development by
"Agenda 21". Chapter 7 "Promoting Sustainable Human Settlement Development" has highlighted one of
the principles of sustainability that is based on following postulates: "The overall human settlement
objective is to improve the social, economic and environmental quality of human settlements and the
living and working environments of all people, in particular the urban and rural poor" [1]. Through this
document, the rapid development of the concept of sustainable development, or "Sustainable
Development'', began in all fields of life.
As a defensive reaction to the adverse effects of urban and industrial development, which threatened to
endanger human survival and abundance of species, during the second half of the 20th century
''sustainability'' is becoming a basic principle of the development and survival of human communities, as
well as a set of fundamental principles of regions and settlements development [10].
The basic legal act regulating the spatial and urban planning in our country is the Law on Construction
("Official Gazette of Republic of Serbia", No. 72/2009, 81/2009 and 24/2011). Article 3 of the before
mentioned law, among other things provides that "...the development and use of space is based on the
principles of sustainable development ...". Accordingly, basic and major goal of urban planning is to
achieve spatial sustainability. It defines the general objective and the expected role of urban planning in
modern and conscious society, meaning that "urban planning is an appropriate institutional, technical and
political context for managing the spatial dimension of sustainability"[3].
Starting from the data that sustainable urban development, or limited spreading of settlements and
sustainable land management, provide the opportunity of developing through several generations, we
come to the conclusion that this complex task can be successfully overcome by using one of the principles
of sustainability in planning policy, and that is the recycling of construction land and the revival and
revitalization of brownfield.

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3. THE CONCEPT AND ROLE OF BROWNFIELD

The issue of brownfield appeared at the beginning of the seventies of the twentieth century, especially
in America, as a result of structural changes in society, the growing concern for the environment. Europe
is faced with these problems, almost a decade later, due to the accelerated process of technological
development and transformation of economic structure that resulted in the closure of the factory facilities
throughout the continent. Here in our country, with the process of transition and privatization, in 2000,
the base for introducing the idea of activating brownfield as an effective model of sustainable urban
development and re-integration and regulation of abandoned space in the overall life of the city is created.
3.1. The definition and different types of brownfield
Different national definitions of brownfield have been adopted within the European Union, where this
term is usually associated with the problem of contaminated sites or previously urbanized land. Some EU
countries have adopted the definition proposed by the organization CABERNET (Concerted Action on
Brownfield and Economic Regeneration Network), which defines brownfield as "sites that have been
affected by the former uses of the site and surrounding land; are derelict and underused; may have real or
perceived contamination problems; are mainly in developed urban areas; and require intervention to bring
them back to beneficial use". [8]
Taking into account all mentioned above, with small modifications due to the local distinctiveness, in
our country such location is usually defined in the following way:"Brownfield sites are land and buildings
in urban areas which have lost their original manner of use or are little used"[2]. Such sites usually have
the environmental loads as a result of previous use, with ruined and abandoned buildings, and as such
represent a negative phenomena in the cities, as they contribute to the creation of bad economic,
ecological and physical environment.
The scope and nature of brownfields differs depending on its location, the previous use, type, stage of
development [12]. Considering this one of the basic classifications of brownfield includes the following
types:
Industrial Brownfield (factory halls, manufacturing facilities, warehouses, stores, etc.);
Military Brownfield (barracks, airfields, military clubs, pavilions, etc.);
Public facilities (schools, hospitals, cultural centres, etc.);
Agricultural Brownfield (farms, agricultural complexes, cooperatives, etc).
The majority of brownfields locations in our country are abandoned or under-used industrial
complexes usually occupying a very convenient location in suburban or narrower central zone, and as
such represent a huge potential for investment in land or buildings.
The collapse of the economy during the nineties, due to war and sanctions resulted in a large number
of vacant industrial complexes in Serbia. A similar situation is in Nis, where there is a large number
manufacturing, warehouse and industrial complexes (Electronic Industry, Nitex, Mechanical Industry Nis,
Brewery, etc.) in the existing industrial and work zones. Their manufacturing activity is canceled due to
financial difficulties or was at least done with the use of obsolete and environmentally unacceptable
technology. The largest shares of today's industrial plants are those that are over 20 years and more old
they still have companies that do not work, waiting to be privatized or be declared bankruptcy. And
exactly they themselves represent a potential brownfield sites.

Figure 1 - Electronic Industry Nis-typical example of an industrial brownfield in Nis

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Despite the large number of unfavourable factors that these sites possess (unsolved property-legal
relations, eco-loaded sites, ruined buildings, etc.), they are still financially attractive to potential investors,
as the investment in such locations, the investor reduces the amount of costs due the fact that these
locations have an excellent disposition, very good access, an established road, energy and other
infrastructure. By reactivation and investing in such existing capacities and locations, there would be a socalled rehabilitation of environmental and urban'' black holes'' [11].

Figure 2 - '' NITEX industrial complex'' - a typical example of industrial brownfields in Nis

The establishment of the Found for reform of defence system in 2004 or the adoption of the Master
Plan disposal of military property in June 2006, cased the appearance of a new brownfield category in
many municipalities, the category that previously had a military purpose [2].
Barracks located in city centres are, in the opinion of the military people, are an overcome method of
spatial functioning of the army [6], which made it possible for local governments to adequately transform
them for civilian purposes (public and for other purposes) reviewing the new situation through
appropriate physical planning or urban accurate documentation. So the master plan of Nis 2010- 2025
("Official Gazette of Nis", No. 43/2011) in the former barracks "Bubanjski heroji" plans the urban centre
with business and residential purposes, where in addition to public facilities (business, commercial,
medical, catering facilities, green spaces and recreation areas), one part of the land will be used for
construction of residential buildings of different construction types, such as military housing, social
housing and market conditions.

Figure 3 - Barracks "Bubanjski heroji"- a typical example of military brownfields in Nis

Other groups of brownfields (abandoned railroad location, unutilized facilities of public institutions,
abandoned combine agricultural areas, etc.) also represent a problem of inappropriate land use in all local
governments, only the interest of potential investors and individual local governments for their
reactivation is significantly less in comparison with the currently interesting industrial and military
brownfield.
3.2. Advantages and shortcomings of brownfield
Re-use of brownfield sites can directly assist in creating a sustainable urban environment [7], and
consequently can extract the following groups according to the advantages of their use:
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The benefits in the economic field (promotes the development of the wider area surrounding
brownfields, provides additional value to the soil, promotes economic growth, increases
government revenues preventing the spread of cities-has a direct impact on reducing the need for
converting agricultural land into construction land-so-called "Greenfield" location, etc.);
Benefits on the social level (provides new jobs, promotes social equity, to ensure preservation of
the city identity, etc.);
Benefits to environmental levels (removes existing pollution problems and the related risks to
human health and the environment).
The birth of a new approach in urban planning, called the "inner city expansion" [10], is the paradigm
of the future development of cities, because it summarizes the basic principles of sustainability. This
principle emphasizes the permanent reduction of consumption of agricultural land, as a specific
renewable resource, for the sake of acquiring new land for construction. Accordingly, spatial and urban
plans, based on the principle of improving the existing situation and the maximum utilization of internal
land reserves, may constitute an excellent instrument for reactivation of brownfield sites and reuse of
rehabilitated land within the boundaries of the building sites.
Complex issue of brownfield sites is often accompanied by so-called environmental pollution caused
by previous land and facilities use (chemical, heavy metal industry, etc.) that may have a negative impact
on environmental quality and human health. Therefore, the resolution of environmental contamination
sites and recovery are very important factors to ensure the risk prevention for future land users (especially
if re-appropriation of land is planned) and the risk prevention for the environment, which is in direct
relation to increasing the positive economic aspects of re-use of such areas.
Experience in countries in transition shows that brownfield destroys the social fabric of cities, their
identity and social and cultural physiognomy [7]. Brownfield regeneration process is socially acceptable
only if it is a real need of the whole community or if it provides the overall increase in living standards
and welfare or if it reduces poverty, increases social stability and creates new working positions.
Objective list of shortcomings that characterize the majority of brownfield sites in our country are,
after all, vague and complicated property relations that directly affect the extension of deadlines for
implementation of projects in such areas, the existence of environmental problems that will inevitably
increase the cost of reactivation of these sites, modest budgets for capital projects at the local level, lack
of national and local strategies to approach these issues and many others.
3.3. Local reactivation of brownfield incentives
The treatment of complex problems of brownfield in Serbia is a typical example of unsystematic and
partial approach to all levels of government [5]. Keeping in mind that in our country there is no national
strategy for revitalization of these sites, a great engagement of local governments in addressing
brownfield issues is of vital importance, because with the presence in their territory they also represent a
"threat" and a great opportunity and potential.
The main task of local governments that recognize the importance of these issues and its direct impact
on the overall local development is the formation of the corresponding database of all potential
brownfield sites in their territory. This database should contain the appropriate number of common
parameters (data on where the project is located, land area and facilities, information about the last type of
activity that is performed at this location, description, location, infrastructure, legal status in which the
property is located, photos, etc.) to identify relevant data and facts relevant to the realization of potential
brownfield investments. The primary task of the database location is to provide basic information to
potential investors in the initial phase of its interest in a brownfield site, as well as its further guidance to
local government representatives for more detailed information about the same, all in furtherance of its
intentions to invest in existing facilities.
Although many local governments have made some steps in the development of brownfield sites to
their bases, very often there are no data with which municipalities would be able to carry out mutual
comparisons, it is therefore necessary to establish a unique database of brownfield sites throughout the
territory of our country, so called "Brownfield cadastre in Serbia".
In addition to these base of braunfild location, local governments must prepare and implement an
active marketing campaign for re-use of brownfields through introduction of a number of stimulating
programs and measures. Under these stimulations, we usually include any measure expressed as a direct
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contribution to the implementation of brownfield investments, whether it is a measure of financial,

administrative or professional type (partial or total exemption from fees for land development; partial or
total exemption from fees for conversion use of property rights; download costs and responsibilities for
carrying out works for clearing the site, improving infrastructure, eliminating environmental damage;
initiating individual planning and legal documents, providing technical and administrative support to
investors and others.).
Such advantages would be of great help in order that potential investors choose our country for this
type of investments.
4. CONCLUSION
Serbia, as a country in transition, in the last twenty years, is seriously faced with the problem of
inappropriate land use, especially so-called brownfield sites, as the land that was previously used for
industrial, military, railways purposes and so on. Total number and size of these sites in our country is
enormous and the potential benefits that these sites carry with them almost not at all well known and
recognized by the state and local governments.
Re-use of brownfield sites brings great economic, environmental and social benefits, and consequently
their reactivation process can be considered as one of the key instruments for sustainable development of
cities.
Taking into account all previously mentioned, it is clear that brownfield, as a strategic priority for
sustainable local development "raises numerous questions, and thus represents a serious challenge for the
municipal and city authorities, but also for all the key players involved in the planning, city development
and construction land" [7].
REFERENCES
[1] Agenda 21 (http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/), 01.06.2012.
[2] Danilovi, K., Stojkov, B., Zekovi, S., Gligorijevi, ., Damjanovi, D. (urednici): Oivljavanje
braunfilda u Srbiji- Prirunik za donosioce odluka i profesionalce, PALGO Centar, Beograd,
2008.
[3] http://www.mzopu.hr/doc/PP_nstrumentima_do_rjeenja.pdf, 05.11.2011.
[4] Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Futute
(http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf)
[5] Stalna konferencija gradova i optina Srbije: Reaktiviranje braunfilda u Srbiji- Sistemski pristup
ili ad hoc reenja, SKGO, Beograd, 2011
[6] Stankovi, M.: Braunfild lokacije i transformacija vojnog zemljita u civilne namene u gradu
Niu, Oivljavanje braunfilda u Srbiji- Prirunik za donosioce odluka i profesionalce, PALGO
Centar, Beograd, 2008, str. 96- 103
[7] Stojkov, B.: Oivljavanje braunfilda, Oivljavanje braunfilda u Srbiji- Prirunik za donosioce
odluka i profesionalce, PALGO Centar, Beograd, 2008, str. 53- 60
[8] Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration- CABERNET Network Report, University of Nottingham,
2006 (www.cabernet.org.uk)
[9] Teiweira, J.: O budunosti prostornog planiranja u Evropi, Predavanje na 20. Meunarodnom
salonu urbanizma u Niu, novembar 2011. godina
[10]
Tomi, V.: Principi odrivog ureenja prostora i razvoja naselja, Javno urbanistiko
preduzee Urbanistiki zavod Beograd, Beograd, 2009.
[11]
USAID projekat odrivog lokalnog razvoja, Braunfild sistematizacija, Radionica odrana
u Niu, 14.06.2012. godine
[12]
Zekovi, S.: Prostorno- planska politika i industrijski braunfild u gradovima Srbije,
Oivljavanje braunfilda u Srbiji- Prirunik za donosioce odluka i profesionalce, PALGO Centar,
Beograd, 2008, str. 61- 7

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milica Igi 1

CONVERSION AND REVITALIZATION AS MAIN METHODS OF

PRESERVING ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE
Abstract: Conversion is an architectural process in which purpose of one building is converted for
other purposes under certain transformations, and in accordance with the degree of protection for this
object. Revitalization of the monument or architectural units as a method of active protection of
architectural heritage, is achieved when the architectural heritage can restore its original purpose, which
was lost by the time. Conversion and revitalization basically are very usefull processes that support the
concept of sustainability in architecture through the use and reuse. All these old buildings have a history
for several centuries, built of natural materials and therefore have no harmful effect on the ecology of the
environment. With this projects demolition of hundreds of abandoned buildings that once served the
people is prevented, and they should not be forgotten.
Key words: architectural heritage, conversion, revitalization, architectural heritage protection,
sustainability in architecture

KONVERZIJA I REVITALIZACIJA KAO NOSIOCI PROCESA ZATITE

GRADITELJSKOG NASLEA
Rezime: Konverzija je proces u arhitekturi kojim se objekat jedne namene konvertuje u objekat druge
namene uz odreene transformacije,a u skladu sa stepenom zatite datog objekta. Revitalizacija
spomenika ili graditeljskih celina, kao metoda aktivne zatite graditeljskog naslea, ostvaruje se onda
kada je graditeljskom nasleu mogue vratiti njegovu prvobitnu namenu koju je ono vremenom izgubilo.
Konverzija i revitalizacija u osnovi predstavljaju vrlo korisne procese koji podravaju koncept odrivosti
u arhitekturi kroz korienje i ponovno korienje. Svi ti stari objekti imaju istoriju i po nekoliko vekova,
graeni su od prirodnih materijala i samim tim nemaju nikakvo tetno dejstvo na ekologiju u okruenju.
Ovakvim projektima spreava se ruenje na stotine naputenih objekata koji su nekada sluili narodu to
ne bi smelo da se zaboravi.
Kljune rei: graditeljsko naslee, konverzija, revitalizacija, zatita graditeljskog naslea, odrivost u
arhitekturi
1. INTRODUCTION
With the process of Industrialization in the XIX century, the process of construction of industrial as
well as residential buildings was suddenly initialized throughout Europe and marked modernization and
contemporary age. In this context industrial heritage represents an important element of contemporary
European identity. After the war, due to the XX century technology development, these sites were
abandoned and left to the tooth of time representing an eyesore and gathering place for marginal groups.
A great number of these structures exist in the world and represent construction heritage as monuments of
the times they originated in and served to their people. Lately with the increased number of the population
in cities, occurs expansion of the territories. Since the industrial facilities were built in the peripheral

Master student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis; address: ulica Kralja Aleksandra
bb.; Donji Matejevac; e-mail: mind1989@yahoo.com; contact: 064/1322632

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zone, due to the expansion there occurs the collision between residential buildings and those old buildings
which are mainly abandoned. Dislocation of these industrial facilities from urban areas in order to better
ecological environment and gain more space is met with the series of difficulties, first of them being
economic inefficiency. As the best solution- a compromise, is their reuse, conversion of these facilities
into different objects which serve the community, utilize already built structures and in a way preserve
cultural and historical heritage. The objects that are being converted and reused are mainly of industrial
character, however, it should not be disregarded that a large number of sacral, administrative and
infrastructure abandoned objects have successfully been converted. All of these structures represent an
important point in the history of a certain people and their preservation is necessary to keep the evidence
of different architectural styles in different time periods.
2. CONVERSION AND REVITALIZATION IN ARCHITECTURE
Conversion is one of architectural disciplines which enable the protection of construction heritage
through reuse of the abandoned facility. Conversion could be called a type of architectural recycling since
it enables reuse of abandoned facilities with maximum preservation. Conversion of buildings is also very
important for the protection of the historic-cultural significance of an industrial structure. Through
conversion durability of every facility is elongated and it continues its existence through its new function.
With this treatment of abandoned structures, certain monuments, symbols of an epoch are preserved and
show younger generations the way of life and work from the past. Conversion also promotes preservation
in architecture, because through adaptation and reuse, demolition is avoided and with it pollution that
would happen in the process. The advantages of conversion are numerous and that is why it is always a
good solution when the faith of a facility should be decided. Buildings which are subjects of conversion
are of different type from residential buildings, public facilities, abandoned industrial facilities, water
towers to sacral buildings. Lately, in protestant countries due to the reduced number of believers,
conversions of churches into houses or libraries are often, also there is a case in the Netherlands where
church has been converted into a fee climbing rock. This shows that conversion is flexible, i.e. that it is
possible to convert any kind of object into something that a city needs. Conversion is not an independent
process, it is followed by adaptation. Adaptation is a preservation of a place with a significant cultural
heritage and it is usually facilitated if the place is used for social, cultural or economic purposes. In some
cases alterations and upgrading are acceptable if necessary for continuous use, or if the conversion cannot
be achieved otherwise. Every alteration must be necessary, minimal and must not diminish cultural
significance of that place. All conditions and alterations must be compatible with the original structures
but also different enough to be recognized as a new construction. Contemporary models of sustainable
conversion maximally use the concept of use and reuse. Structures that belong to historical heritage and
areas with historical value are preserved the best either if they are reused for the purposes they were
originally built or some other purposes. Also, very frequently the new use is so remote from the old one
that it takes a lot of time to adjust it to the new function. Good example of that is the high furnace in
Monterrey, Mexico which has been closed since 1960 and was converted to a museum in 2005.
[ Picture1].

Picture 2 Revitalization of Youth Home in Split

Picture1-Conversion of high furnace to museum in Monterrey

Revitalization of monuments or construction units as a method of protection of architectural heritage is

accomplished when architectural heritage restores its original purpose which was lost through time.
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Revitalization of monuments or construction units through finding new ways of use is recommendable if
those uses do not cause disturbance of structure or character of the whole facility. The main goal of the
revitalization process is preservation of cultural monuments by including them into contemporary
functions. It is also necessary to provide suitable conditions for living and working inside the historical
buildings, since they have often spent a lot of time vacant and exposed to weather conditions. During the
process it is vital not to diminish the significance and character of the facility and preserve them as much
as possible. All structures that are proclaimed monuments of culture are authentic and original and
therefore are more prominent than other structures. It is important during the process of revitalization to
pay attention to architecture of the facility itself, materials, construction framework, facades and interior
exposing them to change minimally in order to make them functional again. Examples of revitalization
are numerous since a lot of structures were built in the after war period and then abandoned in the 90-ies.
One of interesting examples is the revitalization of Youth Home in Split [picture2]. Originally it was the
construction of Home for socialist youth which was being built from 1979 till 1984 and which was rarely
used because some of the finishing touches were never conducted. Recently the state budget has provided
resources for revitalization of this edifice, which would serve the youth, and avoided the demolition of
over thirty- year- old building.
The process of revitalization and conversion is followed by almost identical methodology:
Research- represents the foundation of every protective work. It is necessary to conduct a
research in order to study the facility and its characteristics and at the same time estimate the
condition the facility is in. It is also important to establish which time period the building belongs
to and its historical record.
The establishment of the facilitys purpose- after determination of facts, the analysis of the
possibilities for exploitation is performed. If it is established that the old purpose can be retained
then the process of revitalization is initiated, however, if it is decided that a new function is the
best solution then conversion is initiated.
Projecting- projecting documentation is issued in accordance with guidelines given by the bureau
for cultural monument protection under which jurisdiction the said monument is. The bureau
gives projection measures under special rules and designers are in obligation to honor all of the
restrictions given by the bureau. It is necessary to cooperate with the bureau during all phases of
projecting in order to achieve suitable conversion or revitalization quality.
The construction phase- construction is conducted in more than one phase. First it is necessary to
adapt the monument to new situation. Next is asanation where technical solutions are applied to
enable the suitable conditions for dwelling in the historical monument. Next phase is restoration
in which lost parts of the building are restored to their previous state.
2.1. Historical development of conversion and revitalization
The origins of conversion are tied to Great Britain who was the first industrial nation. Namely, after
the fall of manufacture the production ceases, factories and ports are abandoned and a large number of
neglected large-sized facilities appears. These facilities were a problem since there was no solution for
their preservation through the change of function. The finding of balance between preservation and
protection through the change of function was a milestone in the architecture development. Then the term
conversion is introduced to refer to the balance between new applications and the need to preserve and
restore the structure and appearance of a particular building or area. The most common conversion was
that of industrial facilities, and as they were state property and objects of public importance, the
realization of their conversion was not a problem. These kinds of conversions have always been
considered as processes of societal benefit. The conversions that were performed by individuals most
often had profit- finance as their main motive and were therefore often opposed by both the
administration and the people.
The phenomenon of mass conversion is often tied to post war period- middle of the XX century;
however, there are examples of conversion from the beginning of the XVIII century. One of the oldest
known conversions was that of the high furnace from 1709, in which iron was successfully melt with
coke for the first time; it was respected as a sanctuary in the birth place of the industrial revolution, but it
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was nothing special as far as construction was concerned [ picture3]. Abraham Darby took over the
abandoned furnaces from Ironfounders, and there established his iron production, therefore, contributing
the development of iron for which he was later known.

Picture3 The abandoned high furnaces of the

Ironfounders

Picture4 Converted cement factory in Barcelona

In the period after WWII great migrations from villages to cities occur and the number of population
increases. Residential complexes are built massively and often reach the borders of former industrial areas
and invade them. Tendencies to relocate former industrial giants from the new urban tissues for better life
quality, ecological and hygienic conditions, are becoming regular. A number of facilities were dislocated
from the city cores as early as 70-ies; however, the buildings remained abandoned and vacant. These
neglected facilities have in time become gathering places for marginal groups and a real eyesore
endangering the security and restricting the movement of local population. Conversion ideas in the past
usually came from the architects themselves, so the famous Spanish architect Ricardo Boffil converted in
1973. an abandoned factory into his villa, studio and gallery [picture4].
The worst cases were certainly facilities which were located in the city center, since for the lack of
other kind of goods transportation many factories were near the port, which now is city center. The best
example for this is the city of London whose docks were long used for industrial purposes and today are
converted into different kinds of objects. A good example is Covent Garden [picture5] which was once a
market and a huge storage; today it is the famous Piazza Covent Garden that encompasses the traditional
market and the museum of transport [picture6]. The trend of conversions and revitalizations of docks and
navies is tied to the USA in the 60-ies. It is believed that protections of architectural heritage of this
fashion later commenced in Great Britain and then throughout Europe and the world. The most successful
example is considered to be the revitalization and conversion of docks in Boston, better known as Quincy
market, which was financially supported by the state and was proclaimed as project of national
importance.

Picture5 Covent Garden before conversion

Picture6 Covent Garden today, after conversion

Today in the world, conversions of different facilities are performed. In protestant countries
conversions of churches are very often due to the reduced number of believers. For this kind of actions
both authorities and the believers themselves have understanding. A church simply doesnt have
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resources to sustain the building and it is abandoned. Churches are mostly located in the city center, and
there forms a problem, since edifice of mostly gothic style remain vacant in very popular locations. A
good example of successful conversion of a sacral edifice is a gothic church from VIII century which was
converted into a book store of a famous book store chain Selexyz Dominicanen [picture7]. The interior of
the book store is kept completely and the equipment in the interior is minimalistic in design so that the
building is more prominent.

Pic7 A church converted into

a book store

Pic8 Water tower converted

into a house

Pic9 Oil ring converted into a hotel

Very common conversions today are conversons of water towers. The number of these structures that
were being used in factories in the time of the industrial reviolution is great; a lot of them were also in the
cities and were used for storing the water used for drinking. The number of water towers that still serves
its original purpose is small, most of them are abandoned and neglected and most frequently they were
altitude reper for certain settlements. According to the data of Patent Invest company from Belgrade,
there are 22 water towers in Serbia, five of which are activelly used and the rest are abandoned and left to
the tooth of time. Conversions of these facilities are very common in the world, so in the city of Soest in
the Netherlands a water tower has successfully been converted into a house [picture8].
The architects ideas are different and are concerned with different types of buildings. Since oil
platforms in the open sea are gradually becoming abandoned there is an idea to convert them in the future,
because their demolition would cause a total ecological disaster and flora and fauna in the sea would die.
The largest number of these projects, made but not realised, suggests the conversion of platforms into
luxury hotels with their own airports and heliports. One of the projects is a project of conversion in
Mexican Bay suggested by Morris Architects [picture9].
3. CONVERSION AND REVITALIZATION IN ARCHITECTURE IN SERBIA
Conversion in our country is rare although it has a great potential. Considering a number of old
abandoned edifices in Belgrade, Kragujevac, Novi Sad, Nis and other cities, it is evident that Serbia could
initialize the process of urban recycling and keep up with the rest of the European countries. One of the
key moves would be turning former industrial facilities which are now vacant into incubators of culture
and art. For now no big steps were made in that direction, last year in Zitomlin on Dorcol, a festival of
creativity and innovativeness was organized under the name Mixer and afterwards the Adrenalin fest. The
point of these two festivals was to enable a creative group to refine an abandoned place, and if they
succeeded, the citizens would be the ones with the most benefit. In Kragujevac in June of this and last
year, the old Knezev Arsenal was used as a space for Arsenal fest, and in September it was used for
filming an Irish show Titanic. The old Knezeva Topolivnica, from the end of the XIX century, on the
same estate, has been serving as a weapons museum for several years [picture10]. The space which is
currently considered to be the most challenging for conversion is the so called Beton hall, the size of
3.000. km2. The right to use this space was granted to Belgrade by the High Court. Beton hall is the only
preserved facility of industrial architecture from the period between the two world wars.
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Picture10 A cannon- foundry converted to museum

Picture 11 The current state of the Youth Home in NIs

On the place of todays art and culture group Grada there was an abandoned warehouse
Centrotekstil. The idea came from the organization Kulturni Front which promotes alternative
culture. The realization of this conversion was enabled by the reward of 300.000 euro from the
Netherland foundation Feliks meritis. This money was used to renovate the old, abandoned edifice and
provide necessary equipment. In this case the idea for realization was from the art-culture group itself,
and after four months of conversion they got their own rooms.
These are only some of the known examples and there are dozens of unknown ones. Besides Belgrade,
other industrial cities like Nis, Kragujevac, Novi Sad and dozens of others have the opportunities of this
kind which are not used. Only in Nis today there are many industrial facilities for conversion- buildings
of the electronic industry, part of the buildings of machine industry, sewing plant, Belvit silos, Nitex,
railway colony.The only project that has been accepted but is still not realized is conversion of the
former Youth Home into Russian culture center [picture11]. This edifice is of great importance since it
served as a war court in Nis from the July of 1914 till October 1915. Today it is an eyesore and public
toilet in the very center of the city. In Novi Sad there is a project for conversion of the navy and shipyard,
at the moment the revitalization of the chemical facility, which was sold to a company in Slovenia, is
active and has been restored to its function after 10 years.
4. PROBLEMS AND ADVANTAGES OF CONVERSION AND REVITALIZATION
The circumstances under which the abandonment of the facilities occurs are the same for all countries
and are related to certain time periods. Economic and societal changes are the most common source of
modification in society and development of different government systems and therefore abandoning a
large number of objects. Functional changes in the industrialization conditions and contemporary
urbanization bring significant changes in the way of doing business, way of construction and overall way
of life. The process of contemporary urbanization is followed by the dying out of villages since more and
more population is moving to cities and at the same time the problem of lack of land suitable for building
since residential zones border with historical areas. With the development of industry and technology
many facilities stop working and their protection is necessary so that they would not fade into oblivion.
The problem that most of architects face with during projects of this type is finance. If a conversion is
proclaimed to be a project of national importance everything is easier because the resources come from
the state budget and no sponsors are necessary. Also if a project is considered to be a common property
there is no conflict with the citizens, which is a problem in some countries. Since these complexes were
built before or a few years after the war, and after that there was a period of nationalization, a big problem
are unresolved legal proprietary relations. Some of the permits are expected for a very long time because
it is necessary to determine the ownership and then get the authorization from the owner. These buildings
are quite old so the majority of them are under the protection of bureau for the preservation of culture
monuments and there are a great number of restrictions on which depends the level the protection of the
facility. Due to the exposure to time, very often it is necessary to reinforce construction or reconstruct
most of the building which demands a lot of investment.

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Besides all the listed problems during the process of conversion, there are still a number of advantages
of this method of protection. The most significant are:
Through conversion and revitalization the object is not demolished but only refined and
upgraded. With this the economic justification is high; materials are saved since investment in
new ones is not necessary, old ones being available for usage. The conclusion is that it is cheaper
to convert a building than build a new one.
Conversion and revitalization contributes to preservation of architectural heritage since structures
of great historic- cultural importance are not demolished, their condition is improved so they
remain as landmarks of certain historical events. Also if those structures are protected- depending
on the level of protection since their conversion is often restricted- they stay authentic.
As bioclimatic architecture and design are becoming up-to-date in accordance with ecology and
sustainability principles, it could be said that conversion and revitalization completely honor that.
During these methods there are no harmful emanations since there are no demolitions. Also many
materials that are already on the structure are used again and enhance the life expectancy of a
building enabling it to last for several centuries.
Considering the fact that the objects of conversion and revitalization are industrial edifices, an
architect has a wide specter of possibilities since those are facilities of great dimensions. Also
there are no restrictions (of course if the structure is not under protection) and it is possible to
suggest different ideas for the new function of the edifice, under the condition that they are
economically and morally justified.
5. CONCLUSION
In all listed examples of conversion and revitalization it is apparent that neglected and abandoned
buildings can be completely adapted to new needs. The new function doesnt only have to be residential it
could also be public and combined use. Although there are a lot of restrictions because of the form and
dimensions of the facility- huge height compared to the surface of the base, still with good ideas every
obstacle is surmountable. What is the problem of larger dimensions is lighting of all rooms so it is
necessary to align them on the edge. As far as materialization is concerned, restrictions are almost nonexistent, only it is important to think of climatic conditions on such great heights.
Potentials for these enterprises are everywhere, both in the world and in our country; however, in some
places these potentials are used and in other places are not. There are a lot of possibilities in Serbia, but
no initiative whatsoever. The problem is mainly proprietary; all of the facilities are the property of the
city and are mostly located on the periphery and therefore local government never initiates anything.
Nevertheless, it is no excuse because in almost all of regional countries there is conversion and
revitalization of abandoned facilities into structures of different functions. In our country one of the
problems is also the mentality of the people and the lack of consciousness for preservation of monuments
and heritage. People who are not informed are mostly skeptical and accept new ideas with difficulty.
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.archdaily.com/115031/horno-3-steel-museum-grimshaw/
[2] http://pogledaj.to/arhitektura/pitanje-splitske-nezavisne-kulture/
[3] dr Aladi V., docent Graevinskog fakulteta u Subotici, predavanje 8. Revitalizacija
spomenika kulture, na predmetu Zatita graditeljskog naslea na Graevinskom fakultetu u
Subotici 2007. godina,
[4] Stratton M. ,Industrial Buildings Conservation and Regeneration , E & FN Spoon, 2000.
godina, 35 -68 str.
[5] http://www.ricardobofill.com/en/7361/Architecture/Ricardo-Bofill-Taller-Arquitectura-inBarcelona.htm/
[6] http://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/2011/02/21/libreria-selexyz-dominicanen-merkx-girodarchitecten/
[7] http://www.patentinvest.rs
[8] http://www.archdaily.com/39776/watertower-of-living-zecc-architecten/

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[9] http://www.archdaily.com/14969/oil-rig-eco-resort-by-morris-architects/
[10]
http://www.politika.rs/rubrike/Srbija/Kako-se-kalila-Srbija-na-desnoj-obaliLepenice.lt.html
[11]
Mr. Jovanovi T., Prazni prostori Srbije prva faza projekta - Beograd, Zavod za
prouavanje kulturnog razvitka, Beograd, 2010. godine
[12]
http://www.juznevesti.com/vesti/kultura/Uskoro-Ruski-kulturni-centar-u-Nishu.sr.html
a. Photo references
Picture 1. - http://www.archdaily.com/115031/horno-3-steel-museum-grimshaw/
Picture 2. - http://pogledaj.to/arhitektura/pitanje-splitske-nezavisne-kulture/
Picture 3.- http://advrider.com/forums/showthread.php?t=756771&page=5
Picture 4. - http://www.ricardobofill.com/en/7361/Architecture/Ricardo-Bofill-Taller-Arquitectura-inBarcelona.htm/
Picture 5.
- http://www.coventgarden.uk.com/featureshistory/fh_market.php?p_id=features&c_id=market
Picture 6. - http://www.a-london-guide.com/piazza-the
Picture 7. - http://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/2011/02/21/libreria-selexyz-dominicanen-merkxgirod-architecten/
Picture 8.- http://www.archdaily.com/39776/watertower-of-living-zecc-architecten/
Picture 9.- http://www.archdaily.com/14969/oil-rig-eco-resort-by-morris-architects/
Picture
10.
-http://www.politika.rs/rubrike/Srbija/Kako-se-kalila-Srbija-na-desnoj-obaliLepenice.lt.html
Picture 11. -http://www.juznevesti.com/Drushtvo/Deponija.sr.html

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Ljiljana Jevremovic1
Milanka Vasic2
Marina Jordanovic3

AESTHETICS OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE CONTEXT

OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS CONVERSION
Abstract: In the paper the aesthetical category of industrial architecture is discussed. Through a brief
historical overview of the development of industrial architecture, the aesthetic and formal qualities of this
building typology were identified. In a situation when the territory of today's cities, "flooded" by physical
remains of an important period of our humanity, industrial era, in the form of buildings and complexes of
former industrial giants that are tightly woven into the urban matrix, the paper addresses the issue of how
the aesthetics of industrial architecture becomes close or is close to modern man and the society. On the
assumption that this relationship is one of the key factors for establishing successful revitalization of old
industrial properties, the paper discusses the current trends of industrial heritage evaluation and the
relationship between this process and the public opinion as a relevant indicator for the proper decisions.
Key words: industrial architecture, heritage, aesthetics, building conversion

ESTETIKA INDUSTRIJSKE ARHITEKTURE U KONTEKSTU

KONVERZIJE INDUSTRIJSKIH OBJEKATA
: razmatrana kategorija estetike industrijske arhitekture. Kroz kratak istorijski pregled
razvoja arhitekture industrijskih objekata identifikovani su estetiki ali i formalni kvaliteti ove tipologije
objekata. U situaciji kada je teritorija dananjih gradova preplavljena fizikim ostacima jednog
znaajnog perioda naeg oveanstva, idustrijske ere, u formi objekata i kompleksa nekadanjih
industrijskih giganata koji su gusto utkanu u urbanu matricu gradova, rad se bavi pitanjem koliko je
estetika industrijske arhitekture bliska ili postaje bliska modernom oveku i drutvu. Pod hipotezom da je
ova veza jedan od kljunih faktora za uspostavljanje uspene revitalizacije nekadanjih industrijskih
poseda, u radu su diskutovani savremeni trendovi evaulacije industrijskog nasledja kao i odnos ovog
procesa i ire okoline tj. javnosti kao relevantnog pokazatelja ispravnosti odluka profesionalaca.
: industrijska arhitektura, nasledje, estetika, konverzija objekata

1. INTRODUCTION
For the last several decades, industry has been leaving the cities and their metropolitan areas, although the
reasons can be different, the decay of industry has brought the similar problems and processes to the most
of cities worldwide. The derelict land and dilapidated buildings they left, challenge architects, planners,
politicians and all those who are interested in the vitality of own cities. Now there is decades-worth of
achievements ranging from well-publicized projects to those only known by their neighbours. One of the
1
Assistant, PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Nis,
-mail: jevremovicljiljana@gmail.com
2
Assistant, PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Nis,
-mail: milanka.vasic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
3
Assistant, PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Nis,
-mail: marina.jordanovic@gmail.com

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puzzling questions that arose is determining how the redevelopment of industrial sites differs between
countries and regions, especially between developed and developing countries. A known successful
projects show how three powerful forces guiding development today environmental concerns, renewed
urban cores and historic preservation work together to redefine the post-industrial city. [1] This paper
tries to put some light into this complex process examining the aesthetic of industrial heritage as a
parameter of the redeveloping projects. Understanding that there are much more important aspects that
significantly shape the redevelopment strategies and projects, here is more concerns given to an idea that
in societies that have not jet faced any of successfully redevelopment, such as Serbia is, is very important
for a start to emphasize the existence of industrial heritage. In some way, it would be necessary to educate
all society, the people, not only professionals, to recognize, to respect and to value own industrial
heritage. The many successful strategies (projects) have entailed decades of effort, multitudes of
consultants, and concerted political will, as well as extensive financial resources, meaning that the
country, city and/or society in this venture cannot get into unprepared and without patience.
2. THE HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF AN INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE
Industrial architecture has always had two main goals: efficiency and safety. Improved economy in
turning raw goods into manufactured items and in the construction of the buildings themselves, as well as
the prevention of fire with the resulting loss of life and materials shaped the design of warehouses and
factories. The history of industrial architecture is beyond the scope of this paper; however, a short review
will be given.
2.1 Early developments pre-WWI development of industrial architecture
The germ of the industrial aesthetic is seen in the simple mill buildings from late 1700, precursors of the
modern factory, were straightforward wooden or masonry buildings with repetitive forms and rhythmic
openings. As long buildings, these mills fit into the landscape, their scale and materials making little
impact on their surroundings. The conglomeration of these mills monopolized and blocked the rivers and
canals that fed the millwheels that provided power for their machines. These first mills reflected building
technology of their time and responded to the realities of fire and workplace safety. In the day before
electricity, flooding workspace with as much daylight as possible was the most important. Long and
narrow, these buildings had open and unobstructed internal spaces to accommodate as many machines
and workers as possible. Their narrowness not only allowed light into their centres, but also efficiently
enabled machines on both sides of the building to be powered from a single central shaft down the floor.
Early industrial buildings were simple because their utilitarian nature placed them low in the social and
therefore aesthetic hierarchy. From the earliest times, buildings generally reflected their social
importance. While the buildings of higher reputation, such as churches, public buildings, and royal
structure, the more ornament had used, the service buildings had been strictly no-frills.

Figure 18 Massachusetts Waltham Mills Buildings dates from 1816 (left); Interior of the typical cotton mill factory, Great
Britain, mid-1830 (right)

Most industrial buildings of XIX c. were multi-storied buildings that combined brick or masonry bearing
walls with heavy timber structural frames to obtain the largest column-free interior spaces possible. As
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the ultimate utilitarian places, their design features not only encouraged an efficient work process but
aimed to prevent fires. The fear of fire was so prevalent that insurance companies shaped much of the
early architecture. They discouraged interior wall coverings as well as ornament on building exteriors;
sought open, partition-free interiors to facilitate extinguishing fires; suggested flat roofs and discouraged
the attics; encouraged large windows to facilitate fire suppression; and recommended flat floor areas be
separated from interior stairs. The resulting stair towers that punctuated flat facades punctuated become a
familiar building type. [6] Whatever ornament, if any, was located at the towers, which were sometimes
capped with characteristic roof tops or cupolas to distinguish the owners identity. (see Figure 2)

Figure 19- Manchester, NH (USA), Millyard building near the Merrimack River ,1874 (left); Trent Mill, Chadderton, Oldham,
Greater Manchester, England, 1882 (right)

2.2 Contribution of Albert Kahn to development of industrial architecture

New ways of producing energy enhanced the growth of both buildings and machinery, necessitating
structures that could support more weight, span greater distances. In addition, the manufacturing process
was expanding beyond textiles, demanding more flexible and adaptable layouts. The answer would come
from a material that had been known centuries before but needed enhancement: concrete and iron.

Figure 20- Albert Kahn's Packard Building No.10, 1903 (left); Chrysler's Tanks Arsenal, Warren Township, Michigan,
1941(right)

One of a few architects that were most influenced the aesthetics and development of industrial buildings
and the glorification of the functional design was Albert Kahn. He created the 1903 Packard Building
No.10 (see Figure 3-left), the first automobile factory to use reinforced concrete. The building of 30 foot
spans provided great flexibility for changes in production on the interior. This concrete frame, clearly
expressed on the exterior, had glazed openings to the ceiling permitting as much daylight onto the factory
floor as possible. Kahn designed buildings with an eye toward interior flexibility in order to complement
and enhance the manufacturing process, so the buildings exterior was a continuation of this interior.
During these early days of manufacturing there were two main theories of building for industry housing
different operations in separate buildings specifically designed for those operations or having the entire
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plant in one building. Kahn preferred the later as it allowed for more flexibility, and due to reduced
number of exterior walls, these larger buildings were cheaper to build. Building factories in which
workflow determined operations demanded flexible layouts that could change as the manufacturing
process changed. Kahn soon championed single-story buildings for their flexible and adaptable use. Light
entered through clerestories or monitors on the roofs which were supported by wide-span structural grids.
(see Figure 4) These buildings required more acreage and also a change material thus raised the use of
steel. Steel not only was mass produced but could span great distances compared to cast iron or concrete,
thereby providing the flexibility required for the ever-changing manufacturing processes. [4,5]

Figure 21- Albert Kahn's Chrysler Half-Ton Truck Plant - Export Building, 1937, exterior (left) and interior (right)

Electric and coal-fired power combined with advances in mass production developed for the heavy steel
and automobile industries allowed greater flexibility for buildings and their location. Soon the one-story
factory that spread over many acres was seen more efficient than multi-storied buildings. Industry
indelibly changed the landscape and population patterns by moving outside compact cities to where land
was plentiful. This demanded a new and expanded road and rail system for materials and workers.
2.3 Modern Movement and Industrial Architecture
Industrial forms, materials and aesthetics had a great influence on architects and the direction of early
modern architecture. Industry and its processes inspired and continue to engage the imagination of the
artists and architects: from the voice against ornament by Adolf Loos to the design explorations of the
Bauhaus and the sleek lines of the International Style to the explicit expression of construction elements
in the work of Richard Rogers and his partners. Industrial architecture showed a simplicity that was
expressed on the exterior by undecorated flat surfaces, whether in brick, stone or wood. While these
buildings were obviously required for the rise of industry, their designers were often anonymous and
these structures remained outside the scope of traditional architectural practices. Until the beginning of
the twentieth century, architectural theory and styles concentrated on important civic and commercial
buildings or private residences.
As industrial uses grew in complexity and importance, schools of design and architectural theory emerged
to respond to the challenges that this development posed. Charged with defining new forms for the everchanging factories, industrial storage and transport facilities, architects carved pathways toward defining
the future. Around the early 1900s, the factory was seen as a building type deserving of architectural
treatment in order to enhance the production of goods and dignify the workplace, as well as forge
corporate identities. In this context worth mentioning is the Deutscher Werkbund, founded to improve the
quality and design of Germans manufactured goods, although was originally based upon craft and art,
many of Germans most influential architects passed through it including Peter Behrens, Walter Gropius,
Mies van der Rohe. During its existence, two influential industrial buildings were designed by its
members: Peter Behrens AEG Turbine Factory and Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyers Fagus Shoe Last
Factory. Behrenss AEG factory, regarded as a temple to industrial power, had a monumentality based
upon neoclassical principles. For the Fagus factory, Gropius and Meyer eschewed this masking of
structure, striving to clearly express its materials, an important hallmark of the aesthetic of Modern
Movement. [5]
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Figure 22 - Peter Behrens AEG Turbine Factory Berlin, 1907 (left); Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyers Fagus Shoe Last
Factory, Alfeld on the Leine, 1911(right)

Exploring how to respond to industry continued at the Bauhaus. Although it had several phases and its
aesthetics approach was not monolithic, its influence is still seen in designers responses to mass
production of everyday products. Its machine-celebrating spare lines and structural expression still infuse
discussions of modern design.
2.4 Industry after WWII - rise, decline and the consequences
Intensively increased investments in industry after the World War II initiated urban growth of industrial
centres in the middle of XX century, especially in the 50s and the 60s. Due to increase in business
opportunities, population in cities increased fulfilling demands on labour force, consequently housing
areas, services areas, roads and other infrastructural and communal facilities have expanded. This growth,
mainly focused on free land on the cities outskirts leaded to increase in traffic and in additional pressure
on the road network that expand too. Architectural aesthetic of this period is still under the influence of
Modern movement and the International style; intensive is usage of modern materials as reinforced
concrete, iron and glass, but also some entirely new ones such as asbestos, later plastic, etc. Although this
period has given some great architectural works, among all building types, they always have had
difficulties to be appreciated in general population. The new materials, reputed at the time to be
permanent, have poor resistance to the passage of time. However, this architectures worst enemy still
remains the indifference, indeed the contempt that it continues to arouse among the public. This is due, in
particular, to the banality of a large part of the production of the period, in which the examples of quality
become lost. A policy for the protection of the major works of the post-war period is being organised
across Europe and wider (Docomomo and others initiatives). The goodwill of owners who are aware of
the quality of their asset also constitutes an effective driver for the protection of the architecture. The
development of a realisation of the value of these constructions is urgently needed in order to preserve the
fragile balance on which their appeal rests. Industrial buildings of the post-war period shared the destiny
of the other buildings of the time, burdened additionally by theirs everlasting lower reputation as a
building type. However, industrial heritage from this period is the greatest and most common worldwide,
although it is not jet perceived and evaluated rightly.

Figure 23- Diemme Filtrations, Lugo, Italy, from '60s (left); Saarinen's IBM Rochester building from 1958 (right)

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The end of XX century had brought many causes that leaded to the fundamental shifts in society and,
consequently, shifts in industry and in organizational matrix of the cities. Deindustrialization, share of
total employment and total investments indicated a dramatic decline in industrial growth. Changes in
economy structure, decline in employment in manufacturing, accompanied by rise in employment in
services and other supporting companies. Globalization, economic changes that influenced the urban
structure of cities is not limited anymore to national and regional borders. Production facilities are being
relocated intensively to other regions that offer suitable economic incentives, lower production costs in
form of cheaper labour force and lower taxes. Shifts in business strategies, technical innovations and new
organizational and economical concepts lead to functional concentration, efficient land use and higher
productivity, which cause radical changes in organization of spaces and facilities. Due to the urban
growth, complexes that used to be on the outskirts of the city today are inside urban city structure
(distributive warehouses, industrial buildings, infrastructural facilities...). New business concepts, users
and citizens demands have led to relocation of these functions in new areas, outside the city, leaving
empty sites inside the urban city core. 4 Political changes, shifts in political systems of many countries
have brought big changes: industry transformation, decay of existing economical and industrial subjects
caused by country transformation into market-driven economy through processes of transition, and raise
of new factories. These processes have left closed, ruined factories and their properties, often in very
significant locations in the cities. The character of all mentioned factors describe their universality, they
exist in high-developed countries as well as in developing countries.
3. THE ORIGINS OF THE CONVERSION OF THE INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
Seeing beauty in industrial buildings has been critical to their renovation. Years after function or market
changes rendered these buildings obsolete, the simple, wide-open spaces of factories and warehouses,
with their clear expression of construction materials, ignite the imagination of new generations who, have
been rescuing these buildings. Although there are many reasons for the reuse of these buildings and sites,
the allure of the industrial aesthetic cannot be dismissed, and in many instances, is crucial to the success
of their redevelopment. The reuse of old industrial buildings as housing in New England and Lower
Manhattan, NY in the late 1960s and early 1970s was a starting point for industrial renovation. The
expansive interior spaces with large windows invited people, mostly artists, to settle down into formerly
unused buildings while maintaining a sense of history through reuse and renewal. Interior design and
lifestyle magazines had encouraged urban pioneers inhabiting sparsely furnished lofts. This trend had
continued so editors had even promoted Industrial Chic as an interior style which showed how residents
could bring a bit of industrial grit and exposed materials into more traditional apartments, using exposed
functional details as a symbolic association to industry.

Figure 24 Interior of Urban Outfitters Headquarters, former Navy Yard in Philadelphia, USA (left); Interior of Residential
Apartment in converted Printing Press factory, Barcelona (right)

The term industrial aesthetics can refer to the deliberate exposure of structural and mechanical elements
as well as the repurposing of the objects of manufacture. Industrial architecture and design extolled the
economical use of material and methods of construction that were often not hidden or camouflaged
from the clear expression of the reinforced concrete frame of the daylight factories to the exposed metal
trusses of steel factory buildings and the early exhibition halls and train stations.
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Today, that approach is being use aesthetically in all types of buildings, not necessarily just factories and
warehouses. Clear expression of structural element, as well as building systems such as mechanical and
electrical services, is developed into its own aesthetic. This aesthetic is clearly exposed when the
nonindustrial Centre Pompidou (R. Rogers & R. Piano, 1977) was opened in Paris, France. Often
compared to the Eiffel Tower, which stunned many at the time because its structure was left exposed, the
building of the Centre Pompidou is all steel frame, ducts and pipes. Famous for its exterior escalator that
climbs up the plaza faade and affords a wonderful view of Paris, the building makes architecture out of
industrial elements, though it is unclear how much of the structure and services are simply uncovered
and how much exists for the overall effect and design.
Decades after this trend have started; there are no signs of giving up. In fact, factories continue to be
converted for residential and commercial use, their beams and pipes left exposed. What started as a small
trend among artists in search of large studio space has now mushroomed into a string of conversions into
different uses and scales. The appeal of these buildings as places to live has saved a huge percentage of
the industrial heritage.
4. INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE EVALUATION CURRENT PRACTICE
Approaches to industrial heritage protection and conservation differ from one country to the next. The
British have shown a particular commitment to identifying and preserving key monuments to the
Industrial Revolution, as judged by advances in technology, engineering virtuosity, architectural style and
entrepreneurship. By way of contrast, Italians perceive many of their industrial monuments as symbols of
the Risorgimento (the creation of the Italian nation) and ripe for dramatic and stylish conversions.
Scandinavians tend to pursue an ethnographical approach, focusing on the lives and conditions of the
workforce rather than any heroic leaps in technology, and retaining as much historic fabric and
atmosphere as possible. In larger countries, and above all in Canada and the United States, interests and
policies differ widely between provinces or states. Each seems to have a highly individual group of
specialists, devoted to the protection of mining sites, hydro-electric plant, grain silos or even fish-canning
plant. [7]
A traditional concept of building evaluation and architectural heritage classification is by grade of listing,
present also in our national practice, but also in UK etc. Here is the best architecture defined by aesthetic
qualities, structural innovation and historic associations giving the highest value of the building through
expert opinion of professionals. Such protection should guard, through the need for only listed building
consent against drastic, unsympathetic alterations. This purist approach, developed and applied by
conservationists, historians and industrial archaeologists, is now being undermined as much from within
the preservationist movement as by its critics. [7] The problem occurred when the commitment to public
participation was included and more specifically with the study and protection of twentieth-century
commercial and industrial buildings that is in turn at least in some countries. These are often large
structures that need commercial uses to fund their maintenance and have steel or concrete frames that can
rust and spall from within. Specialists are evaluating these structures with great deal, but the broad public
can only be expected to share such enthusiasms if these buildings are made attractive and usable. So,
aforementioned concept of the listing can only be seen more of a marker than an objective standard of
excellence. We must become more open to debates about preference, manipulation and personal
aspiration and taking on board the attitudes of local people and the distinctive social and cultural qualities
of an area as well.
The complex nature of development today, as well as the need for either public funds or powers, requires
public outreach and often involves the provision of public amenities. Many of these industrial sites are
vacant or abandoned, encompass large swaths of land, or are lonely outposts in changing districts that
requires a comprehensive approach, rather than a simple or discrete renovation and conservation. A
striking aspect of many of successful projects of this kind is how often their genesis stems from the ideas
and actions of one person or group. They are often visionaries, seeing the underlying beauty of these
industrial relics and utility when others cant get past the images of crumbling bricks and contamination.
By force of personality or position, the champions for these renovations bring others on board to work
toward their dream of transformation. Whether others consider the change a dream or nightmare often
determines the length of these battles.

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5. CONCLUSIONS
The industrial aesthetic has often been more admired by architects and artists than the public at large;
however, the clean lines and expansive volumes that were an outgrowth of these design ideas now please
the modern eye and aesthetic that can be considered as a key to renovation success. If we perceive and
assess industrial and technical structures from an aesthetic-symbolic perspective, it is clear that the value
of these works is not based only on their functional and technical components, but also derives from their
specific poetry, monumentality and beauty. In contrast to other types of architecture they acquire these
qualities in very interesting forms.
Although, it also seems that the public, as well as the conservation bodies, are still learning to appreciate
the quality of these structures, there are good examples where valuable works of this category is being
assessed and saved from demolition and disappearance. An important element in the structural change of
a former industrial area is the rediscovery of its own past. The examination of the industrial history, that
leads inevitably to an examination of its architectural witnesses. Yet, it is obvious that the public more
appreciate the industrial buildings from earlier history than the one from recent past.
In order to redefine the architectural past as something of value, the term industrial culture acquires a
special meaning. The confirmation, examination and presentation of the circumstances enable the history
to be viewed from a different angle. The opening up and development of former industrial areas enables
new forms of public discussion. Today, industrial culture is one of the unique selling points with
particular value. Industrial halls are being transformed into exciting art and cultural sites, residential
premises or attractive commercial space but it is not necessarily the matter of convenient building
conservation. This cannot work like a simple protection of physical structures. The industrial architecture
plays a significant role in new forms of identification with the space, the region and the history.
There are many lessons to be learned about how cities are changing from hubs of industry to redefined
urban centres. While its obvious that works for one doesnt work for all, certain principles crop up
throughout many of the projects. Whether is about the remarking of a harbour or the rebuilding of
dilapidated building, the redevelopment of industrial sites required incredible perseverance, knowledge,
and, yes, a bit of luck.
REFERENCES
[1] Bergeron, L., Maiullari-Pontois, M.T.: Industry, Architecture and Engineering: American
Ingenuity 1750-1950, Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, 2000, p. 288
[2] Berens, C.: Redeveloping Industrial Sites A Guide for Architects, Planner and Developers,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA, 2011, p. 239
[3] Edensor, T.: Industrial Ruins: Space, Aesthetics and Materiality, Berg Publishers, Oxford,
GBR, 2005, p. 197
[4] Elgendy, H., Seidemann, D., Wilske, S.: The role of spatial planning in steering market-driven
urban change of deteriorated urban areas, 42nd IsoCaRP Congress, 2006
[5] Munce, J.: Industrial architecture: an analysis of international building practice, F.W. Dodge
Corp., the University of Michigan, 1960, p. 232
[6] Nelson, G.: Industrial Architecture of Albert Kahn, New York, Architectural Book Publishing
Company, Inc., 1939, p.175
[7] Stratton, M. (ed.): Industrial Buildings Conservation and Regeneration, Taylor & Francis eLibrary, 2005, p. 274

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Marina Jordanovi1
Ljiljana Jevremovi2
Milanka Vasi3

SUSTAINALBLE DESIGN: PROCESSING OF SOLID WASTE AS A

SOURCE OF ENERGY
Abstract: On the road to European integration, solving many problems in the field of environmental
protection has become a priority. The fight for the preservation of the environment in Europe has already
begun. The adoption of a large number of declarations and laws on this issue has greatly raised
awareness of citizens across Europe on the environment. In Serbia, environmental awareness is still not
at a satisfactory level, "wild" landfills are all around us, but the fact that it has begun to speak loudly on
this issue is a good start. Given the diminishing fossil fuels is non-renewable energy and protrude to the
need for electricity and heat constantly, it is necessary to think about the renewable sources. In addition
to solar energy, wind power, water, biomass and municipal solid waste can be a "producer" of energy. As
waste, either organic or inorganic, is being made every day, it would be absurd not to use such a source.
Key words: solid waste, energy, sustainable design

ODRIVO PROJEKTOVANJE: PRERADA VRSTOG KOMUNALNOG

OTPADA KAO IZVORA ENERGIJE
Rezime: Na putu evropskih integracija, reavanje mnogobrojnih problema iz oblasti zatite ivotne
sredine mora postati jedan od prioriteta. Borba za ouvanjem ivotne sredine u Evropi je ve odavno
poela. Donoenjem velikog broja deklaracija i zakona po ovom pitanju, u velikoj meri je podignuta svest
graana irom Evrope o ouvanju okoline. U Srbiji ekoloka svest jo uvek nije na zavidnom nivou,
divlje deponije su svuda oko nas, ali injenica da je poelo da se glasno govori o ovom problemu je
dobar poetak. Imajui u vidu sve manje fosilnih goriva koja su neobnovljivi izviri energije a da je
potreba za elektrinom i toplotnom energijom neprestana, neophodno je orjentisati se na obnovljive
izvore. Pored suneve energije, snage vetra, vode, biomase i vrst komunalni otpad moe biti
proizvoa energije. Kako komunalni otpad, bilo organskog ili neorganskog porekla, nastaje svakog
dana, besmisleno bi bilo ne iskoristiti takav izvor.
Kljune rei: otpad, energija, odrivo projektovanje

1
d.i.a., Assistant, Facutly of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Nis,
Serbia, email: marina.jordanovic@gmail.com
2
d.i.a., Assistant, Facutly of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Nis,
Serbia, email: jevremovicljiljana@gmail.com
3
d.i.a., Assistant, Facutly of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Nis,
Serbia, email:milanka.vasic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

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1. INTRODUCTION
The problem facing the entire globe is environmental pollution. That "anything" can be bought or
changed does not apply when it comes to fossil fuels that are not renewed or are renewed very slowly. On
the other hand, the need for electricity and heat does not stop, on a contrary, each day becomes even
greater. In order to solve this problem, we undertook a serious study on the global level that initiated the
adoption of various laws and directives in the field of environmental protection which is heavily
influenced raising awareness on this issue. In the developed countries of the world, the alternative energy
sources are now widely used. The previous practice of fossil fuels is slowly disappearing, creating new
solutions as a reaction on the serious problems which have arisen in the ecosystem.
The fight for the preservation of the environment has long begun. One of the main issues is how, as soon
as possible and in the most efficient way, to turn towards alternative energy sources; and which of the
sources can be used for this purpose? One of them, unjustly neglected, is the communal waste.
2. THE COMMUNAL WASTE AS ENERGY SOURCE
According to UN projections, by 2050 in the world is going to be around nine billion people. From this
number, only one billion will live in the developed countries of the world while other eight will be from
less developed countries. The goal to reduce poverty and increase the standard of living will incur higher
spending, which directly leads to greater amounts of waste [2]. For example, the current 6.6 billion people
on earth annually produce between 2.5 to 4 billion tons of waste. In the USA annually 700 kilograms of
waste is produced per capita, in India around 150 kilograms, while every EU citizen leaves behind 500
kilograms of waste per year. These figures speak for themselves that the waste is really a good source of
energy, according to its quantity, that has been so far ignored and unused. The current treatment of the
waste slowly becomes to be overcome.
Waste problem is obvious, but the resolution of this issue can be accessed only by accepting the basic
principles:
Reduce - no waste production
Reuse
Processing
As environmental awareness is not in all countries equally developed, the EU set of business rules
in the hierarchy for waste, which would apply to all, including:
Prevention of waste
Reuse products
Recycling
Energy recovery through incineration
Disposal of the waste in the ground (the last option)
Although there are differences in the treatment of waste in EU countries, their common goal is to
reduce waste, use it for energy purposes or to reuse [1]. A firm mission is set to 50% of municipal
solid waste and 70% of industrial waste must be reused or processed by 2020.
Anything that has lost its utility value is considered to be waste. One of the divisions of waste is
[2]:
Municipal waste
Industrial waste
Large construction waste
Inert materials and non-large construction waste
Biodegradable waste (leaves, branches ...)
Electronic Waste
Municipal waste includes components of organic and inorganic components that with adequate treatment
in sewage treatment plants can provide electric and thermal energy. After the separation and baling of
waste it is important to choose the technology for processing the waste so that the results are the most cost
effective.
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3. SITUATION IN SERBIA
Organisation of many professional and scientific conferences in the country indicates increasing public
awareness of the problem-solving waste [3]. The National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia adopted
the four laws on environmental protection:
Law on Environmental Protection
Law on Environmental Protection of the Environment
Law on Strategic Environmental Impact
Law on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollutants
All four acts correspond to EU standards and are in line with European standards in terms of
environmental protection.
In Nis there is one of four recycling centres in Serbia. It is also the largest one. So far, at this centre
packaging waste is only being recycled through re-use into feedstock. It is important to note that the
citizens take care of the disposal of waste by select it. Setting up recycling disposal islands as containers
for PET and for Aluminium by the PUC, "Mediana", greatly facilitates the collection of materials for
recycling.
Much more needs to be changed, so that the problem of waste management in the country can be reduced
or mitigated, but it is important that the will, the desire and the knowledge we have.
4. WASTE PROCESSING PLANT (CTRV) - SPAIN
Construction of this waste processing plant in Spain was completed in 2010 with the cost of 74 million
euros. It is located near Barcelona at the site of the former landfill [4]. Many years of the landfill activity
has greatly damaged the soil (Figure 1 and 2). Degradation of waste in the landfill in the presence of
water and air creates a so-called landfill leachate, which are in direct contact with surface water and
groundwater. To prevent further deterioration of soil, water and air pollution, the plant was designed for
the processing of waste that is self-sustaining as well.

Figure 1- Site plan before construction of the facility

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Figure 2 - Site plan after construction of the facility

Through adequate treatment of waste, the plant produces energy for own purposes and through the green
roof collects storm water that is used in the production process (Figure 3). The initial idea was to preserve
the environment and prevent pollution of the entire ecosystem. The ultimate goal was achieved by the
realization of this remarkable plant that has in every way justified its purpose. Factory for processing
waste (CTRV) in Spain is an excellent example of sustainable design methods (Figure 4).

Figure 3 Waste processing plant CTRV, Spain, the detail of the green roof

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Figure 4 - Waste processing plant CTRV, Spain

It is necessary to be prepared to give some funds for the construction of such a facility, but it should be
borne in mind that in a few years the facility is going to pay off itself.
5. CONCLUSIONS
EU countries have long recognized this and have begun to solving problems in the field of environmental
protection. They are willing to make large investments in development of new technologies in order to
compensate for the lack of fossil fuels and meet the need for electrical and thermal energy.
Processing of the waste should become one of the energy sources in our country. Firstly, it is necessary to
establish adequately regulated waste management, then select the waste that will be targeted for treatment
and finally choose the most cost-effective technology of treatment. By applying new technologies all this
is possible. It will reduce the amount of municipal solid waste landfills that are spread with incredible
speed, contributing to the protection of the environment and will produce a certain amount of electrical
and thermal energy. Processing and reusing waste also opens new market - waste market. Why not to
create something that is more than necessary by something that we do not need?
REFERENCES
[1] Ili O., Trajkovi S., Upravljanje otpadom u skladu sa EU ekolokim standardima. Studija
sluaja: Sanitarna deponija Vrbak, Nauka+praksa 11, 2008, 83-90
[2] Komazec G., Kicoev S., Puzi G., Separiranje, baliranje i prerada otpada, Zbornik Matice srpske
za drutvene nauke br. 134, 2011, 95-111
[3] Trajkovi S., Odrivo upravljanje graevinskim otpadom, Zbornik radova Graevinskoarhitektonskog fakulteta 21, 2006, 115-122
[4] www.archdaily.com jun 2012.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Aleksandar Jovanovic1
Elham Madadi Kandjani2
Milos Dacic3

CONNECTION OF SPACES IN
CAMPUS PLANNING AND DESIGN
Abstract: Through history, there had been various models of campus planning, leading to rich
heritage and typologies to be analyzed and valued at present. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the
specialties in those designs and investigate the meaning of spaces in campus planning and their link to
design theory. The case study analysis of the 3 campus planning projects was made in order to determine
the design outline of connecting and separating spaces in their forms and determine the possible reasons
for creation of these forms. The question to be answered is do analyse studies show the variety of campus
planning and what architectural and urban planning instances from the history (re)appear relevant in the
spatial design of connected spaces.
ey words: connection, spaces, trajectories, campus planning, history, society

1. INTRODUCTION
Architecture is not solely a visual art. It involves all the usual senses in addition to sight: touch,
hearing, smell and sometimes taste. It involves our sense of movement and time as well as many
emotional senses: trepidation, fear, comfort, security, shock, astonishment, exposure, resignation,
attachment, exclusion, rejection and so on. Architecture also involves our more complex and subtle
senses of: history, nostalgia, safety, romance, comfort, domination, possession, struggle, status,
subjugation, exploitation, intimidation. [4]
In order to begin the analysis we need to determine our usual understanding of a campus. The first
used terminology campus can be traced in the student's letter at Princeton [1] who used the word to
describe the spatial quality surrounding his University as the place of freedom, greenery and openness. At
the same time, the characteristically university building was that of rectangular or quadrangle [3] shape
around the central corridor with some form of pre-dominant part such as tower, or greater elevation.
These types of buildings were very much appreciated in European architecture of University buildings,
because they were easily adapted to the dense European cities and they meant more profitable use of the
city space. On the other hand, it was the creation of the ideal city within the city which was the aim of
the American campus architecture. The purpose was to create the idyllically and self-sufficient
community in harmony with nature. This is why the campus was being located in the vast distance from
the city, forming an academic village typology, a term coined by Thomas Jefferson in 1817 for
describing the University in Virginia. Judging by the general urban planning principles, especially in
terms of connection with the parts of the cities and towns, the American campus meant opening towards
the city and nature and no more inclusion in itself as was the case with European campus architectures
that preceded it.

Dipl.Ing - Technische Universitt Graz, Rechbauerstrasse 12, 8010 Graz, aleksandar.jovanovic@student.tugraz.at

MSc. - Technische Universitt Graz, Rechbauerstrasse 12, 8010 Graz, madadi@student.tugraz.at
3
Dipl.Ing - Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Nis,
mdacic@yahoo.com
2

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2. AIMS AND METHODS

By using Case Study method, 3 different campuses in USA were analyzed. The criterion for choosing
the campuses is the originality of form, representativeness of the design compared to other campus forms
which were influenced by them as role models. Within the analysis, each of the campuses was analysed
from its appearance in history and change of the form throughout time. The main goal is to determine the
general principles of campus planning which are present in the designs' outcomes and to determine the
influence to their final form's creation. The case study should outline the aspect of connecting and
separating spaces in campus forms and determine the possible reasons this, when present.
3. CASE STUDIES
3.1. University at Harvard, Massachusetts, USA
The campus had been built at Newton in the Boston area in the USA. After the influence of many
Cambridge alumni and their fruitful lifes connected to the University history, the place itself got the
name of Cambridge. It was however not until later in the history that the name of Harvard appeared
which reflected the homage to John Harvard, who left almost half of his estate to this University. [2]
The form of the University reflects the society in which the campus had been created. Unlike the
European models known at the time, this campus plan was formed with openness to the rest of the city.
By Turner, the reason for this is that Puritans who were living at the time in the America wanted to
control the University as an institution and therefore tried to integrate it into the structure of the city.
Another reason for designing buildings separately from one another and with hardly any physical
connection except for pathways is the danger of fire which back in those days had threatened mainly
wooden buildings [2]. Each of these arguments serves to the outcome of a completely liberal and
picturesque campus which was later shown to influence the other forms of the American campus through
history. Picture 1 shows the first design scheme of the Harvard campus at the beginning of its existence.
(Fig 1)

Figure 1, Harvard College from 1638 The campus is very much an integral part of the town, mainly all buildings are free
standing structures which are oriented towards whether the river or the town of Cambridge or in some cases both, taken from (2)

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Figure 2, The evolution of the campus free form to the U form in 1718, taken from (2)

In the year 1718 the Harvard University building got the U form with two buildings perpendicular to
the main building which was parallel to the street. Between the main building and the street was a vast
yard, typical for most of the campuses to come in the history. Historical changes in campus architecture
of Harvard took years to be noticeable. The most noticeable one took place within the revival of the
English college style apparently affecting also the Harvard campus in terms of formation of smaller
groups of people students who were supposed to live and learn together but not in greater connection to
the outside world and sometimes quite inclusive. The architecture changed into the European predecessor
campus forms, leading to the walls around the campus, defining the boundaries, which was in the
contradiction to the basic principle of openness.

Figure 3, The view towards the main part of the yard form the Harvard square, the campus was divided with brick wall and iron
fence from the rest of the city urban structure

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Figure 4, Plan of campus Harvard from 1930, similar to present state

The contemporary campus is made of different unfinished quadrangles but comprises many buildings
that stand free in the plan without connection to the others. There are few axes that define the campus
structure. However the plan in general has no pre dominant axe. There are numerous yards which are
formed by the enclosed structures and free standing buildings, so the main physical principle is design of
many smaller campuses within one bigger.
3.2. Princeton, New Jersey, USA
The history of its creation dates back to the patronage of the Presbyterian church which considered a
plan of a campus and its location should be the symbol of escape from the city influences and therefore
located at its outskirts. The difference to Harvard is that Princeton comprised in its plan a compact
University structure, more close to the European models. However, forming the big green field within the
plan was already being established and promoted here as the main quality of the urban space. The rural
features of the town together with the yard of the campus had strengthened the feeling of urban village
dedicated to the promotion of studying. The rurality of the surroundings influenced the coining of the
expression campus and its use as the symbol of university open spaces.
Princeton campus plan was modified by the plan of Joseph Henry form 1836, by this plan, the
buildings of the president and warden would be moved in to the line of complete symmetry, allowing the
new vistas towards the dormitories. (At the top of the drawing), taken from [2].

Figure 5, The main building of Princeton campus today, big green yard in front of the building of Nassau Hall
which had previously comprised dining rooms, education, service rooms and dormitories

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Figure 6, Princeton campus by the plan of Joseph Henry from 1836

As was the case with Harvard and other American campuses, the Princeton campus was to be changed
within the idea of elite education standards, promoted by many intellectuals influenced by European
standards and traditions. This was also reflected onto the architecture of the campuses and meant
changing the structures to fit the newly adopted frames of English campus and its revival. In the plan of
Princeton, it meant development of student dormitories buildings across the boundaries of the complex
which seemed like fortresses, not easily to be reached by the ordinary world and presenting the entrance
to the world of inclusion and elite.

Figure 7, Princeton campus at the beginning of the 20th century, semi enclosed dormitory complex at the western side of the
campus protects the body of campus from undesired views from outside, the Nassau Hall building remains in the central position
of the plan (the upper middle of the drawing)

Todays plan shows the combination of enclosed and semi-enclosed buildings and quadrangles,
connected with green yards and communication spaces with each other. The plan clearly shows the
dynamic development of the campus, with periodical systematic construction of certain elements,
however with the distinctive prime construction as the generator of trajectories and as core of the place.
3.3. Campus Stanford, California, USA
The history of the campus creation dates back to Governor Stanford, who contracted Frederick Law
Olmsted, journalist and park planner to make a plan of the campus as a symbol of his passed -away sons
tribute. The prevailing style of Beaux Art also existing in park architecture influenced the principle of the
campus main trajectory which appears as the entrance to the complex. Considered as a memorial place
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and pathway, the trajectory amplifies the monumentality and the importance of the place. The possibility
of campus expansion from sided front although never used, has improved the campus planning tradition
as well as the use of the trajectory to determine the architecture and sense of space did. The architect had
the vision of a campus plan that would take care of the future changes by its own nature and strongly
believed in the capability of the informal plan to take on these changes. [2]

Figure 8,9, Aerial view and original plan of Stanford campus, the architect envisioned a park- like structure in the style of Beaux
Art, with main path from the direction of the city one mile long and comprising the smaller objects with housing diagonally
placed in the plan. These plans were altered since the new place for dormitories was found in the direction of the east-western
axes (3)

4. CONCLUSION
The analyzed campuses comprise big differences in their design and this can be connected to different
aspects of their creation. In the case of Princeton and Harvard campuses the plans evolved through time
without any particular decision on how their appearance should be made in the course of time. That is the
main reason why they had accepted different historical and architectural changes connected with changes
in the society. The first formed campus structures were altered however they retained the principle of
open spaces and yard architecture as the symbol of the freedom of the newly formed society. In addition,
the architecture of Stanford campus shows the importance of idea of a single man, the architect, who
succeeded in designing and architectonical structure which could be expended through time and which
was still informal in its scheme.
REFERENCES
[1] Kampos P.Urbanizam i arhitektura kampusa, SITON, Ni, 2009.
[2] Turner P.V., Campus:an American planning tradition, The Architectural History foundation, MIT
press, 1984.
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrangle_%28architecture%29
[4] Unwin S., Doorways, 2007
Illustration sources:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harvard_square_harvard_yard.JPG
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harvard_University_map_(older,_date_unknown).jpg
3. http://mappery.com/map-of/Princeton-University-Campus-Map
4. http://www.seas.harvard.edu/suo/photos/princeton9.jpg
5. http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/kncZBYgZtXOzkMskpwpryA
6. http://richp.com/pics/aerial-05-18-02/stanford-campus-5-18-02.jpg
7. http://www.stanford-b.com/campus.html

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Marko Jovanovi1
Bojan Tepavevi2

INFLUENCE OF BIOLOGICAL METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES ON

CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN APPROACH
Abstract: Biological thinking in the process of design can be studied through the history of architecture,
but since past two centuries architects have begun to utilize biological methodology and principles
instead of just imitating the shapes and forms in nature. Development of modern theories in biology
brings new notions and approaches in the contemporary architectural discourse. In this research some
contemporary biological terminology utilized in architectural-theoretical discourse are examined and
discussed. The aim of this research is to show in what extent new biological paradigm has reshaped
contemporary architectural theory of design, as well as to establish a base plane for its further
proliferation of analogy between the two fields.
Key words: mimicry, biomimesis, morphogenesis, genetic algorithm, cellular automata

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1. INTRODUCTION
Architectural practice has always strived to implement all the necessities that a certain project requires
in conjunction with one another, mainly functionality, structural stability, aesthetical representation in
terms of form, materiality, sustainability, spatial and urban qualities etc. However, most architectural
designs focus on the form and the visual representation of the project, disregarding or minimizing the
value of other important factors, thus decreasing its life span and profitability altogether. Perhaps, one of
the reasons for this can be contributed to the emblematic characteristic of architecture and emphasis on
the infatuation by the users that lead the architects to a conclusion that a dysfunctional duck is better
than the functional decorated shed [17].
The development of computation and the need for more sustainable design have awakened the
architects imagination and obligation for more viral approach to design processes. Many have come to
realize that the conjunction of function, form and structure up and foremost is where the future of
1
MSc Marko Jovanovi, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, Novi Sad,
Serbia, apokmarko@yahoo.com:
2
PhD Bojan Tepavevi, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, Novi Sad,
Serbia, tepavcevicb@yahoo.com

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architecture should be headed to [8]. Material development and automation are also important factors and
the interrelation with the latter cannot be predicted by analyzing any of them individually or separately
[4]. The best way of applying this basic concept of joined approach is through exploring, researching and
learning from nature and the processes within it. Since all of the aspects are generated
nondeterministically, thus they can, by analogy, be applied in architectural practice as well. However, the
digital avant-garde has inclined towards a more superficial understanding of such an approach,
supporting it with vague philosophical background thus resulting in fake creativity availing algorithms as
architectural design tools [14].
Terminology tends to get somewhat heavy and confusing, when pertaining to such a topic, without a
much deeper understanding of its essential meaning and application. Mainly, terms like biomimesis,
mimicry, evolution, morphogenesis etc. are all biological and need to be properly interpreted as such,
before being utilized as architectural principles [3]. Therefore, when referencing all of biological
principles as architectural concepts, the goal is to attain a particular state of form, not as a static
representation, but as a processual, behavioral and changeable phenomenon that it is. Furthermore, once
acquainted with the epistemological aspect of biological principles, it seems fit to transpose it adequately
in architecture via a philosophical ideology [9]. A particular shift needs to be made from modeling forms
and shapes to modeling behavior and processes [12]. Hence, the architecture today, as a data and
algorithm driven design process, should not only exists as such, but be in the iterative process of
becoming [6]. Consequently, the designs themselves need to be adaptive and prone to assimilation in real
time. A certain responsive system needs to be in the core of the design, as to allow for every modification,
in order to satisfy a certain predetermined criteria [7]. The aim of this research is to establish a base plane
for implementation of biological principles as architectural concepts, further proliferation of analogy
between the two fields and transposition of biological terminology into the demands of architectural
design issues.
2. INTERDISCIPLINARY APPRAOCH TO ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE
Following the discourse concerning the formal beginning of contemporary approach in architectural
design, in the XVIII century, never has the influence of social and philosophical movements been
reflected on architecture so obviously. Moreover, the development of technological advancements in
other fields and scientific branches had an effect on the overall contribution to architectural and urban
design and the world in general. Observing the change in lifestyle and mentality of the people and the
society, driven by such actions, accompanied by the policies of governing minds at the time, architecture
has been adapting and acclimatizing to suit the needs since.
A good example is presented with the start of the digital era. The first computers, developed in the
second half of the XX century, were utilized in order to optimize, calculate and draw airplane and
automobile hull specifications. Applying the mathematical principles for drawing curved and straight
lines, on planar or spatial forms, optimization of the hulls deemed itself as a useful tool in the industry.
Hence the architectural practice implemented it, as an extension of its own necessities, as computer aided
design programs (CAD), and continued on improving its usefulness and application as a design tool [16].
By linking non geometrical data, mainly mathematical parameters, to geometrical entities, a more
accessible connection was formed, where proneness to modification of the entire geometry by one
parameter was achievable, which allowed for more exploratory endeavors. Consequently, the operational
application of CAD programs, as extension to architects drawing tools, was broadened to parametric
modeling and design. Introducing the fourth dimension, time, as a parameter, architects discovered the
possibilities of vast performance in their field, in reference to their surroundings, which was changing in
time.
Greg Lynn was a disciple of such an approach and transferred his knowledge into his designs. The
competition entry for The Port Authority Triple Bridge Gateway, designed by Greg Lynn Form, in 1994,
as seen in Figure 1, was the first project to use animation software for form generation. Hence, the
implementation of real life processes and events, such as motion and movement, through computational
application, lead to the finished project and opened more opportunities for designing. At this stage,
animation was implying the evolution of a form and its shaping forces, a continuous process that was
adapting and assimilating itself to the influences around it [11]. The importance of this project lays in
questioning the basic essence of architectural practice, which evokes a state of stasis, and shifting the
emphasis from modeling forms to modeling processes.
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Figure 25 The Port Authority Triple Bridge Gateway, the conceptual principles representing traffic and pedestrian flows on the
left and the finished project entry on the right

However, conjunction between the structure, form and materiality is not as integrated as it should be.
For example, the design process begins with the choice of load bearing system, which defines the outer
shell itself, the form, followed by the choice of the material. Proven methods and combinations of the
latter mount themselves as a normative and continue being favored in design process.
On the other hand, based on processes in nature, natural constructions, which architecture is trying to
replicate, represent the endless diversity of mutations, recombination and selection of these factors [8],
which strive to be optimum. Furthermore, all biological materials have a subtle property of adjusting to
the outer influences and changes in local stress, being made primarily out of fibrous composites.
Therefore, a certain horizontal hierarchy, identified by equal class factors of structure, form and material,
functionality implied, needs to be defined in order to satisfy this multilayered approach. Emergence, for
example, which tends to hold a firm grip around understanding of the behavior of complex systems and
mathematics of their processes, is an interdisciplinary architectural approach to design, which is
describing the natural processes through algorithms and scripts [4]. It utilizes, as other approaches in
architecture do, a particular philosophical background for design concepts, in order to fully identify the
problem. It mainly incorporates biology and its methodology in the design process.
3. BIOLOGICAL METHODOLOGY AS ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Implementation of biology and all of its branches into architectural design cannot lack the ever-present
technological development as well. That considered, a question must be asked of whether one serves the
other or vice versa, concerning the topic of modeling behavior and processes.
If technology is utilized in order to help understand the nature and its processes, then technological
biology defines the bond. If certain knowledge is being acquired from the nature itself, in order to help
technology prosper and for its sake, then a term of bionics is used [3]. Additionally, term biomimetics
suits this bond better, in reference to architectural practice, since it involves mimicking of nature. Such
definition does not imply enhancing the living tissues with mechanical versions, as bionics does, but
implies applying processes from nature as architectural principles. Also, a suitable terminology must be
generated, previously defining every term, in reference to its origin and further application. Proper
definition of biological terminology is mandatory in order to apply the epistemological aspect of it to
architecture here. Given that architecture combines aspects of all sciences and thrives to become
interdisciplinary, this represents a legitimate action.
The classification of most frequently used biological terms employed as architectural principles, seen
in Figure 2, is generalized in correspondence to the mostly dynamic input that biology can contribute to
architecture. Since a unique classification principle is not possible to generate, due to differentiation and
immensity of data, this classification focused on three aspects cells, entities or units and generations in
biology, analogously to architecture habitative units, buildings and urban congregation or building
optimization algorithms. Given that all of nature is composited of processes taking place in it, their
application, in this classification, was distributed depending on the complexity of units being applied to.
Still, it does not restrict the usage to only a corresponding classification group, e.g. morphogenesis on
cells. It merely emphasizes the basic definition, prone to further exploitation to other classification groups
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as well. Further definition of these terms will be explained, in terms of implementation as architectural
concepts.

Figure 26 A classification depiction of three biological groups of terms cells, entities and generations responding to three
levels of design operation habitative units, buildings, urban congregations or building optimization algorithms

3.1. Implementation of biological methodology regarding cellular level as architectural concepts

On the cellular level, grasping the size of the basic units, cells, whilst trying to determine their
functionality and essential role in the overall system, should have a distinct definition, following the
course and logic of their development. The term morphogenesis is best suited to define this process,
taking under consideration the field of implementation and the range of understanding the basic meaning
of it. Since it is derived from biology, the basic definition pertains to shaping of cells and tissues into
their definite shapes [14]. However, on a more broad scale, it represents developmental sequence of a
biological system from origination to mature state, as well as the evolution of morphogenetic structures
[12]. All of these definitions hold a firm grip around the basic essence of this term in biology. Mainly, it
represents a part of the essential need of an organism to develop into its phylogenic predetermination.
On the scale of implementation into the field of architecture, morphogenesis is understood as a group
of methods that employ digital media not as representational tools for visualization but as generative tools
for the derivation of form and its transformation [14]. This definition tends to be vague and general,
indulging merely the design phase, since the real dynamic biological analogy and preciseness are lacking,
alongside inductive methods. A more comprehensive approach would be to try and define the term
morphogenesis in architecture in the same manner it is referred to in biology. That said, morphogenesis in
architecture pertains to adaptive qualities of all units in an overall system, shaping itself iteratively in
order to optimize its existential necessitates through derivation of form and transformation in both design
and operational phase. Through a lens of biomimetics, this approach should incorporate smart materials
and mechanics as methods, alongside computation.
However, the driving force behind the morphogenetic process is the gene. It represents the sole carrier
of information - hereditary characteristics distinctive of a particular entity. This definition can be used in
both fields, since it describes the gene in biology in the same way it relates to the term of genes in
architecture through information, rich genetic pool of ideas [2]. Genetic algorithms in architecture
apply genes in the course of the design phase and optimization processes, which will be discussed later
on. As genes withhold vital information, as an informational data string, prone to modification in the
processes of morphogenesis and evolution, they have to be imbedded in entities capable of representing
and visualizing such strings cells.
Term cells in architecture has been utilized even in vernacular architecture in the early epochs,
however that term today has a closely related connection with the contemporary meaning of it in biology.
The cell, the smallest autopoietic structure, is the minimum unit that is capable of incessant selforganizing metabolism [3]. Such a definition is derived from biology and should be implemented as an
architectural principle accordingly. Cells in architecture can be summed up to the realm of habitable units,
rooms, apartments, or on a larger scale, urban parcels, areas or districts, depending on the size. Therefore,
they need to be thought of as functional and dynamic, capable of self-organization and self-sustainment,
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achievable through energy efficient design. Further on, they can vary in discreteness, achieving local level
of self-dependence by forming single agent self-organizing systems, or conjoining into one multi agent
self-organizing system. Self-organization is a process in which the internal organization of a system
increases automatically without being guided or managed by an external source [5]. Cellular automata
fall under the category of single agent self-organizing systems.
It involves assigning a general list of rules in a system, where time and space are discrete, therefore
allowing for an almost binary morphogenetic approach to cell shaping, under the influence of surrounding
cells, with the same restrictions [16]. Cellular automata are mostly used in design stages, as a valuable
basis for the search engine algorithm in the generative approach to architectural design. As can be seen in
Figure 3, each incremental step is accompanied by further division of previously formed unit and
application of rules in correspondence to the neighboring cells. However, applying this approach in
architecture, as such, is highly irregular, without the adequate analysis of constructive qualities primarily.

Figure 27 The discrete time lapsed images of cellular automata utilization, alongside genetic algorithm. During each iteration,
a certain rule is imposed on the previous version, thus shaping the overall process.

3.2. Implementation of biological methodology regarding entity level as architectural concepts

On the level of a single unit or entity, which is comprised of multiple smaller units previously referred
to as cells, regardless of the field of implementation, the entity needs to be observed as more than the sum
of its parts. It constitutes itself as achieving a higher purpose by simultaneously intertwining different
factors that satisfy elementary needs. The same applies in architecture. A single entity, such as a building
or an urban block, depending on the cell definition, needs to satisfy multiple factors, while congregating
under one membrane. As was pointed out previously, the combination of form, function and structure,
alongside materiality should be equally embedded in the design stage. However, it should be inwrought
with an energy efficient approach as well, based on the homeostatic instances of entities in biology, in
order to live in the operational stage as well. The term metabolism best describes the connection.
Metabolism encompasses the physical and biochemical processes that occur within a living organism
that are necessary for the maintenance of life [5]. The entity forms a distinct internal environment or a
system, including all of the processes within it, capable of connection with other environments and
systems, pertaining to architecture as well. Two implied byproducts are interdependent, but fairly distinct
harvesting energy on one side, and using the energy to produce other necessities. Green architecture and
sustainability principles, regarding the energy efficiency of buildings and the preservation and
transformation of usable energy in architecture, mostly represent biochemical processes. New
technologies utilize even photosynthesis, such as a green algae bioreactor, as a way of converting sunlight
energy into various chemical forms of energy. Primarily, thermal and electrical energy are obligatory to
maintain functionality in a given entity. What can be accomplished when utilizing such conditions
pertains to the physical processes of their users. In order to function as such it needs to be interrelated to
other systems in order to exchange byproducts and elongate their existence. Because metabolism
requires exchange of matter and energy with the environment, living systems are open systems [3].
However, entropic qualities of all open systems enable it to strive towards a certain state of
homeostasis. Homeostasis is a property of open systems, especially living organisms, which regulates
their internal environment so as to maintain required stable conditions [5]. This can be attributed as a
process of regulating the internal ubiquitous environment to a state of equilibrium, controlled by negative
feedback, in order to comply with its own predetermined systems conditions and criteria. Negative
feedback can be assigned to any external influence trying to unbalance the equilibrium of a certain
system, like extensive heat can influence the temperature in poorly insolated entities. In order to be selforganizing, an entity needs to be able to overcome the negative influence, which can be done by
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interactive or responsive systems and smart materials. They can sense the environmental influence,
process the input data, and act upon it, based on predisposed criteria, through a set of actuators [7].
Another terms regarding entity level as architectural concepts that are important for new biological
paradigm in contemporary architecture are mimesis and mimcry. It is considered tough to try and define
the words of mimesis and mimicry in architectural practice, given the simplification of the meaning that
they impose, mainly regarding imitation or the act of imitating something or someone. When pertaining to
a building in reference to its surroundings, a certain interpretive process needs to exist, where the process
of making a copy can take place. Here the outlines of mimesis can be spotted. It can be defined as a
method of absorbing and sedimenting external processes or forms, through imitation, but using it
creatively, rearticulated as an individual expression [8]. Therefore, mimesis should be thought of as a
form of assimilation, not imitation.
A simple example, as described by Leach, is seen in the relation between the wasp and the orchid, in
the process of cross pollination. During that process, the orchid assimilates itself to the wasp, by emitting
female pheromones into the air in order to attract the wasp. The wasp, therefore, has developed patterns
of behavior to respond to such an influence. This is referred to as the form of mutual becoming [10].
Similar concept can be applied in architecture seen on the example of the Thematic Pavilion EXPO 2012
in Yeosu, Korea by Soma architects. The material development is obligatory for this aspect. The material
used for this facade, Flectofin, contradicts every dogma regarding structural stability, since the
constitution of the material enables it to have large elastic deformations. Hence, the facade can adapt to
the light conditions and physical building conditions [13]. It can be noticed that the pavilion assimilates
itself to the surrounding influences and responds to them in an order, similar to the assimilation of the
orchid to the wasp. To become is not to attain a form (identification, imitation, mimesis) but to find the
zone of proximity, indiscernibility, or indifferentiation [8]. In addition, mimesis incorporates in itself a
certain rational note and reasonable elements, meaning that every mimesis is necessarily the product of
reasonable thinking and process.

Figure 28 The elapsed images of the Thematic Pavilion EXPO 2012, Yeosu, Korea, by Soma architects, showing the process of
assimilating and adapting to the light influence

On the other hand, mimicry is purely subdued by nature and the surroundings and evokes actions with
no knowledge of its purpose. While mimesis integrates processes and actions as its state, regarding
multiple sense assimilation, mimicry applies imitation in a very static way, analogue to zoological
explanation of it. Similar to crypsis, the ability of organisms to avoid detection by others, mimicry simply
copies its surrounding and blends into it. Therefore, while mimesis makes a kinetic and dynamic input
and output in real time visually approachable, mimicry controls a basic inert state of blending in as long
as it seems necessary, completely blinding the user of its presence. It is nothing more than a form of
temptation by space [8].
3.3. Implementation of biological methodology regarding generation level as architectural concepts
Since all of the previous concepts are mostly dependent on the use of computation and technological
advancements, their historical background and research area are still not as immense as they are
constricted by technological development. Evolution, has been introduced in architecture as early as
almost half a century ago, when technology and computers were still developing, positioning this area of
research ahead of all the others. Implementation of evolution is various in architecture. Transferred to
architecture, "evolution" has at least three different notions: evolution of architecture, evolution in
architecture, evolutionary architecture [3]. Given the vastness, only some of the basic terms pertaining to
evolutionary architecture, in terms of genetic algorithms, will be included in the definitions. Genetic
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algorithms avail a particular way of automated form finding on a trial and error basis, where the
algorithms are learning in each incremental step. By defining the fitness level, the search space can be
narrowed and the fittest entity located through a metaheuristic approach.
First of all, two basic terms, genotype and phenotype, are irrevocably connected but distinct none the
less. A clear distinction is made in genetic evolution between the genotype, which is the total make-up of
genes in each organism, and the sum-total of the various hereditary characteristics of the organism,
known as the phenotype, which is the product of the information carried by the genes [1]. Transposed to
architecture, genotype can be presented as a carrier of all the basic founding ideas in an architectural
design, such as floor count, height, structural elements cross section, load bearing system etc. Phenotype
can be referred to as the reflection of its surrounding, architectural language, social and cultural influence,
typology, materiality etc. It should represent the genotypic information so as the people could sense and
experience it. A coinciding determent, analog to genes in genotype is the term memes in phenotype. Even
though it corresponds to a singular entity, it is best utilized in the evolutionary process, hence the
reference here. In 1976 the biologist Richard Dawkins floated his concept of memes or units of
information transmitted from person to person in human culture the mental analogues of genes in
biological inheritance [15].
With this clear distinction, it becomes noticeable that the whole process of evolving and renewing
architectural design, by genetic algorithms, actually starts with the variations in the phenotype, which acts
on the genes as a mediator. The way technology impacts architecture, is the same way architecture
impacts the society and cultural grounds, thus changing its surrounding constantly. By changing its
environment it is prone to change itself, in order to assimilate to the given situation. Evolution is
therefore a two-way process, rather than the one-way process portrayed in the conventional passive
picture [1]. Similar to actual evolution, through the processes of mutation, recombination and selection,
genetic algorithms generate a particular search space, from which the fittest entity is chosen. Mutation is
the most important factor, since hitherto its implementation in the genetic algorithms, the process of
recombining and selecting the variations of the same string of data, as genes, generates mediocre results.
For Delanda, the main task of the architect becomes the design of a sufficiently productive search space
[6]. However, the choice of the fittest remains doubtful, since the evolution process, especially with
random mutations, cannot be repeated in the same manner, thus directly questioning the outcome. By
introducing a tolerance level, and the fitness criteria, obligatory to reach, the results can vary but still be
equally optimal. Also, the survival of the fittest, as a primary premise in evolution theory, does not imply
survival of the best genes and memes, hence the results should not be taken abruptly.
When referencing multi agent self organizing systems, term swarm intelligence is applied to best
describe and visualize the basic concept. It incorporates interactive intelligent agents, capable of operating
in complex environmental conditions, constricted by rules, in order to complete a predetermined task.
Enabled by the capabilities to receive and react to multiple layers of negative feedback, systems that
show adaptive self-organization can arrange their structures according to the (unpredictable) environment
in which they find themselves [14].
4. CONCLUSION
Architecture, by striving to be interdisciplinary, incorporates a great deal of distinct aspects, which
should be equally valuable in the design process and later, during exploitation phase. Implementation of
epistemological methodology and knowledge from biology, can aid architecture resolve the difficulties of
such a multilayer approach. By properly defining and then transposing the terminology from one field of
expertise to another, respectively, much of the initial ideology can be applied adequately. Terms like
morphogenesis and cellular automata have been applied in architecture, but solely as design stage
support, not fully living up to the potential biological morphogenesis can bestow on architecture.
Similarly, the focus has and still is mostly on the image and the form, on the infatuation by the visual
representation of an entity, and not the process that stands as a backbone behind it. Finally, genetic
algorithms and computation alongside it merely cover the lack of human creativity, when it should be
emphasizing the potential of conjoined abilities of computing and human ingenuity. Future work should
be headed towards a more profound and detailed analysis of the term evolution in architecture and
strive towards minimizing the design phase time and maximizing the output of inventiveness.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was supported by the Serbian Ministry of Education and Science (project no. TR36042).
REFERENCES
[1] Abel, C., Virtual Evolution A Memetic Critique of Genetic Algorithms in Design, Faculty of
Architecture, University of Sydney, 2006
[2] Frazer, J., An Evolutionary Architecture, Theme VII, Architectural Association London, 1995
[3] Gruber, P., Biomimetics in Architecture Architecture of Life and Buildings, Institute for
History of Architecture and Arts, Building Research and Preservation, Vienna Institute of
Technology, Vienna, Austria, Springer-Verlag/Wien, 2011, page 14 and 17
[4] Hensel, M. Menges, A. Weinstock, M. Emergent Technologies and Design, Towards a biological
paradigm for architecture, Routledge, Milton Park, 2010, page 11 15
[5] Hensel, M., Synthetic Life Architecture: Ramifications and Potentials of a Literal Biological
Paradigm for Architectural Design, Architectural Design, Volume 76, Issue 2, June 2006
[6] Holland, B., Computational Organicism: Examining Evolutionary Design Strategies in
Architecture, Nexus Network Journal, Volume 12, Number 3, September 2010, pages 485 495
[7] Jovanovi, M., Tepavevi, B., Stojakovi, V., Responsive Systems and Surfaces Design and
Challenges, Proceedings: First International Conference on Architecture and Urban Design (1ICAUD), Department of Architecture, Epoka University, Tirana, April 2012, pages 97 106
[8] Knippers, J., Thomas, S., Design and Construction Principles in Nature and Architecture,
Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, Volume 7, February 2012, 015002
[9] Leach, N., Camouflage, The MIT Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2006, pages 4 88
[10]
Leach, N., Machinic Processes, Machinic Processes, Architectural Biennial Bejing, 2010
[11]
Lynn, G. Animate Form, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 1999, page 9
[12]
Menges, A., Biomimetic Design Process in Architecture: Morphogenetic and
Evolutionary Computational Design, Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, Volume 7, February 2012,
015003
[13]
Ocean Pavilion for the 2012 Yeosu World Expo / SOMA, retrieved July 2012,
http://www.evolo.us/architecture/ocean-pavilion-for-the-2012-yeosu-world-expo-soma/
[14]
Roudavski, S., Towards Morphogenesis in Architecture, International Journal of
Architectural Computing, Volume 7, Issue 3, pages 345 374
[15]
Steadman, P., A Revised Edition - The Evolution of Designs, Biological Analogy in
Architecture and Applied Arts, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2008
[16]
Tepavcevic, B., Influence of Geometrical Representation of Space in Contemporary
Architecture, Doctoral thesis, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad 2010, page 169
[17]
Venturi, R., Scott Braun, D., Izenour, S., Learning From Las Vegas: The Forgotten
Symbolism of Architectural Form, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1972, pages 14 19

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

ilena Jovanovic1
leksandra Miric2

THE OLD CEMETERY GORICA IN NIS MEMORIES THAT FADE

Abstract: In the old times, The Old cemetery 'Gorica' was located in the periphery of the city, and today it
is surrounded by residential and commercial buildings, which makes it an integral part of the urban core
of the city. Even though thousands of citizens of Nis and a number of national and local splendors rest
here, even though the chapels and tombstones have been, due to their historic-cultural and artistic value,
listed as immovable cultural heritage, the Old cemetery in Nis has been left to the ravages of time since
its closure at the end of the 1970s. This study represents the historical development of the Old cemetery
'Gorica' in Nis by applying a comparative analysis of the preserved plans from the past and the current
urban documentation. It represents the condition of the spatial entity of the cemetery and its most
important elements, with special reference to the causes of the decay of tombstones and chapels and the
recommended conservation measures.
Key words: Old cemetery Gorica, Nis, architectural heritage, protection of cultural monuments,
sustainable management of cultural monuments

-
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, ,

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.

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1. INTRODUCTION
Where there is life death is inevitable. One remains hopeless and sad at the thought of death and the
idea that what one loves might disappear. As signs of life, proofs of existence, cemeteries and graves
become witnesses of life, not death. Tombstones stand for the final material confirmation of our
existence, embodiment of the mysterious [2]

1
PhD student at the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nis, PR Bureau of Planning MILIMARH Nis,
mikacika79@gmail.com
2
Architect-conservator, PhD student-researcher at the Institute for the study of ancient architecture IRAA, Aix en Provence,
France, PhD student at the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nis, aleksandramiric@yahoo.com

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There is little evidence concerning the burials performed by Old Slavs. Prior to their settlement,
graves were marked by earth infill and mounds. [5] After the acceptance of Christianity, burial
ceremonies changed; graves were now considered holy places and the relocation and desecration of
graves was considered a great sin. A folk narrator notes in one epic poem how King Vukasin casts a
terrible curse on his son with the following words: may you neither have a grave, nor children. Graves
were paid special attention to and it was the heirs duty to mark the graves of his ancestors and thus
preserve the memory of them. In the ancient times (and the custom is still preserved) people would erect a
grave and tombstone for themselves during their lifetime with the aim of not allowing their physical death
to erase all the traces of their existence and also with the aim of having their graves visibly marked. [5]
According to Christianity, death is not the end of the road and graves stand for places of resurrection.
Medieval Serbian rulers erected endowment churches as places for the burial of their remains. These
churches were considered the most holy places because according to the old beliefs and St. Atanasije just
as seed is cast into the earth, we do not disappear with the disintegration of our body, but we sow our own
selves in order to resurrect [6]
The most widely spread term for the place where human remains rest is grave, tomb. Vuk Karadzic,
in his Dictionary, uses the term das Grab (German) for grave, and the term cemetery for a number of
graves on one place. [5, p.128]. Another term for grave is eternal house, and other terms for tombstone
are omen, marble or mark.
According to the Burial Law, a cemetery is a parcel intended for the burial of the deceased and
according to the Act of the Regulation and Maintenance of Cemeteries and Burials, a cemetery which is
out of use may serve other purposes if they are in accordance with the afore mentioned Law and the City
Master Plan. The graves and tombs which have been declared as immovable cultural heritage are
regulated and maintained according to the provisions of the Law on the Protection of Cultural
Monuments. Based on this Law, the City Assembly of Nis made the decision to proclaim the Old
Cemetery in Nis a cultural heritage cultural monument on February 21st 1991. The initiative was raised
by the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments in Nis with the aim of protecting the Old
Cemetery Gorica from desecration. The explanation which followed this initiative stated: The Old
Cemetery in Nis represents a testimony of a great time of the past and its people. The tombstones have
not only great historical value, but also artistic value, due to the fact that a number of recognized sculptors
of the past and present left their traces and works in this cemetery. [8]
2. THE LOCATION OF THE OLD CEMETERY GORICA

Figure1. Vinters plan,The Project of the regulation of

the town of Nis(1878), taken from the Encyclopedia of
Nis

Figure 2. The current position of the Old Cemetery Gorica, taken in

June 2012 from: http://gis.ni.rs/

According to the Italian plan which dates from 1719, Nis developed around the Nis Fortress, on both
sides of the river Nisava, inside and outside of ditches, which is proved by the Austrian gravure from
1737 and its short explanations of the city zones. In the 18th and 19th century, Nis was composed of the
Fortress, on the right side of the Nisava, (where the Turkish military and civil authorities were situated,
with a small number of residential objects) and the town, on the left side of the Nisava (with a market and
a delimited residential area). [4] In the Vinters plan from 1878 one can clearly recognize a Christian
and Turkish cemetery on the current location of the Old Cemetery Gorica. (Picture 1)

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By analysing the town-planning schemes, it can be concluded that at the end of the 19th century the
cemetery occupied the peripheral part of the city; it was outside the external ditch, which was later filled
and where the railroad was built. The cemetery occupied this position at the outskirts of the city until the
end of the Second World War, when there was an expansion of population that migrated from the
surrounding villages to the city. It has been noted: Until 1930, the cemetery occupied the peripheral area
of the city, and now it is surrounded by houses and semi-rural streets on all sides. The only regulated,
wide, straight and with planted chesnut trees is Njegoseva Street, to the Kuzman intersection (branching
of Njegoseva and Vase Carapica Street). [4]
The Old Cemetery Gorica in Nis is now situated in the urban and densely populated southern part of
the city, at the foot of the Gorica hill. It occupies around 8 hecteres of land. On one side, the cemetery is
leaned on Branka Radicevica Street and it is intersected by the pedestrian and paved Rudnicka Street. On
the north side of the cemetery, there are residential buildings, on the south side (which is more slanted)
and the west side, there are individual houses. On the east, it is bordered by houses and shops whose
frontal parts lie on Njegoseva Street (Picture 2). The main and visible entrance is on the south side, from
Branka Radicevica Street, where a 20 meter chimney of the city heating plant can be seen.
3. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
It is impossible to determine when burials first took place in the Old Cemetery Gorica in Nis. There
are no written data, but is known that the oldest tombstones date back from the beginning of the 19th
century. There are probably around 3,000 tombstones in this cemetery, 200 of which are of artistic and
historical importance, 100 of which belong to significant people from the history of Nis. The western part
of the cemetery is the oldest, while in the norhtern frontal part there are six family graves and two
chapels built by rich families from Nis before the First World War. Apart from the family graves, there
are also sculptural tombstones dating from the period after the Second World War, 86 busts and 40
medallions. [1]
The last funeral in the Old CemeteryGorica took place in 1971.
3. 1. Significant tombstones

Figure 3,The tombstone of Stanko

Vlasotincanin (1792-1853), photo taken by
the author

Figure 4, The tombstone of Pavle Stojkovic (1880-1943). Drawing made during

the reconnaissance of the Old Cemetery in 1960 by the members of the Institute
for the Protection of Cultural Monuments in Nis, document Nis

On the oldest discovered tombstone in the Old Cemetery Gorica, which dates from 1819, the name
Voin is engraved. Also, some sandstone tombstones were discovered, that of late Petar from 1829, Zika
and Elka from 1838. [1] Due to the fact that the tombstones are overgrown with vegetation and also in
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poor condition, it is impossible to identify them and give a detailed description. In 1968 experts from the
Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments in Nis performed a recoinnassance of the Old
Cementerys terrain with the aim of determining the condition of the protected monuments and initiating
proper measures for protection and examination. [9] Due to their historical and artistic value, eight of the
tomstones in the cemetery were protected by the Law according to the decision of the City Assembly in
March 1983. [1]
One tombstone which is of great historical importance and which is characterised by the fact that it
was made from one-piece sandstone by stone-carvers from Vlasotince belongs to Stanko Vlasotincanin
(1792-1853), a merchant and the leader of the 1841 rebellion. The tomstone is situated in the middle-west
part of the cemetery. It has a cross shape, with a circle and a cross in the middle and three smaller crosses
at the end of the arms of the bigger cross. The frontal side of the tombstone is ornamented and has
engraved text. It is 110cm high, 120cm long and 15cm wide. (Picture 3)
One of the protected tombstones is dedicated to Todor P. Stankovic (1852-1925), a combatant and
organiser of the rebellion against the Turks in the south of Serbia, after which he became a Member of
Parliament and a consul in Pristina. The tombstone is situated in the central part of the cemetery, it is
made of black marble, placed on a pedestal; the upper part is made of one-piece elongated rectangular
piece of marble, it has a tapered top, which symbolically represents a man in an upright position.

Figure 5, The tombstone of Teacher Tasa,

photo by the author

At the entrance part of the cemetery, there is a grave with the bust of Pavle Stojkovic (1880-1943), the
leader and the organizer of the labour movement in Serbia before the First World War, later the leader of
the Communist Party in Nis. The tombstone with the bust is the work of a sculptor from Nis called Sreten
Danilovic. It is composed of a trapezoidal plate made of white marble; it is 163cm high, 20cm wide and
placed on a pedestal which is 32cm high and 230cm long. The busts of Pavle Stojkovic and his wife
Natalija, which are placed in front of the tombstone, are the work of the same sculptor. There are neither
religious nor ideological symbols on the tombstone; it belongs to the modernist tradition. (Picture 4)
Apart from the mentioned, there are other graves and tombstones listed as immovable cultural
heritage, those dedicated to Nikala Kole Rasic (1938-1898), Atanasije Petrovic- teacher Tasa (18241894), (Picture 5), sirdar Jole Piletic (1814-1900), lieutenant colonel Milovan Nedic (1866-1913), Proka
Jovkic-Nestor Zucni (1886-1915).
4. THE CURRENT CONDITION AND THE CAUSE OF THE DETERIORATION OF THE
CEMETERY
Since the cessation of burials in the Old Cemetery Gorica, when a number of citizens of Nis
relocated the remains of their ancestos to the New Cemetery in Bubanj, the overall image of the Old
Cemetery has undergone dramatic changes. It has been transformed from an organised and regulary
maintained area into an area overgrown with tall grass, bushes and wild trees, where most of the
tombstones and graves are covered by weeds. Apart from the main and paved street, most of the gaves
can be approached by spontaneously formed and partly beaten tracks with uncut grass. (Picture 6)
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Figure 6, The condition of the tombstones, photo taken by the author, 2012.

Most of the gaves and tombstones were struck by the typical changes which occur on stone as a material
cracks, black spots, flaking and blast, caused by temperature changes, atmospheric influence and fatigue
of the material. Furhtermore, another characteristic appeared a number of the tombstones were swept
away due to land subsidence. The concrete tombstones are characterized by a higher or lower degree of
deterioration, a visible corrosion of the metal parts. However, what is common for all the tombstones,
regardless of the material they are made of and their geometrical shape, are traces of vandalism; damaged
parts of tombstones are left close by. There is also a number of graffiti.
The vulnerability of the tombstones may be illustrated by two, among the dozen noted, incidents that
have ocurred in the Old Cemetery 'Gorica'. In the beginning of 2006, the sculpture 'Angel with lyre', the
work of the Croatian sculptor Marin Studin, was stolen from the grave dedicated to the famous doctor
from Nis called Voja Stojanovic. The same year, the sculpture 'Spinner', which represents a woman in a
standing position, was stolen and soon after that found. This sculpture is a symbol of wool processing,
production of cloth and fabrics, and it was made by Antun Augustincic in the 1930s for the family grave
of Mita Ristic, the owner of a textile factory which became the biggest textile industry in the Balkans
after the Second World War, and which later became 'Nitex' (Picture 7). [10]

Figure 7, Spinner, work of Antun Augustincic, tombstone on the family grave of Mita Ristic

The situation is similar when it comes to the built family graves and chapels which are mostly
overgrown with parasitic plants. The damage is mostly due to the capillary rising damp, whose influence
may be seen on the floors and lower area of the walls, as well as due to the penetrating damp which
penetrated the objects owing to the damaged roofs and atmospheric influence. All the objects are
characterized by graffiti and picked door locks. The enterior is full of garbage left behind by people.
During 2011 an overview was made for the needs of the Loacal Action Plan for sustainable
management of cultural monuments Qualicities. The overview was made according to the criteria
standards of Qualicities. [11] The obtained results revealed not only the poor conservation of the
tombstones, family graves and chapels, some of whose existence is threatened, and which was already
mentioned, but also the absence of any information, info panels, which would infrom the visitors about
the historical and cultural value of the cultural monuments and the cemetery as a whole. Even though the
Old Cemetery has a good connection with the rest of the city due to public transport and footpaths, there
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are no cycle tracks, which is not in accordance with the principle of environmentally friendy trasport, as
proposed by Qualicities. There are no traffic signs, signals and markings in Serbian and EU languages.
The access for the disabled people to the cemetery is poor, the access paths are poorly maintained and are
characterized by improper finishing. The observed cultural heritage is presented in such a way that it
influences in a small degree, if at all, the urban revitalisation of the surrounding. Even though there is
huge potential, the site neither has means for developing tourist facilities nor for promoting these cultural
monuments. The protection of the environment was identifed as a specific problem in the process of the
utilization of this immovable cultural heritage.
It may be concluded that the cause of the current condition of the Old Cemetery 'Gorica' in Nis is the
slowness in dealing with the problem of its intensive deterioration. The police inefficacy, 'indolence' of
the legal system and the problems concerning the jurisdiction of the institutions involved in the
management of the cemetery (which is improperly maintained, supervised, alight and presented to the
public) are just some of the causes of the ugly sight of the cemetery that we witness today.
There have been certain attempts to improve the condition of the Old Cemetery in the past couple of
years. Due to the initiative of the City Municipality Palilula, and in cooperation with the Institute for the
Protection of Cultural Monuments in Nis, a number of restorations, organized clearings of the ground and
reconstructions of the gate and fence were performed in the period from 2009 to 2012. Palilula Municipal
Assembly adopted an Act in 2010 which proposes the forming of the Old Cemetery 'Gorica' Memorial
Park. This initiative was also supported by the Strategy for the Cultural Development of the City of Nis
from 2012 to 2015, and which was adopted at a City Assembly session at the end of 2011.

Figure 8, The condition of the family graves and chapels, photo taken by the author, 2012.

5. CONCLUSION
The current condition of the Old Cemetery Gorica in Nis, which has been listed as immovable
cultural heritage, is the result of a decade-long negligence and it reflects the true image of our social
awareness and relation to valuable cultural monuments.
Placing Nis as a city with rich history and culture is made impossible without improving the degree of
physical protection of the entire fond of architectural heritage and the Old Cemetery Gorica as an
important part. The neglected area of the cemetery which is located on the edge of the central core of the
city of Nis creates a bad general image of the city, and by being an unconstructed and unsafe unit it
influences the decrease of the living standard of the people inhabiting the area.
The initiative for forming the Old Cemetery Gorica Memorial Park includes not only research and
conservation-restoration work, but also parterre renovation of the ground and setting proper lighting and
urban mobiliar. By securing a proper system of monitoring and strict visiting hours of the park, there
would be conditions for a safe and comfortable usage of the space. By analysing the current condition of
the cemetery, it can be concluded that one of the major causes of the devastation of this cultural heritage
is the absence of a regular maintenance of the place. This problem could be solved if the jurisdiction of
the the civil services was clearly defined. Furthermore, it is important to create a system of
communication between the local authorities, public services and the institutions responsible for the
protection of immovable cultural heritage and institutes of urbanism, landscape and maintenance of
public areas. This would lead to a coherent preparation, development, change and implementation of
town-planning schemes which would treat the Old Cemetery 'Gorica' in a proper way. Also, conducting a
campaign for the education and awareness of citizens might lead to the cessation of vandalism and raising
awareness of the importance of the Cemetery as a valuable monument of the past.

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By implementing the initiative for regulating the Old Cemetery Gorica Memorial Park and the afore
mentioned activities, the cultural offer and the tourist facilities in Nis would improve.
The proper approach for the reconstruction and presentation of the Old Cemetery Gorica Memorial
Park would lead to having at disposal a unique monument, a striking testimony of our past and a
multipurpose space which would contribute to the revitalisation of the entire neighbourhood.
REFERENCES
[1] Andrejevi Borislav, Spomenici Nia, Prosveta, Ni, 2001, str. 139-147
[2] Dudi Nikola, Stara groblja i nadgrobni belezi, Republiki zavod za zatitu spomenika kulture,
Beograd, 1995. str. 5-19
[3] Panteli Nikola, Likovne odlike Srpskih nadgrobnih spomenika, Srpska akademija nauka i
umetnosti, Beograd
[4] Simonovi Dragoljub ur., Enciklopedija Nia, Gradina, Ni, 1995. str. 116-137
[5] orovia Vladimir, O nainu sahranjivanja i podizanju spomenika u naim krajevima u Srednjem
veku, Beograd, 1956, (preuzeto juna 2012. sa sajta http://www.scribd.com/doc/58482376/DrVladimir-orovi-PRILOG-PROUAVANJU-NAINA-SAHRANJIVANJA-I-PODIZANJANADGROBNIHSPOMENIKA)http://www.manastir.se/index.php?option=com_content&view=a
rticle&id=139:2010-03-05-13-17-42&catid=18:2010-02-23-16-00-44&Itemid=17, preuzeto juna
2012.
[6] Odluka o ureivanju i odravanju groblja i sahranjivanju Sl. Grada Nia 89/05
[7] Odluka o proglaenju starog nikog groblja za kulurno dobro-Spomenik kulture, donesena na
sedinici Skuptine optine Ni, dana 21.07.1991.god. zavedena pod br. 01-178/I-91
[8] Dokumentacija Zavoda za zatitu spomenika kulture Ni, Rekogonisciranje terena starog groblja,
izvreno 6.maja.1968. god.
[9] http://www.politika.rs/rubrike/Kultura/t13199.lt.html, objavljeno 29.11.2006, preuzeto juna 2012.
[10] Miri, A., Iskustva i rezultati u primeni evropskog standarda Qualicities na primeru grada Nia,
Lokalna samouprava u planiranju i ureenju prostora i naselja, zbornik radova etvrtog naunostrunog skupa sa meunarodnim ueem, Beograd, 2012, 485-491
[11] Strategija kulturnog razvoja Grada Nia od 2012. 2015. god, usvojena na sednici Skuptine
grada Nia u decembru 2011.
[12] Zakon o sahranjivanju i grobljima, ("SL. glasnik SRS, br. 20/77, 24/85 i 6/89 i "SL. glasnik
RS", br. 53/93, 67/93, 48/94 i 101/2005 - dr. zakon)

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milena Kamasi1

IDENTIFICATION OF CITIZENS WITH THE MAIN CITY SQUARE IN

NOVI SAD
Abstract: For one city square to become the main city square, it is necessary that in urban and
morphological way it occupies a good position in the city, has an easyaccessibility, to offer diversity as
well to maintain authentic impression on fellow citizens through content of urban elements. In this way
the square becomes part of life and identity of citizens. Goal of this paper is to research if and in what
extent the citizens of Novi Sad are identifying themselves with the main city square. The research was
conducted through space analysis and questionnaire.
To maintain connection to one urban element, and therefore urban socialization, it is necessary to have
clear citizen identity with the space in which they reside, to trigger in them certain emotions and in that
way for part of space to become an urban city symbol and symbol of time in which they live. Emotions
that it provokes are result of completeness of space, its function, morphology, surroundings, monuments,
events that are being held throughout the year, as well the diversity of primary functions, accessibility
and concentration of other people within.
Key words: identification, urban socialization, city square, Novi Sad

IDENTIFIKACIJA STANOVNIKA SA GLAVNIM GRADSKIM TRGOM U

NOVOM SADU
Rezime: Definisanje javnog prostora kao glavnog gradskog trga, zahteva da ispuni nekoliko
urbanistikih i morfolokih karakteristika, i to da zauzima dobru poziciju u gradu, da je lako dostupan,
da prua funkcionalnu raznovrsnost kao i da ostavlja autentian utisak na sugraane kroz sadrajnost
urbanih elementa. Na taj nain, trg postaje deo ivota i identiteta grada i stanovnitva. Cilj rada je
istraiti da li i kojoj meri se Novosaani identifikuju sa glavnim gradskim trgom. Istraivanje je izvreno
kroz analizu prostora i anketu koja je sprovedena u ovu svrhu.
Da bi se postigla identifikacija i povezanost sa jednim urbanim elementom, a samim tim i urbana
socijalizacija, trebalo bi da postoji jasana pripadnost graana prostoru na kom borave, a koji u njima
izaziva odreene emocije i na taj nain prostor postaje urbani simbol grada i vemena u kom ive.
Emocije koje trg izaziva su rezultat sadrajnosti prostora, njegovih funkcija, morfologije, okruenja,
spomenika, repera, manifestacija koje se odravaju tokom godine, kao i dostupnosti i koncentracije
drugih korisnika.
Kljune rei: identifikacija, urbana socijalizacija, trg, Novi Sad
1. INTRODUCTION
In order for a city square to become the main city square, apart from a good choice of location, its
environment and accessibility, communication between users as well as communication between users
and the space are also necessary. In that way, the square becomes a part of life and identity of the citizens.
In the sociology of the city there is a general rule that dwellers of a city (or any type of settlement) are
considered all those citizens who recognize their identity in the city itself, i.e. all those inhabitants who

Milena Kamasi, PHD student, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Architecture and Urban
Planing, e-mail.: milenakamasi@gmail.com

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have more or less clear awareness of stronger connections to its space than for any other space of the
global society. [1]
Achieving identification and connection with an urban element, and therefore urban socialization as
well, there should be a clear sense of belonging of the citizens to the space where they live, and which
with them provokes certain emotions. In that way the space becomes an urban symbol of the city and the
time in which they live. Emotions that the square provokes are the result of the content of the space, its
functions, morphology, environment, monuments, landmarks, events that take place during the year, as
well as accessibility to and concentration of other users.
The aim of this paper is to research whether and in what degree people from Novi Sad identify
themselves with the main city square, whether they consider it the main place of gathering and in what
degree it is present in the collective memory of its citizens. To investigate this, a survey was carried out,
and its results are supposed to give the answer to the question what is the perception of the square of its
users. The aim of the survey is to research in what degree does the main city square represent a place of
urban socialization of its citizens and in what way do they perceive it. 101 respondents participated in the
survey, aged 13 to 84, from all parts of the city, and the survey was conducted in the course of 2011. The
survey was composed in a non-suggestive manner and the answers were given by the citizens themselves.
2. IDENTIFICATION OF CITIZENS WITH THE MAIN CITY SQUARE IN NOVI SAD
Urban socialization of the city in a great extent depends on the identification of the population with the
space where they live. Identification of the people from Novi Sad with their city can be confirmed with
the recognition of the urban symbols of the city, gathering places (squares and streets), attendance of
different events as well as the readiness to participate in them.
2.1. Identification with squares
City squares have always been the dominant focal points of gatherings, fun, entertainment, as well as
exchange of opinions about daily political topics. The main city square is supposed to function as a free,
open space, organized and adjusted to the number and needs of its citizens. As such, it should be custom
made for different events and celebrations for as many citizens as possible, at the same time being able to
attract every day people for walking and communicating in a pleasant and organized space. What is the
number of the citizens of Novi Sad who identify themselves with the square was researched based on the
survey, in which the question: What are the three recognizable squares in Novi Sad was asked.

Picture 1 Graph representing the answer to the question: What are the three recognizable squares in Novi Sad?

As shown in the graph, the first place according to recognition takes Liberty Square, the main city
square, space most often visited by the citizens and which was mentioned in most cases without previous
thinking by the respondents. The second place takes Newlyweds Square, which has a rather symbolic
connotation in the minds of the citizens, because it is the space where the Registrar office is situated and
where majority of citizens got married and in that way the square has a positive connotation. This is
mainly a gathering place of high school students from a nearby high school. As far as the third mentioned,
Trifkovic Square, it serves as a car park, so it is frequently used as a way of getting easier and faster to
Liberty Square as well as to other parts of the city centre. Based on these answers, it can be concluded

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that Liberty Square is the most recognizable square in Novi Sad, and therefore one of the main places of
the socialization of the citizens of Novi Sad.

Pictures 2,3 Liberty Square

2.1.1 Function of the square (main city square)

The function of the square is represented through a dominant human activity which takes place there
and can be observed through an open space within the square and through the function of the buildings
that surround it. Throughout history, the square has changed its function. It was once a market, then a
tram and bus stop and nowadays it is the main gathering place of the cultural and entertainment
happenings in the city. In one period, between the two world wars, there was a smaller park in the square,
but it was after that quickly removed. If we talk about the period from 1918, it is important to say that the
tram traffic was introduced about 1925 and that the tram tracks went through the square itself. This type
of transportation contributed to a better traffic organization in the city but it largely moved people from
the square and it gave it a new purpose, that of a traffic artery.
In the 1950s the tram traffic was replaced by buses, which preserved the former purpose of the square
and caused a number of accidents in the city centre. Elderly citizens say that it was the period with high
percentage of injured pedestrians and cyclists. The city in that period did not have the opportunity to have
a main city square, in the true sense of the word. The citizens were spontaneously trying to find and
position new places of gatherings.

Pictures 4,5,6 The Square around 1900 and around 1944, the Square in the 1970s

In the 1970s, the streets in the centre of the city were closed for traffic and the centre became
exclusively a pedestrian zone. That was the move that contributed to the quality and identity of the space.
The centre of the city and the main city square took back their old purpose and became focal point of the
social, economic, cultural life of the city. Liberty Square and Zmaj Jova Street are nowadays the places
where main events and different exhibitions, fairs, childrens entertainment and recreation take place. As
an important element, we have to mention different shops and shopping malls which in the economic
sense have flourished with the opening of pedestrian zone, especially for the restaurant and caf owners,
who have the opportunity to place their gardens in front of the restaurants and cafes, in that way enabling
the citizens to have a pleasant time.

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2.2. Recognizable buildings within the square

It happens very often that the formation of the square is related to a certain architectural building for
which the square should represent a public space and from which the particular building is perceived.
Most often those types of architectural building are urban landmarks, important for the whole city, such
as the council, city hall or church. [2]
Analyzing the answers to the question in the survey: What are the three most recognizable buildings in
Novi Sad?, three buildings located in the centre of Novi Sad were distinguished. The first one is Church
by the name of Mary, then the City Hall, and the third is the Serbian National Theatre. As it is well
known, first two buildings are the integral part of the Liberty Square and represent according to height as
well as spatially landmarks of Novi Sad.

Picture 7 Graph representing the answer to the question: What are the three most recognizable buildings in Novi Sad?

Pictures 8, 9 - Church by the name of Mary; The City Hall

2.3. City events

Events taking place during the year are an ideal place for gathering, fun, entertainment as well as
education. They can take place indoors as well as outdoors. Having in mind the fact that the basic role of
squares has changed nowadays, and the public life has been slowly withdrawing from squares, which is
the reason for the loss of their previous importance [3], analysis of the recognition and events taking place
in the square have the importance of recognizing spaces intended for gathering of people for public
celebrations and places where the great part of the social life of the city takes place.
By asking the question in the survey: Name three events in Novi Sad which take place throughout the
year?, the answer was given that the majority took place in the open space, in summer. The goal of the
question was, first, to determine whether the citizens had attended events in the city throughout the year
(would they know to name them), and only then to find out which are the most popular and where they
take place.
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Picture 10 Graph representing the answer to the question: Name three events in Novi Sad that take place throughout the year?

Exit, music festival which gathers every year a great number of visitors, from our country as well as
from abroad, was distinguished as the first event. It started in 2000, and was conducted through
performances, concerts and a variety of other happenings. It used to last whole summer and took place
within the faculty next to the quay. Main visitors were Novi Sad citizens and inhabitants of surrounding
towns. Nowadays the festival has a different connotation. It is an international festival of music which
lasts for four days in Petrovaradin Fortress and it is capable of gathering about 50.000 people a day from
all over Europe. This type of festival has contributed a lot to the economy of the city, for hotels, cafes,
shops as well as banks, but in the course of these four days the citizens of Novi Sad rarely go to the
centre, they are mainly focused on local events and promenades. The second and third place in the survey
took Zmaj Childrens Games and the Festival of Street Musicians. Both events take place in the city
centre, where the larger part of the events take place on the big stage of the main city square, in front of
the City Hall. Zmaj Childrens Games have taken place for decades in Novi Sad, they are suitable for
children and they have become tradition for the citizens of Novi Sad.
Throughout the year, Liberty Square in its offer presents many activities, from usual events to
different exhibitions and concerts for different ages and users and in that way it has become the pleasant
place for all types of gatherings of its citizens.

Picture 11, 12 Zmaj Childrens Games, Exhibition of toys

In the survey, respondents named 23 events which take place throughout the year in Novi Sad. From
all mentioned events, 45,54% take place in Liberty Square.

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Picture 13 Graph showing the percentage of events taking place in the Liberty Square

2.4. Urban symbols of the city

Identification of the citizens of Novi Sad with their city can be particularly confirmed by the analysis
of perception of urban symbols of the city. [4]
When conducting the survey, the first question to which the respondents were supposed to give their
answer was: What are the three recognizable symbols of Novi Sad?
First five answers with the highest percentage are shown in the graph; the first place takes the
Petrovaradin Fortress, the second and the third Church by the name of Mary and Miletic Monument.
Having in mind the fact that the Church and the Monument are the part of the main city square, it can be
concluded that these two elements have contributed to the identification of the citizens with Liberty
Square, when urban perception, i.e. urban symbols are in question.

Picture 14 Graph showing the answers to the question: What are the three recognizable symbols of Novi Sad?

Picture 15, 16 the Monument of Svetozar Miletic and Church by the name of Mary

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3. CONCLUSION
Based on the research and conducted survey of citizens, it can be concluded that the way of life is one
of the most important elements of urban planning and that it is impossible to create it without the social
ambience, however, social ambience does not exit by itself, but is created by prerequisites of political,
economic, cultural-genetic and ecological nature. [5] Urban socialization is created by the very
combination of mentioned elements, in the interaction between space and people. It can have an effect in
different ways on the space and social commitments.
The greatest possibility is that the square is the first human invention of the urban area. It is formed
by the grouping of houses around a free area. [6] It later develops depending on the historical
circumstances. As far as this particular square is concerned, the urban morphology is a result of historical
time, but it is also the result of contemporary conditions which demand certain transformations.
Nowadays the function of Liberty Square is varied and it is recognized as the most representative
square in Novi Sad. The Church by the name of Mary and the City Hall, which are at the same time the
most dominant landmarks of Novi Sad, are considered to be the most authentic buildings in the city. As
the urban symbols of the city, the citizens of Novi Sad distinguished Petrovaradin Fortress, as the first,
then the Church by the name of Mary and the Monument of Svetozar Miletic. The greatest number of
events mentioned by the respondents take place in Liberty Square, i.e. 45,54 %. Zmaj Childrens Games
and the Festival of Street Musicians were mentioned as well. Due to the fact that the questions in the
survey were focused on the whole territory of Novi Sad, and without suggesting answers, it can be
concluded that there is a clear identification of the inhabitants of Novi Sad with Liberty Square.
It is most certainly impossible to understand the social atmosphere of urbanity without the insight
into the character and intensity of the economic impulse. [7] The need for the combination of primary
factors is one of the four intrinsic elements of the diversity of the space [8], and Liberty Square has six
different functions of its business space in the scope of the buildings that surround it. Their attendance is
prominent throughout the whole day, with certain fluctuations, which do not influence in greater degree
its attendance.
All mentioned elements have contributed to the continual concentration of people in Liberty Square,
consequently to their identification with the space itself. Since its formation, it can be concluded that the
square has been the main focal point of the urban socialization, while changing different functions, from
the market to the variety of functions it has nowadays. During a certain period in the middle of the XX
century it lost its real purpose, in the period when the function of the square was that of the bus stop.
Social qualities of public spaces are the basic imperative of the social life of the city which can be
achieved only by careful reading and understanding the particularities and characteristics of city squares.
[9] By closing the central part for the traffic in the 1980s of the XX century, the main square became the
central point of urban socialization in the city and nowadays it has as a role model other important city
squares around the world.
REFERENCES
[1] Ljubinko Pui, Boo Mioevi, Sran ljuki, Jasminka Duli: Urbana kultura; Centar za
socioloka istraivanja, Katedra za sociologiju, Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu;
Novi Sad, 2003: str. 105
[2] Tepavevi B.: Trgovi u Vojvodini, morfogeneza, fizika struktura i funkcije, FTN izdavatvo,
Novi Sad, 2008. godina, str. 95
[3] Krklje, M., Neduin, D., Kubet, V.: Analysis of Public Squares in Central Area of Novi Sad, 2nd
International Conference GNP 2008 Civil Engineering Science and Practice, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, University of Montenegro, abljak, 2008, p. 604
[4] Ljubinko Pui, Boo Mioevi, Sran ljuki, Jasminka Duli; Urbana kultura; Centar za
socioloka istraivanja, Katedra za sociologiju, Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu;
Novi Sad, 2003.; str.95.
[5] Ljubinko Pui, Boo Mioevi, Sran ljuki, Jasminka Duli: Urbana kultura; Centar za
socioloka istraivanja, Katedra za sociologiju, Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu;
Novi Sad, 2003: str. 12
[6] Rob Krijer: Gradski prostor u teoriji i praksi, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd 2007. godina, str.3
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[7] Ljubinko Pui, Boo Mioevi, Sran ljuki, Jasminka Duli: Urbana kultura; Centar za
socioloka istraivanja, Katedra za sociologiju, Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu;
Novi Sad, 2003: str. 15
[8] Dejn Dekobs, Smrt i ivot velikih Amerikih gradova, Mediterran publishing, Novi Sad 2011.
[9] Tepavevi B.: Trgovi u Vojvodini, morfogeneza, fizika struktura i funkcije, FTN izdavatvo,
Novi Sad, 2008. godina, str. 199

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Hristina Krsti1

PIXEL ARCHITECTURE AS NEW TYPOLOGICAL CATEGORIES OF

FACILITIES IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Abstract: Pixel, the smallest initial part of which may arise unusual part was the inspiration for many
artists of recent times (eg, Salvador Dali). Pixel art as a field of art and design occurs in the nineties of
the last century [3]. At that period many design groups that deals on this issue were provided. Over time,
this design pulled in architecture and in the world today we can find examples that can rightly be called
works of pixel architecture. Objects that are classified in this category are the various functions, purpose
and form. Common is that at some architectural terms, whether in terms of design or functional part,
contain elements that resemble pixels.
Key words: typological categories, pixel architecture, lego architecture, marketing, multiplication

PIKSEL ARHITEKTURA KAO NOVA TIPOLOKA KATEGORIJA

OBJEKATA U SAVREMENOJ ARHITEKTURI
Rezime: Piksel, kao najmanji poetni deo od koga mogu nastati nesvakidanja dela, bio je inspiracija
mnogim umetnicima novijeg doba (npr. Salvador Dali). Pixel art, kao posebna oblast u umetnosti i
dizajnu javlja se devedesetih godina prologa veka [3]. Nastaju posebne dizajnerske grupe koje se bave
iskljulivo ovom problematikom. Vremenom, ovakav dizajn se uvukao i u arhitekturu, te danas u svetu
moemo nai brojene primere koje s pravom moemo zvati delima piksel arhitekture. Objekti svrstani u
ovu kategoriju su najrazliitijih funkcija, namena i oblika. Zajedniko im je da u nekom arhitektonskom
pogledu, bilo da je re o oblikovanju ili funkcionalnom sklopu, sadre elemente koji podseaju na piksele.
: tipoloka kategorija, piksel arhitektura, lego arhitektura, marketing, multiplikacija
1. INTRODUCTION
Architecture recognises various typological categories of facilities depending on the criteria applied in
a particular typology (the time the building was constructed at, the school it belongs to, material,
shaping). The contemporary architecture is more abundant than ever. The progress of technology and
science extended the boundaries even in constructing. There are hardly any limits and the whole planet
has become a global construction site at which investors and particularly architects are putting a great
effort into creating a new and unique facility in order to win wide recognition. It is especially important to
consider the fact that marketing has become an essential part of work and promotion through architecture
is its most powerful and permanent tool.
In modern architecture, however frenetic or chaotic it may be, it is possible to find some common
features and make a classification. This paper deals with pixel architecture and (very similar to it) lego
architecture as possible categories of facilities in modern architecture.
The following work will discuss pixel facilities, common features that make them recognizable,
motives, purpose and the sense of their existence. The paper will give the detail examples to support the
ideas of their architectural value, uniformity or uniqueness as well as their similarities and differences. It

Student, second year of Master studies, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis; Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14; -mail: hristinaa@hotmail.com

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is necessary to say that the term pixel architecture is not in official use in architecture but is introduced
here in order to define a particular category of modern buildings.
2. BASIC FEATURES OF PIXEL ARCHITECTURE
Common features of all facilities classified as pixel architecture is multiplication of single elements.
This multiplication means the recurrence or repetition of a particular element. The term multiplication is
used more freely and does not only refer to the multiplication of particular physical structures. It is more
abstract and also refers to the multiplication of the same function and its construction in space.
Consequently we can talk about various subcategories within pixel architecture.
The most obvious examples of such facilities are those which have a multiplication seen in forming.
The most common cases have a typical unit recurring n times and the construction of these typical units,
as one does with lego building blocks, forms a facility or the whole block in which facilities are arranged
like pixels. From the functional point of view, a typical unit serves all the necessary functions and is
therefore independent while taking part in the construction of the whole with the other units. There are
also cases in which a typical unit is designed in such a way that, at times, it could be connected to other
units in order for them to function together as a whole. The feature of flexibility is highly desired because
it offers new possibilities and makes facilities suitable for the users needs dependent on time and space.
Pixel architecture is recognizable for the recurring shapes that remind the observer of the real pixels.
From the aesthetic point of view, this type of architecture is easily recognizable. Its main characteristics
are simplicity and effectiveness. At first sight these two features seem contradictory yet one results from
the other. Although the architecture of these facilities is simple, it is very effective and draws attention of
the viewers. Its simplicity is the consequence of its regularity which is seen in the construction, divisions
on facades, arrangement of openings, raster, orthogonal lines, concentric circles etc.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF PIXEL FACILITIES
Pixel facilities can be divided into following subgroups:
Facilities with LED facades
Facilities with facade design which reminds of pixels
Facilities made of parts that look like pixels( 3D pixels)
Facilities of lego architecture
3.1. Facilities with LED facades
Modern architecture is closely related to other areas of human work. It follows the latest trends,
particularly of technology. Electricity is indispensible in modern times. Architecture tends to follow the
progress in modern technology. Lighting, special electronic effects, large screens and various appliances
are becoming a part of architecture.
A building with a led facade is a common sight in big cities all over the world. The architecture of
such buildings is quite simple. They usually have a form of a cube or a rectangular prism; however, in this
case the form of a building is the least important because the real image of the building is created by its
facades. The facades are coated by Led panels so that the whole building looks like a big screen on which
things are happening. Such buildings look dynamic and ever so different. Different programs give
different images to the facade, which allows these buildings to become the main attractions in the area.[1]
An example of such a building is shown in picture 1.

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Picture 1 facade of the building Greenpix in Peking,

architects: ``Simone Giostra & partners architects``

This is the most typical example of pixel architecture as pixels are present in the literal sense of the
word. The growing number of similar buildings in the world allows them to be classified as a category of
its own. In spite of the fact that a great part of them are the creation of modern technology, they are a part
of modern architecture and cannot be disregarded as such.
3.2. Facilities with facades reminding of pixels
These facilities may have various functions such as block of flats, business centres, shopping malls,
sports halls or factories. Nevertheless, what they have in common is the facade constructed so that pixel
elements can be perceived.
Although this is not a strict rule, this kind of construction is typical of industrial facilities, usually
warehouses, which have a large size and simple form( rectangular base , for example). The facades of
these facilities tend to be monotonous due to its size so the only way to make them more attractive is to
play with its facade. Panels of various colours and shapes make these buildings dynamic and more
appealing to the viewers. Furthermore, the industrial facilities must look attractive nowadays because
architecture plays the most powerful marketing trick. The facilities emphasise the power of a company
and that is exactly what the market needs to see.
This group of facilities comprises a great number of pavilions. Pictures 2 and 3 show some of themSerbian pavilion and South Korean pavilion at EXPO 2010 in Shangai as examples illustrating the
previous statement. The South Korean pavilion was covered with a layer of 40 000 pixel panels [5]
displaying the letters of the Korean alphabet, while the Serbian pavilion displayed traditional ornaments
through the shape of pixels.

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Picture 2 Serbian pavilion (EXPO 2010),

authors: Natalija Miodragovi i Darko Kovaev

Picture 3 South Korea pavilion (EXPO 2010),

authors: design office ``Mass studies`` iz Seula

3.3. Facilities consisting of parts arranged to remind of pixels

These facilities can be recognised as formed by matching typical entities. The entities comprised
neednt be identical in respect of function or purpose but are similar in form. They usually have a
structure of a rectangular prism or a cube which are combined in different ways to form a unique whole.
Besides being very attractive, these facilities give dynamics to the space. Horizontal and vertical
indentations always give interesting results. They are quite attractive in modern architecture. In their
design there is always a console outlet and the length of the console is increasing with the progress of
construction techniques, all of which has become very popular in the architecture of modern times.
In the architectural design, different methods of arrangement of typical units may be used in order to
form relations which satisfy the needs of the programme. In the initial phase, designers modular net is
quite useful for introducing order in structuring the primary composition of the architectural form and
achieving the harmony in relations between the fragments of the design. Modular composition is also a
means of simple and regular expression allowing the design unlimited possibilities and a complete
freedom in applying laws and rules of symmetry, asymmetry, balance and non-balance of simple and
complex geometrized or amorphous geometrical shapes. [2]
Some of the examples for these facilities are the following:
Nakagin Capsule Tower, Kisho Kurokama,Tokyo, Japan (Picture 4)
Habitat, Moshe Safdie, Montreal, Canada (Picture 5)
TPAC- Taipei Performing Art Center proposal, NL architects (Picture 6)

Picture 5 Habitat,
architect: Moshe Safdie

Picture 4 - Nakagin Capsule Tower,

architect: Kisho Kurokawa

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Picture 6 - Taipei performing art center proposal,

authors: design office ``NL Architects``, Amsterdam

3.4. Facilities of lego architecture

The very term lego architecture refers to the form and construction of this subgroup. Therefore if we
look at the form of such a building, we will see a similarity with lego building blocks. Such facilities are
very interesting not only because of their exceptional form but also for the fact that the functional
solutions are quite challenging. It is very important to be precise in matching the form with the function
as demands for both are mingled.
It is particularly interesting that the majority of such facilities are in Denmark, the original country of
lego building blocks. Further on this paper will provide an interesting example for this subgroup of
buildings. The design was named Siloetten2, and it is actually the conversion of silo into a housing
object. The facility is shown in picture 7, and schematic concept in picture 8.

Picture 7 Appearance of the building

Picture 8 Schematic illustration of the concept of building

The author of the design is the designing bureau C.F.Moller Architects,in collaboration with Christian Carlsen
Arkitektfirma; the location of the building is Lodgen, Denmark; the year of conversion: 2004-2010.

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A brief description of the design:

Originally, there were two towers, one was knocked down, the other served as a starting point for a
further development of the design. The existing silo served for the formation of stairs and elevators and it
represents the foundation of the common roof balcony. Around the tower, the flats were put in order as
foundations. They were erected on the steel constructions. Their shapes stand out and stick out in the air
and the surrounding landscape. [4]
The flats are imagined to be the separate and unique 'stacked mansions'. These are the housing units of
high quality habitation. They represent the mixture of one-floor flats and houses. Each flat tells a story on
its own, it is different. There are no flats which are identical.
This unusual structure, with all the juts and translocations ensures each flat large open-air room and a
view to the bay and the city. In the same manner, each flat is provided with adequate amount of sunlight
in the morning, by day and at night, no matter whether the flat is located on the southern or northern side
of the silo.
The flats resemble the Lego bricks because of their shape. This was one of the design principles. The
housing units are arranged and mutually matched like the lego bricks, which has a symbolic connotation,
because the Lego bricks, as it is widely known, originate from Denmark and represent one of the leading
Danish brands.
The silo body was left visible on purpose, on one side of the building, in order to point to the historical
development of the building, and as the evidence that these kinds of rural objects are as essential for
architecture as, for example, the bell tower of the church, windmills etc.
The Lego architecture also resembles the tetris for its shapes and the way of arranging the
composition, which is also related to the pixels and, more generally, the digital world.
4. MOTIVES AND FUNCTION
It is the fact that the modern world architecture has a lot of requirements which did not exist earlier. It
is required to satisfy the needs of the modern man, the needs which are increasing faster every day. The
question is whether the architecture has become the slave of the modern world or only the way of
expressing the human power. However, it is there as the witness of new achievements and improvement.
In the large sea full of objects, you should find the way to come to the surface and not to drown. That
is the reason each object tends to be unique and outstanding. The pixel architecture is different for sure,
but mostly recongizable. As opposed to the uniformity which originates from the similarity of the
concept, each object from this group is different and represented in a unique way. At the same time it is
also a motive, the goal of their construction which is common to the whole group - to build an object
which can be easily recognized and become the new rapper in the urban tissue of the city.
5. CONCLUSION
The typology of the modern architecture objects is a relative process, because the most various
examples of objects can be found in the modern architecture, depending on the criteria which serves as
the base for typology. The pixel architecture is the clear and striking group of objects which stands out
from a lot of other objects, primarily on the basis of characteristical forms and shapes which are easily
recognized.
The characteristics of these objects are mentioned above, as well as the possible classification into
groups, and their trairs and architectural values are briefly represented through a couple of examples. The
most important characteristic is the multiplication, which is at the same time one of the basic
characteristics of pixels. The second important issue is that the pixel architecture is the part of global
marketing network, in which the classical advertisements are repressed, and the primary role is taken over
by architecture as the new means of expressing the power of big companies.
Pixel architecture is a relatively new style in architecture. It appeared at the end of the last century,
and the flow of its development is parallel to the development of engineering and technology. This type
of architecture can be characterized as something new and as the style whose development is still about to
come. This style has a symbolical value, illustrating the modern way of living and the tendency to the
maximal digitalization of everything in it.
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REFERENCES
[1] Dalsgaard P., Halskov K.: Designing Urban Media Faades: Cases and Challenges, Conference on
Human Factors in Computing Systems, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010, str. 2277-2278
[2] Rakoevi M.: 24 asa arhitekture, Akademia nova, Beograd, 2001, str. 185
[3] http://www.architizer.com/en_us/blog/dyn/12923/pixel_tecture-2/
[4] http://www.designboom.com/weblog/cat/9/view/10058/cf-moller-siloetten.html
[5] http://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/the-pixel-pavilion-by-mass-studies/
Picture sources:
Picture 1 - http://architecturalnews.infrawindow.com/features/lighting-facades-innovative-light-designsfrom-across-the-world/
Picture 2 - http://www.designed.rs/news/expo_2010
Picture 3 - http://www.designboom.com/weblog/cat/9/view/10072/korean-pavilion-at-shanghai-worldexpo-2010.html
Picture 4 - http://figure-ground.com/nakagin/0007/
Picture 5 - http://www.space1999.net/~sorellarium13/habitat-67.htm
Picture 6 - http://www.designtopnews.com/architecture-design/taipei-performing-art-centertpacproposal-by-nl-architects/
Picture 7, Picture 8 - http://www.archdaily.com/64519/siloettenthe-silohouette-c-f-m%C3%B8llerarchitects-in-collaboration-with-christian-carlsen-arkitektfirma/

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Aleksandra Koneski Mladenovi1

CRITICAL COMMENTARY OF THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE

RESIDENTIAL DISTRICTS: EXAMPLE OF SOLAR CITY OF LINZ AND
POTENTIAL FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONCEPT IN SERBIA
Abstract: The paper considers the concept of sustainable housing district which was created as result of
the demand for new housing space in the center of Linz. The concept is based on the idea of socially
sustainable population and on the idea of sustainable ecologic environment. In order to understand the
concept itself, in the introductory part of the paper, there is a historical background of from the
emergence of the concept and its historical development. The idea of socially sustainable population and
the idea of sustainable environment were presented from the aspect of planning and aspect of realization.
A comparative analysis of advantages and disadvantages of such concept of sustainable housing districts
was created, which relies on observations and already presented analyses. The potential of
implementation of this concept in Serbia is viewed through economic and political situation in the country
and through the potential of implementation of renewable energy sources.
Key words: socially sustainable population, sustainable environment.

KRITIKI OSVRT NA KONCEPT ODRIVOG STAMBENOG NASELJA

NA PRIMERU SOLARNOG GRADA LINC I MOGUNOST PRIMENE
KONCEPTA U SRBIJI
Rezime: U radu se razmatra koncept odrivog stambenog naselja koji je nastao usled potranje za novim
stambenim prostorom za u centru Linca. Koncept je baziran na ideji o socijalno odrivom stanovnitvu i
na ideji odrive ekoloke sredine. Da bi se razumeo sam koncept u uvodnom delu rada data je istorijska
podloga nastanka ideje kao i istorijski tok razvoja same ideje. Ideja o socijalno odrivom stanovnitvu i
ideja o odrivoj ekolokoj sredini prikazane su sa aspekta planiranja i sa aspekta realiacije Uraena je
uporedna analiza prednosti i nedostataka ovakvog koncepta odrivog stambenog naselja koja se oslanja
na zapaanja i dosadanje analize. Mogunost primene koncepta u Srbiji sagledana je kroz ekonomsku i
politiku situaciju u zemlji kao i kroz mogunost primene obnovljivih izvora energije.
Kljune rei: socijalno odrivo stanovnitvu, odriva ekoloka sredina,
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of sustainable housing district which is considered in the paper was created due to the
demand for new housing space for around 12 000 residents in the center of Linz. This concept of
sustainable district is based on the idea of socially sustainable population and the idea of sustainable
environment. The idea of socially sustainable population is based on the Mixed-use concept, that is,
combination of a variety of housing structures, with social and commercial functions. The idea of
sustainable environment is based on the sustainable energy development (primarily, usage of solar
energy), waste water treatment, on the car-free neighborhood concept, on nature and open air space. [5]

grad.eng.arch.; specialist for urban renewal; student of Ph D studies at the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture of Nis,
Aleksandra Medvedeva street, 14.

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The housing district created on the basis of this concept is the district in the suburban Linz area, and it
was called SolarCity Linz (figure 1). Construction of the SolarCity Linz district has a historical
background, and the very concept has its historical course of development. The concept itself has
advantages and disadvantages, and the plan was not fully realized.
The potential of implementation of the concept in Serbia depends on the economic and political
situation in the country, but also on the potential of application of renewable energy sources.

1/a
1/b
Figure 3 1/a Urban design Plan 1/b photograph of the constructed district of 2008()

2. HISTORICAL PRECURSORS OF SOLARCITY LINZ

After the energy crisis of 1974, there was a global insistence on rational usage of energy, and
reduction of energy consumption and environment protection became a permanent imperative. In Munich
in 1987 the first European Conference on Solar Energy in Architecture and Urban Planning was held,
initiated by the European Commission. Another six conferences were held after that (1989, Paris; 1993,
Florence; 1996, Berlin; 1998 and 2000, Bon; 2008, Berlin). The first solar village was built in Likovris,
Greece, in the period 1987-1990. Kisho Kurokawa presented his idea of the first eco city (Eco-Media
city experimental city based on the symbiosis of nature, man and technology) 1993. In 1997 Kyoto
protocol was adopted, which obliged the industrial countries to reduce their greenhouse effect gasses
emission for 5.2% in respect to 1990, in the period 2008-2012.
3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOLARCITY LINZ IDEA
Demand of housing space for about 12 000 in the center of Linz in 1990 gave rise to the initial idea to
construct a classical housing district in the Pichling area south of the center of Linz with 5000 to 6000
houses for around 25 000 people. There was no mentioning of the solar city in the location which had
been planned to become the industrial zone, but in 1993, at the initiative of the chief town planner prof.
Roland Rainer, the city opted for a pilot-project involving environmentally sustainable building with as
little ecological footprint as possible, and usage of solar energy.
For the project involving around 630 housing units, Thomas Herzog, Richard Rogers, Norman Foster
and Norbert Kaiser were engaged, who will on this occasion form a group bearing the name - READ
group Renewable Energies in Architecture and Design. In 1995 it was decided to increase the number
of housing units to 1 317. The design competition for the additional housing was won by Martin
Treberspurg, the competition for landscape architecture was won by Atelier Dreiseitl, the competition for
infrastructure was won by Helmut Schimek (Austria) for kindergarten, Michael Loudon (Austria) for the
school Architekturbro Auer + Weber + Partner (Germany) for the central structure. From 2001 to 2005
1294 housing units were built, having area between 40m2 and 150m2 on an area of 32h (half the units
have 60m2 to 110m2, and the remaining from 40m2 to 150m2) with the total investment of 125 million
euro. In 2007 the infrastructure was finished, with the investment of 65 million euro, and in May 2007
(which is a very important piece of information), three year research of the assessment of sustainability of
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district commenced, based on the quantitative and qualitative assessments with an intensive survey of the
population supported by the city of Linz and the investors. [3]

2/a

2/b

2/c
2/d
Figure 2 2/a Housing units designed by Richard Rogers; 2/b Housing units designed by Norman Foster; 2/c Housing units
designed by Thomas Herzog; 2/d Housing units designed by Martin Treberspurg. (source: Trebesburg M., Projektvorstellung:
SolarCity)

4. GUIDELINES OF THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE HOUSING DISTRICT

The concept of sustainable housing district is applied on the newly designed district SolarCity Linz,
and it is based on the idea of socially sustainable population and the idea of sustainable environment. This
comprised that it was necessary to: reduce consumption of heating energy, reduce presence of cars and
other vehicles, to achieve compactness (no long walking distances and good communications and
efficient transport), instill spirit in the area (so that the city would not become only a dormitory), link the
district to natural reserves, use solar radiation (both active and passive), and use modern waste water
treatment plants.
4.1. Idea about the socially sustainable population
The idea about the socially sustainable population started to realize in 1996 when the city of Linz
hired the external studio Wohnbund Salzburg to prepare a sustainable sociocultural plan for the new
district, in cooperation with the city, future investors, private organizations dealing with sociological
questions and experts for womens issues. The goal was thus to develop socially compact and highly
innovative housing solutions as functioning modules of the urban development area and to complement
them with a future-oriented sociocultural infrastructure [2] . The idea comprised the following goals:
Construct equal shares of: renting space, cash-paid space and credit-paid space;
When designing the housing space, take into consideration the new family structures (figure 3);
Allow a proportion of the housing space to foreigners;
Realize a Mixed-use district (combine different housing structures with social and commercial
activities);
Distances among the neighbors should be reduced to an acceptable level;
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 Residents of similar ages should be placed close to one another;

Leave space for future projects;
Involve future users in the planning process.
Analyzing the goals, one may conclude that the idea of socially sustainable population has been very
thoroughly analyzed and that all the aspects were taken into consideration, starting from the stimulation
of various groups of population mixing to creation of pleasurable social environment for all the
population categories.

Figure 3 Housing unit structure designed by Martin Treberspurg (source: Trebesburg M., Projektvorstellung: SolarCity)

4.2. Idea of sustainable environment

The idea of sustainable environment is based on the sustainable energy development (primarily usage
of solar energy), to waste water treatment, car-free district concept, nature and open air areas. For the
first time an entire district was constructed in the economical low-energy construction method, according
to ecological criteria. This goes for residences as well as the whole urban and private infrastructure [1].
4.2.1 Sustainable energy development - solar energy
The concept is based on the principles of solar energy (European Charter for Solar Energy in
Architecture and Urban Planning, 1996):
Mounting of solar collectors on the roof buildings to provide active supply of hot water to the
users;
Buildings are sufficiently set apart in order to provide sun access to the rooms even in winter
period;
Design of low-energy building;
Open access to various principles of solar architecture, especially when the passive houses are
concerned;
There is a requirement that the solar systems provide a minimum of 34% hot water needs;
The energy consumption demand should not exceed 44KWh/(m2/a);
The contractors provide guarantees that the buildings are resistant to overheating in summer;
4.2.2 Waste water treatment
The planning included drainage of precipitation water and waste water treatment in order to achieve an
environmentally friendly" concept. A contemporary water treatment technology was installed in 103
housing units and in the elementary school. Waste water treatment comprises:
Urine separation system comprising usage of toilet bowls which operate as the classic ones, but
process urine so that it can be used as fertilizer in agriculture (figure 4);
Water from the showering tubs, (laundry and dish) washing machines is treated and discharged
into the nearby water course;
The precipitation drainage system allowing runoff of water in the period of intensive rainfall
which occurs once in five years, according to the statistics.
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Figure 4 Urine separation system (source: Trebesburg M., Projektvorstellung: SolarCity)

4.2.3 Traffic car-free district

In order to improve the housing quality, a district which will reduce the motor vehicle traffic was
planned. Around 3000 parking spaces for the residents and visitors were accommodated in underground
garages. Public bus takes the residents to the center, from which the railway line takes the residents to the
center of Linz for around half an hour, which is a very efficient and fast way of transport.
4.2.4 Nature and open air areas
"Kleiner Weikerlsee" lake was expanded for around 70%, which tells a lot about the planning
philosophy. The southeast lakeside was seen as a bathing area, while the south and southeast was kept as
a natural reserve. Such division expresses a pragmatic interaction in satisfying both the nature and the
human. (Fig. 5)
The idea of the part which planned under the title The Landscape Park is to realize a sort of a buffer
zone between the district and a natural landscape so that the residents would not endanger the natural
reserve.
The planned restoration of the Aumhlbach stream is an environmental gesture confirming the firm
bond of the district with the natural environment.

Figure 5 Nature (source: Official site of the City of Linz)

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5. IDEA AND REALITY (ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES)

It is not possible to draw the durable conclusions about the advantages and disadvantages of the
concept of sustainable housing district applied in newly designed SolarCity Linz district because the time
period for observation is short, but we can rely on the observations and analysis up to date:
Advantages:
Low energy buildings and well-positioned solar collectors proved to be efficient;
The solar system satisfies around 50% of hot water demand (initially planned around 34%);
Electric energy demand did not exceed 36KWh/(m2/a) (initially planned around 44KWh/(m2/a));
The favorable heating costs were provided;
The radial concept enabled short distances and public structures within walking distance;
car-free agrees with environmental sustainability;
The natural reserves remained protected from the residents.
Disadvantages:
The radial form caused orientation of buildings towards west and east, which did not prove to be
sufficiently successful in terms of energy;
The use of extracted urine became an issue;
Low density of population caused by the large distance between buildings makes the settlement a
sub-urban community rather than an urban sustainable community (around 3000 residents lives
there);
The potential for expansion of the district is low, as it is fringed with natural reserves (further
expansion would mean destruction of nature);
The lack of the main street, which is a result of a car-free community prevented creation of a
true urban area, and thus animation of the entire district. The small commercial shops disappeared
and this meant that the mixed-use community concept was not realized;
Since the city is the owner of space, the residents do not perceive the property as their own, nor do
they have any future choice in planning, but become prisoners of one study model;
The residents are closed in their space because the interaction with the surrounding districts is
blocked by the natural boundaries;
There are issues with the architecture which is not in agreement with the natural environment, nor
in the context with the already existing surrounding districts.
By analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of sustainable housing district concept, one can
conclude that the idea of socially sustainable population did not yield the expected results, while the idea
of sustainable environment proved to be efficient, especially in terms of usage of solar energy. These
ideas proved to be contrary to each other, realization of one idea would be unfavorable for the other.
6. POTENTIAL FOR APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT IN SERBIA
There is the question whether we can learn from the positive example, that is, can we draw
conclusions and use the positive side of such concept. It is a fact that the concept itself did not prove
positive in terms of socially sustainable population, but gave positive results in terms of energy
efficiency.
If we consider the fact that in Serbia, average solar radiation is around 40% higher than the European
average, and that the concept of the sustainable housing district succeeded in terms of usage of solar
radiation, then we can conclude that the concept of solar district would be sustainable. The fact
corroborating this is that around 7420GWh of electric energy could be saved annually, costing around
370 million euro, if every housing unit had 4m2 of solar panels installed.
Serbia imports electric energy (over 43%) even though there is potential to utilize renewable energy
sources. Serbia ratified the Kyoto Protocol in September 2007 which does not oblige Serbia to reduce
emission of harmful gasses, but enables it to apply for foreign investment. Also adopted is the Program of
realization of the Development strategy of Energetic in Republic of Serbia until 2015, for the period
between 2007 and 2012 whose primary goal is creation of conditions for development of renewable
energy sources. There are still obstacles to using renewable energy source due to:
Low price of electric energy
Low economic might of the economy and population
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 Insufficient administrative-professional capacity

Insufficient investment of the state into development of renewable energy sources
Insufficient information to the population
Lack of stimulating measures;
Sub-legal regulation which is being produced and still needs to be adapted to the regulations.
Small batches of the technology exploiting renewable energy sources, which results in high prices
However, what is relevant at this moment, when it comes to Serbia, is the fact that Serbia has available
space to construct this type of districts but does not have a budget to finance it. There no level of
organization (partnership) between the state, investors and non-profit organization which would support
such project, nor there is awareness of the necessity of such project.
7. CONCLUSION
The concept of sustainable housing district of the newly designed SolarCity Linz district was ideally
conceived and consistently conducted, but the reality is different from the expect. The socially sustainable
population, in the conceptual phase, was seen as an ideal model, but the urban structure of the district
caused different mutual social relationships of the population and different social relationship towards the
district.
As opposed to the idea of socially sustainable population, the realization of the idea about the
sustainable environment achieved results. It can be concluded that the concept was best implemented in
usage of solar energy. Regarding that in Serbia, average solar radiation is around 40% more intensive
than in Austria, we can learn from the good example and apply its principles on the new housing districts
currently under construction or which are to be constructed.
REFERENCES
[1] Breuste J. & Riepel J., SolarCity Linz/Austria a european example for urban ecological
settlements
and
its
ecological
evaluation,
downloded
03.05.2011.
from
http://www.iale.sk/download/breusteSS/solar_city.pdf, page numbers 632-643
[2] Gutmann R. solarCity Linz-Pichling Sustainable City Development, downloded 13.04.2011.
from http://www.linz.at/images/Article_Comprehensive_Sociocultural_Planning.pdf , page
numbers 1-4
[3] Official site of the City of Linz, http://www.linz.at/leben/4701.asp
[4] Trebesburg M., Projektvorstellung: SolarCity, presentations at the symposium Nachhaltig
Wirtschaften - Zukunftsperspektiven, oktobar 2004,
downloded 06.04.2011. from
http://www.forne.at/veranstaltungen/zwischenbilanz2004.html
[5] Vlaovi G. Solar City Linz, Daylight end architecture magazine by Velux, number 8, 2008, page
numbers 16-18

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Dragana Konstantinovic1

DEALING WITH THE PROGRAMME OF THE SOCIALIST CITY

SYNTHETIC URBANISM OF VJENCESLAV RICHTER
Abstract: The paper deals with programmatic basis of Sinthurbanizam (synthetic urbanism) experimental urban project of Vjenceslav Richter, anticipated for new society of workers selfmanagement, developed in former SFRY. At the same time, it positions this urban experiment within
wider context of European experimental movements and practices which explored alternatives to Modern
urbanism, and particularly those demonstrated trough the work of Archigram. By comparison of these
concepts it is possible to determine some common grounds in dealing with crisis of Modern society, but
also peculiarities of each, since resting on different social, cultural and ideological grounds.
ey words: 20th century; SFRY; urban planning; sinturbanizam; architectural programme; Vjenceslav
Richter

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1. INTRODUCTION
After the Second World War, the massive projects of infrastructural building and urbanisation were
initiated in former SFRY. Through this, the country was extensively transformed from agricultural rural
scenery towards urbanised environment, along with social and cultural transformation of peasantry into
the socialist working class. This transformation established new patterns and standards of living,
following the modern principles of planning and design, but also anticipated development of urban
techniques, which re-examined the realms of new social order.
Synthetic urbanism (sinturbanizam) of Vjenceslav Richter was one of the pioneering attempts to tackle
the issues of new urban development, especially within new society of workers self management. It
represents the critique of the Courbusians modern city, which was established as a main stream in urban
practice of Yugoslavia. At the same time, it critically addresses all the peculiarities of social realms in
which new urban techniques are explored, and gives environmental conditions for full realisation of self
management society.

Mr, Department for Architecture and Urbanism, Faculty for Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Dositeja
Obradovica Square 6, Novi Sad, email: konstan_d@yahoo.com, konstan_d@uns.ac.rs

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2. PROJECT BACKGROUND
In the period of intensive country reconstruction, urban practice was determined by realisation of the
cities and settlements, and thorugh this experience, patterns, techniques and principles of further
development were anitcipated. As soon as the period of massive infrustructural work was carried out and
basic urbanisation principles were established, the more extensive development of urban theory was
initiated, on the realms of current needs and perspectives of societal growth.
Synthetic urbanism of Vjenceslav Richter represents one of the pioneering attempts of anitcipation of
of future urban developemnt, especially in the social context in which it occurs. Richters professional
development showed even in its earliest stages clear orientation towards sytnthetic thinking and working.
His earliest works, done within the group EXAT 51, clearly marked the basis of his personal and
professional agenda: firstly, direction of artistic activity towards synthesis of arts, and secondly, giving
the work experimental character, since without experiment the progress of the creative approach could not
be anticipated [1]. Thus, for Richter, experimental work is in the core of creativity and he establishes this
approach through elimination of the strict boundaries between architecture and the other arts, where the
work of plasticist gives new opportunities for work of the architect, through exploration of the
cinematic relations of the composition and new domain of visual.
From this synthetic approach, Richter developed the theory of synthetic urbanism sinturbanizam,
unique urban and architectural system which is anticipated in new society and designed on the foundation
of the same. Precondition of every artistic work is life and art synthesis and architecture carries clear
attributes of such methodology, since it is spiritual product of the context in which it is conceived.
Arrangement and coordination of new materials could be done in numerous ways, but contemporary
spatial expression is materialisation of our most prominent spiritual ideals which are manifested in new
order and new relations discovered in the world around us, and inside us. [2].
For the starting point of his critique, Richter takes Corbusian city, zoned functional city which was
accepted in its basis, for major stream of urban development in Yugoslavia. In such city, the issue of large
distances affects numerous features of life quality, but also causes social alienation and feeling of not
belonging. The major outcome of such design is waste of time, like irreplaceable quality of life, which
urban planners left on the margins of their consideration. From this analysis, Richter anticipated the
foundation of the sinturbanizam on the following premises:
1.
cut the unnecessary traffic to minimum this is done by unity of place of dwelling, work and
provisions supply in one building for about 10 000 people with efficient internal links;
2.
secure the parking and manoeuvring space for a car (calculation: 1 car per 3 people)
3.
build urban blocks of such dimensions in which the dwelling unit or floor is relatively infinitely
small, what frees form making;
4.
the buildings which are left out from this scheme to be positioned in such way so they can be
equally accessible to the habitants of ziggurat (cikurat);
5.
Provide equal functional and formal quality to all buildings in the city as a basic principle of one
socialist society. [3].
2.1. European context of experimental critique
Sinturbanizam theory dates from Richters' research period, spanned between years 1954 and 1964,
through which he explored the limits of creative work using experimental techniques. Set in the context of
European cultural environment, this period was noted by various reactionary movements which
questioned the course of postwar architecture. In this respect, the most prominent contribution came from
founding and work of Team X that emerged in 1953, which predeceased formation of Archigram, which
although did not share the same expressive qualities as its founder, did put the critical creative thinking in
the centre of the work, instead of unified acceptance of modern tradition.
In these years, Yugoslav architecture was clearly affiliated towards European architectural and cultural
developmental route, so the magazines, such as Arhitekture (Zagreb) maticulasiliy presented the
architectural production beyond the country borders. In that way, Richters' pioneering work in the field of
urban theory is not unprecedented if put in the context of European architectural stage, but represents
unique contribution in thinking about ideologically predefined society for which utopian project is
proposed. While other urban experiments were dealing with the absence of firm ideology to start from,
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Richter's project was all about ideology in which it positiones itself. By interpretation of this project and
projects of Archigram it is possible to determine some common grounds, but also peculiarities of each,
since we talk about different social and cultural contexts. What is clear is that both concepts offer
alternative to the urbanity promoted in the previous period by the work of CIAM and Athens Charter
(Charte d'Athnes). While Europe already faced the consequences of modern urban development and put
it into question with alternative crative work of Brutalists, in Yugoslav society they are accepted with a
certain reserve, while the unique models of urbanism for self management society are not anticipated.

Figure 29. Plan of the city for 1.000.000 people based on the principles of sinturbanizam

2.2. The issues of time, urban form and urban future

In that way, the both system of ideas are conceived as a critique of the urban reality, and Richter
stressed out: while Corbusier's urban concept was hygienic, traffic, artistic correction of current way of
living, the life in sinturbanizam unit is drastically changed in a way of efficient use of time. [4] In that
way, the issues of efficiency and quality of life which are undermined in Corbusian cities becomes central
theme of Richter's concept, where the term sintak is used for unique measurement of effective working
day, which reached its peak in working processes, but lost its quality in increase of commuting time, what
is the outcome of poor urbanism. The logic of the production processes of Millutin's socgorod precise
and logical change of functions, here is the basis for establishment of agglomeration on the grounds of
cohabitation and synchronisation of life processes. Once accepted for the way of life organisation, only
possible in socialism, sintak becomes the means of thoughtfulness in all social activities. It is comprised
of synchronisation and complexion of action, traffic and behaviour. [5]
As the starting point of their concepts, both plugg-in city and sinturbanizams city consider the traffic
flux, taken as necessity of contemporary city which is wrongly interpreted through zoning. Large
distances, which appeared as a consequence of zoning highlighted all problematic features of such
approach and sought for completely different level of consideration concentration of people and
function. In that sense, conception of megastructure cikurat in Richters solution, or mobile mega
structure of Cooks urbanism, represents the response to the needs of concentrated living, which does not
necessarily mean living in megalopolis. And right after this particular issue, the concepts of these two
projects begin to depart. For Archigram, the city is firmly related to the stream of uncertainties in the
future, and changeable circumstances affects the city not to be attached to the place. At the same time,
the city is not designed urban and aesthetic statement, but permanent process, which needs to enable
enough flexibility to support the continuity of change that follows urban life. In contrast to that, Richters
city introduces basic urban unit cikurat (ziggurat), as predefined framework of urban living, which can
be multiplied, in order to provide city growth. However, the very appropriation of form, which has
historical connotation, longevity and residue of meanings, points out the completely different reading of
urban future certainty which is permanent and guaranteed. The reasons for that can be traces in
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ideological differences of two social systems which are reflected on the urban concepts. European
afterwar context re-examined all current traditions, faced with depression of war destruction and new
order of forces on European ground. Acute despair which was the consequence of destruction and
poverty, the ethic decline of architectural production, which was basicly faced up with the issues of rapid
problem solving, instead of creative work, pushed the modern language and its legacies to the banality. In
Yugoslavia, afterwar situation provided for the first time the conditions for genuine and massive
urbanisation, on all levels. Although this process was initiated on hardly established urban tradition, the
process of industrialisation and infrastructural building completely altered the urban image of the country,
especially of some parts, and brought the optimism and confidence in urbanity. In that way, the urban life
was regarded as a symbol of prosperity of workers life, near the factory, which improved the standards of
living for large number of citizens to the level far beyond the pre war ones. But even beyond that, the
strong ideological beliefs affected the overall condition of the social consciousness, at least among the
majority, where the changes in urban culture were comprehended as a prosperity of the socialistic society
and embraced as such. From that conviction originates Richters urban certainty, planned in permanent
cikurats for 10 000 people, in which the values of socialist living are strengthen community and work,
in complementary programmed built system which is zoned on new grounds. The programming is taking
place within the megastructure, which enables the life standard of highly reposnsible social community.
In comparison to Millutins socgorod, here the development of the city is stratified, and the ties between
living and working are established within the house itself. [6]

Figure 30. Plan of the typical floor in ziggurat. A) dwelling, B) administration, C) crafts, D )industry
Figure 31. Ziggurat Section, A) envelope with dwelling units facing south, west and east, north side is for administration, B)
economy and social functions, C) industry, D)ground floor with shops, restaurants, taverns, cinemas, underground parking
space beneath for 3000 vehicles E) vestibule under grand Hall, F) Grand Hall for 6000 people which can be divided in two, G)
open terrace, H) indoor public space promenade and square on the 15th floor

3. CULTURAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT

In further comparison of these two concepts it is necessary to comprehend the cultural background of
both movements, of which one has its reference to pop-art culture, and the other to synthetic approach
to arts. Pop-art culture emerged driven by the need to reaffirm the relationship between the arts and users,
or, more precisely, from the concept of altering the high arts with popular arts, in which consumerism is
taken sometimes with irony, and sometimes with sympathy. Richters synthetic approach to arts cancelled
the boundaries between disciplines and is motivated by conditions of living in new society, which seeks
for radical perspective shift, which cannot be taken fragmentary. Socialism as an issue of a day, can not
be comprehended as completely practical issue, based on the power of progressive parties and practical
opportunity of power occupation, but as an issue of world management historically put into spotlight by
development of production forces.For us, this here, important as a part of the overall change of image
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of the world, about society and us, building of our knowledge on each discipline in which we act, is
inevitable and necessary process which did not spare any single discipline of human acting. [7] In that
way, the synthetic approach is not ironic gesture created as a reaction on social momentum, which tries to
implement the art into society and criticise it at the same time, but actually a system in which current
social order could come to its climax. At the same time, it is the reaction on art of social-realism, which
threatened at one point to become cultural mainstream, and against which it confronts with abstraction, as
a major artistic procedure. By that, the synthetic art, as programmatic preference, does not tend to depart
from the user, but contrary, has tendency to democratise and socialise arts, trough the work which brings
art closer to the science, and by doing that cancels its features of uniqueness.
Trough such consideration, it becomes clear that presented urban experiments, plugg-in city and
sinturbanizam, are firmly embedded in cultural milieu of their environments, with clear vision of treating
the field of architecture and urbanism in the realms of such cultural contexts, and offering the answers to
the issues of current social momentum. And while walking city represents the technocratic alternative
to the modernism, and response to some form of (capitalistic?) society, cikurat is utopian programmatic
creation which synthesizes society so it can develop to its climax, in the system of the workers self
management. [8]

Figure 32. Perspective view of the city. The stadium in the middle indicates the size of the ziggurat structure

3.1. Issues of Modernisation

Further analysis of the projects exerts different attitudes towards issues of modernisation and
significant difference in contextual reading of it. In Archigram's projects, technocratic future is reached
by means of high technologies, by which the environment is altered. This cancels the predefined
boundaries between house and installation, and at the same time challenges the relations between the
structure and the environment, which is also controlled by mechanical system of pipes and ducts. Like the
Fullers dome for Manhattan demonstrates the domination of technology, even over the nature, the same
does Bad Weather Balloons, by which the boundaries between the environments, outer and inner, are
diminished. The final outcome of all these experiments is dismissing of traditional comprehension of
architecture, its a priori taken functions, and particularly the ways of form making. Unbalanced relation
between architecture and technology, which was evident again, made architecture immune to
technological breakthroughs in order to preserve its aesthetic purity. In work of Archigram, this point
becomes the point of rapprochement. The role of architects in their projects is only in giving the vague
framework or pattern of further development and expansion, which is not under their control. By
multiplication and growth, in the predefined direction, the limits between architecture and urbanism are
also stretched, to the point in which house is hypertrophied to the size of the city.
While Archigram's architecture results in the reestablishment of social needs, where the architectural
practice is repositioned through technological actualisation, sinturbanizam is the project dedicated to
building of the society on completely different grounds. Cikurat is the system dedicated to construction of
socialistic community and organised social being. Inside the cikurat, all life functions of the collective
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are appearing in front of each and every member citizen. From the earliest childhood, people see and
learn these functions as part of the integral collective organism, and by that the feeling of collective
affiliation and responsibility is born. At the same time, the capacity of self management is developed, as a
real and touchable political function. [9] In that sense, cikurat is the basis of workers' self management
system, urban form by which the problems of urban disintegration are overcame. Richter explains that
city based on sinturbanizam is possible only within socialist societies since the capitalist city which is
overwhelmed by individualistic and analytic way of thinking was not able to solve the basic human
needs. In capitalism, the sinturbanizams entities can not be created, since they can not become
sinturbanizams social, neither architectural assignments. [10] It was clear that socialism had to accept
the patterns of the capitalist urban development in its earlier phases, but even its best modalities could not
give the right response to the needs of new society. The task of that society is to come out with the frames
of its own urban development, and particularly of those which fulfil its collective endeavours and social
responsibility. Through this, the ultimate modernisation of the society is completed, not that much resting
on the technological means and procedures, but on the programmatic fulfilment which is in accordance to
overall social ideology.
4. CONCLUSION REMARKS
Through history, experimental theories and utipistic projects made necessary incentive to development
of the architectural thought and practice. As Bernard Tchumi points out, there are key architectural
statements that, though not necessarily built, nevertheless inform us about the state of architecture its
concerns and its polemics- more precisely than the actual building of their time and they operate on
limits of the mainstream, alternately celebrated and ignored. [11]
In the case of Archigram's experiments and Richters synthetic approach, the value of the experiment
lies basically in programming issues underneath these concepts. Although the formal outcome of both is
utopian megastructure, which diminishes the boundaries between architecture and urbanism, the
programmatic consideration underpinning projects, are the most valuable aspect. In that sense, Richter's
project can be viewed as part of European architectural streams which tried to reconsider architectural
programme and position it as a necessary tool for giving architectural practice the sense and meaning it
has lost through the process of reductionism formalistic or functionalistic one. This meant that
programme was not seen as architectural supplement but completely new foundation of architectural
discipline, where it became direct outcome of the new social circumstances, while formal ideals rested
outside the domain of classical beauty, mathematical proportions and symmetry. This approach was
paved as early as in the work of Futurists, who prepared the architectural theory and practice for
programmatic modernisation, outside the usual domain of functionalism or formalism.
As continuation, Archigrams experimental architecture provides a new agenda where nomadism is
the dominant social force; where time, exchange and metamorphosis replace stasis; where consumption,
lifestyle and transience become the program; and where the public realm is an electronic surface
enclosing the globe [12] By that, it successfully demonstrated architectural practice in reprogramming
and offered solutions, although in a form of collage, for new consumers urbanism for nomad society,
and firm embedment into ideas of new environmentalism.
In this respect, Archigrams projects were not revolutionary in terms of change of social order, but in
terms of change of peoples habits and opportunities for their fulfilment, frankly unconcerned with how
such goods were acquired [13]. Richters project, on the other presupposes the particular social order and
builds Arcadian environment for its fulfilment. Programmatic concerns of the project are all in the service
of social order which it supplements. In fact, sinturbanizam represents the avant-garde step out in thinking
abut socialist city - the socialist alternative to modern planning and urban design. Its major values rest in
the fact that it is conceived on the programmatic footprint of the social realms, its interpretations and
support. At the same time it represents the critique of the present practice and architectural and urban
response to its misleading, driven by the revolutionary spirit of Constructivism, which made pioneering
attempts more than 40 years before.

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REFERENCES
[1] Iz programskog Manifesta grupe, u Pintari Horvat V. (urednik): Vjenceslav Richter, Grafiki
zavod Hrvatske, Zagreb, 1970, p. 7
[2] Richter V.: Sinturbanizam, Izdavako knjiarsko preduzee Mladost, Zagreb, 1964, p.16
[3] Richter, p. 86
[4] Richter, p. 97
[5] Richter, p. 100
[6] Miljutin N. A.: Socgorod: naela planiranja, u Perovi M.: Antologija teorija arhitekture XX
veka, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 2009, p. 250-261.
[7] Richter, p.15
[8] Sadler points out the question about social order on which Archigrams vision rest on.
Archigram (this book suggests) was willing to see the transformation of the working class as the
work of that class became automated, making us all bourgeois if need be. Sadler S.: Archigram,
Architecture without architecture, The MIT Press, Cambridge- Massachusetts, London-England,
2005, p. 7
[9] Richter, p. 87
[10]
Richter, p. 100
[11]
Tschumi B.: Architecture and Disjunction, MIT Press, 1996, p. %%%
[12]
Green D., cited in Crompton, D. (ed.) Concerning Archigram, Archigram Archives,
London, 1999; prologue
[13]
Sadler, p.7

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

D.Lukarevska1

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC SERVICES

IN THE CITY OF SKOPJE
Abstract: The paper analyzes the spatial distribution of public services in the city of Skopje and their impact
on quality of life of residents. In addition to housing, public urban functions are those that contribute to
improving the quality of life and offer a variety of new features. These functions are essential for the
development of socio-political, cultural, educational, scientific, administrative and other activities. Public
functions and their spatial and physical disposition are intended to generate the physical context and to
establish a solid urban image, visual focal points and spaceous dominants.
Analysis of the spatial organization of public facilites will determine the pros and cons of the current
situation in the city of Skopje, and will define the future needs for reorganization, change or modification of
network facilities provided for public services.
Trends and global organizations for public facilities are analysed over several parameters and norms. A
typological classification was performed of the systems for organization of the public services, through the
analysis of several typical urban neighborhoods in the city of Skopje.The aim is to discover methods of
planning for public facilities which have alredy being planned and deployed at the city level and to
determine the direction for the future organization and development of public functions.
ey words: Skopje, public functions, spatial distribution, urban quarter, urban settlements

PROSTORNI RASPORED I ORGANIZACIJA JAVNIH FUNKCIJA

GRADA SKOPLJA
Rezime: U radu je analiziran prostorni raspored javnih funkcija u Skoplju i njihov uticaj na kvalitet ivota
stanovnitva. Pored stanovanja, javne gradske funkcije su one koje pridonose za poboljanje kvaliteta ivota
i nude razne nove mogunosti. Ove funkcije su neophodne za razvoj drutveno-politikih, kulturnih,
obrazovnih, naunih i drugih administrativnih aktivnosti. Javne funkcije i njihova prostorno-fizika
dispozicija imaju cilj da generiu fiziki kontekst uz uspostavljanje kvalitetne urbane slike, vizuelne fokalne
take i prostorne dominante.
Analiza prostorne organizacije javnih funkcija e utvrditi pozitivne i negativne strane trenutne situcije grada
Skoplja, i definirae buduu potrebu za reorganizaciju, izmenu ili modifikaciju mrenih objekata koji su
predvieni za javne funkcije. Analizirani su i svetski trendovi za organizaciju javnih funkcija preko nekoliko
ustanovljenih parametara i normativa. Izvrena je tipoloka klasifikacija sistema za organizaciju javnih
funkcija, preko analize nekoliko karakteristinih urbanih etvrti grada Skoplja.
Cilj rada je otkrivanje planerskih metoda po kojima su javne funkcije planirane i razmetene na nivo grada i
utvrivanje pravca budue organizacije i razvoj javnih funkcija.
Kljune rei: Skopje, javne funkcije, prostorni raspored, urbana etvrt, urbana naselja

Phd Student, University of Ni Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Ni,
e-mail: mayamox@gmail.com

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1. INTRODUCTION
Improvements in quality of life and humanization of space are the main goals of urban design. These
goals point to the funds, especially point the way (method) to the solutions of spatial problems and
improvement of the current situation and optimization of the relationships in a given area. Principles in the
planning and arrangement of space: balanced spatial development, rational use of space, conditions for
human living, overcoming urban barriers for people with disabilities, sustainable development, protection
and improvement of environment and nature, protection of the cultural heritage and compliance with the
European standards and norms in urban and spatial planning. [4]
In addition to housing, public urban functions are those that contribute to improvement of the quality
of life and offer a variety of new features. Public activities are those activities that enable the population to
have social equality and opportunity for social development and integration of the urban space. Public
functions complement the basic needs of the population and they are usually associated with that group of
activities that are of social importance for the city and its structures, and they allow sharing and staying in a
specific group of people on a defined territory.
The role of public functions and their spatial order in the physical structure of the planned city is a key
aspect in shaping urban space, because they must identify all significant shaping problems of urban space
and urban landscape. Public functions and their spatial and physical disposition are intended to generate the
physical context and to establish a solid urban image, visual focal points and spaceous dominants.
Establishing a clear concept of territory is important for the overall image and identity of the city.
Balanced distribution of facilities for public functions within the district, municipality and the end of
the city, is essential for a workable organization of these functions.
The group of functions from the public domain includes public institutions (administrative and judicial),
social protection, health, education (primary, secondary and higher), science, culture, and religious
institutions, or groups of class uses V (Public Institutions ), pursuant to Rule on Standards and Norms for
Urban Planning (Official Paper br.63/12) [3] and the following major classes of purposes:
V1 - Education and Science;
V2 - Health and social care;
V3 - Culture;
V4 - Govermental institutions;
V5 - Religious institutions.
Base class use V1 - Education and Science, includes all kinds of educational institutions, primary and
secondary schools, colleges, institutions of continuing and further education and all kinds of scientific
institutions. Base class use V2 - Health and social care, includes all types of clinics, outpatient clinics,
clinical centers, hospitals, health centers, sanctuaries, etc., and also all kinds of social institutions, social care
facilities (retirement homes, homes / institutions for rehabilitation of permanent or daily accommodation,
homes for ambulatory treatment centers for treatment of drug addiction, homes for the upbringing of
children and youth), sanatoriums , baths, kindergartens and service activities. Base class use V3 - Culture,
contains all buildings of culture and science, theaters, institutes, homes of culture and service activities
(museum-gallery activities, fine arts - exhibition galleries, library information activities, scenic and artistic
activity (scenic and musical and theater), film business, publishing, media, research, development
organizations and cultural homes. Base class use C4 - Govermental institutions, includes all institutions of
the state, city and local government, the judiciary, agencies and offices, criminal detention homes,
complexes and objects of Ministry of defence, special forces, diplomatic missions and service activities.
Base class use V5 - Religious institutions, includes all religious buildings of different religious communities,
churches, mosques, synagogues, temples and monasteries.
According to the hierarchical subordination on a city level can be divided into the following categories:
Public functions of high order - these features are important for the entire city, region or country as a
whole and not taken into account in planning the various parts of the city. The location of this
category of functions are planned to be available for as many users. In this category belong clinical
centers, university facilities, etc.;
Public functions from midfield - this category of public functions are important for certain urban
areas or individual residential neighborhood, but they serve a larger population than that of the
settlement, and thus serve more neighborhoods or communities. These include secondary schools,
polyclinics, etc.;

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Public functions of low order - public facilities used by a limited number of residential communities
within the settlements, such as primary schools etc..;
Mobile public functions - activities that change the location, which serve a number of settlements.
Many problems in terms of spatial resources can be solved by the use of mobile facilities for public
functions, because of mobility, servicing and satisfaction of most users will be achieved.
Planning and organization of public activities due to their unbreakable connection with other activities of
the city requires careful positioning in the hierarchic system of vertical networks of institutions that cover
the needs of the citizens of the city, others in the wider metropolitan area, and others have a broader regional
or state meaning (especially higher education and health).
1.1. Organization of public functions
The analysis of the spatial distribution of public functions in the city shows that the spatial order is
conditioned by the need for integrated treatment of the public functions in the development of the city,
where they are a constistent component of the city interconnection. Analysis of the spatial organization of
public services will determine the advantages and disadvantages of the current situation in the city of
Skopje, and will define the future needs for reorganization, change or modification of the network facilities
provided for public functions.
Spatial distribution and functional organization of public functions depends from the size, level of
development and relation to the city center. The development of the settlement is directly related to the
development trends of the social system and its economic development. The development of these public
activities and their spatial distribution is determined by the demographic situation, current trends and
migration, settlement infrastructure, the gravitational influence of the surrounding settlements, development
potential of the settlements and the assumed future development expressed through a functional system of all
neighborhoods.
These facilities are essential for the development of socio-political, cultural, educational, scientific,
administrative and other activities. The network of these facilities is still in accordance with the functions of
the territory, the population distribution, size structure and functional settlement. The role and significance
of the public facilities and the fact that their representation contributes to improving living standards requires
planning and building the necessary capacity and proper spatial arrangement, which will enable access for
all users at the existing area and the planned new spaces. Location of objects of social character must be
determined according to the purpose and character of the building.
Behrens and Watson [1], define the following location requirements for certain purposes of social
structures:
Public functions that distribute emergency vehicles (ambulance, fire, etc..), shall be directly or close
to the primary road network (city, transit and main streets);
Public functions that must be visible and easily accessible to a larger percentage of people, functions
that require easy access to public transport and may be associated with intense traffic (libraries, post
offices, community centers, etc..)
Public functions that must be visible and easily accessible to a large percentage of people, but are in
a safe, quiet, and when to have easy access to public transportation. These functions (school, etc..)
are located in the inside of the urban block and are far from the street with high intensity;
Public functions that should be accessible to pedestrians and need safe and peaceful environment,
should be positioned in a residential area, easily accessible and a short walking distance of the units
(kindergartens, churches, etc..)
Public functions that should be visible and accessible to pedestrians, and are positioned within
decent walking distance, but on the streets with high intensity (cinemas, cultural centers, etc.).
1.1.1 Global trends in the organization of public functions
Global trends for organization of the public functions are based on the fact that public functions generally
occupy 15% to 25% of the total area of the analyzed area. From this percentage, + -33% should be busy
with buildings from the public domain, while the + -66% should be busy with public open spaces that are
complementary part of public buildings. Ideal land redistribution would be 50-60% for individual
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construction areas (housing, commercial, industry, etc..), 15-25% semi-public areas and 15-25% public land.
When it comes to semi-public spaces are thought to private spaces available for the general public, it may be
a local park or inner yard of the building with multi-family housing or some other space that is available to
everyone, but primarily used by a number of users.
Planning of public functions on the principle of grouping along roads or grouped with public spaces
contributes to the quality of the public spaces, easier orientation and circulation in the city and also increasea
the quality of the urban form.
One of the most current global trends in the organization of public functions is the formation of
multifunctional clusters or groupations of many public functions. Multinationals clusters with mixed use
allows flexible grouping of uses on an appropriate location, which comes to more rational and intensive use
of space. The concept of compatible uses applies in multipurpose clusters with a public purpose, which are
positioned at one location with a different building purposes such as social institutions, recreation, health,
business and economic activities. Another concept is the creation of a cluster of the same kind of purpose.
Most examples of this concept in practice is relatied to the cluster of education. Such grouped uses allow
users to achieve more activity with only one trip, which leads to saving time, money and effort and thus has
the same effect of improved living qualities. The cost of construction, machinery, equipment and provision
of resources is reduced by the division of costs to all parties involved in the group. Depending on the
positioning of these versatile clusters in a relation with the city itself, comes up to the opportunity for
integration of several neighborhoods.
In this context the issue is the need to establish different zones of mixed uses with a fixed level of
participation of each individual purpose. This concept allows complemented activities with increased level
of use and higher levels of socialization. The system of classes of uses which performs classification of
activities and actions within the planned range allows mixing of related uses whose mutual compatibility
allows relative utility homogenization. Also, certain areas in this concept of different international practices
allows the plan to be more flexible and leave reserved areas to which only determines the degree of
importance, alternative uses and further investigation.
Global restructuring of demographic, social and cultural patterns changed the housing practices in space
and determined purpose zones. Despite the universality and constancy of the modern paradigm, expanding
heterogeneity of the users groups and users needs became reality. Plurality of different lifestyles is part of
the new socio-cultural forms in which the degree of mixing purposes and the aspect of compatibility is
changed on account of higher standards of spatial, physical and technical equipment. Hence the concept of
established special zones and gravitational field for certain uses of public domain in terms of demographic
instability and fluctuation seems like an inadequate model.
2. ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT SITUATION OF THE PUBLIC FACILITIES IN THE CITY
OF SKOPJE
Problems that can be detected as a common for the public and social functions are related to several
features such as material basis, funding and staffing problems, as well as spatial distribution, location
conditions, quality and size of construction plots. Spatial problems are especially strained and deteriorated
because in most cases it seems that sites that represent parts of a network for public activities, not only do
not reserve space for the purposes of development, but are not well proportioned if compared with the
minimum applicable standards or common spatial applied in urban and spatial planning.
Regarding the locations within the urban structure can be concluded that the most institutions are located
in closer or extended central city area, resulting in the greatest number of problems because it is a densely
built area within which there are no space reserves that could be used for the purpose of compensating for
substandard facilities or location.
Analysis of current situation of public facilities in the city of Skopje, on which they can draw scores of
the degree of satisfaction of needs, which diagnose the condition and detect problems based on the following
criteria: current number of users of space and facilities, the capacity of existing facilities, space standards for
each particular area, building plots, location for use, accessibility and traffic conditions for each area by
purpose of each subgroups of public functions. [2]

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Figure 4 Skopje and urban areas, GUP Skopje 2012

The density of all public functions shows that the greatest intensity of development is in the downtown
area and in the urban area NNE - (North - Northeast) with a total of 27.49% of total space for public
facilities, then in urban areas in the downtown area C - (Center) 11.82%, W - (West) 11.55% and E - (East)
11.66%, while the blocks SE (Southeast) and NE (Northeast) is the lowest intensity ie 1.59% and 2.98%.
ble 1- Review of the percentage of public functions in urban areas

Area

Percentage
(%)

C (Center)

11,82

W (West)

11,55

E (East)

11,66

S (South)

8,28

N (North)

9,50

SE (South-East)

1,59

NW (North-West)

9,00

NNW (NorthNorthwest)

5,87

NNE (NorthNortheast)

27,49

CN (Center-North)

12,46

NE (North-East)

2,98

The highest percentage of representation of educational purpose (V1) in terms of regions, occurs in
region N (North) with 7.70% and in the NNE (North-Northeast) with 6.98%, while the lowest percentage is
in NNW region (North-Northwest) with 0%, NW (Northwest) with 0.99% and SE (Southeast) with 0.80% or
a total education percentage, on a city level of 4%.
The highest percentage of representation of health purpose (V2) in terms of regions, occurs in the region
NNW (North-Northwest) with 5.02%, while the lowest percentage is in areas C (Center) with 0.89%, CN (
Centre-North) with 0.12%, NE (Northeast) with 0.19% and total health level on a city level with 1.27%.
The highest percentage of representation culture purpose (V3) in terms of regions, occurs in CN area
(Centre-North) with 4.47%, while the lowest percentage is in areas NW (Northwest), South (NorthNorthwest) and South (North-Northeast) with approximately 0.00% or a total culture on a city level of
0.32%.
The highest percentage of representation of govermental institutions (V4) in terms of regions, occurs in
the area NE (North-Northeast) and with 19.18%, while the lowest percentage is in the regions SE
(Southeast) with 0.13%, NW (North-Northwest) with 0.85% and NE (Northeast) with 0.00% or a total
govermental institutions on a city level of 4.48%.

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The highest percentage of representation of religious institutions (V5) in terms of regions, occurs in CN
area (Centre-North) with 1.56%, while the lowest percentage is in the NNW (North-Northwest), NNE
(North -Northeast) and NE (Northeast) with approximately 0.00% or a total religious institutions on a city
level of 0.19%. [2]
In comparation with the global trends with aproximately 15-25% of the total area for public
functions, in the city of Skopje the percentage is below the trend with only 10.26% of the total area for
public facilities.
Evaluation of the analyzed percentages of public facilities, can be reduced to the following:
There are established networks of public activities. Networks of several facilities show that there is
uneven coverage of the needs of the gravitational field.
Location conditions and spatial standards do not meet the needs or meet the minimal values, they do
not correspond to the expected level of activity.
Although there are registered problems, almost every network shows development tendency,
resulting in a realistic special requirements.
2.1. Typological classification according to the position of the public facilities within the urban quarter
Analyzing the the position of the public facilities within the urban quarter and their relation to the
geometry of the quarter, several types of urban quarters are being established.
Type no.1 is an urban quarter with centrally positioned public facilities. This type allowes easy
availability for all residents of the quarter. Central set of public facilities provide easy access for residents of
the urban quarter, but less accessible to the general public. This set of public facilities is safer and more
intimate and that is why this set is most suitable for primary schools, kindergartens and similar facilities.

Figure 2 Type no.1 - Centrally positioned public facilities, Izvor: [2]

Type no.2 is an urban quarter with dispersed public facilities. This set of disperesed public facilities
creates more versatile image of the urban quarter and the public facilities are easy accesible for all the
residents from the surrounding urban quarters. This spatial disposition of public facilities is most suitable for
health facilities, culture and some govermental institutions.

Figure 3 Type no.2 - Disperesed public facilities, Izvor: [2]

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Type no.3 is an urban quarter with public facilities oriented towards the street. This type of organization
of public facilities allows easier access to the general public than to the most residents of the urban quarter.
This set is most suitable for religious buildings, govermental institutions and cultural institutions.

Figure 3 Type no.3 - Public facilities oriented towards thes street, Izvor: [2]

3. CONCLUSION AND DIRECTIONS FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

The objectives of system networks with public facilities can be put into two groups. The first group
consists of goals that are closely related to the objectives of spatial development and regulation of the city.
They relate to:

Planning and spatial redistribution for part of the facilities, in particular in the segment of
govermental institutions and administration, education and culture;

Planning zones for development of specific purposes such as healthcare, higher education, sports, etc.
which will set conditions for more consistent concept for solving segmented purposes and creating a
more reliable network with various locations, zoning and the city as a whole;

Filling in the network with public content where is missing within the municipalities;

Planning new public content in those urban areas that lack specific public content according to the
number of users, or existing network density of users;

Specific locations should be planned so as to achieve spatial clustering of different networks in a

recognizable complex/cluster in order to achieve a visual effect not only as a grouped content but as a
metropolitan area;

Relocation of those contents that cause conflicts in the surrounding area;

Abandonment of the locations where it is impossible to achieve spatial standards and at least middle
quality of the required level, with an analysis for the given opportunities of the space for another
public facilities, after the redistribution;

Dispersed relocation of the public facilities from the city center, and relocating them into the wider
city surroundings, with which multi-center city will be created;

Planning new sites for schools and facilites with areas for sport and recreation that would allow
transformation of the physiognomy and function of the urban quarter because eventually would
attract visitors and manifestations on the new spaceous areas with a wider significance;

Reduction of spontaneous processes in the construction of public facilities, differences in purposes,

unfinished implementation of the standards for space and function;

Reduction of differences in quality of life of the specific settlements of various types;

Activation of local communities and volunteer citizens across different institutional and noninstitutional arrangments;

Increased utilization of funds already built funds for the need and function of the public facilities;

Adaptation of norms for design and building new facilities to demands for quality, easy maintenance
and use of appropriate materials and equipment for energy saving.
The second group of goals is related to improving the conditions and standards of practice and
development of certain institutions with their dislocation or on existing locations. This group contains the
following objectives:
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Raising the current standard of location and facility in any part of networks and proper dimensioning,
particularly in education and sport within education;
Functional relief to those locations which share several subjects of the same or different network
functions;
Spatial relief of the gravitational areas from incompatible uses;
Direct connections of the locations with public facilities with the traffic system in the city and within
all building plots and locations, parking spaces must be planned.

REFERENCES
[1] Behrens, R. & Watson, V Making urban places Principles and guidelines for layot planing, UCT,
Cape Town, 1996;
[2] Lukarevska, M., Siljanoska, J. (Elaborat za javni funkcii - GUP SKOPJE), pages 82-84;
[3] Pravilnik za standardi i normativi za urbanistiko planiranje (Sluben vesnik na Republika
Makedonija br.63/12), pages 19-20;
[4] Zakon za prostorno i urbanistiko planiranje (Sluben vesnik na Republika Makedonija br. 60/11 i
53/11), page 1;

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Karl Mikei1
Aleksandra Peterac2
Dragana Pilipovi3

LIFE IN 'NEW' CITIES AS A FORM OF SPECIAL DWELLING

Abstract: The city of Novi Sad managed to negate all principles related to humane building of residential
architecture. The tawdriness of today's residential model, points towards differing human needs, observed
through the aspect of social and economic tendencies. During the '90s the standard of living in Serbia
faced a downward spiral; together with it went the culture of living. This situation continues in a
hiperproduction of residential units on attractive city locations, unsutable for those purposes. Also, use of
substandard buidling material, unpractical and disfunctional living space production, fragmentation of
particular residential units lead to overpopulation and lack of privacy, green areas and parking places.
Due to low market-value of such real estate, they become accessible to the middle class, which
additionally promotes unefficient, inhumane and unsustainable residence, as well as a low quality
lifestyle of an individual. This type architecture does not allow a personal mark of posession and an selfexpression to an individual; it constraints him throug mass production. Such type of special residence
leaves deep marks on the spatial and urban substance of 'new' Novi Sad, as weel as on any other 'new'
city in Serbia. The aim of this paper is to bring attention to this sociological phenomena and to point out
the deviation of life of an individual inside these urban units, though residential architecture case studies.
ey words: special dwelling, residential architecture, Novi Sad, Serbia, residential units, unpractical and
disfunctional living space, personal mark, urban substance

IVOT U ''NOVIM'' GRADOVIMA, KAO OBLIK SPECIJALNOG

STANOVANJA
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1
Teaching assitant, PhD student, Department for architecture and urbanism, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 21000 Novi Sad,
e-mail: emodia@gmail.com
2
Researcher, PhD student, Department for architecture and urbanism, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 21000 Novi Sad, email: cacinger@gmail.com
3
Reasercher, PhD student, Department for architecture and urbanism, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 21000 Novi Sad, email: draganans81@gmail.com

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1. INTRODUCTION
This paper considers and questions the residential phenomena in new cities. The term of new city
and residence in it, was considered through a dynamic, empirical point of view. An unbreackable bond
between people and space must be observed through a prism of intricate social, psyhological and
economic factors. In that respect, it was necessary to clearly differenciate core aspects of the issue of
residentail architecture in new cities, from which we could observe the source of the problem, and
characteristics of particular city or peripheral districts. We tried to emphasize the volatile character of
residential architectural approach as a living, changing, breathing, degrading organism, through
illustration of specific examples. New city as such, is a phenomenon that is dynamic and ever changing;
inhabitants, passers-by, observers leave invisile traces on it, starting from a dwelling unit, as a core cell,
spreadin to the residential building, urban block etc.
Urban phenomena that are considered in this paper, are characterized by different needs of their users,
their requirements, structure, lifestyle, traditions, habits, financial status, education, interests as well as
social interactions between them; How and to what extent is the primary need for shelter met, and how
relevant is the (in)direct interaction of tenants (citizens) in constituation of humane, complete and a
quality lifestyle. Also, the paper tackles the issue of uncontrolled construction; specifically, to which
extent this profit driven activity, managed to disturs relation between people through social
communication. How much can architecture and its efemerity prove sustainable for future generations,
and how can it cope with the heritage of several decades before and a the inevitable esthetic pollution that
certainly resulted from a group of interacting factors: political, economic, sociologic and psyhologic.
New city and special dwelling in it will continue to strive to constant changes in the future. New
lifestyles may dictate a new virtual reality in which the city that we know today and actively live in could
undergo a complete transformation, in which each and every citizen would live according to his/her
needs, his/her value system and in his/her virtual environment. Only change is constant in todays world,
and this is the reason that life in the city is one of the forms of special dwelling.
2. (IN)ESTHETICS OF RESIDENTIAL CONGESTION- STATUS QUO IN THE COUNTRY AT
THE END OF THE 20TH CENTURY IN RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE
A specific social and economic conditions in Serbia in the the last decade of the 20 th century an
imposed political instability and a high imfluence in all dimansions of life, as well as economic sanctions
by the international community, have taken a toll on society at large and on architectural practice as one
of its aspects. Such a situation lead to a series of phenomena that were to become the amblem of a torn
and a disharmonized society that was smothered in national propaganda, cheap entertainment and all
encompassing poverty. In such a gloomy atmosphere of international isolation and an extreme material
inadequacy, pondering on esthetic componets in architecture did seem to be malapropos. It is certain that
the issues of those unruly time are evident on the buildings stemming from that period. The inhabitants
were under pressure to provide for a dwelling of any kind, putting quantity over quality; this lead to
acceptance of many illegally constructed buildings that, as we will see, would pose much more trouble
then issues of ownership, low-quality construction and lifestyle in general.
Residential culture and the City that we knew, which grew and developed controlled by public
regulations, went through drastic changes during the last decade of the 20th century, in the period of the
biggest political and social turbulence. This created an ideal atmosphere for investors that (un)consciously
steer urban development exclusively for financial gain. Investors were oriented to augmenting the number
of square meters that had market value, in order to acquire maximum profit, under questionable market
conditions, with thousands of immigrants expanding the demand. The situation in the country enabled

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them to act without any concrete and accepted norms of conduct, without public institutions and
professional associations that could control the process of design and construction.
In streets with once groundfloor houses, in the wider city centre, we see multistorey buildings
sprouting left and right, without order. In such newly built urban districts, quality of life is gravely
endangered. We have observed this phenomenom through traffic, communal, health, educative,
ecological and urban infrastructure. Hyperproduction of residential units on attractive urban locations,
inadequate for that purpose, has produced impractical and unfunctional units, crammed and inefficient
spaces, use of low quality construction material and fragmentation of units within a building. This led to
overcrowding, lack of privacy, lack of green and parking spaces, as well as a number of other problems
that will be described in detailed later on.
Unrecognition and disinterest of the public, as well as a general lack of esthetic criteria, have
contributed to errection of buildings that did not match any of the basic construction conditions nor basic
esthetic criteria. In order to meet the requests of the new investors, mostly form war-torn territories,
designers and builders reach for ideas and construction methods of past times. Traditional decorative and
modeling repertoar of elements has been used, allegedly to conform with the exsiting built surounding.
Uncritical and ostentatious transferrance of motifs and detail from historical periods is the strongest trait
of residential buildings constructed in this period. Low quality and uniformed production, which can be
observed as a series of missed opportunities was a result of approach that money should be denied
wherever it would be possible, in order to meet the interests of all stakeholders: investors, buyers and the
community.
An occurence inate to transitioning countries, characterized as wild construction, as an inadequate
treatment of the soil/space, becomes a harsh reality of economic prosperity in the grey area. This
apporach certainly took precedence over humane, socially acceptable and quality lifestyle in general. The
fact that there have been more than 35.000 to 40.000 residential buildings errected with no valid
construction licence, that is only during the last decade of the 20th century.
This imposed lifestyle left deep marks on spatial and urban substance of the new Novi Sad, and the
situation is so radical that some cases it would take much time until some city quarters see urban
reconstruction, when they continue to see new residential architecture even now. The preceding
ideological dimension was seriously interrupted and ended. Dwelling units that were once allocated
according to the number of family members, from the end of the 20th century and today, are excluesively
conditioned by the financial potential of an individual.
Today, as a consequence of illegal construction and mass residential architecture production that took
hold in the last decade of the 20th century, and continued well into the 21st (Last two years only saw 1.500
dwelling units built on an annual level), Novi Sad has taken the lead in residential construction.
3. NEW CITY PHENOMENA NOVI SAD
3.1. Sociological communication
Comparison of a residential building with a living organism stems form the idea that architecture has
always been characterized by an ameba-like symptom of constant change. A basic unit of every living
creature, and to this axtent architecture, is a cell (residential unit), which effects its immediate
surroundings and by that all other parts of the organism. In order for all organs of an organism, and
architecture as such, to be healthy, is to have a functioning cell. It should effect other cells (dwelling
units, tenants/citizens), adn determine to what extent is the immediate surroundings in positive/negative
correlation to humane, functional, socially pathological. Social communication, a lifestyle of tenants in
certain urban districts, their basic needs and requests would be transmitted further, from the building to
the urban block that does act as a living organism, which is born, grows, develops, is educated and
behaves in relation to its core cell, and interrelations between them.
The influence of sociological behaviour of tenants in their dwelling units. If we take the fact that
space and people are in constant communication into consideration, we come to the conclusion that
identity crysis is transmitted from a spatial to a sociological and psychological plane. Anything from
social changes, changes in lifestyle, lowering of economic standard, personal development and
(un)quality free time, can direct a unit towards a negative and carefree behaviour towards its immediate
surroundings. Observed through the eye of a designer-architect, how much has a speedy lifestyle, travel,
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absence from home etc. lead to the design of residential units to be reffered to as 'hotel residence', which
would presume a minimal daily presence in ones own residential unit? Is this alienation leading to an
even lesser impact on our immediate surrouding? Or the contrary. Unless a unit does not take care of
itself, how much can be expected of a healthy organ or organism? It is because of that, that contemporary
architecture should pay special attention of the needs and requests of a modern human and the new way
of life, through information flow between an architect-sociologist and user-psychologist.
In order to fully understand social behaviour in a residential unit as a basis, we need to observe real
and imaginative situations. We are constantly reminded of the other tenants' presence (visual, auditive,
olfactive sensations). Residence in multystorey buildings is collective, and no matter how much one
strives to isolate themselves from the others, the fact is that they are all located in a comparatively small
space. It is here that it becomes evident that a persons freedoms end where the other peoples' begin. Their
interrelations is of utmost importance. To this extent, we would like to emphasize the influence of
children in urban blocks. Children tend to communicate among themselves much mor than adults, and in
this way their transmit a characteristic model of behaviour to others, be it positive or negative, creating a
certain atmosphere linked to a specific city district.
Moving a family to a residential building is a dynamic and active process. A family expands, changes,
the tenants grow old, change needs and differenciate between their and expectations of the surrouding.
Social interactions as immediate, vicarious or imagined, effect the behaviour, standpoints, expectations
and goals. The differences between individuals are vast, affected by gender, age, value system, social
class, profession, education etc. Tenant of a building may therefore be observed as a social group studied
within a family unit, a building, or an urban district. The type of interaction between the tenants is
diverse: verbal, gestures, depending on the level of acquaintance, similarities in social factors and
psychological traits. The differences are clear between urban and rural communities, but there is constant
mixing of these categories; they have drastic differences in modes of behaviour, creating special
atmosphere in residential units, as either extremely homely or alienated. This lead to a colorful
atmosphere in residential units, with finely nuanced tones for every unit. The fact that every trace a
person leaves after oneself in a shared space, is undeniably his/hers message to others, as a means of nonverbal communication. Psychological climate in residential communities can be of different quality,
which is of essential importance for the process of child socialization and, as already mentioned, urther
transferrance of modes of behaviour. Growing up in a social ambient with certain characteristisc, they go
through phases of social education, acceptance of social norms, standards, variable modes and conduct
codes. If a child is brought up in a surrouding where broken glass, picked locks, burned walls , ceilings
and elevator buttons, light bulbs, damaged postboxes etc. are considered normal, they will adopt that
behavioral pattern and transfer this routine to another building; in this way, certain urban heritage will be
characterized as insecure, ugly, dangerous and notorious in general. On the other side, a better economic
status, higher social reputation, a homogenous family unit, the personal integrity of tenants', emotional
stability and the type of communal relations, all affect the alturist behaviour (disinterest towrds others)
among tenants. We strive towards healthy and humane, ecologically acceptable and desired modes of
lifestyles to urban blocks; however, they often fail. Dogmatism, technicism and schematism they often
fail to provide identity needed to create deep and quality relations between people and communities. This
is the reason why collective housinf is a stage for intensive social interaction, much stronger than any
other type of cummunal life.
A house is a person's first Universe a nische in the World! There, a person gathers his firts images
and knowledge of the world, before embarking on a journey of conquest and becomes a more acting and
conditioned personality. It is then that his Universe comes to expand. A person starts to act a a mobile and
active cell; a house is his sanctuary a place to come back to and in which to rejuvenate a constant
focal point and a anchor in this expanded Universe. [1]
3.2. Ideological Whirlpool Boulevard Osloboenja Case Study
If we postulate that ' a house has always been one of civilization's expressions from which it emerged
and to which it belongs' [2], then we face the danger of facing confrontations of different social, political
and ideological orders in a certain period of time on a specific location. In case this phenomenon is
observed through a prism of housing (dwelling) as a dimension of everyday life, it would simbolically
present itself also on the built environment. It is possible to identify buildings that form the street front of

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the Freedom Boulevard (bulevar Osloboenja), which form a sort of a temporal 'buffer zone', through
identification of ideological changes and their corresponding criteria.
Freedom Boulevard was built between 1962. and 1964.; the location of the boulevard had previously
been populated by dilapidated residential buildings. The boulevard streches from the Main Railway
Station to the Freedom Bridge (Most Slobode). Until 1991. It bore the name Boulevard of 23rd October,
honoring this day in 1944. when Novi Sad was freed of occupation in the II WW. Today, it is the utmost
important traffic route and Novi Sad lifeline, and it is considered by many as the main city street, as well
as an informal city centre. Although almost all public, political and cultural institutions are situated in the
Novi Sad Old Town, Freedom Boulevard does bear precedence in the area of business and entertainment.
The definition of the Boulevard urban front continued after the errection of the Main Railway Station
(Farka and Matovi, 196064). The post-II WW generations of city architects (S. orevi and A.
Kelemen) errected their buildings and left their trace. During the 60s the Boulevard saw a number of
residential and business edifices that could be tied to high modernism (P. ilnik, M. Lozi, Z. Mitrovi
Pajki, M. Matovi, . Bugarski).
The three residential towers in Novi Sad (archts. Petar Stogov, Predrad Marijanovi and Ivica
Mlaenovi 1972) were designed and built in a period when the already established building doctrine was
under question. In their search for new architectural elements, design solutions and structural elements,
the authors created a fresh architectural form; it should be emphasized that the architecture of that time
and the research process behind it, were incredibly advanced, hand in hand with international trends of
that time. There are clearly defined spaces of the unit, primarily the dining and living room quarters. The
units are comfortable and adequately lit. In a similar manner and in the vicity there is Block III (arch.
Milan Lojanica, Predrag Cari, Borivoje Jovanovi 1971-1975), as leading representative of the Belgrade
school of residential architecture. The functional purpose of this urban block is primarily residential,
whereas other functions (schools, children's and social institutions, commercial etc.) are networked into
the residential exclusively on the principle of annexing the residential units. This approach to 'smart'
resource management, an open plot, the state as investor organized the lives not only of individuals but a
community as a whole, based on the previously established urban planning documents.
During the 8th and 9th decades of the 20th century there was a long streak of residential construction
(arch. B. Reba, S. Kuzmanovi, D. Krsti and others) whose roots lie in the work of architecture between
I and II WW. Arch. Duan Krsti (1938), was a prolific designer whose work encompasses commercial
and public buildings in the early period, and public housing throughout the entire career. Liman I, a
residential estate designed during the 80s by Krsti, with some 500 dwelling units, was at the same time
was an ode to flat roofs, whose use soon saw its end in construction laws in Serbia. His residential
buildings from the beggining of the 90s, in Novo Naselje and Liman IV, distinguish themselves in the
real internal structural flexibility of the units, which was achieved through communication with future
users whose opinions were taken into account in the design process.
When a city as a form reached a moment in its history where it could no longer undergo functional
morphosys, that is when its decline started. In this way, one Law of Nature reached its manifestation. [2]
With the revised urbanistic guidelines, which somewhat lean toward a breach of liberal capitalism into
the outdated (neo)socialist planning concept, there arose a large number of unoccupied spaces in between
the residential areas built at the end of the 70s and 80s that were to be populated by business-commercial
centres and residential buildings throughout the 90s (Limans, around the Freedom Boulevard, Detelinara
etc.) The last decades of the 20th century saw the errection of a number of buildings that have changed
the image of a socialist boulevard into a contemporary traffic artery surrounded in residential and
business architecture. These novelties in architectural form anticipate a fresh approach to architectural
design.
On the rim of Liman Park, in the vicinity of the Freedom Bridge, is the most grandious edifice in Novi
Sad, the business headquarters og NIS Naftagas (architects: Aleksandar Kekovi, Zoran upanjac and
Ivan Panti, 1998), 13 years after the open competition. In the time of the severest financial crysis in the
country, this national enterprize used the most exclusive and luxurious of finishing materials, both for
enterior and exterior. Although emposing and with some excellently composed ground level sections, this
edifice doesn't have ease of communication, so characteristic of building of similar scale erected all over
the world. This enormous building remained cold and unfamiliar in its existance, symbolizing a
undemocratic political system that errected it as a memorial to itself. It would only be after several years
that all problems regarding maintenace and exploitation costs would emerge. It is absurd that this edifice
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will probably remain a reminder to the most roubling period in the history of this country. A
megalomaniac dimansion to the form is certainly evident, and it can be seen in some residential buildingsthat have five or six storeys with multiple additions, as well as in some ublic buildings. The Nis-Naftagas
building is one of the examples of such an architectural design approach; it managed to engulf the entire
urban block in it.
Architectural design couple Milenija (1941) and Darko Marui (1940), designers and University of
Belgrade Faculty of Architecture professors, design a business-residential building that was constructed
over a period of some 7 years (1991-1998); this building brought a fresh approach to architectural design
practice from a logically used construction plot, to a series of attractive yet unimposing details and
surfaces.
The begining of the new millenium was reserved for a much more modest yet as attractive, edifice of
the business-trade center 'Boulevard', in 2001., designed by arch. Bora Radusinovi (1944), whose design
image stemmed from the architects previous experiments in glass as a modern construction material. It is
the characteristic geometry of 'firm edges' and the use of glass of such a capturing color that give the
built environment of the Boulevard real distinction.
Arch. Radoje Cvetkov (1948), after a series of residential buildings and private mansions (that often
met the investors' whim rather than the esthetical need of the author/society), designs a business edifice
an the Boulevard (2003) that corresponded to the trends of the worldly architecture in a new way,
bringing the use of new materials and a contemporary look, into the previously established environment
of this prominent street.
Today the boulevard stands out in numerous functional advantages: a number of bus lines, the vicinity
of the Main Railway Station and Futoska marketplace, good connection to the rest of city districts, the
factor of social status an exclusive urban part, centre for events, a place where celebrities live and an
ecological environmental factor in the midst of the greenery, peace and quiet, fresh air, ideal for childre
etc. [3]. Apart from mentioned advantages, there is the inevitable burden of multifuntionality with which
urban plans often cannot cope, unless based on rational postulates. [4]. It is of utmost importance to note
that buildings, typologies, architectural symbols and forms don't bear constant social conotations; that is,
they need not exist prior to the society and culture they are a part of. Meaning is not stable. Constant
changes in social structure result in continual modelling of these urban and built categories.
3.3. Novo Naselje vs. Grbavica Conflicting ideologies
Through a schematic layout of the SWOT anaysis [5], the comfort living criteria have been identified
and taken into account objectively, logically and in a clear manner. This has been done on two case
studies of locations-city blocks in Novi Sad. This lead us to the conclusion how much multistorey/public
housing has changed ina relatively short time span. Do the main ideological directions in architecture still
make sense, even if they are not practiced, or do we need a large-scale urban reform in order not only to
avoid repetition of the 'beehive effect', but to correct the megalomaniac mental approach of architects'
new colleagues the investors. The question of privatization of public housing estates through urban and
architectural formation is certainly a topic that demands attention. The question of quality of residential
units (structures) has been seriously gained in importance today, when a dwelling unit is paid for to
private investors and speculators rhater than provided by the state. In the near past, residential units were
distributed according to the citizens' need, when today they are exclusively guided by the financial
potency of customers. The citiznes are not left with much today, but to conform to the conditions of the
environment imposed on them, and to strive to model these special dwellings in 'new' cities into a more
humane and more pleasant place for living, according to their individual cultural values.

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Figure 1 SWOT analysis of Novo Naselje

Figure 2 SWOT analysis of Grbavica

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4. CONCLUSION
A mutilated architectural ideology is a never-ending topic of Today and Tomorrow. The questions that
arise, in relations to the change in individuals, tennant and citizens lifestyle, provides new perspective
on future tendencies in architecture and its postulates. Today, when Internet, the Worlds fifth direction
and an intrinsic aspect of a modern human being, architecture is altering its foundations and potentially,
creating a new mode of living. Social networks, games that connect their users worldwide, bloggs,
forums, ease of access to information and therein better educated people, project the architectures
awareness of future users, tenants, citizens. What might the role of future builders be, in the world where
economic characteristics of the market are the ruling factors of societal development? Are we creating
future generations of academia on the basis of time long passed? Might it be that we are ignoring the real
problems of society through an ideology of general social existence? Is there a contemporary planing
framework for the generations to come? Are we living in a financial/economic, political buffer zone,
whose sole need is to survive, not to live in an adapted future? Virtual reality might be a bit out of the
context of sociopahtological state of the society, but it is questionable whether it ever be followed by a
corresponding virtual architecture through new cities and special dwellings in them.
REFERENCES
[1] Aleksi B.: Stan i stanovanje, Arhitektura i urbanizam, iss.74-77, Beograd, 1975. year, page 16.
[2] Pui Lj.: Grad: znaci vremena, Matica srpska: Prometej, Novi Sad, 1991. year, page 177.
[3] Kurtovi-Foli N.: Kako razumeti terminologiju i tipologiju stanovanja, Edicija Arhitektonika,
monografija br.11: Stanovanje ka III milenijumu, 2001. year, pages 251-266
[4] Stupar A.: Kompleksnost stanovanja u metropolisima III milenijuma, Edicija Arhitektonika,
monografija br.11: Stanovanje ka III milenijumu, 2001. year, pages 153-164
[5] SWOT Analysis shows logical relationship among specific objectives and makes them easy to
understand, present and to make decisions. Present a subjective assessment of data organised in
SWOT Analysis format (Strenghts, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats).

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milo Mihajlovi1

INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR ADAPTATION TO FLOODING SYSTEMS TO SAVE THE CITIES

Abstract: In scientific circles there is a consensus that the issue of climate change is the issue of global
importance. They are the actual and current threat. For this reason, there is a need to adequately deal
with the problem of climate change through implementation of appropriate strategies and systems
management under extreme situations.
The cases of reaching a record value in the amount of temperature and other climatic parameters are
becoming increasingly frequent.
There are different opinions about the causes of more frequent flooding. Ones say that increase in the
number of floods is due to the global climate change, while others believe that the main culprit is the man
and his work which have caused major changes in the environment. In recent years, we have witnessed
frequent flooding in winter and spring period, which are beginning to exceed the existing protective
measures. In Serbia there are defensive measures designed for century-old water, whereas in the world
measures have already been taken in order to design and implement thousand-old water, in order to
protect the cities of much larger, expected floods and raising waters.
This paper presents and analyzes a series of such projects and systems in order to draw conclusions and
provide guidelines which may be the input responsible for implementation of climate-responsible
planning and measures for adaptation to flooding in our area.
ey words: Coastal, innovative solutions, climate-responsible planning

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PhD student, Faculty of Architecture,

E-mail: milos_arh@yahoo.co.uk

University of

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Belgrade,

Bulevar

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Aleksandra

73,

Belgrade

1. CLIMATE CHANGES ALTER THE WAY OF THINKING AND DEALING WITH NATURAL
DISASTERS WHILE DECREASING THEIR IMPACT
We live in a moment, when the matter of preventing and decreasing the impact of climate change has
become existential. While geological records show that the world climate has been changing greatly
during glacial cycles, contemporary professional and scientific arguments relate to the decrease in trend
of climate changes increase caused by human influence, above all, to fossil fuel combustion, i.e.to
finding solutions for their prevention and decrease. Key questions which refer to the problem of
prevention of climate changes and decrease of their impact, concern spatial planning, innovations and
educational policies, public tenders, transportation, public awareness, as well as creating and
implementing strategies for renewable energy resources by using local resources.
Records in temperature values and other climate parameters are becoming more and more common.
One of the most dangerous hazards for built structures are floods, around the world. There are different
opinions for causes of more frequent flooding. Some say they are due to global climate changes, while
others think that the humans are the culprits and their actions have caused major changes in the
environment. In the last few years, we are witnesses of more frequent floods in winter and spring, which
are starting to exceed existing protective measures. In Serbia, we are talking about protective measures
for century-old water, while in the world measures have been taken for thousand-old water, which will
protect cities from much bigger, expected floods and raising of aquatory level.
One of the key issues in this area are: what are the possibilities for implementing measures for
adaptions to flooding in cases when a great number of natural regularities which once were in effect, are
starting to change and are no longer in effect? There is a need for finding new, innovative and sustainable
solutions, which will guarantee maximum protection and which will have acceptible design and fit into
urban matrix, because it will once become an inseparable part.
This paper will present some innovative solutions and new ways for adaptation to floods, which have
gone further because they were forced by situational change and therefore changed the way of thinking.
2. NEW SYSTEMS OF PROTECTION FROM FLOODING
The impact of climate changes on urban structure will be significantly bigger unless immediate
measures are taken towards their decrease and prevention. There is an agreement and many proofs that
with current policies of lessening climate changes and related sustainable development and global
greenhouse gases emission will continue to grow in the next few decades. [2] Therefore new objects have
to be designed so that they correspond the current climate, to prevent its further change but also to endure
possible deterioration, in the decades to come, which would guarantee long-term sustainability. [3]
New systems of flood protection are based on these principles. They are huge infrastructural objects,
which represent the last line of defense between the city structure as we know it and aquatories, which
have growing tendencies. They usually represent a part of a complex system of defense and protection,
which in some countries literally ensures existence, in areas which are below sea level, such as the
Netherlands. These systems exemplify capital investments of their countries i.e. they belong to so-called
investment works or measures taken towards flood adaptation. These systems are hi-tech engineering
inventions and are generally divided into two groups:
flood barrier and
underwater canals with underground silos
Besides all this, the risk of flooding can never be eliminated with non-investment or investment works
and measures. In different parts of Europe, different levels of risk of flooding are tolerated. For example,
in England settlements are protected from century-old water as long as there is a proven economic
liability. However, in the Netherlands, it is prescribed by the law that protective measures against big
water must be ensured for 1250 years or in some cases for even 10 000 years. [5]
2.1. Flood barriers
Flood bariers are systems that protect people and cities from the water. It is a specific type
of floodgate, designed to prevent a storm surge or a spring tide from flooding the protected area behind
the barrier. A surge barrier is almost always a wpart of a larger flood protection system consisting of
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floodwalls, levees (also known as dykes), and other constructions and natural geographic features. There
are numerous enormous flood bariers built in the world.
The largest movable one is found in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. This barier is called the
Maeslantkering and is placed in the Nieuwe Waterweg waterway. It is a part of the Delta Works1 and it is
one of the largest moving structures on Earth rivalling with the Green Bank Telescope in the USA and the
Bagger 288 excavator in Germany. The Maeslantkering is a storm surge barrier which automatically
closes when needed [1]. The barrier consists of two large floating gates on both levees of the waterway.
Construction of the storm surge barrier was carried out in dry docks. No vital parts of the barrier had to be
placed under water. Standing upright, these arms would be as high as the Paris Eiffel Tower, but each one
weighs two times more than the Eiffel Tower. The main purpose of the arms is transmitting the immense
forces, exerted on the gates while closed, to one single joint at the rear of each gate. During the closing or
opening process, this ball shaped joint gives the gate the opportunity to move freely under the influences
of water, wind and waves.

Figure 5 The Maeslantkering- movable barier, 23 May, 2012 | By M. Fakhruzzaman

The world's second largest movable flood barrier is the Thames barrier in London (after the
Oosterscheldekering in the Netherlands). Located downstream of central London, the barrier's purpose is
to prevent London from being flooded by an exceptionally high tide moving up from the sea, often
exacerbated by a storm surge. It needs to be raised (closed) only during high tide; at ebb tide it can be
lowered to release the water that backs up behind it.
London is a city quite susceptible to flooding. This is caused by the continual rise in the water level of the
River Thames throughout the years, slow tilting of Britain because ice sheets from the ice age slowly lift
land in the North, and the settlement of London on clay beds.

Figure 2 Thames Barrier, 2 May, 2012 | By Alexandra Wynne

The biggest non movable flood barrier in the world is found in Saint Petersburg in Russia. This new
Flood Protection Project barrier has a length of ca 25km and is the largest and most complex flood
protection project in the world: six sluice complexes, a tunnel, a movable bridge, 23km of dams and two

The Delta Works is a series of construction projects in the southwest of the Netherlands to protect a large area of land around the RhineMeuse-Scheldt delta from the sea. The works consist of dams, sluices, locks, dikes, levees, and storm surge barriers. The aim of the dams, sluices,
and storm surge barriers was to shorten the Dutch coastline, thus reducing the number of dikes that had to be raised.

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closable openings for shipping traffic, one of which is based on the Dutch Rotterdam Storm Surge Barrier
described above.

Figure 3 barrier in Saint Petersburg, 2 May, 2012 | By Hans Schripsema

Another major flood barrier is found in the Netherlands. In the past 2000 years, The Netherlands has
known many flood disasters. The main cause is the low position of the country compared to the sea level.
To prevent the country from flooding, the Deltaworks were constructed. From these constructions the
Oosterscheldkering is the biggest and it is also the second biggest storm barrier in the world. In 1986 the
queen officially opened the barrier, containing 62 openings of 40 metres wide which can be closed when
needed. The Oosterscheldekering, between the islands Schouwen-Duiveland and Noord-Beveland, is the
largest of the 13 ambitious Delta works series of dams, designed to protect the Netherlands from flooding.
The construction of the Delta Works was in response to the North Sea Flood of 1953 [1]. The nine
kilometre-long Oosterscheldekering consists of huge sluice-gate-type doors over four kilometres long.
These doors are normally open, but can be closed under adverse weather conditions. In this way the
saltwater marine life behind the dam is preserved and fishing can continue, while the land behind the dam
is safe from the water. The Oosterscheldekering was the biggest, most difficult to build and the most
expensive part of the Delta works.

Figure 4 and 5 The Oosterscheldekering, 15 March, 2009 | By M. Fakhruzzaman

2.2. Tokyo's gigantic flood prevention system

In contrast to flood barrier systems, the same problem of adaptation and protection from flooding has
been approached in a completely different way in Japan.

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Tokyo is an impressive city above ground, but it has become maybe an even more impressive city
underground with its impressive flood control system. This flood control system is called the G-Cans
Project and it was begun 20 years ago, to build infrastructure for preventing overflow of the major rivers
and waterways spidering the city (A serious problem for Tokyo during rainy-season and typhoon season).
The underground waterway is the largest in the world and sports five 32m diameter and 65m deep
concrete containment silos which are connected by 6.4 kilometres of tunnel sitting 50 metres beneath the
surface [4].

Figure 6 The G-Cans Project, 22 January, 2009 | By Manufactured lanscapes blog

The Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel, also known as the G-Cans Project or
the "Underground Temple", is a subterranean water infrastructure project. It is believed to be one of the
largest water collection facilities in the world. The building began in 1992 and the massive structure now
consists of five concrete silos, a large water tank and 59 pillars connected to a number of pumps that can
pump up to 200 tons of water into the Edogawa River per second. It has also become a tourist attraction,
as well as a location for films, TV shows and advertisements. The pressure-controlled water tank at the
Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel in Kusakabe, north of Tokyo is the facility,
which is believed to be one of the largest facilities in the world. It is composed of giant concrete
containment silos (65m tall, 32m wide), connected by 3.97 miles of underground tunnels 50m beneath the
surface as well as a large water tank called the "Underground Temple" which is 25.4m tall, with a length
of 177m and 78m wide, with 59 concrete pillars [4].

Figure 7 The G-Cans Project interior, 13 April, 2012 | By Damien Douxchamps

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3. CONCLUSION
Concluding considerations refer to the question: Where is Serbia in the process of adaptation to
flooding? Are these systems and raising the level of defence from centry-old water to thousand-old water
necessary for our rivers? What conclusions can be made from the world experiences?"
Generally speaking, the protection from flooding the banks of big rivers will still be primarily based
on hydro-civil objects. The efficacy of protection will depend on their condition and functionality.
Therefore, the priority activity in the future will be investement works on reconstruction and ugrade of
protective objects along big rivers as well as their constant maintenance.
Protection from flooding represents an important part of works and measures connected to river basin
management. The principle of struggle against flooding has been applied during waterpower
engineering development in Serbia and it means building important and expensive investment objects
(dams, accumulations, embankments, flow line regulations, residual canals etc.), in order to ensure safety
of people and goods which are in the flood zone. This principle was the most used in the world until the
last decades of the last century. Then this principle was abandoned and living with the flooding i.e.
adaptation to them principle was introduced. It is a new, integral concept of the prevention from
flooding which fits into the internationally recognized concept of sustainable development. It tends to
reconcile human component (protection of goods and people's lives) and ecological component
(protection and reestablishment of natural functions and resources of flood zones). In the future, the
concept of protection from flooding in Serbia must be based on contemporary world trends, while
accepting current conditions of flood protection and economic power of the society. Along with that, in
case of small and medium sized water flows integral solutions must be defined on the basin level.
Adequate combination of non-investment and investment (hydro-civil) works and measures should
provide a good solution for integral regulation and protection of flood zones in Serbia. Complex of noninvestment measures (which affect the decrease in damage either by prevention or by good defence
organization) must have a larger impact from the investment ones on small and medium basins. [5]. In
case of big rivers, the protection from flooding will still be based primarily on hydro-civil objects.
However, blue zone maps (real and potential) must be formed in order to adjust the behaviour in these
zones affected by flooding.
Developing countries, including Serbia, are facing many difficulties in taking these actions, mostly
because of limited use of ecologically friendly technologies, lack of financial and human resources as
well as lack of appropriate and effective administrative structures. Therefore, building and enabling
institutions in these countries are urgently needed (Capacity building).
REFERENCES
[1] Anderson, H. C.: Flood bariers, January 22, 2009,
[2] http://pcgladiator.blogspot.com/2009/01/flood-bariers.html
[3] Group of authors: Climate change - Study and Analysis, Mladost grup doo, Loznica, 2010, pp.
147-148
[4] Mihajlovi, M.: Innovative solutions for the implementation of the responsible climate change
planning at Belgrade riverside, PhIDAC 2011, Novi Sad, 2011, pp 73 76
[5] Mustadio, A.: Tokyo's gigantic flood prevention system, Nov 8, 2011,
http://forum.lowyat.net/topic/2100300/all
[6] Varga, S., Babi Mladenovi, M.: Zatita od poplava u Srbiji Novi pristup, Institut za
vodoprivredu 'Jaroslav erni', Beograd, 2004, pp 12-13

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milo Mihajlovi1
Vladimir Pareanin2

MODELS OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

Abstract: Contemporary architectural and urban design practice actualizes the theme of responsibility
placed in the focus of the scientific issues of designing, planning and development. Awareness of
renewable natural resources, capacities and needs of life processes and is reflected in many ways, built in
contemporary architectural trends of activity by exploiting the potential of new technological innovations
and modern materials. Necessary new solutions to responsible use of energy planning and design are a
reality. In order to prevent climate change and energy collapse it must contribute to the sustainable
management of physical resources, buildings and cities. Many of these solutions, such as planning
sustainable settlements, the construction of smart homes, reducing energy consumption, and changes in
personal lifestyle, include involvement at the local level, and this is where the architects and planners can
play a significant role. This paper aims to highlight the importance of responsible design, energy, and the
necessity of its implementation in the sphere of architectural activities, from planning through design, to
architectural details. Variability, adaptability, versatility, versatility, transformability and interactivity,
the principles are that the design process as set priorities and trends. Technological maturity and
multidisciplinary science and technology, integrated in the problem of sustainable, make that great
attention is directed towards the modalities of the adaptability of architectural and urban design.
Key words: design, variability, sophisticated technology, sustainability, climate-responsible planning

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PhD student, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade
E-mail: milos_arh@yahoo.co.uk
Teaching assistant, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade
E-mail: parezaninvladimir@yahoo.com;

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1. INTRODUCTION
Technological and Industrial Development in the 20th century has caused such environmental
disturbances and has disrupted the ecosystem that all the knowledge and the scientific potential of the
21st century it will be needed to repair the mistakes of the previous century. " (PhD Branko Lalovi,
1985) [4]
Tendencies toward a responsible energy design are moving from the seventies of last century and it
has emerge as a pragmatic response to the general use of natural resources, increasing energy prices and
the by-products uncontrolled emission into the ecosystem. The result was the intention of integrating
architectural achievements in natural eco-cources towards the overall environmental awareness about the
capacities and opportunities of green thinking in the planning, design, development execution, and
construction technologies. The next period was confirmed and justified by positions which has shown that
sustainable energy system menagement is possible according to the three main principles: sustainable
urban planning, responsible architectural design and innovative building technology as well as
materialisation. In fact, it is only possible make significant advances of all these factors in the field of
integrated methodological and technological innovation, with the simultaneous and multidisciplinary
actions and positions. It is important to note that these principles must operate within:
Economic sustainability, including facility economic efficiency at all stages of its exploitation;
Social sustainability which should be seen within response of physical structure to changing user
needs;
Environmental sustainability, which provides a responsible relationship to natural resources and
energy throughout the whole service of the facility
This paper will focus on the capacity of the energy shown by the responsible design principles and
methods of planning and design.
2. ENERGY RESPONSIBLE PLANNING
Contemporary planning practices, especially those that are intended to be a climate responsible and
sustainable, pay much more attention to the final stage of planning and materialization as well as spatial
manifestation of the planned solutions. Since we live in a period of everyday fighting for the prevention
of climate change and reduce their impact, sustainable design has emerged as a key step in the
implementation of responsible climate plans and strategies. Faced with the growing negative effects of
climate change, the contemporary world are turning to new concepts of development that should alleviate
the current situation and awaken responsibility towards the threatened environment. The concept of
sustainability, which is until nowadays freely treated and lightly used, gradually replaced by new
imperatives that promote the reduction of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and concrete actions
in different fields - from pollution to the management of available resources. At the same time, all these
themes are present within many general strategies, local initiatives, complex rules and regulations, but it
is evident that the planned 'eco' goals came slowly since it is difficult to harmonize the numerous
differences that exist between regions - from natural, through economic, technological and social. [3]
Climate change impacts on urban structure will be more substantively, if their steps towards the reduction
and prevention are not taken immediately. About this statement there is a great agreement of the scientific
community and a lot of evidence pointing to the fact that with current climate change mitigation policies
and the related sustainable development practices, global greenhouse gas emissions continue to grow over
the next few decades [5]. Moreover, new facilities must be designed to adapt to current climate, to
prevent its further modification, but also to withstand potential worsening over the next decade, to
guarantee long term sustainability [6]. Planning and Energy Management is a prerequisite for its rational
production and consumption and requires integrated planning with teams experts participation of the most
different profiles. With the aim of improving in planning and energy managing, as well as maintaining of
the classical traditional energy resources, it is necessary to respect the principles of sustainable
development, sustainable city, sustainable architecture, in which planners, urban planners and architects
have an important role.Long-term energy savings can be achieved only if there is close coordination
between urban planning and policy of rational production and consumption with respect to sustainable
development principles [7].

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Development is sustainable only if it ensures the integration and improvement of economic,

environmental, social and physical - physical development, and which allows meeting the needs of both
present and future generations [1]. In this respect, the solutions to prevent climate change must contribute
to the sustainable management by spatial development of cities and villages. Many of these solutions,
such as construction of green buildings, reducing energy consumption and changing our personal
lifestyles, include participation at the local level, where the architects and planners can play a significant
role. This indicates a shift in paradigm of both the planning and development of future settlements, as
well as reconstruction and rehabilitation of existing, with the aim of increasing sustainability and reducing
the impacts of climate change [6].
3. ENERGY RESPONSIBLE DESIGN
The chapter dedicated to energy-responsible design should start with thinking about the current or
future formal establishment designing of the systems and policies within the morphological structure of
the object. The complexity of the life phenomena, then complexity of human needs and the creation of
new content, as well as life in extreme environments accompanied by considerable spending power,
demand a response within organization both shaping and material determining of space living. Thereby,
the issue of giving the position of change or adaptable and non-permanent architecture to the level of
trends of architectual professional and scientific activities.
Concerns reagrading the future, a major environmental risks, fear of the energy collapse, technological
maturity and multidisciplinary science and technology integrated into issues of the life within the
architecture have made a great attention to the modalities of the morphological architecture adaptability
to new conditions and needs.
An important task of the future architectural practice lies within an innovative, which will be
accessible and efficient and to achieve "the complex criteria of sustainable and climate-conscious
architecture." [2] Special and important principles of architecture existence will be formulated in the
future within the relation of the need for effective and accessible to the needs for energy and climateresponsible. Therefore, the changing architecture has moved from futuristic thinking on to the platform of
the empirical, experimental and enforceable long ago. The principles of adaptability, universality,
mobility, transformability, interactivity are common architectural concepts [8].
3.1. Adaptability

Picture 1. Variability of structure and flexibility of user needs

Finished areas and volumes often have a task to accommodate the needs of different users, and in its
adaptability as such exist as a functionally and aesthetically acceptable form. Usually these are the final
areas, maximizing rational shaped, but with provided modalities for adaptability and flexibility.
3.2. Universality

Picture 2. The permanence of the structure and general compliance with user needs

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Universal flexible spaces or spaces whose volumes are constant and meet the needs of the different
forms of the use as such, without significant physical transformation. The characteristic of these
architectures are OPEN SPACE plans or so called FREE DESIGN. A benefit of these architectures is the
minimum investment needed to adjust, while cost would be poor and impersonal identity anemia.
3.3. Mobility

Picture3. Moving flexibility, mobility and removal

Mobility is a universality of architecture towards the environment. This universality is usually
expressed by reduced geometry and universal, durable materials. Characteristics of mobility is the result
of technological innovation, improving construction techniques and multidisciplinary as designing
modern architectural technology. Removal or the ability to re-use is largely related to the modern
concepts of prefabrication and modular universal volume.
3.4. Transformability

Picture 4. Modularity, compatibility form and variability of the geometry

This type of variability is the architectural achievements of expression and as such draws attention to
architectural generations since ARCHIGRAM's futuristic projects. The universality of form or the
compatibility by concept and functionality, back up with sophisticated technology and the development of
construction technology go in favor of the formative tendency.
The model of change and transformation of this opus is very broad and goes from the change of
geometric characteristics, shape, materialize, color and other characteristics of expressive architecture.
New technologies, the use of modern materials and multidisciplinary architectural profession are in the
indissoluble unity when it comes to this principle.
3.5. Interactivity

Picture 4. Variability caused by context - reactivity - obedience

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Object reactions to accidental or intentional external imapcts are one of the request for the future
architecture and its creators, being not only limited to energy efficiency as a response to bio-climatic
conditions, but also on a multitude of reactions and interactions with the use and satisfaction of various
needs.
4. CONCLUSION
The issue of energy-responsible design should not be concluded, rather it should be used as
opportunity to institutionalise and actualise writing about resources and templates for future architectural
and urban development, scientific and professional activities. Awareness of the importance of architectual
thinking regarding energy-and valid design as a bindening issue is the equal with other positions that
reflect the environmental, energy, and exploiting capacity of our environment. Benefits that brings
sustainable urban design, including choice of form, materials and styles ajusted to the area in which it is
built, has a beneficial effect on the living standard of population, which confirms that it must count as the
holder of the development in the future.
The authors intention was to emphasize the importance of life issues, i.e. the architectural product to
adapt within in the natural or created environment in order to the inevitable and constant change to meet
user needs. The duration and energy responsibility are the basic principles evaluate the system ability to
absorb disturbance and still retain its basic function, structure and quality [9]. This paper has touched a
complex issue regarding the use of strategic, conceptual and designed potential of architecture and its
environmentally enlightened action. Topics here discussed are conceptual views and principally use of
strategies, formal and morphological parameters for the formation of sustainable settlements, structures
and individual objects possible deal with when it comes working with energy responsible projects.
REFERENCES
[1] Bji Brkovi, M.: Kretivne strtegije z odrivi rzvoj grdov u Srbiji, The faculty of
architecture of Belgrade, Belgrade, 2010, p. 30,
[2] Baji T, Pantovi K.: Mogunosti primene modularnih sistema u projektovanju odrivog i
klimatski svesnog socijalnog stanovanja, Architecture and planning 2011;(33): p 42-59.
[3] uki A, Stupar A.: Suoavanje sa klimatskim promenama - od evropskih strategija do lokalne
realnosti, Architectura and planning 2011;(32):35-48.
[4] Exporter 17, ZELENA ARHITEKTURA U HARMONIJI SA PRIRODOM, p 14-18, March 2011
http://www.siepa.gov.rs/files/pdf2010/EXPORTER_17_-_Mart_2011.pdf
[5] Group of authors: Climate change - Study and Analysis, Mladost grup doo, Loznica, 2010, p.
147-148
[6] Pareanin, V., Mihajlovi, M.: ENERGETSKI ODGOVORAN DIZAJN - Paradigme
arhitektonskog i urbanistikog oblikovanja u slubi odrivog razvoja, XVIII Meeting of
'TRENDOVI RAZVOJA: INTERNACIONALIZACIJA UNIVERZITETA, Kopaonik, 2012.,
p.123-123
[7] Pucr, M., Pjevi, M., Jovnovi, M.: Bioklimtsko plnirnje i projektovnje, urbnistiki
prmetric, Beogrd, 1994, IP Zvet . 30
[8] Samardi, M.: Fleksibilne konstrukcije u stanovanju, Arhitektonika, The faculty of
architecture, Belgrade, 1991.
[9] Walker, B., Salt, D.: Resilience thinking: sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing
world, Washington DC, 2006, Island Press

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Aleksandar Milojkovi1
Marko Nikoli2
Vladana Stankovi3

IMPROVEMENT OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN HOSPITALITY TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE HOTEL

Abstract: Over the past few decades, tourism has seen significant expansion. The number of newly built
hotels and the number of trips is in constant growth. While this economic sector is a financial backbone
of many national economies, the other side of mass tourism expansion is a threat to the environment,
considering excessive exploitation of natural resources, energy consumption and harmful gases emission.
In order to provide comfort and services for guests, substantial amount of energy is being spent in
hospitality, so in terms of its savings, in accordance with global trends, improving the energy efficiency of
hotels imposes itself as a necessary choice. This paper summarizes information on the energy
performance of hotels, based on survey of the relevant literature and web searches. More sustainable and
compatible alternatives in terms of EE improving and environmental protection are considered. The need
for implementation of new technical solutions is emphasized. An evaluation of economic costeffectiveness is given as well, since the level of reduction consumption could affect the final financial
outcome and market competitiveness, by reducing prices and improving the quality of service provided.
Key words: tourism, hotel, energy efficiency, comfort, sustainability

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1
Assistant, University of Ni Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni,
e-mail:
aleksandar@garagegroup.net
2
Assistant, University of Ni Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni,
e-mail:
marko@garagegroup.net
3
PhD student, University of Ni Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni, e-mail:
s.vladana@gmail.com

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1. INTRODUCTION
Tourism and more specifically the hotel sector record a significant development in recent years and is
becoming one of the leading sectors of the global economy. As a complex branch of economy, tourism
represents an active and important factor in many national economies, providing jobs for over 200 million
people, with the participation of about 10.7% of worlds GDP. [11] In the EU, more than 6% of the active
population is employed in tourism, generating about 5% of the EU GDP and foreign trade revenue. [2]
This rapid growth of tourism and hospitality, although very important both on the employment as on
the consumer aspect, poses an increasing threat to the environment. Hotels are very content-specific
facilities, due to the presence of different functional areas (accommodation, public, economic). A wide
range of services, different levels of comfort, luxury and entertainment provided to hotel guests require
the consumption of substantial quantities of energy. Globally, most of this energy is still a fossil fuel. The
consequence of emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases certainly is environmental degradation.
Hotels constantly interact with the environment, and this influence is often negative. On the other side,
the very essence of tourism is based on the availability of an unpolluted natural environment. In order to
conserve the quality and attractiveness of tourist destinations for future generations, which is crucial for
the benefit of hotel industry, it is important to induce a more environmentally sound development,
operation and performance in this sector. All this underlines the implementation of measures in the
energy consumption management as the most important goal, which will lead to more energy-efficient
hotel operation, reduction of exploitation costs while comfort will be enhanced and quality of services
erected to a higher level. Defining the ways to achieve greater energy efficiency of existing and newly
built hotel facilities, in accordance with the principles of sustainable development, is at the centre of
interest of the profession, hotel management, and consumers of hotel services.
2. OVERVIEV OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN HOSPITALITY
Hotels, with the exception of hospitals, have been found to have the highest negative impact on the
environment [13] and are ranked among the largest energy consumers of all commercial buildings.
Although precise data on the global annual energy consumption in the hotel sector are not available, it is
estimated that amounts to about 100TWh. Furthermore, the CHOSE project estimated that european
hotels which are reported to provide nearly half of the world total hotel rooms used a total of 39 TWh
in 2000, half of which is in the form of electricity. [8]
Energy management in the hotel industry has special requirements that are not known in any other
branch. Hotels operate around the clock, routinely carry out a variety of different services through a
number of distinct departments. All these activities often get difficult power management in the hotel, and
that does not mention the factor that consumes energy at most - customers. The main goal of a hotel is to
provide comfort and services of high quality to its guests, and so guests have a direct impact on energy
consumption and related energy costs.
Hotels are mutually very distinguished typologically, functionally, substantively, as well as by
capacity. There is a huge variety of hotel types, but they are generally classified by number of rooms
(small, medium, large hotels), or by the number of stars a hotel has and the luxury they provide (air
conditioning or not, size of the room, inside or outside swimming pool or no swimming pool,...).
Functioning of the hotel often takes place not only within a single facility. The location, local
environment and the architecture of the building also play an important role in the hotels energy
consumption. All of these differences significantly affect that energy use varies in a wide range, so
analysis of the energy consumption must take into account what kind of hotel it is. Energy consumption
costs in continental type hotels, for instance, range from 15-18% of total hotel operating costs, and
occupy second place among total operating costs of the hotel (just behind labour costs). Energy costs are
divided among individual hotel departments in the following ratios (Figure 1):
heating and cooling
43%
hot water (DHW)
15%
kitchen
10%
lighting
22%
other
10%. [12]

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Figure 33 Distribution of energy costs in the continental type hotels, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S.
Department of Energy: Energy Star for Hospitality 2006. [12]; Figure 34- Energy consumption break down of a typical hotel in
the UK, UK Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme: Energy Efficiency in Hotels A Guide to Owners and Managers, [4]
Table 1- Energy consumption by end-use for a standard 3-star hotel located in Southern Europe[2]

Heating
AC
Lighting
DHW
Equipment
Kitchen
Total

AC throughtout
the building
With restaurant,
40000 meals/year
12%
10.6%
11.8%
34.3%
19.5%
12.5%
171 kWh/m2a

AC throughtout
the building
Without restaurant
13%
12%
13.3%
38.7%
22%
/
150 kWh/m2a

AC only in
common areas
With restaurant,
40000 meals/year
13.7%
8.6%
10.6%
38.7%
14%
12%
150 kWh/m2a

AC only in
common areas
Without restaurant
16%
10%
12.4%
45%
16.3%
/
128 kWh/m2a

Table 1 gives an overview of the energy consumption by end-use for a variety of standard 3-star hotels
in Southern Europe (120 rooms, total floor area of 5000 m2, operated year-round, 50000 guests/year). [2]
What proved to be indicative, based on the previously exposed, is that space conditioning is the largest
single end-user of energy in hotels, accounting for approximately half of the total consumption and thus
the average monthly outdoor air temperature has a considerable influence on energy use.
Hotels are, in terms of architectural organization, consisting of four distinctly differentiated functional
groups of premises, which are also, in addition to the function, highly diversified in energy requirements
and consequently consumption. These functional zones are:
The guest units area (rooms and suites with private baths) - individual spaces, often with large
glazing on the facade and with extremely unbalanced regime of energy use and different loads
The public area (reception, lobby, bars, shops, restaurants, convention and banquet halls, meeting
and conference rooms, swimming pool, sauna, casino, etc.) - mutually highly different functional
areas with high rate of heat transfer with the outdoor space (meaning high thermal losses) and
high internal loads (large number of occupants, intense lighting, electrical equipment and
appliances)
The service area (kitchen, staff facilities, warehouse, laundry, technical operation) - spaces in
which energy consumption is primarily related to HVAC installation
The administrative area (support staff and hotel management) - standard office space,
characterized by intense lighting, a numerous IT appliances and full HVAC installations.
Significant variations in the presence of these facilities in hotel make it difficult to provide a general
model explaining the energy consumption that could be universally applicable to all types of hotels.
Nevertheless, a number of attempts have been made to develop such models. A numerous investigations
have been carried out, aimed at obtaining a more detailed understanding of the energy flows in hotels,
providing a valuable basis for estimating the energy consumption profiles of similar type facilities.
Although the specific energy consumption of a hotel is strongly related to the type of hotel, these survey
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have not revealed a clear correlation between energy consumption and hotel class, year of construction or
occupancy. Table 2 provides an energy efficiency rating for different types of hotels, classified by number
of rooms. Table is given in EUI index (the energy use intensity), defined as the energy consumption per
unit of gross floor area annually. [2]
Table 2- Eenergy efficiency rating for different types of hotels[2]

Efficiency rating
Good
Fair
Poor
Very poor
A) Large hotels (more than 150 rooms) with air conditioning, laundry and indoor swimming pool
Electricity (kWh/m2a)
< 165
165-200
200-250
> 250
2
Fuel (kWh/m a)
< 200
200-240
240-300
> 300
2
Total (kWh/m a)
< 365
365-440
440-550
> 550
2
Hot water DHW (kWh/m a)
< 220
220-280
280-320
> 320
B) Medium hotels (50-150 rooms) without laundry, with HVAC installations in some areas
Electricity (kWh/m2a)
< 70
70-90
90-120
> 120
2
Fuel (kWh/ m a)
< 190
190-230
230-260
> 260
2
Total (kWh/ m a)
< 260
260-320
320-380
> 380
2
Hot water DHW (kWh/ m a)
< 160
160-185
185-220
> 220
C) Small hotels (4-50 rooms) without laundry, with HVAC installations in some areas
Electricity (kWh/ m2a)
< 60
60-80
80-100
> 100
2
Fuel (kWh/ m a)
< 180
180-210
210-240
> 240
2
Total (kWh/ m a)
< 240
240-290
290-340
> 340
2
Hot water DHW (kWh/ m a)
< 120
120-140
140-160
> 160
3. GREENING THE HOTEL
Ecotourism - tourism that is nature-oriented and environmentally focused - is nowadays rapidly
developing, representing a growing and increasingly important branch of tourism. The term "green
hotels" refers to the hotels which tend to be more environmentaly oriented through more efficient use of
energy, water, and raw materials while providing quality services. Green hotels conserve and preserve the
environment by saving water, reducing energy use, and reducing solid waste.
How green is my hotel? This question is being asked by an increasing number of hotel guests. A
survey conducted in the USA by Kimpton Hotels & Restaurants showed that 16% of guests choose their
facilities precisely because they are environmentally friendly. These results were also confirmed by the
Natural Marketing Institute. Almost 90% of respondents in a survey conducted in Britain on a sample of
2000 hotel guests believe that hotels and tourism companies have the obligation and responsibility to
operate in an environmentally friendly manner. [12]
Hotels are constantly becoming greener, but how do we know when hotel became a "green hotel"?
There are green hotel certification opportunities and benchmarking tools available to help chart progress
in becoming a green hotel:
International Hotel Environmental Initiative (IHEI) - provides a benchmarking tool and a
variety of suggestions
CERES Green Hotel Initiative - provides an online best practice survey checklist and
suggestions for step-by-step process in starting a green hotel
Green Hotel Association - provides more information on green hotels and some general steps
for the hotel greening
Green Leaf Program - uses a 1-5 scale to help a hotel track its progress toward becoming green
Cool Companies - offers tools for looking into energy efficiency improvement and presents case
studies, policy information on energy, a "how-to" guide on saving energy, and much more. [1]
The hotel management must accept the policies and standards of environmental behavior, ie. rational
behavior in the management of resources, especially energy, water and waste. The majority of significant
hotels worldwide systematically introduces the so-called 3R measures, ie. reuse, recycle, reduce.
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4. IMPROVING THE ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF HOTEL

Hotels may have large energy requirements, as can be concluded from the previous, particularly
regarding HVAC installations. However, the energy saving potential of hotels is significant and energy
costs may be controlled more efficiently than any other operating costs. Models for energy efficiency
improvement in hospitality are nowadays numerous. Hotels worldwide are recognizing opportunities to
implement energy-efficient projects which may include solutions from passive design to something as
simple as improving the thermal insulation. There are also low-cost measures for energy management
enhancing that refers only to the manner of equipment utilization as well as the behavior of personnel and
guests. All these strategies could assist in lowering or completely eliminating the need for space heating
and cooling. The main motivations for hotels to take these actions are, appart from reducing operating
costs, demand from customers, improving the hotels image, and reducing its environmental impacts.
Implementation of measures for improving the energy efficiency of hotel facilities is possible from an
early stage of planning and design of the hotel, but also through its exploitation. The latter can be further
classified as short-term - low-cost and long-term - cost-effective measures.
4.1. Planning and design considerations
Incorporating a sustainable energy-environmental concept in the design and construction of the
present-day hotels imposes itself as a necessary choice. The initiative for such a practice was launched by
Leadership on Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), an organisation of professionals trained for
planning and building ecologically acceptable and sustainable buildings. The Inn & Conference Centre by
Marriott near the University of Maryland (USA) is the first LEED certified hotel. [12]
Although it is believed in the opposite, the construction of such hotels is not much more expensive
than conventional construction, when measured against the benefits during the operating lifecycle of the
facility. The most important principles that need to be considered when planning/designing hotel facilities
with a focus on energy efficiency and environmental acceptability issues are the following:
Appropriate site selection - good insolation and orientation of the building
Provide the greater use of local raw materials, recyclable and ecologically sustainable materials
and renewable energy sources biomass, solar and geothermal energy etc.
Ensure minimizing of thermal losses through the building envelope - install energy-efficient
glazing and insulation materials in external walls, roofs and other structural elements while
avoiding the thermal bridges
Ensure maximized use of passive cooling, heating, ventilation and natural illumination
Implement new technical solutions in energy-efficient equipment and installations - heat recovery
devices, heat pumps, sensors and efficient lighting, etc.
In order to enable easier implementation of energy efficiency principles into designs, specific software
packages have been developed. Baumschlager - Eberle's design book, "Building Envelope and Building
Technology", describes the design targets based on a consensus between the investors, planners and
designers. [5] These targets can he broken down into four types of comfort for the majority of designs thermal, hygienic, visual and acoustic. The challenge for the designers is to fully achieve all the comfort
standards. Baumschlager and Eberle made use of their own experience and specially developed software
in order to achieve these goals. For evaluation of energy options, a software-supported process is carried
out. The software calculates options of energy conservation methods and gives an assessment of the
building energy performance. Eventually, a small number of precise indicators for energy requirements
are presented, accompanied by proposing of the building technology and the building envelope. [9]
4.2. Improvement of existing hotel facilities
Several studies conducted in Europe indicate that the hotels have the potential to save at least 10 - 15%
of consumed energy, depending on the age and size of the hotel, type of equipment installed and
operating and maintenance procedures in use. In a series of scenarios ranging from basic to high-end
energy conservation measures (study of 158 hotels in Greece - 140 hotels in Athens, and 18 hotels in
other parts of Greece), energy savings were estimated to be almost 22% for basic energy efficiency
measures, while a 43% saving could be obtained by using additional measures (Figure 3). [8]

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Figure 35- Energy efficiency savings potential estimated for hotels in Greece under low, average and high scenarios for energy
efficiency measures [8]

4.2.1 Short-term strategies

There is a widespread misconception in the hotel sector that substantial reductions in the energy use in
hotels can only be achieved by installing and using advanced, high-maintenance, and prohibitively
expensive technologies. While this may be true in some contexts, in the majority of cases, there is a large
potential to achieve savings through low or no-cost investments, since a great part of the energy
consumption is due to unnecessary loss and wastage. The equipment and installations as they are
designed and installed, are not always used in an optimal way. For instance, guests are frequently given
full control over thermostat settings and individual air conditioning units, and they adjust these with little
or no concern for energy conservation. Often windows and doors are opened simultaneously while
cooling or heating system are operating. Also, many rooms remain unoccupied for long periods of time,
while HVAC systems are left running or in stand-by mode. Thus energy within a hotel room is frequently
consumed 24-hours-a-day, year-round whether or not the room is occupied. [8] The simplest thing to do
is turn things off when theyre not needed - every 1000kWh of saved energy by turning things off equals
100 off the utility bill (assuming average electricity costs of 10 cents per kWh in Europe). It is estimated
that energy savings up to 10 - 15% can be achieved by implementing the following short-term strategies:
Proper and promptly maintenance of the equipment
HVAC systems should operate at minimum/economy loads whenever guestrooms are
unoccupied for prolonged period of time and during the regime of low use of lobbies, offices,
etc.
Control and adjustment of lighting
Decreasing the room temperature during the heating season only for 1C is equivalent to
approximately 10% lower heating costs and additional lowering of temperatures in unoccupied
rooms (16 - 18 C) can result in heating energy savings in the range of 20-30% [3]
Booking rooms in clusters, so that only occupied building areas or wings need to be heated or
cooled to guest comfort levels
Use the lowest water temperature that ensures regular laundry washing and disinfection (65C
instead of 85C)
Covering of all pools and hot tubs after hours to diminish heat losses [12], etc.
4.2.2 Long-term strategies
Although the actions covered in this section represent cost-effective investments, implementing
several suggestions listed below can dramatically increase the energy efficiency of the facility and
provided comfort, without compromising the hospitality environment:
Recommissioning - a process in which engineers observe a building and perform a tune-up to
ensure that its systems are operating appropriately and efficiently - periodically throughout a
buildings life can provide big benefits
Improving thermal characteristics of the overall building envelope (external walls, window
systems and roof construction)
Install HVAC and lighting systems with higher degree of energy efficiency than the existing ones
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Install occupancy sensors on lighting and HVAC systems

Install a programmable thermostat which allows setting the temperature and using the unit only
when appropriate
Install sunshading systems against overheating and excessive insolation during the summer period
Consider the possibility of using alternative energy sources (solar, biomass, heat recovery and
other renewable energy sources), in accordance with the capabilities of the specific locations.
Estimated potential reductions in energy use range from 15 - 20% for most applications, and can
exceed 45% for efficiency improvements in boilers, use of solar thermal panels for hot water production,
and use of energy efficient lighting (Figure 4). [8]

Figure 36 - Estimated potential savings from various energy efficiency technologies [8]

5. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT

Sustainable hospitality can provide a wide range of economic and related benefits to all stakeholders
involved. The financial aspect of installing energy-efficient equipment and appliances is not only
reflected in the reduction of monthly costs, but also in increasing the market value of hotel in case of its
sale. The ability to invest in upgrading the energy efficiency with a longer payback period is based on
rapid savings based on low-cost and equipment investments with shorter payback. In addition, such
measures contribute to the comfort and aesthetics improvement which encourages guests to revisit,
bringing the extra profit. Numerous examples of actual financial savings achieved in the hotel industry
are present in referential literature, and some of them are listed below:
Continuously monitoring and recommissioning a buildings energy systems can lead to reductions
of 10 to 15% or more in annual energy bills. For a typical 100.000ft2 (9300m) hotel, thats equal to
about $19,500 in savings per year [10]
Only 10% reduction in energy consumption have the same financial effect as increasing the
average daily room rate by $0.62 in limited-service hotels and by $1.35 in full-service hotels [6]
In a medium sized seaside hotel with full HVAC, the savings achieved by better allocating of the
guest rooms amounts up to annual saving of 4.000; the savings by lowering the set point of the
heating in wintertime to 18C instead of 20C are estimated to be around 3.000 per year [7]
Turning off the AC in a large hotel for the restaurant and conference rooms at night instead of
turning down the air flow to 50% brings a financial saving of 3.626 per year [7]
Savings of 35-45% of the lighting cost may be achieved only by installing occupancy sensors.
Payback times for installing EE lighting equipment are usually less than three years. The US EPA
has found that for every $1 a hotel invests in EE lighting, it can expect a profit of $6,27 [2]
The cost savings up to $15.000 with a payback rate of 18 months are achieved in Sheraton Hotel in
Tacoma, Washington, by replacing 2.000 incandescent light fixtures with quadruple-tube compact
fluorescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent light fixtures in guest rooms and the lobby [1]
By lowering water temperature for laundry washing from 85C to 65C, The Sheraton Hotel and
Towers, Auckland, New Zealand, saved $2.000 in the first 3 months alone. [1]
6. CONCLUSION
The tourism industry and the hotel market will, regardless of the present economic crisis, continue
with the rapid development and ecotourism, as nature-oriented sub-sector, will represent the most
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important branch of tourism, due to the increasing environmental awakening of hotel clients. Therefore,
the importance of acquiring a "green hotel" certificate is emphasized in the paper and, in this regard,
certain guidelines for achieving of this standard are given.
According to the results of numerous studies, summarized through the survey of the reference
literature, authors concluded that the energy consumption within the hotel sector is highly diversified and
that it is difficult to provide a generally applicable model for energy efficiency improvement, due to a
huge variety of hotel types. Nevertheless, the framework of the optimal energy consumption is defined for
classification by the hotel size, ie. by number of rooms. Also, certain strategies are presented, whose
implementation through planning and design or later in the exploitation phase, would result in a
significant optimization of the energy management, despite the type of hotel. Further research in this field
would certainly contribute to the formation of a more comprehensive policies and recommendations for
the energy efficiency improvement.
Eventually it can be concluded that the benefits of energy efficiency improvement in the hospitality
are multifaceted. First of all, what is the common good, reducing the consumption of raw materials, nonrenewable energy and greenhouse gas emissions significantly contributes to protection of the environment
on which, among other things, relies the entire tourism industry. Hotel owners and management will
realize financial savings through reduction of operating costs and thus increase their incomes and market
competitiveness by possibility for reducing the prices and improving the quality of service/comfort
provided. Overall, price reduction and service/comfort improvement are crucial benefits for end-user of
the hotel product - hotel guest.
REFERENCES
[1] Alexander, S: Green Hotels: Opportunities and Resources for Success, Zero Waste Alliance,
Portland, 2002.
[2] Bohdanowicz, P, Churie-Kallhauge, A, Martinac, I: Energy-Efficiency and Conservation in Hotels
- Towards Sustainable Tourism, 4th International Symposium on Asia Pacific Architecture
"Sensible Design and Smart Practice", Manoa, 2001.
[3] Bohdanowicz, P, Martinac, I: Thermal Comfort and Energy Saving in the Hotel Industry, AMS
15th Conference on Biometeorology and Aerobiology & 16th International Congress on
Biometeorology, Portland, 2002.
[4] Commonwealth of Australia: Energy efficiency opportunities in the hotel industry sector, The
Australian Government - The Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism, Canberra, 2002.
[5] Eberle, D, Schoch, O: Resources, in: Baumschlager&Eberle 2002-2007. ArchitecturePeople and
resources, Ed. Winfried Nerdinger, Springer Wien New York, Wien, 2007, pp.143-153.
[6] Energy Star: Hotels: An Overview of Energy Use and Energy Efficiency Opportunities, Available at
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/business/challenge/learn_more/Hotel.pdf, as accessed 11.06.2012.
[7] Hendrikx, N: Power Quality & Utilization Guide:Hotels, European Copper Inst, Brussels, 2008.
[8] Hotel Energy Solutions: Analysis on Energy Use by European Hotels: Online Survey and Desk
Research, Hotel Energy Solutions project publications, 2011.
[9] Milojkovi, A, Nikoli, M: Passivhaus in Molkereistrasse in Vienna, Austria - an Example of
Usable Architecture, International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference - Innovation as a
Function of Engineering Development, Ni, 2011, pp.241-246.
[10] National Grid: Managing Energy Costs in Full-Service Hotels, National Grid USA Service
Company, Waltham, Massachusetts, 2004.
[11] Papadopoulos, A. M, Papageorgiou, P. K, Giama, E: Uteda energije u hotelskom sektoru, 36.
Kongres o grejanju, hlaenju i klimatizaciji, Beograd, 2005, pp.167-177.
[12] Pavlovi, D: Energetska efikasnost u hotelskoj industriji put u korporativno graanstvo, Acta
Turistica Nova , Volume 2, Issue 2, 2008, pp.155-179.
[13]
Rada, J: Designing and Building Eco-efficient Hotels, Green Hotelier - Magazine of the
International Hotels Environmental Initiative, issue 4, 1996.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Vuk Miloevi1

INCREASING ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BY APPLYING

DIFFERENT ENERGY REMEDIATION METHODS
Abstract: The existing housing stock in the Republic of Serbia is characterized by a very high
consumption of energy by modern standards. By reconstructing these buildings, their energy efficiency
could be raised, which could also lead to a decrease in environmental pollution. There are several types
of systems which can be installed during reconstruction that make buildings more independent from the
exterior power network. This paper studies the different ways of reconstructing the existing housing stock
in Serbia, and of installing systems that would also protect the environment. Some advantages of these
systems for improving energy properties are shown in the paper. These systems range from relatively
simple to very complex, but this is not directly related to their effectiveness. The connection between
energy production and environmental pollution is also shown in this paper. Finally, the economic aspect
of the reconstruction is compared to the ecological and the environmental aspect.
ey words: Environmental Protection, Reconstruction of Buildings, Energy Efficiency, Photovoltaic
Systems, Environmental Pollution, Double faade, Renewable Energy Sources

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PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni, Serbia,
vukamer@yahoo.com

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1. HOUSING STOCK IN SERBIA TODAY

The housing stock in the Republic of Serbia is generally very old. A total of 59 % of residential
buildings were built more than fifty years ago [22]. The greatest number of these old buildings were built
as masonry buildings. In the 1970s and 80s, a large number of multi-family residential homes were also
built, but these objects were mostly designed in a prefabricated concrete skeletal system. If we were to
compare the buildings from these two periods some flaws could be seen. One of the most important is the
functional organization of the apartments. These building were made according to the needs of people
that lived in that period, without much thought about the future, mostly due to the financial aspect.
Buildings built before 1962 do not have vertical ring beams, which results in their very low resistance to
earthquakes [13], unlike the buildings build later. Finally, there is the energy efficiency issue.
Surprisingly, there is not much difference between the buildings built in these two periods. Masonry
buildings built before 1962 have thick brick walls which provide good thermal insulation. Skeletal
buildings have large prefabricated faade panels for exterior walls. These panels, although relatively thin,
are prefabricated with a thermal insulation layer and thus have similar insulation properties as thick brick
walls. However, these properties do not fulfill the modern standards set by referent organizations.
Thermal losses are the main cause of the high energy consumption of residential buildings, and 50 % of
the losses in buildings occur through the faade [15]. In the European Union, 40 % of the overall energy
consumption is used in buildings [4]. From this amount, 52 % is used in residential buildings [11]. The
goal in the European Union is to improve energy efficiency by 20 %, and to increase the share of
renewable energy sources to 20 % by 2020 [5]. It is quite clear that in order to meet the European
standards, residential buildings in Serbia will need to be reconstructed.
2. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HOUSING STOCK
There are many reasons why the housing stock in Serbia needs to be reconstructed, and these reasons
vary depending on the specific object. Some general characteristics and flaws of the buildings have
already been mentioned, and usually these are the main reasons for reconstruction. Inadequate functional
organization of the apartments built fifty and more years ago makes them unsuitable for the needs of
modern man. Our lifestyle has changed a lot during this time, and people living in these apartments are
not able to fully utilize the space they own. Since the apartments from that time are not made to be
flexible in the organizational sense, today they need to be reconstructed. This does not apply to the
apartments built during the 1970s and 80s, because these apartments are still completely useful, but also
very flexible, thanks to their structural system. The second possible reason for reconstruction is the
stability issue. All buildings that do not have vertical ring beams should install them in order to provide
better safety from earthquakes. This is a mayor type of reconstruction, but it is necessary in order to
ensure the safety of the residents. Another reason for reconstruction could be the need to add more floors
to the building. Adding floors is usually a good way to solve the problems related to flat roofs or to get
financing for the reconstruction of the faade [8]. In some cases the attractiveness of the location of the
building is also a good reason to add more usable space. Adding floors is very popular today although
opinions about the stability of such structures are divided. Muravljov [14] suggests different way of
adding floors, while Jovanovic [7] says that buildings built before 1962 should not be subject to this type
of reconstruction. Some other reasons for building reconstruction are problems with the faade or the roof
of the structure, structural issues with the foundations or superstructure, and poor maintenance of the
building.
Some of the most common types of reconstruction of the buildings have been mentioned, but to any of
these, the improvement of the energy efficiency of the building, or the energy reconstruction should be
added too. Furthermore, the sole energy efficiency improvement of the building could and should be a
reason for reconstruction. The reason for this is not just meeting the requirements of the European Union,
where the reconstruction of the buildings from the 1960s and 1970s is common [1], but also the possible
financial benefits and awareness of environmental protection. Clearly, it is easier to design a new building
that is energy efficient, than to reconstruct an existing one [24], but investing in the energy efficiency of
the new buildings would save only 2 % of the energy, compared to investing in the existing housing stock
[17]. Some urban blocks in the city of Ni have already been reconstructed [3], but there are still many
others that need to be reconstructed. In Serbia there are multiple regulations that define the energy
efficiency of the buildings and that need to be met. These regulations are summed up and explained in the
paper published by Mila Pucar [16].
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3. RECONSTRUCTION METHODS
In this paper several energy reconstruction methods are shown. These range from relatively simple
to very complex, but this is not directly related to their effectiveness. In order for this eco friendly
reconstruction design to be justified, it needs to be economical [6]. Although financial benefits are usually
what first comes to mind when an economical design is mentioned, there are other aspects that need to be
considered. Environmental protection should always be taken into account as a higher cause, and the
legacy that we leave for future generations.
3.1. The thermo insulation layer
Buildings built in Serbia before 1962 usually do not have a thermo insulation layer, while the ones
built later have thermal insulation as a distinct layer in the exterior walls. However, in both cases these
walls do not have satisfactory thermal characteristics according to modern standards. One of the easiest
ways of achieving the properties set by the standards is to add or increase the thermal insulation layer [2].
This system is very simple in design and also relatively inexpensive. It consists of a layer of low density
material that conducts thermal energy very poorly. Usually it includes polystyrene foam panels. A typical
wall with a thermo insulation layer is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 A thermo insulated wall

www.artdomconstruction.co.uk

The use of thermal insulation reduces the heat transfer between the interior and the exterior of the
building, which is favorable both in summer and winter conditions. During the summer, the heat should
be kept out of the building, and during the winter inside the building. The use of thermal insulation
directly and significantly reduces the energy consumption of the building for heating and cooling. The
amount of the benefit depends on the thickness of the layer and on the material used. This is the simplest
reconstruction method and the simplest system for saving energy. The problem with the application of
this system might occur in buildings with prefabricated exterior wall panels, where it is difficult to add
more layers to the wall, and not possible to increase the thickness of the existing thermo insulation layer.
In these cases other methods of reconstruction should be used.
3.2. Solar water heating panels
Solar water heating panels are part of a system that also reduces energy consumption in the building.
This system reduces the amount of energy spent to heat up the water that is used in the building. The
panels are usually installed on the roof of the building regardless of whether it is a flat or pitched roof. It
is crucial for the panels to be exposed to the sun as much as possible, and the location on the roof is more
sunny than any location on the faade. The efficiency of the solar water heating system depends on the
outside temperature and on the energy from the sun. This is why it is a lot more efficient in the summer
when compared to the winter. When designing the system for a specific building, water consumption
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should be taken into consideration, since the number of selected panels is based on it. The most rational
application of this system is if it meets the needs of the building in the summer, but does not supply the
whole amount of the hot water in the winter. Otherwise, if it is designed to supply enough hot water in the
winter, leftovers will appear in the summer, which means that the system is oversized.

Figure 2 A solar heating panel and photovoltaic panel

www.christine09.en.made-in-china.com, www.cc.com.pk

Studies have shown that investment in a rationally sized solar water heating system in the area of Ni
could be repaid in 10 years [20]. This is considered to be a very short payback period. However, it should
be mentioned that this area is the sunniest part of Serbia, which is the most important characteristic in
order for this system to be successful. More studies should be done in other parts of the country to prove
the justifiability of the application of this system.
3.3. A green roof
Adding a green roof to a building has the same type of effect as adding a thermo insulation layer to the
roof or the facade. However, a green roof has some additional benefits compared to these systems. They
increase the amount of greenery in the cities, but also reduce rainwater runoff [19]. The downside of a
green roof compared to a thermo insulation layer is that it is much heavier, and not all roofs can support it
[18]. The efficiency of the green roof in reducing the energy consumption of a building depends on the
thickness of the green roof. A green roof does not necessarily have to be installed on a flat roof, even
though this is the most common solution, but also to pitched roofs, like those shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 A green roof

www.greenroofs.com

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3.4. The double faade

The double faade is one more type of system that reduces the amount of energy spent in a building.
Other than the energy used for heating and cooling, it also saves energy that would be used for ventilating
the building. It can be used on any type of building, regardless of the structural system or the type of
existing faade. Double faades are usually favored by architects because they add great aesthetical value
to the building. Some more advantages are the protection of a building from noise and the wind. This
system can be actively controlled either by a human or by a computer in order to achieve the best energy
saving results, but also to provide the optimal living conditions inside the building. The downside of this
system is that it is relatively expensive.
The double faade consists of two faades where the outer one is always a glass curtain wall. When
the double faade is applied during the reconstruction, then the inner faade is the existing faade of the
object. There are many subtypes of this system that offer different options [10], and for each specific
object the appropriate one should be selected. The airspace between the two faades acts as an insulator,
and in some subtypes in this space the chimney effect occurs. This additionally helps to control the
internal temperature without using much energy.

Figure 4 The double faade

www.fmmagazine.com.au

Double faades are very suitable for combining with other systems for saving and producing energy
[12]. The most common combination is with shading devices of different types. Their role is to protect the
interior from sunlight, and subsequently from overheating. The lack of shading devices is that they
produce uneven shadows which can downgrade the working conditions inside the building. In order to
avoid this, photochromatic, thermochromatic or electrochromatic materials could be applied to the outer
skin. They create uniform shadows whose intensity can be controlled. One of the most advanced solutions
is the combination of the double faade and photovoltaic panels.
3.5. Photovoltaic panels
Photovoltaic panels are the only system shown in this paper that produces energy. Actually, it
transforms the energy of the sun into electric energy. As an idea, this system is extremely useful, but the
downside of this system is its expensiveness and low efficiency. Currently, silicon monocrystal
photovoltaic cells have the greatest efficiency of an of 14-18 % [9]. The theoretical maximum efficiency
of silicon is 30 % [21]. The electric energy produced by the photovoltaic panels should be used directly in
the building and would make the building more independent from an exterior power network. Once the
effectiveness of this system increases, then this energy could even be distributed to other buildings. One
study showed that for 1310 m2 of panels located on the west faade, the total amount of power is 179,7
kW [23]. However, the research done in the area of Ni showed that the payback period for installing
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photovoltaic panels on the family house is 280 years [20]. Having in mind that this system is constantly
being developed, and will thus become more efficient and cheaper, while the price of electric energy in
Serbia will most likely increase, we can expect that in the future the payback period will only get shorter.

Figure 5 Installed solar heating and photovoltaic panels

www.sustainableguernsey.info

Photovoltaic panels can be opaque or semitransparent. The opaque panels are installed on the walls
and the roof, while the semitransparent ones are usually placed on the glass curtain walls. Like solar water
heating systems, they need to be exposed to the sun as much as possible. Compared to the solar water
heating system, these panels need a lot more space, so it is not unusual to have entire faades covered
with photovoltaic panels. If combined with the double faade, they are placed on the outer faade. This
combination is currently the one with the most potential, because it both saves and produces energy. Such
combinations of energy produced from the renewable energy sources and the systems for lowering energy
consumption will be the next phase in development, where big power plants will not need to exist
anymore. The final phase of development in this area will be the one where we can produce a lot more
energy than we need, so there will be no more need to save energy.
4. THE RELATION BETWEEN ENERGY PRODUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
In the Republic of Serbia, the amount of energy produced from renewable energy sources is negligible
(this is, excluding hydro plants). The total power of plants in Serbia is about 8500 MW, while one third of
this amount is the power of hydro plants. Energy produced in hydro plants is also a type of renewable
energy because the water used in the process does not get wasted. However, this way of producing energy
has more downsides than other renewable energy sources, like the sun or the wind. These downsides are
mostly connected to environmental pollution. When building a hydro plant, an adequate sized lake is also
made, which means some of the terrain has to become a part of the lake. This will change the existing
ecosystem in this area. Another issue is the altering of the natural river systems which will cause an
imbalance in the plant and animal life. Based on this we can conclude that of all the renewable energy
sources, water is the least environmentally friendly.
With the use of non renewable energy sources, the impact on the environment is much worse. Thermal
power plants pollute the environment through the emission of green house gases, large amounts of waste
material and polluted waste water. The biggest problem is the emission of green house gases that change
the global climate, increasing the temperature of the Earth, which could eventually lead to the extinction
of the human race. Coal seams take up large areas which along with the sites for dumping waste material
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also endanger the ecosystems. Smoke and aerosol pollute the air around power plants which can be
especially bad if the plant is not positioned well. Even though measures are being undertaken to reduce
these negative impacts, they will always be much higher than the impacts of producing the energy from
the renewable sources.
5. CONCLUSION
It is a fact that the housing stock in Serbia needs to undergo energy reconstruction. This is one of the
requirements of the European Union, but also a way of saving money and taking care of the environment.
There are several ways of reconstructing buildings, but all of them can be divided into ones that save
energy and ones that produce energy. For the best performance, these systems need to be combined. So
far the price of energy is Serbia has been relatively low, which has not forced people to think about
energy consumption. On the other hand, the government has neither through punishments nor incentives
encouraged the people to start taking care of energy, and consequently of the environment. The situation
as it is now is not sustainable, and will have to be improved through the reconstruction of the housing
stock.
The general conclusion is that the primary goal should be to reduce energy consumption, and then to
produce energy from renewable energy sources. This is because the energy production from renewable
sources is still very inefficient and expensive, and thus has a long repayment period. The second reason is
the fact that the most used renewable energy source is water, and it is shown in this paper that this type of
energy production also has some downsides. More energy consumption means more environmental
pollution, but more energy from renewable sources means more environmental protection.
REFERENCES
[1] Bogdanovi I., Mitkovi P.: Revitalization of Residential Complexes in the Context of Housing
Quality Improvement, Facta Universitatis series: Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2005, vol.
3, no. 2, pp. 219-233
[2] Bogdanovi V., Milanovi D.: Aplikacija fasadnih termoizolacionih sistema kod energetskih
revitalizacije zgrada, Zbornik radova Graevinsko-arhitektonskog fakulteta, 2004, vol. 20, pp.
47-54
[3] Dini M., Mitkovi P., Velev J., Bogdanovi I.: Application of the Urban Reconstruction
Methods in the Central City Area Of Ni, Facta Universitatis series: Architecture and Civil
Engineering, 2008, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 249-257
[4] Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2002 on
the energy performance of buildings, Official Journal of the European Union 001, 2003, pp.
0065-0071
[5] Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the
promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing
Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, Official Journal of the European Union, 2009, pp.
L140/16-L140/62
[6] Grdi Z., Toplii-uri G.: Ekoloki materijali komponenta odrive arhitekture, Zbornik
radova Graevinsko-arhitektonskog fakulteta, 2010, vol. 25, pp. 87-94
[7] Jovanovi L., Luki K.: Neki kriterijumi kod izbora zgrada za nadziivanje, Materijali i
konstrukcije, 2001, vol 44, no. 1-2, pp. 26-28
[8] Kalezi J., Vuksanovi D., Pejovi R.: Model provjere mogunosti nadgradnje stambenih
objekata, Materijali i konstrukcije, 2000, vol. 43, no. 3-4, pp. 26-30
[9] Krsti A.: Design and Construction Possibilities for Photovoltaic Integration in Envelopes of
New and Existing Buildings, Spatium, 2007, vol. 15-16, pp. 37-43
[10]
Mari I., Mani B.: Odriva arhitektura na primeru projekta za objekat na uglu ulica
Kralja Milana i Kralja Milutina u Beogradu, Arhitektura i urbanizam, 2006, vol. 18-19, pp. 4853

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[11]
Mikuli D., Milovanovi B., imetin V., koro N.: Building Certification Process in
Croatia Application of Thermography, Graevinarstvo nauka i praksa, abljak, 2010, book 2,
pp. 1417-1422
[12]
Miloevi V., uri-Mijovi D.: Dvostruke fasade kao korak ka energetski odrivim
objektima, Nauka + Praksa, 2010, vol. 13, pp. 81-84
[13]
Miloevi V., Savi J.: Structural Status Evaluation and Application of Innovative
Structural and Architectonic Measures During Revitalization, Innovation as a Function of
Engineering Development, Ni, 2011, pp. 253-258
[14]
Muravljov M., Muravljov N.: Uticaj konstruktivne koncepcije i primenjenih materijala na
globalnu sigurnost nadograenih zidanih zgrada, Materijali i konstrukcije, 2000, vol. 43, no. 3-5,
pp. 21-25
[15]
Nenadi Tanasi N.: Realizacija EE objekata rekonstrukcijom fasade objekata
protivpoarni aspekt, Graevinarstvo nauka i praksa, abljak, 2010, book 2, pp. 1441-1446
[16]
Pucar M.: Zgradarstvo i regulativa u oblasti energetske efikasnosti i OIE u Srbiji,
zemljama okruenja i Evropskoj Uniji, Zidane konstrukcija zgrada i tehnika regulativa, Beograd,
2012, pp. 283-308
[17]
Pucar M., Nenkovi M.: Projektovanje novih i rekonstrukcija postojeih gradskih
blokova sa aspekta poveanja energetske efikasnosti svetska iskustva i lokalne preporuke,
Arhitektura i urbanizam, 2006, vol. 18-19, pp. 7-17
[18]
Stamenkovi M.: Achieving Energy Efficiency of Buildings through Design and
Construction of Green Roofs, III International Symposium PhIDAC, Novi Sad, 2011, pp. 299-306
[19]
Stamenkovi M., Gavrilovi D.: Green Roofs as a Tool for Managing Rainwater Runoff,
Innovation as a Function of Engineering Development, Ni, 2011, pp. 325-330
[20]
Stevanovi S., Pucar M., Kosori V.: Potential Solar Energy Use in a Residential District
in Ni, Spatium, 2009, no. 20, pp. 9-18
[21]
Thomas R., Fordham M.: Photovoltaics and Architecture, Spon Press, London, 2001, pp.
155
[22]
Todorovi M, Eim O., Martinovi I.: An Approach to Advance Energy Efficiency and
Sustainability of Masonry Buildings, Materijali i konstrukcije, 2010, vol. 27, pp 78-87
[23]
Todorovi M.: Promenama regulative u obnovljivim izvorima integrisanim renoviranjem
postojeih zgrada bre do gradova nula energije tehnologije i analiza vezane energije
ivotnog veka, Zidane konstrukcija zgrada i tehnika regulativa, Beograd, 2012, pp. 309-326
[24]
Vuksanovi D.: Principi arhitektonskog i urbanistikog projektovanja u kontekstu
energetske efikasnosti zgrada, Arhitektura i urbanizam, 2007, vol. 20-21, pp. 37-49

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Aleksandra Miri1
Elena Vasi-Petrovi2

PRESENTATION OPPORTUNITIES OF RESIDENTIAL AND PUBLIC

BUILDINGS FLOOR MOSAICS FROM LATE ANTIQUE NAISSUS AND
ITS ENVIRONMENT
Abstract: In the I century AD, after the Romans penetrated the Central Balkans area, the antique Naissus,
called Nis at the present, was annexed to the Empire. The historical sources indicate that the city was
famous not only as the birthplace of Constantine I and Constantius III, but also for stays of many Roman
generals and rulers. The research of Naissus and its surroundings has been ongoing for more than 150
years. The earliest data were recorded by foreign travelers and with the beginning of the 20th century
during the systematic archaeological excavations and field surveys numerous of public and luxury
residential buildings, located in the urban center of Naissus and its suburbs, were recorded. Most of these
buildings were built in the period of late antiquity and almost all of them are now in poor condition.
Besides the lower parts of walls and foundations in some places parts of the floorings were found
preserved at the moment of the research activities. Particularly attractive are the mosaic floors, most
common with geometric and less often with figural motifs, which are generally not adequately represented
to the public. In this paper with the review of most significant late antique buildings of Naissus and its
surrounding area, we display their current status and suggest the possibilities for protection and
presentation of floor mosaics, which were found in them.
ey words: late antique, mosaics, the protection of cultural monuments, conservation, Naissus, Mediana

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architect-conservator, PhD student-researcher at the Institute for the study of ancient architecture IRAA, Aix en Provence,
France, PhD student at the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nis, aleksandramiric@yahoo.com
2
architect- conservator, Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments Ni, elenavasic@gmail.com

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Nais during Late Antiquity
Ancient Nais had a central position in the Roman province of Upper Moesia (Moesia Superior), which
was organized in the I century AD on the territory of the central Balkans and at the intersection of
important roads. On the basis of epigraphic data we can say with certainty that in the last decades of the I
century AD it had a defined urban center [1]. In the first decades of II century AD Naissus is developing at
such a rate that at the half of that century it is mentioned as one of the four largest cities in Dardania. From
this data to further sources are more numerous and in period that follows it was a meeting place for
soldiers and their families here and a settlement for a number of merchants and craftsmen.
In the second half of century AD Naissus gets the right of self-management (municipia status) and in
the early decades of the III century AD has reached a very high level of development, so it became an
important military, economic and political center in the region. On this basis it will experience a major
demographic expansion and cultural improvement during the late Roman period.
Thanks to the new territorial organization Naissus in IV century AD belongs to the newly created
province of Mediterranean Dacia (Dacia Mediterranea). During this period the city and Mediana became
the residences of emperors, who will stay here and thanks to them significant architectural activities were
taking place. Constantine the Great, who ruled the Empire from the 306-337 year AD, is credited for the
greatest increase in construction of luxury buildings. After this period of great prosperity, the next major
renovation of Naissus will take place during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian the First [2].
1.2. Late Roman heritage and the contemporary city
When talking about modern Nis and heritage that should be the backbone for sustainable development
an unavoidable topic is certainly the segment of immovable cultural property and archeological remains
from the period of late antiquity.
Among the many sites that belong to the space environment of the city of Nis, Nis Fortress with the
City field, Jagodin Mala, King Milans Square and its surroundings, Gorica and Vinik hills, Mediana and
Niska Banja, certainly worthy of special attention are those who in addition to the remains of architecture
and registered movable items have the presence of the mosaic, as a form of decoration characteristic of the
late Antiquity.
Although the aforementioned legacy should have absolute priority treatment in the protection and
presentation, it was completely ignored in a period that is behind us, even to the point that it was
impossible to maintain the status bar is the way it was after the research and conservation.
Besides the usual problems of late antique objects, which are unresolved property issues, inadequate
urban and regional planning, lack of financial resources etc., in buildings with mosaics, those concerning
the possibility of their presentation are featured.
2. SUMMARY OF FACILITIES WITH MOSAICS OF LATE ANTIQUE PERIOD-RESEARCH,
VALORIZATION, CURRENT STATUS
Most of the late antique buildings revealed in our area didt have all the elements of architectural
structures preserved, in order to have an idea of their original appearance, construction materials that are
applied and functional organization of space. In most cases, parts of the foundings, the lower zone of the
walls and traces of floor structure were found preserved, while other elements are often used in the
secondary use and it's usually not possible to locate and examine them at the site. Therefore, floor mosaics
in public and private buildings are the significant finding in respect of which the missing elements can
complement the operation of facilities, as well as the socio-political situation and the artistic and cultural
significance that they had at the time of creation.
2.1. Ancient Nais and its immediate surroundings
2.1.1 Villa with the octagon

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When we talk about the space that was occupied by the ancient Nais several objects containing this
type of decoration have been registered and partially explored. The first and perhaps the most important
building is Villa with the octagon (Fig.1), located in the city area, near Nis fortress built in the period
between 1718-1723.godine. It was discovered in 1987. and explored in the area of about 300 square
meters. According to the method of construction and architectural elements we can suppose that it
represents a luxury facility that could serve for the residence of high imperial state and provincial officials,
as well as the emperors themselves [3]. It was dated in the IV century AD. In all the investigated rooms
the presence of the floor mosaic was registrated, as well as the existence of a floor heating system. The
remains of the mosaic of four of the five rooms have been preserved and covered with protective foil and
sand. Investigations of the building never completed, so that it's true extent and the environment in which
it was built remains a mystery till present days. Although the heritage protection institutions on several
occasions tried to actualize the ultimate question of the final definition of appearing of discovered remains
and the completion of studies, except through a feasibility study the possibility to present a mosaic of the
building itself has never been successfully defined completely.

Figure 1 Villa with the octogon (left-archeological research photo, right- archeological research documentation),
City field, photography and drawing taken from: Jeremic G., Mosaics from the late antique building with the octogon,
In: M.Rakocija (Ed.), Nis and Byzantium, The collection of scientific works V, Nis 2007.

2.1.2 Villa with mosaics from the locality called Horse cemetery
Another building with Roman mosaics was discovered in the City field in 1972, on the " Ribnik-Horse
cemetery" locality, within the military complex northern from the Turkish fortress. The building is not
fully explored, but it was an object of provision of certain archaeological probes. It was dated in the period
between the II and IV century AD. The remains of buildings spread over an area of 600 square meters and
the researchers concluded that it was a representative Roman villa of larger dimensions [4]. Given that this
area still belongs to the Serbian Army the discovered building as well as the other potential archaeological
remains have completely unknown fate.
2.2. Mediana
The ancient settlement Mediana was located at a distance of 3 miles from the Roman Naissus.
Archaeological research on the site last over a century with intermittent and among the several dozen
detected buildings seven of them are with mosaics. The most important are Villa with peristyle and
Nimfeum, Basilica with the monogram of Christ and Villa with conchas.
2.2.1 Villa with peristyle and Nimfeum
This facility is primarily characterized by exquisite mosaic floors with geometric shapes in various
parts of the porch, corridor that leads to the thermae and in the space of a small triclinium and a
particularly important figural mosaic is situated in the auditorium. When the conservation of mosaics in
the auditorium hall was done in 1976, the existence of an older floor was detected. Below the mosaic,
from the IV century AD a thick layer of plaster mixed with pounded brick was found probably from the
second half of III century AD [5].
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A separate segment of the Villa's with peristyle complex is a facility which is considered to be small
triclinium or nimfeum [6]. Probably stems from earlier villa construction phase (second half of the III
century AD), because of its position to the direction of the walls of the villa. The central part of
tetrachonhal room is shaped like a hexagon, and it is accessed from the rectangular niches in the northeast,
northwest and south sides and a semi-circle on the north side. The floors of these rooms are covered with
richly decorated polychrome mosaics, and in the central part there is a fountain [5, pg.18].

Figure 2 Figural and geometric mosaics from Villa with perystil, on july 2012. taken from: http://www.panoramio.com

Of almost 1000 square meters [7] of floor mosaics in Villa with peristyle (Fig.2), only a small triclinium
mosaics are presented to the visitors due to construction of museum building in 1936, while other areas are
still under different protective structures.
2.2.2 Basilica with the monogram of Christ
The remains of the early Christian church-basilica were revealed in year 2000. during the access paths
construction works. In the place of the ambo in the nave a mosaic representation of Christ's monogram [8]
was found. Above the archeological findings a temporary protective structure was built of wooden beams
and stirodur panel with a roof covered with asbestos tiles. This building has remained unchanged although
it is functionally and aesthetically unacceptable. Its inner space is very low wich is combined with the
applied materials, results in a very unfavorable microclimate, which threatens the survival of the objects
for which it was made and makes it completely inaccessible to visitors.
2.2.3 Villa with conch
On the route of the Nis-Sofia highway, during rescue excavations in 1975. the remains of the building
with three conch and atrium were found. In one room the mosaic floor with area of 8 square meters was
found [3, pg.155].
Mosaics have been dislocated behind the Museum buliding on Mediana in 2004. and protected by a
protective structure with a roof made of asbestos boards. As well as in the previous case an adequate
solution for the preservation and presentation has not yet been found.
3. PRESENTATION OPPORTUNITIES FOR FLOOR MOSAIC
The mosaics on archaeological sites and other archaeological remains found in situ, are exposed to
numerous risk factors, primarily climatic and atmospheric conditions, operation of the moisture from the
soil, the impact of pollution, flora and fauna, as well as the impact of human negligence [9]. The last phase
of the physical protection of the mosaic floor is their presentation. Conservation and restoration treatments
usually can not completely remove the causes of their degradation, and the experts who deal with this
problem often decide to present them under the protective structures or to dislocate and exposure them
indoor in museum buildings.
Although fragmented, mosaics presented within the original context are contributing to the overall
experience of the architecture. Considering that the complete reconstruction of the building in which the
mosaics were found most often is impossible, due to lack of complete information about the appearance or
other objective reasons, it is very difficult to respond to the challenge of good presentation, which will
bring the visitor time and environment in which they were created. However, a partial reconstruction of
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the building can bring us closer to the atmosphere from the time of use of facilities, rather than diminish
the historical and artistic value of the mosaics.

Figure 3 Presentasion on arceological sites in-situ, Lepenski vir, Viminacijum i Sirmijum, from personal archive

Presentation of mosaics on archaeological sites is possible by setting up permanent or temporary shelter

which reduces the influence of harmful factors (Fig.3).
Temporary shelters are measures of preventive care, which refers mainly to protection from harmful
effects of moisture and atmospheric conditions. Frequently used as a shelter of light prefabricated
constructions made of metal or wood, which by the nature of the materials they are made requires regular
maintenance [10]. The second type of temporary shelter makes the system of foils and sand removed and
returned in relevant annual seasons which make the mosaics available to the public in the summer [11].
The usual practice in Serbia, that the dynamics of conservation and presentation of findings on the
archaeological sites does not follow the archaeological research repeats here on the localities of the ancient
Mediana and Naissus. Most of the findings are after partial or total completion of the research documented
by the relevant institutions, in Nis it is: Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments Ni, the
National Museum and the Archaeological Institute Belgrade, and buried. Thus, almost all mosaics were
covered with PVC film or more recently "geotextile" of polymer fibers, and then buried under a thick layer
of sand, wich makes them available to the public. Their presentation was postponed for another time,
usually provided more favorable financial condition. Temporary shelters that have been raised over the
buildings of Mediana, first of all the early Christian church and the hallway floor with geometric mosaic
between the peristyle and the spas that perform function for more than 10 years, a period that far exceeds
the lifetime duration, which at the time of installation planned.
Permanent shelters are designed to provide favorable conditions for the protection of archaeological
findings in a long time. Design of permanent shelter is a very delicate problem. It means building on the
archaeological sites where it is necessary to respect the special requirements of the protection, which
requires respect for the physical and visual integrity [12]. Also, it is appropriate to form the building
structure to evoke the atmosphere of her best days, and at the same time maintain an honest relationship
with an incomplete knowledge of architectural design and construction techniques applied. Modern
construction has to use form, materials and construction techniques to be clear testimony to the times in
which it was created, its purpose being confused with the ancient structures without marking clear
boundaries between ancient and modern structures of intervention would be inconsistent with current
trends in the presentation of archaeological sites.
Pioneer shares of building the protective structure above the mosaics above of a small triclinium,
immediately after its discovery, is an exception in the development of conservation and a real indicator of
awareness and the attitude of 20th century society towards the early architectural heritage (Fig. 4).
Protective building was built using "solid material", although at the time of its construction it was known
that the mosaic over which was built was only a part of a much larger complex. Today, nearly a century
later, the building still dominates the archaeological site and greatly determines its visual identity. In
addition to the selection of these methods to protect valuable findings this can be considered differently by
experts. With this time distance this initiative is certainly characterized as positive in the sense that the
mosaic floors of this building are adequately protected and continuously presented to visitors of Mediana
to the present day.

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Figure 4- Museum built in 1936.above Nimfeum with mosaics (left-drawing of the exterior, middle-interior view, right-a
part of the mosaic), Mediana, taken from the archive of the IPCM Nis

Presentation of mosaic ex situ is not recommended because they are laid out architectural context for
which they were primarily designed (Fig. 5). Presented as a fragment [13] of whose experience in the new
environment requires a high level of abstract thinking. However, in some cases, such action is necessary.

Figure 5Ex-situ presentation examples, Regional museum in Arl and Museum od Byzatium and Cristianity in
Thessaloniki, photographs from the personal archive

There are numerous examples of presentation of mosaic flooring outside the localities where they
were found. In this case, a great attention is paid to interior design in which the mosaic are not only
properly protected, but also valorized with adequate explanation in order to make them accessible to
visitors belonging to all target groups.
Mentioned mosaic from Villa with conch, were impossible to present in situ because they were found
on the route of the road and so they were dislocated so this is the only example of this kind. Above it there
is a low shelter now that serves only as a protective structure and does not allow the public presentation of
the mosaic.
In the case were exposure of mosaic heritage is impossible there is an increase use of its virtual
presentation which gives the visitors a descriptive story through pictures and explanations.
4. CONCLUSION
Floor mosaics of late antique buildings from Naissus and its environment are not adequately protected
and presented. The only permanent shelter is built above a small triclinium mosaics of the Villa with
peristyle at Mediana, the temporary shelters are built above mosaics of early Christian church with the
monogram of Christ, mosaic floor of the hallway in the peristyle villa and mosaics from the Villa with
conch are displaced. Other mosaics, among which are especially important mosaics of the Villa with
peristyle, Villa with the octogon and figural mosaics found on the " Horse graveyard " archaelogical site
are not available for the public.
In recent years the City of Nis has made an effort in defining the cultural strategy [14], and in adopting
the Qualicities standard. Qualicities methodology and Local Plan of the progress of sustainable
architectural heritage development for the city of Nis, is adopted at the Assembly of Nis in December
2011. The goal of methodology Qualicities is the differentiation of the local community as a whole of
specific cultural and historical values that are positively valued by residents and visitors. In these
documents, the presentation of the mosaic as an attractive resource, on which the city of Nis have been
recognized, is given special attention [15]. Moreover, the idea of the architect N. Petrovic-Spremo from
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the year of 1965. has been actualizated. It is a plan to make an archaeological park Mediana. The project
for a presentation of the Villa with peristyle, wich includes the presentation of a part of the mosaics, is in
progress. Also, the project for planning and revitalization of the Nis fortress [16] provide the plans for
systematic research and presentation of the ancient heritage, including Villa with the octagon and its
mosaic on the City field. The implementation of these initiatives gives us a chance to improve the
condition of the archaeological remains in terms of their protection, and in terms of presentation.
One of the factors of which, in the context of globalization, the success of the City of Nis and the entire
region, is depending and wich is affecting the quality of life and economic progress is the preservation of
architectural heritage of great cultural and historical significance. Its value is reflected in the high potential
for territorial differentiation of the specific environment and local economic development. The role of
mosaic, as an important element of heritage, is very important in the process. However, the realization
process of protecting and presenting in a way that contributes to local economic development is
conditioned by the existence of a permanent budget line for the implementation of programs and activities
designed and coordinated on the level of inter-institutional and professional collaboration.
REFERENCES
[1] Petrovic P., Nis in ancient times, second edition (edited by A. Jovanovic), Nis 1999, retrieved July
2012. with: http://www.jcms-journal.com/article/view/jcms.3974/11
[2] Vasi Petrovi, E.: Ranohriansko naslee u okvirima savremenog Nia, Nauni skup
Hriansko naslee Romulijane, u susret 1700-godinjici Milanskog edikta 30.april 2011,
Zajear-Gamzigrad, (proceeding in publishing).
[3] Jeremic G., Octagon building with mosaics from the ancient Naissus, in: M. Rakocija (ed.), Nis
and Byzantium, Fifth Symposium Nis, 3-5. June 2006. Proceedings V, Nis 2007.
[4] Andrejevi B., Remains of Roman buildings at the horse cemetery in Nis Cultural monumentscultural property of great and special importance, second edition, Prosveta, Nis 2001.
[5] Group of authors, Mediana, National Museum of Nis, Nis 1979, 18
[6] Petrovic, P., Mediana- rezidencija rimskih careva, Belgrade 1994, 33
[7] Jeremic G., Mediana Mosaics-a reflection, in Nis and Byzantium. Fourth Symposium, Nis, 2005,
Proceedings IV, Nis 2006, 146
[8] Vasic M., Mediana Excavation Chronicle 2000-2002, Starinar LIII-LIV (2003-2004), 2004, 290
[9] Frankovic, M., Stojiljkovic, D., Maksimovic, D., State of mosaics on archaeological sites in Serbia
in terms of preventive care, Condition of the cultural and natural heritage in the Balkan region,
Vol.1, 2006, 157
[10] Aslan, Z., Protective Structures for the Conservation and Presentation of Archaeological Sites,
'Contribution of Science and Technology in the Conservation of Cultural Heritage in the
Mediterranean Basin', Tunis, 1997.
[11] Heraclea
Lincestis,
Macedonia,
July
2012,
downloaded
from:
http://www.orbis.com.mk/Heraclea_lincestis.htm
[12] Folic Kurtovi N., Use of new technologies in the protection of architectural heritage, Tech - Our
civil engineering, 2009, vol. 63, no. 5., 1-7
[13] Lugari, A., The treatment of lacunae in Mosaics, towards a Research Methodology, VII du ICCM
Conference, Les Mosaques: conserver pour presenter?, Arles 2003, 424
[14] The strategy of cultural development of the City of Nis in 2012. 2015, Adopted at the Assembly
of Nis in December 2011
[15] Miric A., Experiences and results in the application of European standards Qualicities at the
example of Nis, Local government in planning and spatial planning and settlement, Proceedings of
the fourth scientific symposium with international participation, Belgrade 2012, 486-487
[16] "Conceptual project of landscape design and revitalization of Fortress of Nis" Nis 2011, architect
E.Vasi-Petrovic, al-A.Miri and I.Andrejevi, Institute for the Protection of Cultural monuments
Ni; Vasic Petrovic, E., Planning and revitalization of the Ni fortress, in Z.emeriki (ed.),
Architect, Journal of Architects of Nis society, No.35-36, Ni, 2012, p.54-574.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Maja Momirov1

DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS THROUGH

ARCHITECTURAL PROGRAM STRUCTURE COMPLEXITY
Abstract: This paper analyzes the phenomenon of development of cultural institutions through complexity
of program structure caused by technological, economical, sociological and cultural factors, and its
influence on the spatial organization and direction of future development. Modern lifestyle needs, new
social values, development of consumer culture, technology, conditions, circumstances and context in
which we today build affect objects of cultural institutions in terms of design and functionality. Changes
caused by the development of multicultural society and the so-called information society lead to the
necessary redefinition of the role of cultural institutions that are, without a doubt, going through radical
changes regarding the content, function and appearance, and becoming, in addition to basic functions,
gathering places that meet the different needs of modern society: flexible space for experience,
communication and innovations.
ey words: cultural institution, complexity, architectural programs, development, expirience, interactivity

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1. INTRODUCTION
Cultural institutions are one of the oldest architectural programs, whose structure and organization
underwent significant changes throughout history. Adapting to the different functional requirements
facilities grew more complex, and at each stage of its development reflected the cultural level of the
society of that time. In ancient Greece theaters and odeons were open to the general public and were
extremely significant institutions for Greek society and the organization of life in polises. With the
development of Renaissance art and culture were reserved for the small social elite. In the mid nineteenth
century Opera house by Charles Garnier became focal point of the new Haussmann`s Paris. Author
himself stated that Opera took over role that used to have church and law court, and became a ceremonial
meeting point of the new society.[8] The importance of arts and culture for the whole XIX century Paris

MSc.Arch.Eng, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, Novi Sad, Serbia, majammomirov@gmail.com

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society was reflected in the monumentality and location of the new Opera facility. With the technological
advances of XIX and XX century, there was a drastic change both in the way of construction as well as
organization and technology of the institutions of culture. Yet it can be said that technical innovation that
has affected the development of cultural institutions the most is the emergence of the Internet at the end of
XX century. The rise of information technologies and the rapid development and distribution of the
Internet has resulted in an incredibly high level of access to information of all kinds. By digitization of
books, works of art photographs and video recordings of theater performances on internet, and even
creation of online virtual museums such is the project by Asymptote in 2002., the need to visit cultural
institutions drastically reduced and relies mainly on tourism. At the beginning of the XXI century the
institutions of culture relie on the modern economic and sociological ideas, together with technological
advances in order to revive cultural facilities giving them new features and contents. Among those ideas
there are three characteristic tendencies that are important for development and have become a central
theme in planning and design of cultural institutions buildings: cultural institution as the so-called third
place, cultural institution as a stage for creating new experiences and cultural institutions as a place for
innovations.
2. CULTURAL INSTITUTION AS THE SO-CALLED THIRD PLACE
2.1. Concept of third place in sociology
Third place represents a place between home and work, a place of emphasized social interaction.
Concept of Third Place has it`s origins in the 1999 work of American sociologist Ray Oldenburg The
Great Good Place where he studied various public places where people can gather, places that are the
heart of social vitality of the community.
Oldenburg identifies third places, or great good places, as the public places on neutral ground where
people can gather and interact. In contrast to first places (home) and second places (work), third places
allow people to put aside their concerns and simply enjoy the company and conversation around them.
Third places host the regular, voluntary, informal, and happily anticipated gatherings of individuals
beyond the realms of home and work. Oldenburg suggests that beer gardens, main streets, pubs, cafs,
coffeehouses, post offices, and other third places are the heart of a communitys social vitality and the
foundation of a functioning democracy.[3]
2.2. Concept of third place in architecture of cultural institutions
As the world continues to urbanize, the importance of design and the idea of place will become more
and more important to the livability of cities. Sense of recognition and belonging is a powerful motivator
for citizens to engage one another, but sometimes we do appreciate the ability to just observe. That is why
we need to design spaces that allow both interaction and anonymity and at the same time encourage
diversity. Vital third places contain the physical elements--seating, landscape, a connection to surrounding
public activities--that make people feel welcome and comfortable. Spaces that are visible and easy to get
to, stay in, or move through are ideal third-place territory. Ultimately, the success of great spaces is their
inherent ability to accommodate a wide variety of day and night activities.
In cultural institutions concept of the "third place" is reflected in the emphasizing openness and
accessibility to the public. Atriums and lobbies of theaters, opera houses, museums and libraries, that were
previously reserved only for users of primary cultural function of that particular facilities are now open to
all visitors, including a large number of those who do not plan to see the play, concert or exhibition.
Research in Denmark show that the number of visitors in libraries increased in the first half of last decade,
and the majority of users still leave the library without renting a single library units. [6] The importance of
the cultural institution for the community is reflected in the fact that its open to all visitors, and represent
the place that raises the general level of knowledge and culture of society, using a variety of technologies,
materials and communications. Quiet halls are becoming spaces for gatherings, interaction, exchange of
experience and with the increasing number of users, dimensions of the former additional spaces are
increasing and dominanting buildings that are designd around them.(Figure 1) Complemented with
various commercial and cultural contents, lobbies and atriums of cultural institutions are open to all and
always. Cultural institutions as a "third place" has become a central theme in the planning and design of
facilities that provide space for various activities with the aim to encourage socialization.
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Figure 1 Public living room - social interaction in Seattle Central Library, designed by Rem Koolhaas in 2004

3. CULTURAL INSTITUTION AS A STAGE FOR CREATING NEW EXPERIENCES

3.1. Concept of Experience economy
Recently, the concept of experience has become extremely popular. This phenomenon is associated
among other things with the 1999 book titled The Experience Economy ". The authors of this book,
Joseph Pine and James H Gilmore, believe that every business that wants to survive in the market where
the competition for the attention of consumers is extremely high, and where the opportunities are of
incredible scale, it can not be based only on the range of products and services. Each business must be
active to provide new experiences and every product and service must have a feature that will make it
unique. The original economic idea soon spread from fields of business on the daily lives of cultural
institutions.

Figure 2 The Four Realms of an Experience

For Pine and Gilmore (1999), experience economy means a physical and/or virtual environment in
which entertainment is important, but where educational, aesthetic and design aspects also play a role.
Their perspective is one in which the experience of the environment is staged and directed as fully as
possible. Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004) talk about an experience environment as a space that enables
dialogue, access and transparency in fact a process of co-creation in which both parties are more or less
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in a balance.[2] This is a radically different view, especially in terms of who is controlling the experience.
At one end is passive participation, in which customers dont affect the performance at all and experience
the event as observers or listeners. At the other end is active participation, in which customers play key
roles in creating the performance or event that yields the experience. Simple by being there, they
contribute to the visual and aural event that others experience. The second dimension of experience
describes the connection, or environmental relationship, that unites customers with the event or
performance. At one end lies absorption, at the other immersion.(Figure 2)[5]
3.2. Experience economy in architecture of cultural institutions
Experiences, along with creative industries and culture play an increasingly more central role in the
development of society. Contemporary cultural institutions received competition in, so to speak, casual
spaces of modern mans everyday life. Cafes with bookstores replaced libraries, exhibition halls are
located everywhere from cafes and banks to airports, and often the performance and stage events are
taking place in spaces that are not originally designed for it. We must not forget the influence of the
Internet and the current level of information access it has caused. If average person, every day encounters
cultural products, in the cafe, bank, airport, work, and in the same time have access to information via
Internet, their needs and time possibility for going to cultural institutions is drastically reduced. The same
economic principles that led to the introduction of cultural events that will enhance business offer, in
inverse manner, was used for the development of cultural institutions that include various additional social
and commercial contents; flexible spaces for contemplation, experience, inspiration, communication and
innovation.
ble 1- Bille and Lorenzen (2008) - 3 areas of experience economy

Area of
experience
economy
Creative
experience
areas

description

example

areas that have experience as the primary goal

and where artistic creativity is essential to its
production

theatre, music, visual arts,

literature, film, computer
games
museums, libraries, cultural
heritage sites, natural and
green areas, restaurants,
spectator sports

Experience
areas

areas that have experience as the primary goal,

but where artistic creativity is not essential

Creative
areas

areas where artistic creativity is essential but

which do not have experience as a primary goal:
they are not intended directly for the consumer
market but instead provide services to business,
which are built into or around mixed products

design, architecture,
advertising

The experience economy is about more than just offering a staged setting for an experience. It needs to
be the individuals personal experience, which is essentially a form of behavior, a process in which feeling
plays an important role. The logic of emotions determines how an individual deals with both his or her
environment and the people in it, while looking for experiences that will give meaning. In other words,
experiences are not static quantities like products. Experiences occur in a process in which interactions
take place in a certain setting whether or not a physical one between the individual and other people
and this makes experiences, just like culture, intangible. While prior economic offerings (commodities,
goods, and services) are external to the buyer, experiences are inherently personal, existing only in the
mind of an individual who has been engaged on an emotional, physical, intellectual, or even spiritual level.
Thus, no two people can have the same experience, because each experience derives from the interaction
between the staged event and the individuals state of mind. The sensory stimulants that accompany an
experience should support and enhance its theme. The more senses an experience engages, the more
effective and memorable it can be. To realize the full benefit of staging experience, however, businesses
must deliberately design engaging experiences. Transition from selling services to selling experiences is
no easier for established companies to undertake than the last great economic shift, from the industrial to
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the service company. On the contraty, the fact that culture is intangible as experience and that expirience is
one of the fundamental characteristics of space perception, makes this phenomenon extremly easy and
natural to applie on development of an architectural space of cultural institutions. Economists Bille and
Lorenzen define three areas of experience economy containing cultural prodacts and institutions.(Table 1)
[1] From the merger between culture and business, a new kind of economy is growing. An economy that is
based on an increasing demand for experiences and that builds upon the added value that creativity lends
to both new and traditional products and services. [4]
In order to create more original experiences, cultural institutions, in addition to the now customary
facilities such as cafes, bookstores, gift shops, exhibition areas, seminar rooms and screenings rooms, are
introducing unusual contents as part of its program structure. Architectual program of Toto Ito`s Sendai
Mediatheque includes TV studio, while Copenhagen Tivoli Concert Hall by 3XN has a 30m long
aquarium where visitors can have unusual experience of feeding sharks.(Figure 3) Recently RemKoolhaas
proposed the inclusion of hospital units for the homeless into his Seattle Central Library project from
2004.

Figure 3 Unusual experience of feeding sharks in Copenhagen Tivoli Concert Hall

Culture and experiences can give rise to some indirect economic effects through the generation of
activity in a geographical area by, for example, attracting tourists, residents and businesses. This fact leads
to one of the main trends that can be observed in the development of modern facilities of cultural
institutions: The building as a contemporary icon. If we look at examples of buildings constructed in the
last decade, we notice that a lot of them are conceived and designed to be not only functional, but a
significant landmark and pride of cities. The position of these objects often provides the starting point for
the development of urban areas. Objects become icons that provide architectural attraction of the cities,
and overcome the meaning they have for local users.
4. CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AS A PLACE FOR INNOVATION
Modern technologies are an important part of both the institutions and the architectural space.
Incorporation of modern technologies in the traditional objects of the program has become an important
part of the development of cultural institutions. Cultural institutions are historically has often represented
the architectural experiments with new spatial, structural and functional solutions. Today, they are ready to
face the modern challenges that are reflected in the creation of dynamic interactive space-based
information technology without the loss of traditional values. Architecture is a process, from design to
construction and thus a form of interaction. An important feature of the architecture is the experience of
the space we ocupy. The goal of interactive environment is to create a digitally enhanced social space that
invites people to interact with the environment and with each other. Interactive architecture is an extension
of what is already happening in non-interactive spaces. Architecture is a constant flux flowing through the
people, the environment and now digital information. If the answer to our action comes to us in our realtime connection with space deepens. Interactivity is more than in architecture represented in contemporary
art. In the form of art installations, architectural element and even of entire rooms, but always having
experience as a primary goal, and with strong social aspect is very naturaly applicable technological
innovation in cultural institutions.

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5. CONCLUSION
The changes are taking place in the structuring of economic relationships, shifting from industrial
production to cultural production. More and more commerce in the future will involve the marketing of
cultural experiences rather than just the marketing of traditional industrial based goods and services. Local
cultural resources in every part of the world are being repacked in the form of paid-for cultural
commodities and entertainments. The top one-fifth of the worlds population now spends almost as much
of their income accessing cultural experiences as on buying manufactured goods and basic services.[7]
The experience can not be separated from the space in which it happens. Architecture represents the
cultural institution`s public image, defines relationship to its setting, and constructs the framework for the
visitors` expirience. No other building tipology represents such intricate complexities or a multiplicity of
functions as does that of the contemporary cultural institution that must include cultural reprository,
dynamic civic space, popular entertament center, tool for urban revitalisation and on top of it striking
paradox of past achivments and future possibilities.
Success of the economic and sociological ideas in revitalization and renewal of interest for cultural
institutions at the beginning of this century raises the question of a new crisis, not of cultural institutions,
but the culture itself. New contents of architectural program are increasing the number of visitors but not
its users. If you incorporate hotels and hospitals in cultural institutions more people will come trough the
doors, but for what purpose. When the commercial sphere begins to devour the cultural sphere, it threatens
to destroy the very social foundations that give rise to commercial relations. Solution must be find a
sustainable way to preserve and enhance the rich cultural diversity that is the life-blood of civilization in a
global network economy increasingly based on paid access to commodified cultural experiences. The role
of architecture in the preservation of values of culture and cultural institutions must be reflected in the
careful selection of architectural program contents, and their interrelations. Although is easier to separate
programs that are open to the general public from those reserved for users of the primary functions of the
institution, their intertwining, spatial, aesthetic and functional is crucial to development of unified
architectural space of the institution where the traditional values of culture does not give way to
commercialization.
REFERENCES
[1] Bille T., The Nordic approach to the Experience Economy, Copenhagen Business School,
Department of Innovation and Organizational Economics, 2010, p 7
[2] Boswijk A., Thijssen T., Peelen E., A New Perspective on Experience Economy, The European
Centre for the Experience Economy, Amsterdam, 2008, p 7
[3] Christensen K., The Third Place, Encyclopedia of Community, Berkshire Publishing Group, Great
Barrington, Massachusetts, 2003. p 5
[4] Danish government report, Regeringen: Danmark i kultur- og oplevelseskonomien 5 nye skridt
p vejen, Copenhagen, 2003, p 8
[5] Pine B. J., Gilmore J. H., Welcome to the Experience Economy, Harvard Business Review, JulyAugust 1998, reprint number 98407, p 101
[6] Rasmussen C. H., Jochumsen H., The Fall and Rise of Physical Library, Royal School of Library
and Information Science, Copenhagen, 2005, p 17
[7] Rifkin J., The Age Of Access: The New Culture of Hypercapitalism, Where All of Life is a PaidFor Experience, Putnam Publishing Group, 2000, p 3
[8] Traktenberg M., Hajman I., Arhitektura od preistorije do postmodernizma, Graevinska knjiga
a.d., Beograd, 2006, p 443

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

livera Nikoli1
Vladan Nikoli2

THE APPLICATION OF COLOR IN THE HOSPITAL INTERIOR

Abstract: Color is an essential element of the architectural design of the environment that surrounds us.
The color choice is related to psychological, visual, aesthetic, and technical aspects of human-made
environments. Scientific researches on the topic of color in the interior of hospitals showed that there is
no direct link between certain colors and the alleviation of pain, but it was found that colors may reduce
anxiety, and shorten the hospital stay etc. Calming and stimulating psychological impacts of colors on
patient have been known since ancient times.
In this paper to some of the existing research of the aforementioned topic and a case study of use of color
in interior inpatient units of several clinics in the Clinical Center Nis will be presented. The color
schemes used in the clinics in Nis will be compared with the recommended color schemes that have been
proven to have effect on patients with a specific diagnosis.
The aim of this paper is identifying ways of choosing colors in the interior of hospitals and
recommending appropriate schemes to improve living and working conditions for patients and staff.
Key words: color, interior design, hospital, architecture, color effects, patients

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1. INTRODUCTION
The visual environment is formed by the interaction of its physical elements and the light that
illuminates it. Well-conceived use of color application can achieve so much in interior design. Color has a
vital role here in enhancing the environment and providing information and spatial orientation, helping
occupants make sense of their surroundings. In the hospital environment, color can provide attractive,
pleasing conditions for patients, visitors and staff.
1
2

PhD student, Faculty of civil engineering and architecture in Nis, -mail: o_milosavljevic@yahoo.com
PhD student, Faculty of civil engineering and architecture in Nis, -mail: vladan_nikolic@yahoo.com

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Starting from the assumption that in the Clinical Center in Nis, the color of the interior as important
factors is not considered and that significance of its effect in creating a positive atmosphere is neglected, a
the study whose methods and results will be subject of the paper has been conducted.
The color schemes used in the inpatient part of the following clinics were analyzed: Perinatology
Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics Clinic, Department of endocrine, abdominal, colorectal and
hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery, and the Department of Emergency Surgery Department of General
Surgery, Department of heart defect and coronary departments and post-coronary units Clinic for
Cardiovascular diseases, on the ground floor of the Department A - anterior segment of the
Ophthalmology Clinic and the Center for Minimally Invasive Surgery. The obtained data were compared
with the results of previous scientific studies and recommendations and provides guidelines for the further
transformation of the interior with a goal to have a pleasant and positive atmosphere were given.
2. BACKGROUND OF APPLICATION OF COLOR IN THE INTERIOR OF HOSPITALS IN
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The theory of use of color in the interior of hospital facilities and its impact on recovery of patients
stemmed from the use of color in the treatment of patients and its effects on their psychological and
physical ability.
Prior to 1918, color schemes in hospitals were limited to whitewashed walls above dado height (height
at which the horizontal rails are fixed to the wall, protecting the wall from damage caused by the use of
chairs or other furniture) and dark brown below. In the 1920's the introduction of washable paints did not
produce any real variation of color in hospitals, but instead of whitewash a white gloss paint was used,
and below dado height some dark colors concealing stains, such as dark green or brown. The idea behind
this kind of color scheme is reflected in the appearance of stained parts of the wall. If stains appear above
the dado height, they will be easily covered with whitewashed, if they appear below, they not will be
seen, and can, but need not to be removed. This is especially true of bloodstains in the operating rooms,
which are poorly visible on brown background.
In the early 1930's all-white became fashionable and in the more progressive hospitals white-tiled
walls to dado height replaced the somber colors. [4]
Later, reflections on the use of color in design hospitals were going in the direction of providing
background on which the smeared parts will be easy to spot, because any filth causes bacterial
contamination. Also, colors are introduced into the interior in order to provide a comfortable atmosphere
for the stay and the recovery of the patients, and the work of employees.
In the 50s of the twentieth century, the psychological effect of color in space was researched. Faber
Birren, an American scientist, from the research conducted in 1950th year, in which he started from the
Jung's theory of psychological types, found that extrovert individuals prefer warm colors, while introverts
prefer cool colors. N. A. Wells then tried to determine a mood that provokes a certain color. He
concluded that deep orange color causes the most intensive feeling of excitement, while a green is the
most calming.
Thus, in addition to white, green, for decades, was the most common color in the interior of hospitals,
even today present in the interior of hospitals in Serbia.
3. CONTEMPORARY STUDIES OF APPLICATION OF COLOR IN INTERIOR OF
HOSPITALS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Although there have been many researches on color usage in the interior of health care facilities, most
of them are carried out in the laboratory, and healthy are people participating in the research. [3] True
results could only be obtained by carrying out research in the hospital environment, with patients
participation, because their physical and psycho-emotional condition is different from the condition of
healthy individuals. Also, only when the color effect on the patient is proven by measurable parameters
such as the reduced anxiety, time of hospital stay, the amount of painkiller drugs, only then will we have
the ideal color scheme for each clinic or diagnosis.
Until now, it can with certainty be stated only what colors should not be used for some patients
because it is proven that their intention to worsen the condition. For example, in dermatology
departments, orange is not recommended as a background color, because patients in the presence of red
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and orange felt itchy. [3] The same colors should not be used at the departments of mental care. In
cardiology, blue should not be used as it worsens conditions of some of the diagnoses. In maternity units,
yellow should not be used as it hinders the diagnosis for jaundice.
In the 1976, Marccela Graham, designer of hospitals, defined six categories that represent the human
response to color (Table 1) [2]. This categorization was the starting point for many further studies.
Table 1 - Human responses to color

4. COLOR SCHEMES APPLIED TO INPATIENT DEPARTMENTS AT CLINICS IN THE

CLINICAL CENTER IN NIS
In May, 2012 multiple corridors and inpatient units in the Clinical Center in Nis were photographed,
with an aim to collect information of the used color schemes in interior areas for the care and recovery of
patients. At the same time, the interview was conducted with the staff and patients, in order to obtain
answers to questions how color scheme is selected and whether they are satisfied with the area they are
visiting and/or working in. The research for each individual clinic and general conclusions were presented
further.
4.1. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinic
Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinic was established in 1971 and since then it is in the four-floor
building, having the gross surface area of 4400 m2. The organizational structure of the clinic consists of
the following departments: Department of perinatology, surgery, gynecology, admissions, outpatientpolyclinic, subspecialist, consulting services and diagnostics.
The color scheme used in the department of perinatology was observed. In delivery rooms the used
color for the walls a warm shade of yellow was used, and calming gray for the floors. Through previous
research it was found that yellow stimulates the dynamics, as in the case of delivery room it is a good
choice because it stimulates the activity of the pregnant women at delivery.
In the operating room for delivery pastel blue-green color dominates, making it a great choice for
creating an environment that neutralizes influence of a dominant color during surgery, the complementary
red.
In most of the rooms for the accommodation of mothers and babies orange and pink pastel colors were
chosen for the walls and gray for the flooring. The same color scheme was used for the corridor of the
block. The color combination creates a pleasant atmosphere and it is in accordance with research of A.
Torrico's, and relates to the red color effect on motor activity. The results have indicated that newborn
girls accommodated in a pink environment (derived from the red color), show a higher level of motor
activity, they have longer periods of staying awake and are more curious then newborn boys who are
accommodated in blue surrounding, or a control group of girls surrounded by white. The reason is the fact
that babies are able to see the red much earlier than blue, therefore the girls receive stimulus from the
space earlier than boys. [6]
At the department of Perinatology, Section of Pathology, where pregnant women with complications
of pregnancy stay a longer period of time, the turquoise blue walls and gray floor color is present in the
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corridor and in the rooms. The blue color in the interior has a calming effect, but is not recommended for
long staying patients. Over-use of blue has been observed and may cause monotonous environments
lacking variety, which would lead to boredom and under-stimulation.[1] Introducing of another color in
the room will achieve a harmonious and customized atmosphere.
On the basis of these statements, it can be concluded that the colors used at the Perinatology ward of
the GA clinics are in line with the results of numerous researches concerned with usage of color in the
health care premises.

a)

b)

c)

d)

Figure 1 GA clinic, perinatology ward a) delivery room b) delivery operation room c) corridor and maternity rooms for
mothers and newborn children d) pathology corridor and rooms

4.2. General Surgery Clinic

The first civil surgical services in Nis were formed in the District hospital after the founding in 1881.
Until 1938 the Surgical department was located in the building of the General Hospital. That year, the
construction of a new surgical building with 96 beds was completed. This building has been reconstructed
several times, and in it are still located surgical clinics. General Surgery Clinic provides services in the
field of general, abdominal, thoracic, endocrine surgery and breast surgery.
Photographs used for analysis of the color scheme, were taken on the first floor of the General Surgery
Clinic at which the Department of endocrine, abdominal, colorectal and hepatobiliary and pancreatic
surgery are located, as well as at the Department of surgical units (Department reanimation and
observation) at the ground floor.
Although the clinic was reconstructed several times, the interior is not adapted to the needs of the
modern patients. In the interior there is only green color, different shades and tones on the walls and the
floors and furniture. Long corridors are illuminated by weak artificial light, crammed with excessive
inventory. The rooms are, mostly, triple and six-bed, natural light is dimmed by blinds to reduce
insolation, and thus save energy for cooling rooms, although each room has its own AC unit. Old and
battered furniture arranged in a small space creates a constricting feeling.
Particularly negative impression is created by two rooms at the Department of Emergency Surgery,
where the patients from the Department of general surgery are staying when there is no beds. In these
rooms, floor height is 2.20m, small windows have high parapets and the illumination of the room is
minimal. The dark green color of wall tiles, floor, furniture is a poor choice for this type of room. One
room, also, is a storage of medical supplies.
Although most of the researches dealing with the use of color in interior prove that exposure of
patients to green color, has a positive effect on the reduction of anxiety, and according to some, to the
reduction of pain, it cannot be said with certainty for this interior. Staying in the described area causes the
feeling of anxiety and uneasiness even in case of healthy individuals staying shortly. It can be concluded
that the monochromatic color schemes are not a good choice in the interior of the hospital and that the
positive effect of color is closely associated with other parameters of space, primarily to light.
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a)

c)

b)

d)

Figure 2 General Surgery clinic a) first floor corridor b) inpatient ward on the first floor c) inpatient ward at the Urgent
Surgery seciton d) outpatient clinic for reanimation and observation

4.3. Cardiovascular Clinic

First Cardiology Department at Nis was formed in 1904 in the General Hospital. Since 1938 the
Department is located in the facility renovated and adapted to the needs of the four clinics in 1978.
The analysis of the room color schemes is done in the Department of heart failure and Department of
Coronary and Post-coronary units.
Monochromatic color scheme used in the departments of the Clinic for cardiovascular disease
resembles those used in the departments of General surgery. There is difference in the shade of green
walls and a neutral gray floor color in some of accommodation units. However, the overall impression of
the interior on visitors, staff and patients is described as more positive than the interior of General
Surgery. The difference is in the size of the rooms and their illumination. Patients to the Department of
coronary and Post-coronary units are located in well-lit rooms with large size windows and low parapet.
They have a clear view of the yard, which introduces another important factor in their recovery, and that
is the presence of nature.

a)

c)

b)

d)

Figure 3 Cardio vascular clinic a) corridor in the heart defect ward b) inpatient ward at the HD ward c) corridor and
inpatient ward at the Coronary Department ward d) inpatient unit at the Post-coronary ward

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4.4. Ophthalmology clinic

Ophthalmology Clinic was established in 1971. It represents a highly specialized medical institution
that deals with diagnosis and treatment of eye diseases. Used the color scheme will be analyzed in the
corridor and rooms of Department A - anterior segment.
Navigation of blind or visually impaired persons comprises the finding and colorful-contrast
comparison of large areas in space. The walls and floors are such surfaces requiring prominent mutual
color contrast. [5] The principle of colorful - contrasting diversity of surfaces must be represented in the
interior space for the treatment of eye diseases. After intervention or surgery, during the recovery period,
many patients of the Ophthalmology Clinic have obscured and blurred vision, which makes their
movement and orientation in space limited or impossible.
In the case of a Department A of the Ophthalmology Clinic the aforementioned principle is not fully
observed. In the rooms, there is a difference between the dark red color floor and light blue color of walls,
but no color distinction of woodwork and walls, as well as of other details and furnishings. In the main
corridor there is no color difference in the surface areas. Bright floors, walls and doors cannot create
contrasts, and thus provide unobstructed movement of patients.

a)

b)

Figure 4 Ophthalmology clinic a) corridor b) inpatient unit on the Department A ground level- anterior segment.

4.5. Minimally Invasive Surgery Center

Department of Minimally Invasive Surgery was founded in 2004 as a part of General surgery. Since
2007 it operates as a separate organizational unit of the Clinical Center Nis. After the renovation of the
left block in ground floor, in 2008, the Center obtains a modern interior design with four hospital rooms
(one bedroom apartments with bathroom, one single, one double and one six-bed rooms). All rooms are
linked by audio and video signals. In the Center there is the modernly equipped operating theater.
By analyzing the parameters of the area of the Minimally Invasive Surgery Center one draws the
conclusion that it fulfills the key requirements of a healthy environment and EB designs, such as
providing privacy, noise protection, natural light, unobstructed movement, the presence of art.
Patients of the Centre, due to the nature of interventions, have minimal retention in the hospital, so the
color scheme used in the interior inpatient unit does not have a significant impact on their recovery
because they are not exposed to it in a protracted period.

a)

b)

c)

d)

Figure 5 Minimally Invasive Surgery Center a) corridor b) apartment c) single room d) six-bed room

4.6. General conclusion

Application of modern equipment for diagnosis and treatment, modern methods of surgical
interventions that accelerate postoperative recovery of the patients are certainly the most important in the
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provision of health care services. However, the process is influenced by environmental factors which
cause many psycho-physical reactions with patients. At a time when the patient suffers pain, feels anxious
and lonely, positive internal environment and the relationship with the external environment can alleviate
negative emotions, rather than staying in dark and cold rooms, surrounded by medical equipment. Color
is one of the aspects of creating a positive environment.
In an interview with the staff at the clinics the conclusion was drawn that they themselves participate
in the choice of color scheme that will be applied in the clinic, block or unit and are governed by personal
taste.
When asked whether they were satisfied by the conditions in which they work, there were mostly
somewhat vague replies: "Well, we are. It can always be better. It's good, it's clean." Employees at the
Department of Emergency Surgery say that their work space looks much better than before, but also that
they feel some discomfort and that they are a bit ashamed by the environment.
Employees at the Cardiology drew attention to the mosaic pattern of dark red and yellow tiles in the
corridor that often cause fatigue of sight.
5. CONCLUSION
In recent years, CC Nis implemented by the reconstruction of many clinics through Project of energy
efficiency, and through the same or other projects carried out and adapted interior in most clinics, but not
much has been achieved in creating a visual identity. Patients need to stay in the space consistent with the
principles of Evidence Base design, adapted to their diagnosis. Such interior is not created by the
managers of the hospital or contractors, but professionals, specialists in hospital interior design. Only in
this way can the mistakes that have been made so far be avoided and their further making be prevented.
Clinic for Skin and Venereal Diseases, Clinic of Nephrology, Department of Mental Health, are not
presented in the paper, but these clinics have neglected and disharmonious interiors.
The color is only one of the aspects of a successful interior hospital room, but with changing the color
of the wall and the floor fastest and most cost-effective results, that can have a positive effect, can be
achieved.
The big problem in the interior at Clinics CC Nis is the lack of patient privacy (too many six-bed
rooms, insufficient space between beds), the minimal participation of the family in recovery, because
their presence is not provided for with earlier design of the rooms, inadequate and unmaintained toilets.
If the Clinical Center in Nis is to become a truly leading contemporary specialist health care institution
for the area of south and east Serbia, apart from novel health care techniques, it must change the inpatient
care service. These changes can be undertaken only after a studious analysis which would result in the
report of the current status of inpatient units and in the definition of necessary changes.
REFERENCES
[1] Dalke, H., Littlefair P., Loe, D.: Lighting and colour for hospital design - Report on an NHS
Estates Funded Research Project, +BRE and London South Bank University, London, 2004., pp.
19
[2] Graham, M.: Health facilities: Color them caring, Special Workshop Held - Color in the Health
Care Environment, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1978., pp 9
[3] Jo Edge, K.: Wall color of patients room: effects on recovery, A Thesis for Degree of
a. Master of Interior Design, University of Florida, Florida, 2003. pp. ix, 18, 19.
[4] Mccreadie, D. W. A.: A hospital color scheme, British medical journal, 16. june, 1962., pp.16871689
[5] Nikoli, V., Milosavljevi, O.: Prikaz adaptacije i unutranjeg ureenja poslovnog prostora
Moss-a u Prokuplju, Nauka + Praksa, br. 10, 2007., pp. 68
[6] Torrice, A.: Color for healing, Jurnale of Health Care, Vol I, 1989., pp. 35-43

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Vojislav Nikoli 1
Slavia Kondi 2
Igor Bjeli3

APARTMENT ADAPTABILITY AS A MEANS OF MEETING THE

DEVELOPING NEEDS OF A FAMILY
Abstract: Changes in the family or any changes in its family members, in the sense of an increase in their number,
the growth of the children, the aging of the parents and the like, lead to various needs and their shifts during the use
of an apartment. In the circumstances in which we live, many families are not able to change apartments and thus
satisfy their newly occurred needs; nevertheless, architectural solutions which enable at least a partial adaptation
of an apartment might lead to these problems being avoided. One possible solution are multifunctional apartments,
or so-called apartments with functional flexibility, which facilitate the change by the re-appropriation of individual
rooms, addition and transformation during exploitation of the apartment. This paper evaluates the basic principles
of apartment flexibility and the problems of flexibility which occur in relation to the changes in the apartment
structure within fixed dwelling space. The paper offers a detailed study into the use of the principles of apartment
flexibility on the example of a design solution for multi-family housing, a two-floor architectural solution for an
apartment. The principles of flexibility of the apartment were used to satisfy the needs and changes which occur
during the developmental phases of family life. The aim of this paper is to show, on a concrete example, the
possibilities of the spatial organization of an apartment which would be suitable for the housing of several different
generations in one family.
Key words: Family, Needs, Multi-Family Housing, Flexibility, Adaptability

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PhD Student, University of Ni, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ul. Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni,
vojislavn@gmail.com
2
PhD Student, University of Ni, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ul. Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni,
skondic555@yahoo.com
3
PhD Student, University of Ni, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ul. Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni,
igor_bjelic@yahoo.com

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1. INTRODUCTION
An apartment is the narrowest physical environment, and the family is the narrowest social human
environment in which a man spends most of his time. This means that the physical and social components
of mans environment more than anywhere else overlap in an apartment [3]. If the apartment is designed
and built with a specific family in mind, based on its current structure, it will enable the satisfaction of the
familys current needs, but will not represent a permanent solution. When designing an apartment it is
necessary to come as close as possible to an apartment organization that could be used by future
generations at a later date. The aim, when designing an apartment, is to provide its flexibility [9]. By
designing a flexible apartment, it is possible to change and complete an apartment at the initiative of the
user. A constant change in the family and its individual members, in the sense of an increase in the
number of family members, the growth of children, the aging of parents and the like, leads to various
needs and their further changes during the use of the apartment.
If the potential users of a multi-family housing unit are known beforehand, it is possible to include
them in the building design process and adapt the housing unit to suit their needs. Nevertheless, if the
project is being carried out for unknown future users, the design itself should leave as much possibility
for future modification within the housing unit itself as possible [2]. For that reason, through quality
planning and the design of flexible apartments, a high degree of utility value would be enabled, which
would be recognized in the satisfaction of the needs of users over a longer period of time, during which
the changes in user needs will occur.
2. FAMILY NEEDS AND FLEXIBLE APARTMENTS
Family needs primarily depend on family structure both in a quantitative sense the number of family
members and the number of generations, and in a qualitative sense the phase of development a certain
family finds itself in [3]. The periods of family development are - a young married couple, - a growing
family, - a stable family, - a reducing family. Three cycles, increase, stabilization, reduction, depending
on the number of children and the differences between them last up to 30 years. The periods of increase
and stabilization are significant, since it is then that spatial needs, both quantitative and qualitative, are
manifested the most. As it is well known in the residential situation in our country, families cannot satisfy
any new needs by exchanging apartments, and thus the need for flexible apartments is great.
During the development phases of a family, the spatial needs in an apartment are constantly changing.
An apartment, as a spatial frame within which family, individual and communal life takes place, must
cater to spatial and functional changes. If an apartment is flexible enough, that is, can change its structure
and organization to suit needs and their changes, then it will have a lasting utility value for the family [9].
Architectural solutions which enable at least partial adaptability of an apartment will contribute to the
avoidance of economic, sociological, probably even psychological reasons for which many families are
not able to solve their problems or to satisfy their new needs merely by finding a new apartment. The
solution to these problems could be found during the design phase, the building phase or the phrase
during which the apartment is actually being used [1]. Naturally, during the design phase, the greatest
number of possibilities is available. One of the solutions would be to design multi-functional apartments,
that is, apartments with functional flexibility, which enable the reappropriation of certain rooms,
adaptation and transformation during exploitation. Modern tendencies in the production of apartments
confirm that this kind of approach offers a solution more suitable for the users [4, 5, 6]
3. APARTMENT ADAPTABILITY THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENTAL PHASES OF THE
FAMILY
On the example of a design solution for multi-family housing, we will present a study of the
applicability of the principle of apartment flexibility. Through the various needs which occur and changes
during the developmental phases that a family undergoes, we will use an apartment initially designed for
a family of three, to study the possible solutions for the adaptability of the apartment to suit the needs of a
family of four, five or six.
In a functional sense, the design solution for an apartment primarily rests on the combination of the
relations down-up and horizontal-vertical, with a division into an access floor, with living room meant to
be the living space used to run the household, and a floor above, which holds a bedroom area. The
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concept of a functional solution is based on an extensive release of the secondary division of space while
adhering to an initial division in terms of front-back, and by retaining the characteristics of the dominant
orientation of community content facing the street, and private facing the building block. The layout and
the way in which activities will take place within the apartment are defined through a variation of a
simple and transparent structure, a traditionally narrow facade and the elongated form of the apartment.
The construction is designed in such a way so as not to disturb the architectural concept related to form
and function. The skeletal system of reinforced concrete has been designated as the most suitable in
creating flexible space. In this system the walls are merely partitions, and they are not load-bearing, and
thus are positioned only in terms of function. The layout of these walls can be completely different on
each floor, and they can later be redistributed, removed and added, which creates a flexible space,
adaptable, based on the needs of the user. The basic module during the design process was 9 M or 540 cm
so that the beams were positioned at these distances in both orthogonal directions, and the range of the
beams in the skeletal system of 540 cm is one of the most economical and thus contributes to the quality
of the solution [7, 8]. Another quality of this module and grid is the gained advantage of a more rational
division of parking space in the garage below the housing unit itself.

Figure 1

Figure 1 represents a basic two-bedroom apartment with an access level entrance area, bathroom,
study, kitchen, dining room and living room, while on the second level we find the master bedroom, the
childrens room and a bathroom. The bottom level covers an area of approximately 120 square meters, so
that the apartment contains more than an optimal area and was designed as a luxury housing unit, thus
offering the possibility of great adaptability and flexibility.

Figure 2

Figure 2 represents a version of the apartment where the study has been redesigned into a half
bedroom, which was used by the older child in the family. Through this type of adaptation, without any
greater physical alterations, the apartment becomes a three-bedroom and can be used by a family of four.
Even though the room covers a sufficient area, the disadvantage of this adaptation is the lack of a
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bathroom on the ground floor, but there is a possibility of improving the quality of living and overcoming
this defect by the installation of a shower in the bathroom. This functional design of the apartment on the
first level can be combined with the following alternatives (figures 3-6) where adaptations have been
made to the second floor of the apartment.

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figures 3 and 4 are versions in which we started out with a basic two-bedroom apartment and ended
up with a three-bedroom one, all by sealing off a part of the two height space above the dining room. That
allows us to obtain another half-room on the floor above. This type of adaptation into a three-bedroom
apartment is better than the previous one, since there is a difference in the basic functional grouping of the
living quarters and the bedroom quarters (the first and second level of the apartment). The apartment can
be used by a family of four or five with a small child which can sleep with the parents.
A basic two-bedroom apartment in the alternatives shown in figures 5 and 6 becomes a three-bedroom
apartment, meant for a family of five. By closing off the entire space on the second floor of the two height
space of the apartment, we can be left with a larger master bedroom (figure 5), while the old master
bedroom becomes a room for two same-sex children. The alternative in figure 6 above the dining room on
the second floor of the apartment can hold two half-bedrooms for the children and in this functional
organization, in a family of five, each child would have its own room. In this alternative, the lack of an
additional sanitation facilities in the bedroom quarters is evident.

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Figure 5

Figure 6

All of the previous variants of the apartments mostly required changes on the second floor of the
apartment, in the bedroom quarters, while the first level remained unchanged. Figures 7 and 8 show the
alternatives where physical changes occurred on the first level of the apartment. In relation to the basic
apartment from figure 1, in this solution in place of the study, a kitchen can now be found, while the
dining room has been moved to where the kitchen once was, while the living room is where the dining
room once used to be. The space which once housed the living room was partitioned off and used to form
a master bedroom and one half-room. This type of functionally organized apartment is meant for a family
of six, but its great flaw is the lack of sanitary facilities on the first level for the newly-formed rooms.
Even though there is the option of installing a shower in the bathroom (as seen in the alternative in figure
2) and the partial improvement of the solution, it is unsatisfactory because of the poor connection between
the rooms and the bathroom. This solution is primarily meant for cases when the child is starting its own
family and decides to stay in the apartment with its parents, which forms a new household model which
now consists of the older parents, one grown up child and a young married couple without children or
with a small child. This requires the addition of one bedroom for the elderly parents and one for the
young married couple or at least a half-bedroom for the other older child. A combination of the final
alternative with the previous one gives us a solution which provides rooms for the children of the young
couple, but once again there is the evident lack of sanitary facilities which significantly affects the quality
of living.

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Figure 7

Figure 8

These alternatives can stem from the requirements and needs of the users, but the solutions are not
absolutely acceptable from the viewpoint of the architectures. However, their basic quality is confirmed
the moment they start satisfying the needs of the users themselves.
4. CONCLUSION
A complete definition of human needs is not possible, since needs change over and over again and it is
a continuous process. That is the case with living in an apartment, where the needs of the user of the
apartment change and thus satisfying these varying needs is key in the planning and design of residential
buildings and housing units. Since families are most often the end users of apartments, this practically
means that by studying the needs of a family and the changes in its needs over time, we could reach an
optimal solution for a growing family. It is almost unheard of in our country that a family changes
apartments to suit a change in their needs or that an apartment is replaced every time the structure of the
family changes. The idea is to design dwelling space with an organization in mind which would in the
future be used to meet the new requirements of the family. Solutions which are appropriate only in the
moment when they are needed, and remain unsuitable at other times, are not appropriate solutions, while
flexible apartments, which can be adapted to suit various housing needs over time are far more desirable
solutions.
We used a concrete design example of an apartment to illustrate the possible changes in the structure
and organization of the apartment without changing the size of the apartment itself. By using the principle
of flexibility, we have obtained various alternatives of the apartment, which suit the assumed needs and
changes in the structure of the family over time. Changes within the very physical framework of only one
unit do not disrupt the unity of the entire structure. For that reason the reality of the concept of a flexible
apartment is flexibility within its limits. In the future we can, to a great extent, expect the occurrence of
these solutions in practice, due to the increasing demanding market and more numerous demands and
requirements of the users, that is, families.
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REFERENCES
[1] Bindi Lj., The Flexibile Flat, Prstr, Vl. 7 N. 1(17), 1999., pp. 69-76
[2] orevi M., Kondi S., Tani M.: Ukljuenje korisnika u proces arhitektonskog projektovanja u
kontekstu individualne interpretacije stambene sredine, Zbornik radova Graevinskoarhitektonskog fakulteta, Vol. 25, 2010., pp. 65-72
[3] Ili D., Prktvnj stmbnih zgrd 1, rgnizci stn, Univrzitt u Niu, 1991., pp. 154
[4] Jovanovi G., Stoiljkovi B., Stanimirovi M.: Fleksibilnost na nivou sklopa sprata stambenih
zgrada, Nauka + Praksa, Vol. 13, 2010., pp. 33-36
[5] vnvi G., kvi S., Stnimirvi .: Flksibiln rgnizci sklp sprt stmbnih
zgrd k dgvr n svrmn zhtv trit, Zbrnik rdv Grvinsk rhitktnskg
fkultt u Niu, No. 23, 2008., pp. 271-278
[6] Jovanovi G.: Flexible Organization of Floor Composition and Flexible Organization of
Dwelling Space as a Response to Contemporary Market Demands, Facta Universitatis, Series:
Architecture and Civil Engineering, Vol. 5, No 1, 2007., pp. 33-47
[7] Miloevi V., Nikoli V., Bjeli I.: Multi-family Housing Space Flexibility within the Structural
Grid. Internacionalni nauno-struni skup Graevinarstvo nauka i praksa, abljak, 2012., p
1533-1540
[8] Miloevi V., Nikoli V.: Space Flexibility of the Multi-family Housing, III International
Symposium for Students of Doctoral Studies in the fields of Civil Engineering, Architecture and
Environmental Protection PhIDAC, Novi Sad, 2011., pp. 195-201
[9] Stilkvi B.: Flksibilnst stnv nmnjnih tritu, Zbrnik rdv Grvinsk
rhitktnskg fkultt, Ni, No.20, 2004., pp. 31-46

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Aleksandra Peterac1
Dragana Pilipovi2
Karl Mikei3

TRANSFORMING THE LANGUAGE OF ARCHITECTURE OF

COMMUNITY CULTURAL CENTRE BUILDINGS IN THE REPUBLIC
OF SERBIA4
Abstract: This research paper focuses on the typology of polyvalent centers, more specifically on state
public institutions - Community Cultural Center Buildings and/or Cultural Centers in urban settings. By
analyzing Community Cultural Center Buildings , we are facing the fenomena where certain buildings
are renamed into "Cultural Centers". This however is not only a change in terminology, but on the
contrary - a shift in ideology.
The architecture of Community Cultural Center Buildings has not only dominated in its form, shape or
application, but also in its specific and symbolic significance within a sociological and urban context.
While Community Cultural Center Buildings functioned as public state institutions, their architecture was
also relevant. By reducing programs and the repertoire - something that once represented the very
essence of Community Cultural Center Buildings also led to the reduction of architecture. The value and
significance of Community Cultural Center Buildings experience an evident transformation over time.
The question remains whether there is need to negate the past when faced with the fact that Community
Cultural Center Buildings reached the peak of popularity during the Yugoslav era. After the breakup of
SFRY in the 1990's, a complete shift in cultural values takes place where kitsch and tackiness take over a
mainstream role in society. This leaves most Community Cultural Center Buildings today in a dilapidated
and semi-functional state.
This problem will therefore be analyzed through three different historical contexts with the aim of
procuring answers to the socio-political, cultural and economic influences that led to the shift in the
language and significance of Community Cultural Center Buildings.
ey words: Community Cultural Center Buildings, Cultural Centers, architecture, language of
architecture, ideology, transformation

TRANSFORMACIJE JEZIKA ARHITEKTURE OBJEKATA DOMOVA

KULTURE U REPUBLICI SRBIJI4
: ,
/ .

Researcher, PhD student, Master of Architecture, Department of Architecture and Urbanism, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositej Obradovia 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia, e-mail: cacinger@gmail.com
2
Researcher, PhD student, Master of Architecture, Department of Architecture and Urbanism, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositej Obradovia 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia, e-mail: draganans81@gmail.com
3
Teaching assistent, PhD student, Master of Architecture, Department of Architecture and Urbanism, Faculty of Technical
Sciences,University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositej Obradovia 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia, e-mail: emodia@gmail.com
4
The research conducted in this paper is part of a science project titled: "Technical and Technological Condition and Potentials
of Community Cultural Centre Buildings in the Republic of Serbia" at the department of architecture of the Faculty of Technical
Sciences in Novi Sad, supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Serbia (Project # TR 36051)

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: Domovi kulture, Kulturni centri, arhitetkura, jezik arhitekture, ideologija, transformacija
1. INTRODUCTION
Community Cultural Centres buildings belong to a typology of public buildings of cultural character.
What we notice in their architectural form is monumentalism as a dominant type of expression.
Community Cultural Centres buildings also impose with a rather strong ideological value attributed to it
in the time of its emergence as an institution. In addition, these buildings were specific due to their
simbolical meaning in the social and urban context.
Analysing Community Cultural Centres, we come across a terminological shift in the title of these
buildings.
An unusual phenomenon that arises is that, in relation to historical, political or cultural context of the
buildings, there comes to a shift in the title, from Community Cultural Centre to Cultural Centre; only a
finite number of institutions and appertaining buildings have maintained the title Community Cultural
Centre.
We might presume that this terminological shift came from the difference in modern interpretation of
this buildings typology. In order to define a Community Cultural Centre or a Cultural Centre, it is
essential to provide and study the terms and definitions, and identify their differences.
2. TERMS COMMUNITY CULTURAL CENTRE AND CULTURAL CENTRE DEFINED
A community cultural centre can be defined as a complex institution that has the task of satisfying a
wide range of cultural and entertainment needs of the inhabitants. Also, cultural centers serve for all
social activities and gatherings, as institutions with numerous programme possibilities. [6].
A cultural centre is an organization, a buildings or an institution that promotes art and culture. These
can be artistic organizations, government- or non-government-sponsored buildings (Free dictionary),
whose basic tack is to diffuse and promote culture[4].
We could therefore conclude that there are no substantial differences between a Community cultural
centre and Cultural centre buildings, in the functional (programme) sense. They both have the task to
ascertain production and realization of all culture-related events and activities. Social development and
changes that we experienced have all affected the creation of new cultural and educational needs. [6].
Therefore, the ever-growing needs have accelerated the process of specialization in culture and
education[1], implied a shift in the institutions character. This change was, primarily, in its
interpretation.
We can observe the functional (programme) differences and similarities through the following
diagrame that offers a clear comparison of programme profiles of four Community cultural
centres/Cultural centres stemming from different periods, which will be addressed in greater detail further
on.
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Figure 1- Comparative study of the programme activities:a case study of four cultural centre buildings

Figure 1 clearly illustrates that the programme structure of aak Community Cultural Centre is the
most complex one, offering a wide range of programme opportunities. Although the tendency to create a
large number of cultural institutons in buildings that were adapted for this purpose, there are certain
limitations to a number of events. Buildings such as aak Community Cultural Centre and Poarevac
Cultural Centre ( shifted in time from Community Cultural Centre to Cultural Centre), clearly show
that it is possible to host a wide range of programmes in buildings of such volume. In the time of their
creation, the architectural expression and form of the Community cultural centres buildings was given
much attention and importance.
The concept of cultural centres, cultural-promotional centres, concert offices etc. rose because these
institutions, contrary to community culutral centres, have a clear legal status and established premises,
human and other resources[6].
This remark may conclude that the differences between Community cultural centres and Cultural
centres, in addition to terminological references, is followed by their legal status (ownership).
Bearing in mind the ideological needs for creation of community cultural centres then and cultural
centres today, one cannot help but think that the shift in the institutions title was carried out under the
influence of socal and political context in the country.
3. CONSTRUCTION OF COMMUNITY CULTURAL CENTRE BUILDINGS AND

THEIR TRANSFORMATION A HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Having in mind the timeline of community cultural centres development, there are four main periods
that clearly stand out by characteristic transformations in form and functon. Each of them is typical in
ideological, political, economical and cultural values that created the social context in which these
cultural institutions were created.
In the chronological sense, we may observe the transformation of the community cultural centres
buildings through four key periods:
1945-1980 construction of a large number od community cultural centres, accompanied by peak
in popularity,
1980-1990 start of privatization of cultural institutions (and their buildings); unification in
architectural expression in community cultural centres buildings;
1990-2000 a rise of new cultural values, glorification of schund and kitsch; parallel to this,
creation of a large number of alternative cultural institutions;
2000-today Community cultural centres are in a dilapidated state, when there are a number of
reconstructions and changes in function carried out simultaneously on unrelated buildings for the
purpose of becoming cultural centres.

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4. COMMUNITY CULTURAL CENTRES EDIFICE ARCHITECTURAL LANGUAGE

AND ITS SYMBOLISM

Community Cultural Centre buildings architecture has been portrayed following several stylistic
expressions: new rationalism as a creative comeback to the early roots of modern architecture;
regionalism as a regenerative interpretation of historical heritage and postmodernism as a reserach
movement free of standard patterns[7].
Throughout the history of Community Cultural Centres building practice one might identify a
reccuring rule: only a small number of cities had Community Cultural Centres that in their dimension
and design outbalance the scope of the community they were intended for, causing their irrational
use.[1] On the other hand, some cities have a building designed, in a functional sense, in advance, where
all architectural aspects were taken into consideration. Such buildings were the most representative in the
settlement, and could provoke certain feelings in a person, with its architectural expression and enterior
furnishing thus, in a way, preparing him for what he is about to esperience[1].
The architecture of these buildings was not dominating merely by its form, shape or function. It was
specific for its symbolical meaning in a social and urban context. While Community Cultural Centres
operated as state public institutions, their architecture was also active. Gradually, through reduction of the
programmes and repertoire - what once represented the programme of a cultural centre, came a reduction
in architecture.
The symbolical function of Community Cultural Center buildings function was based on the
practical worth of the function[3], which reproduced social values. Diversity of programme structure
encompassed the following categories: 1. Cultural-entertaining (cinema, theatre, concerts, events); 2.
Educational activities (courses, seminars, lectures); 3. Social activities (conferences, gatherings, dancing)
and 4. Other activities (exhibitions, reading rooms, libraries) [5]. Such a Community Cultural Centre,
filled with a rich variety of cultural programmes, created a unison of context and architectural language.
However, ambient sets cannot bear meaning. The world of cognition seeks appraisal in history! [3]
One might pose a question whether a Community cultural centre, as an expression of one ideological
period can be maintained as a symbol without leaning on historical connotation?
5. CASE STUDY
In order to establish the process of architectural language transformation in relation to community
cultural centres, with previously defined and clarified the timeframe of of gradual shifts in their
development, we offer four case studies that clearly offer illustration for the arhitectural expression and
programme transformation for each of the proposed periods.
5.1. First Case Study: aak Community Cultural Center
aak Community Cultural Center was designed in 1970 by a croatian architect Luj rerer. It
represents a government institution that hasnt chaged its name throughout its existence.
If we consider the architectural expression, we may notice that the building is a modernist one. The
voluminous and horizontal aspects maintain communication with the square the building is facing. The
connection of the building with the urban square establishes direct interaction between the public and the
internal space of the building. The transparent groundfloor enables the dinamics of the enterior to open to
the square, also serving a practical advertising use, illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2 - Urban context of aak Community Cultural Centre

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The monumental character of the edifice undoubtedly gives the impression of a public institution. It is
safe to presume that, at the time of its construction, considering its position in the urban context, it was a
definite symbol of power.
If we now consider the programme aspect of the Centre, we may notice that it hosts following
activities: theatre, art, literary, education, music-performative and film. The diversity of the programmes
implies that, in spite of all social and political circumstances that affected the typological transformations
of there buildings, it is still possible to maintain the spirit of a time and ideology until today.
5.2. Second Case Study :Poarevac Cultural Centre
Poarevac Cultural Centre was established in 1978, built in 1981, designed by an architect Milo
Bojovi and reorganized in 2001. Studying its history we come across the data that t changed names from
Community Cultural Centre to Cultural Centre.
The architectural expression of this building can be observed as a governing type of this period,
monumental and visually impenetrable. This architectural approach/expression was typical for public
buildings at the begining of the 1980s. Although in this case the building faces a square, due to its
introvert character, there was no communication between the ground floor and its users, the enterior, the
programme and its surroundings. A building designed not to facilitate interaction among the users and its
premises provokes, in time, a certain autistic atmosphere. (Figure 4). Another element that additionally
emphasizes the alienating character of the Centre are the buildings facades. This hermetically sealed
group form, organized as a series concrete sufraces combined with brick (Figure 5), imply that media was
not taken into account as a legitimate need of a cultural centre as an institution, during the design process.
The facade is home to billboards that additionally devalue the architectural expression (Figure 3). Is it
possible that the architectural concept of community cultural centres might have been the reason for their
demise? One might pose a question: What can be done to relive these abandoned buildings apart from
reconstruction and a rich programme offer?

Figures 3, 4, 5 - Poarevac Cultural Centre exterior

5.3. Third Case Study: Rex Centre

Rex Centre was extablished in 1994 on an initiative of Radio B92. It belong to the third development
period, according to ideology and circumstances under which it was created. This period saw the creation
of new and alternative artistic currents. Such artistic forms acted predominantly as non-governmental
organizations whose cultural policy goals were to support cultural values that were not the focus of
governmental institutions[5]. This can be noticed in the programme this Centre, as well as through an
informal use of stage-audience space, illustrated in figures 6 through 8.

Figure 6,7 and 8 - Possibilities in stage-audience space in the Rex Centre

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Rex Centre was situated in a jewish community building that was adapted to meet the needs of a
cultural centre (Figure 9). The building that hosts the Centre was primarily designed as an retirement
home. The corresponding land belonged to the jewish community. The hall was on the ground floor,
whereas the upper floors hosted apartments.

Figure 9 - Rex Centre elevation

Upon further study of the Rex Centre, we can observe its transformation through two periods. As a
cultural institution it was established in the third period. Political events have affected the work of the
Centre, and its had to move its premises to Rex Cinema, 16, Jevrejska street, for the period 1994-1999,
where it is situated today once again. During NATO bombing in 1999, the Centre operated under the
name Cyber Rex, communicating via Internet from their apartments, only to reassume their old premises
after the end of the agression.
If we study the architectural language and expression of the cultural buildings for a moment, Rex
Centre could not be classified under this category. Considering that this is a case of a building adapted for
a cultural institution, when we talk of a stilistic expression of this building, we are refering to an eclectic
and decorative one. This architectural expression clearly implies the previous function this building once
hosted.
It is interesting to note that the building this Centre is situated in, can easily host the functional needs
of a contemporary cultural centre. As a building intentionally designed as a contemporary cultural space,
there was no need to separate functional (programme) sections, which in turn conditioned rational use of
space.
5.4. Fourth Case Study: GRAD Cultural Centre
GRAD cultural centre is situated in an old warehouse building, built in 1884. It was adapted in 2009
for the needs of the cultural centre as a private institution.

Figure 10 - Exterior, enterior and gallery of the GRAD Cultural Centre

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Enterior of the buildng is of a modern character that exudes minimalist architectural expression, where
old and new meet. The urban context of the building is one of industrial heritage site, which has become
extremely popular for this sort of adaptations of buildings function from an industrial to a cultural.
The architectural language of this space is rustic-industrial in character. Focusing on the elevations, we
notice that the reconstruction was constrained exclusively to the buildings enterior. Reading into the the
buildings architectural expression, it does not seem to exude cultural institution. It implies the
importance of the event taking place inside the buildings.
The need to occupy the space of an abandoned building with the purpose of using it for cultural
purposes, imply the modern need in relation to production. It is necessary to reevaluate the function of a
contemporary cultural centre, in order to establish criteria for a modern cultural institution.
Considering the activities of all four community cultural centres, we can conclude that aak
Community Cultural Centre stayed true to the ideology under which the typology had been previously
established and buildings constructed. Considering the architectural expression and its meaning, it can be
noted that the buildings purposefully designed as cultural centres much dominant in the urban context,
which expresses their simbolical meaning and power. We do not contest or question buildings adapted to
serve a cultural purpose. The need for this is evident. If there are existing buildings in a state of
devastation, why not reuse them and give them back the role of Community Cultural Centres, as houses
hosting the best of human and cultural values a nation had to offer.
6. CONCLUSION
Politics and the accompanying ideologies have had the major impact on the marginalization of
community cultural centers in the Republic of Serbia. Thus, the architectural language that bore with the
buildings function a certain symbolism, was irrevocably stripped of its previous value. It is important to
note that the construction and transformation process of the Houses of Culture and other cultural
institutions was not a result of a conscientious and planned construction of a buildings identity, nor of a
clear programme orientation. The policy of exibiting is, above all, a consequence of partial and spur-ofthe-moment ideas, paths and actions,[2].
In order to liven up the architecture of the houses of culture buildings, bearing in mind the constant
influence of social and political development, there is a dire need for necessary changes in their
functional (programme) structure (organization)[1]. Everyday life and changes in the modern society
require a continual tracking of development tendencies of cultural institutions on a global level, in order
to meet the ever-growing apetites of the public.
Maintaining the pace of contemporary tendencies in culture on a global scale, have contributed in the
creation of fresh scene of cultural life of a somewhat alternative character. Why construct new building
when there are existing ones designed and available for this purpose. Is there a need to negate the past,
when the fact that Community Cultural Centres in the time of SFRY experience their peak as symbols of
a better time in any sense?
REFERENCES
[1] Bakoevi, A.: Domovi kulture u Srbiji, Cultural and Educational Community of Serbia, n.m, n.y.
[2] Dadi-Dinulovi, T.: Izlog pozorita: medijska funkcija pozorinih fasada u Beogradu,
Proceedings book FDU, Belgrade, february 2011, pages 57-74.
[3] Denegri, J. :Arhitektura i kultura, Logos, Split, 1989, page 157.
[4] Dragievi-ei, M., Stojkovi, B.: Kultura, menadement, animacija,marketing, Clio, Belgrade,
2007, page 163.
[5] uki, V.: Drava i kultura: Studije savremene kulturne politike, Institute of Theater, Film, Radio
and Television, FDU, Belgrade, 2011, pages 187-202.
[6] Nikoli, M., Ivanievi M.: Domovi kulture u SR Srbiji, Center for study in cultural development,
Belgrade, 1969, pages 6-7.
[7] Rogi, I., Mutnjakovi, A.: Centri kulture, domovi kulture i drutveni centri u SR Hrvatskoj,
Center for culture of Hrvatska, Zagreb, 1984, page 92.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Nataa Petkovi1
Branislava Stoiljkovi2
Vladana Stankovi3

SOCIAL HOUSING: KEY ISSUES AND ARCHITECTURAL MODELS

THAT MAY OVERCOME THE PROBLEMS
Abstract: Market liberation, that primary had affected countries in transition, was in direct relation with
development of market economy and has influenced the price per square meter of a living space, either
for sale or rent. In such circumstances it is obvious that all social groups are not able to provide
themselves adequate living space. Permanent or temporary unemployment, low incomes, health problems,
elder population, economic insecurity of young people in school or young professionals at the beginning
of working carrier make the purchase or rent adequate living space unavailable for certain amount of
people. Social housing, as a form of non-market housing, is the way that these socially vulnerable groups
meet the housing needs with the support of the government, in accordance with the social housing
strategy and programs for realization of the housing policy.
From the standpoint of achieving social balance, social housing is a critical factor that ensures the
integration of all groups in society, including those considered vulnerable. It is essential to integrate
social housing with other types of housing, in order to achieve social cohesion. This is the reason why
social housing is considered today as an instrument of social inclusion, which seeks to balance the social
structure of a neighbourhood. Tendency is to reduce the negative effects that were observed in some of
previous models of social housing in developed western countries such as segregation, ghettoization, etc.
It is necessity to emphasize the importance of architectural quality of social housing, and the need for the
establishment and application of models that would contribute to further development and improvement
of living conditions in this type of buildings.
Key words: social housing, public housing, housing policy

SOCIJALNO STANOVANJE: PROBLEMI I ARHITEKTONSKI

MODELI KOJI MOGU DA UTIU NA NJIHOVO PREVAZILAENJE
Rezime: Oslobaenje trita koje je prvenstveno pogodilo zemlje koje se nalaze u tranziciji uticalo je da
kvadrat stambenog prostora, bilo da se radi o prodaji ili zakupnini, diktira razvoj trine ekonomije. U
takvim okolnostima oigledno je da sve socijalne grupe nisu u mogunosti da obezbede sebi ivotni
prostor. Trajna ili privremena nezaposlenost, male zarade, zdravstveni problemi, poodmaklo starosno
doba ili materijalna neobezbeenost mladih ljudi na kolovanju ili na poetku radnog veka ine kupovinu
ili zakup odgovarajueg stana na tritu nedostupnim odreenom broju ljudi. Socijalno stanovanje, kao
oblik netrinog stanovanja, je nain da navedene ugroene socijane grupe zadovolje stambene potrebe
koje se ostvaruju uz podrku drave, u skladu sa strategijom socijalnog stanovanja i programima za
relazaciju stambene politike.
Sa aspekta postizanja socijalne ravnotee, socijalno stanovanje je izuzetno vaan faktor kojim se
obezbeuje integracija svih grupa u drutvenu zajednicu, ukljuujui i onih koje se smatraju ugroenim.
Od kljune je vanosti integrisanje socijalnog stanovanja sa drugim vidovima stanovanja, kako bi se
postigla socijalna kohezija. Zbog toga se socijalno stanovanje danas sagledava i kao instrument

PhD student, Faculty of civil engineering and architecture, A. Medvedeva 14, Nis, Serbia, natasapetkovic83@gmail.com
Assist., Faculty of civil engineering and architecture, A. Medvedeva 14, Nis, Serbia, bkatanic2@hotmail.com
3
PhD student, Faculty of civil engineering and architecture, A. Medvedeva 14, Nis, Serbia, s.vladana@gmail.com
2

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socijalne inkluzije koji tei da uravnotei socijalnu strukturu jednog susedstva, ime se smanjuju tetni
efekti koji su uoeni u nekim od preanjih modela socijalnog stanovanja u razvijenim zemljama kao to
su segregacija, getoizacija i slino.
S tim u vezi potrebno je istai vanost arhitektonskog kvaliteta socijalnog stanovanja, i potrebu za
uspostavljanjem i primenom modela koji bi doprineli daljem razvoju i poboljanju uslova ivota kod
ovakvog tipa stanovanja.
Kljune rei: socijalno stanovanje, neprofitno stanovanje, stambena politika
1. INTRODUCTION
Since the mid-1970s in western European countries and since the 1990s in countries in transition
housing is increasingly becoming competitive, oriented toward economy market and open to economic
pressures. Former communist countries had massive privatization of their housing funds; therefore the
vast majority of households own their apartment (75% in Poland, 84% in Estonia, 94% in Hungary and
Romania) [5]. Only a small part of the housing stock goes to rental housing (which is also owned mostly
by private owners), and therefore people without any kind of living space are forced to rent it at high
price rates - or to buy it under rigid conditions of bank loan policy (In Bulgaria, the average household
spends more than half of monthly income on rent for apartment) [5].
In Western European countries, the situation is quite different: in France only 56% of the housing
stock is owned by households that live in it, in the Netherlands 54% and only 43% in Germany. Therefore
an important part of housing funds is on rental real-estate market, it facilitates mobility of manpower and
helps social endangered households. In the Netherlands, for example, 46% of housing fund are rental, of
which 76% is owned by the state (public housing) [5].
This concept of social housing in Europe has appeared as an instrument for solving the lack of housing
space first caused by the massive industrialisation and processes of urbanization that occurred at the
beginning of the twentieth century, and then as a consequence of the destruction caused by the Second
World War. In both cases, the target population were not always the poorest, but also working class and
middle-class households. In contrast to Serbia its surrounding regional countries social houses are
assigned to the most vulnerable categories of people such as refugees, Roma population or the citizens
below the poverty line [6]. For this reason, today more and more priority is given to the term "public
housing", non profit housing or affordable housing. The phrase "social housing" implies that it is the
housing of the low economic status and lower housing standards. In contrast, the term "public housing"
underlines the involvement of public sector support for a particular period of time for households which
are not able to meet their housing needs in an appropriate manner, and also implies that these are different
categories of users with various institutional arrangements and different living standards.
All of this led to the fact that he concept of social housing is defined differently in the regulations of
different countries, as well as in various works of relevant authors.
The definition of the European Federation of Public, Cooperative & Social Housing (CECODHAS),
which is used along many regions indicates that despite large differences in the types of social housing
within the members countries of CECODHAS, the most important role of social housing is to assist
households that have insufficient earnings to ensure adequate living space and to find appropriate
accommodation in the social and urban environment. A common feature of social housing within the
members is the existence of rules and criteria which ensure housing space for households users.
Definition of the rules for the housing allocation is the responsibility of the member countries and their
authorities. They are aimed at overcoming problems in the distribution system of housing supply and
demand arising from the liberal market situation and problems arising from lack of appropriate and
affordable housing.''[6]
2. SOCIAL HOUSING IN SERBIA
The turning point in the housing policy of Serbia starts at 1990s when the government revoked the
system of public housing funds The privatization of public housing fund (this fund represented the
majority of the total housing stock in cities) was performed first in accordance with the Housing Act of

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1990, and then the Housing Act of 1992, which within five years led to the ownership structure of the
about 98% within private home users [1].
In Serbia, 90.4% of households have ownership of housing space (98% of the housing stock is owned
by private individuals, as opposed to 60-80% in developed western countries). Ownership structure of the
is in disproportion with the size of the location of the dwelling; in other words it is more common for
smaller towns. The possibility of renting an apartment is the privilege of households that are above the
poverty line. The poor households are often elderly (with own apartment), or rural and even when it
comes to urban households which are below the poverty line, they also own some kind of living space,
which usually does not meet basic standards of decent housing. It is also a noticeable difference in the
quality of housing between the households above and below the poverty line. Thus, the average floor area
per inhabitant above the poverty line is 30.9 m, households below poverty line own only 22.4 m;
wealthy population living in buildings of recent date (47.4%) while those below the poverty line live in
the buildings generally build in the middle of last century (46.4%) [5]. The difference is also noticeable
in terms of basic infrastructure: running water, sewer, bathroom installation within the dwelling (95%
versus 60%)
When it comes to existing social housing projects in Serbia, the one which distinguished is the
recently completed SIRP project (Settlement and Integration for Refugees), which was implemented by
the UN HABITAT, The aim of this program was to find housing solutions for 670 low-income refugees
households and other vulnerable types of households in Serbia [4]. The programme developed a system
of social housing and necessary infrastructure for its implementation. At the local level, in seven
municipalities in Serbia, it has been tried to achieve the establishment and empowerment of the capacity
of municipal housing agencies. Activities at the national level were directed towards the development of
national housing policy, strategy and action plan for social housing development.
In cities and municipalities covered by this program 531 residential units were built, intended for lowcost housing for refugees population, former refugees and local vulnerable population below the poverty
line. Apartments are owned by the local authorities and cant be purchased just rented for a limited period
of time through public competitions. Among this, the SIRP project supported four alternative housing
programs to insure the appropriate living space for socially vulnerable categories without building the
new housing areas (improvement and regulation of Roma population settlements in Kraljevo;
reconstruction of existing social housing stock in Cacak; improvement of living conditions of the housing
of different ownership in Valjevo and providing small housing loans in several towns in Serbia [5].
3. TARGET GROUPS
Target groups of users are defined primarily by the policy and then the appropriate regulation bodies
in the field of social housing. Current practice in Serbia shows that social housing implies housing for
refugees and social vulnerable categories. In contrast, the practice of European countries implies the
housing stock available for a wide variety of users.
Generally, the target groups are households that dont have incomes which would provide themselves
an adequate standard of living space (owned or leased) considering market conditions. This implies a
clear evaluation of the basic and all additional criterias, such as the current housing conditions, household
size, the total income regarding all financial sources, age and etc [1].
It is possible to point out the following target groups:
People unable to work (various forms of disease and disability),
Refugees or ethnic groups,
Young professionals with an university education and knowledge, essential for development and
creation for different kinds of programs relevant to the local community,
Young couples with children, and with appropriate qualifications for this types of housing,
Single parents with one or more children,
The elderly population without family support,
Households below poverty line.
It should be noticed that the primary target groups are determined in accordance with the financial
ability of a community and the state and are subject of special rules and regulations [1].

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4. NEW TENDENCES IN SOCIAL HOUSING

It is generally accepted that appropriate urban planning and architectural design greatly contribute to
the sustainability of social housing and that are important for the success of housing policies.
Construction of social housing, however, has not always been developed in the framework of a
comprehensive straregy of urban planning. This may happen because of the marginal role of social
housing in some countries, particularly in countries that have privatized most of its former public rental
sector and still not introduced social housing programs. It is necesary to prevent scattered or mono
functional urban development. Spatial planning is increasingly associated with social planning, in
countries with long and continuous tradition of social housing policies (such as Scandinavian countries,
Austria or the Netherlands) and tends to the use the social housing in order to promote social cohesion
through spatial inclusion in the larger residential area. At the same time, the aim is to strength the model
of ''Compact city' [7], in order to provide a better basis for social sustainability, to create more selfsufficient, socially mixed urban communities and to improve the mixture of different models of use,
quality of activities and community service. This should emphasis social and spatial integration witch
becomes increasingly important when building for the most vulnerable population.

Figure 6 Social housing Poljane, Slovenia, architects Bevk/Petrovic - New concept of social housing tries to integrate
housing into regular residential areas
(http://www.archdaily.com/90095/social-housing-poljane-bevk-perovic-arhitekti/- Jun 2012)

There are two concepts of social housing in relation with the location - urban position, which reflecte
the social values underlying the concept of social housing:
The model applied in the U.S. (spatial segregation); tenants in social housing are also the
beneficiaries of social help. The charahcteristics are: the construction of large groups of social
housing units in which are concentrated beneficiaries of social help; stigmatization of social
housing; concentration of citizens with the forms of so-called deviant behavior - prostitution,
alcoholism, drug addict, drug dealers and etc. Bad experiences led to demolition of these groups:
Prut Ajgo in St. Louis, demolished in seventies, Columbia Point in Boston, a housing group in
Manchester, United Kingdom (projects which were awarded for great design) [3].
The model applied in European countries, especially after the bad experiences from the U.S.:
small groups of social housing units were integrated into residental environment. It led to
heterogeneous property structure within the collective residential buildings; creation of
integration programs - education, employment, prevention, cultural facilities, social welfare ...
Various forms of social housing are applied: construction of the social housing, subsidized rent,
construction suuport using investments from the private funds, rental housing with a controlled
rent and other [3].
Architecture design plays an important role in creating good housing areas. Monotony can be avoided
by a mix of developers and/or architects within large housing areas [7]. The standard of social housing
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will always reflect specific national conditions; however, there is general agreement among experts that
the standards of social housing must be at least similar to the average quality of housing in the country to
avoid stigmatization and social segregation. In most countries social housing is therefore located among
other residential buildings [6].
Social inclusion in residential areas can be supported by adecuate design of the residential
environment, as well as the creation of pleasant exterior and interior common areas and communications
[6]. The architectural layout very much influences the feeling of security within housing estates; it can
therefore help to increase residents identification with their housing environment and to decrease
vandalism [7]. Standards of social housing can also greatly support the integration of in-migrants and of
other vulnerable groups.
In both cases, very often the solutions enable functional flexibility and adaptability of the space
organization and usage. These requirements are the result of lack of space and the need for the
multifunctional useage of space. Comparative analysis of some new examples show a tendency to
compound activities within internal structure while reducing the number of spatial determinants that
define them. Release of secondary space division a much quality space can be establishedin order to meet
a wide range of activities and possible spatilal organization [2]. Also, the lack of living space are often
being replaced with open spaces and common rooms within the area, which also contributes to social
cohesion.

Figure 2 Different units layout due to flexible organization of space (Social housing Lakua)
(French H., New urban housing, Yale University press, pg.177)

Two models of construction can be distinguish depending on user groups. In a situation where
individual users are previuslu known and fully understood apartments are designed in collaboration with
them. If the users are unknown, the apartments should not be finished in the final stage, because in this
way it allow users to adjust and design their living space by their own needs [2].
Health aspect of the social housing programmes, have primarily included sanitation and natural
lighting and ventilation of rooms. Protection against noise was added later, mainly as a reaction to
increasing vehicle traffic. But health in housing estates is also connected to the structural safety of
buildings and to fire safety [7]. Most new social housing estates include green spaces and open areas;
their maintenance and accessibility may, however, differ. This is closely connected to the quality and
structure of the overall management, and to the degree of responsibility that residents themselves feel or
are given [7].
Social housing can act as a model for ecological, energy-saving construction as it is closely
connected to public regulations. Therefore, new social housing estates all over Europe include pilot
projects aimed at ecological optimization in construction and maintenance. Social housing has often
had a pioneering role, resulting in new standards in housing in general. New building methods have been
closely connected to many social housing programmes, and in most cases this has meant, and means,
more than simply building a large number of individual dwellings, such estates being planned together
with public infrastructure and communal facilities, and within an overall urban concept. [7]
5. CONCLUSION
The quality and standards of social housing are related to the spatial planning, and the architectural
design. Social housing must be viewed within the city's comprehensive urban strategy. Since the spatial
and urban planning is increasingly associated with social planning, countries that have a long tradition of
social housing policy use the social housing as a key element in social cohesion through spatial
incorporation of this type of housing among major residential areas. developed in many countries.

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The social housing standard will always reflect the specific political and economical
conditions of the state, however, experience in the Europe indicates that the minimum social housing
standards must be similar to the average quality of housing in country in order to prevent stigmatization
and social segregation. In most countries, social housing, herefore is locate among diiferent residental or
mixed-use areas.
The architectural design significantly affects the sense of security within residential areas, therefore it
can help increase the level of identification of tenants with their housing environment and reduce
vandalism. Social housing standards may also facilitate integration of immigrants and other vulnerable
groups.
The character of social housing buildings in Serbia, is more or less based on the concepts and
standards of housing for unknown user conceived during the mass construction of the socialist regime.
World practice shows that this approach has to change in order to improve the quality and diversity of
housing units. Also, it is necessary that architectural model corresponds to the funding mechanism and
sotial housing policy in order to achive it sustainabality.
REFERENCES
[1] Damjanovi D., Gligorijevi ., Socijalno stanovanje: Prikaz stambenih politika Srbije i

odabranih zemalja Evrope, Palgo centar, Beograd 2010

[2] Meo V., Risti J. Savremeni arhitektonski koncepti subvencionisanog stanovanja: Komparacija
svetskih i domaih iskustava, NAUKA+PRAKSA asopis Instituta za graevinarstvo i
arhitekturu Graevinsko-arhitektonskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Niu, Broj 13, Graevinskoarhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Niu, 2010. Godina, p.69-73
[3] Petovar K., Stanovanje kao ljudsko pravo, Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu Tema:

Socijalno stanovanje,
(http://www.arh.bg.ac.rs/upload/0708/Osnovne_akademske_studije/semestar_06/Sociolo
gija_1/10%20Stanovanje%20kao%20ljudsko%20dobro.pdf) Jun 2012
[4] Ramirez L., Majovic ., Galassi B., oli R., Vuksanovi-Macura Z., SIRP BOOK, UN
HABITAT Belgrade, Belgrade, 2008
[5] Ka pristojnim stanovima za siromane i ranjive: Analiza socijalnog stanovanja u zemljama
Evropske unije, regionu i Srbiji Preporuke u prilog razvoju socijalnog stanovanja u Srbiji,
Beograd, Novembar 2008, p.1-15
(http://www.grupa484.org.rs/files/Ka%20pristojnim%20stanovima%20za%20siromasne%20i%2
0ranjive.pdf) April 2012
[6] Uputstva o socijalnom stanovanju: Principi i primeri, Ujedinjene Nacije, eneva, vajcarska
2008, (http://www.zurbnis.rs/zakoni/Uputstva%20o%20socijalnom%20stanovanju.pdf) Jun 2012
[7] Guidelines on social housing- Principles and examples, ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR
EUROPE, Geneva, UNITED NATIONS, New York and Geneva, 2006, p.80-89
(http://hofinet.org/upload_docs/Guidelines%20on%20Social%20Housing.pdf) Jun 2012

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Duan Ranelovi1

BIOCLIMATIC PRINCIPLES OF URBAN DESIGN AND PLANNING

Summary: Urban planning and architectural buildings directly affect energy consumption. Equally
important are not just building designs, but also planning for urban structures. Rationality solutions,
functionality, cost and aesthetics are the criteria that every architect and planner has to integrate into his
project in an optimal way, in order to reach energy-efficient solutions.
Many parameters such as air fields, urban characteristics of the site conditions, the shape of the building,
the number and manner of its use, method of construction and energy sources used in the facility are just
some of the relevant conditions that should be paid special attention to get the best possible solution and
quality of housing built to the highest level.
The aim of this paper is to provide urban planners and architects a brief overview of the basic principles
of bioclimatic design and urban planning for obtaining energy-efficient solutions in all phases of
planning and designing buildings. All these items will be accompanied by appropriate example of a
bioclimatic house which will help for the further understanding of this way of designing.
Key words: bioclimatic design, urban design, planning

BIOKLIMATSKI PRINCIPI URBANISTIKOG PROJEKTOVANJA I

PLANIRANJA
Rezime: Urbanistiko planiranje i arhitektonska reenja zgrada neposredno utiu na potronju energije.
Podjednako su vani ne samo projektovanje zgrada ve i planiranje urbanih struktura. Racionalnost
reenja, funkcionalnost, ekonominost i estetika su kriterijumi koje bi svaki projektant i planer na
optimalan nain morali da integriu u svoj projekat, kako bi se dolo do energetski efikasnog reenja.
Mnogobrojni parametri kao to su klima podruja, karakteristike lokacije i urbanistiki uslovi, oblik
zgrade, broj korisnika i nain korienja objekta, kao i nain izgradnje i izvori energije koji se koriste u
objektu su samo neki od relevantnih uslova na koje treba obratiti posebnu panju kako bi dobili to bolje
reenje i kvalitet stanovanja podigli na najvii nivo.
Cilj ovog rada je da urbanistima i arhitektama prui kratak pregled osnovnih principa bioklimatskog
projektovanja i urbanististikog planiranja za dobijanje energetski efikasnih reenja u svim fazama
planiranja i projektovanja zgrada. Sve ove stavke bie propraene adekvatnim primerom jedne
bioklimatske kue to e dodatno olakati razumevanje ovog naina projektovanja.
Kljune rei: bioklimatsko projektovanje, urbanistiko projektovanje, planiranje
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the goals of urban planning is the preservation of natural conditions and creation of a healthy
and humanistic urban environment. Before you start planning, it is necessary to analyze and assess the
natural conditions of a given space. Urban planning should be linked with natural conditions and to
include a careful assessment of the impact of construction upon the surrounding areas. Beside the most

Duan Ranelovi, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000
Ni, e-mail: randjelovic.dusan.88@gmail.com

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favorable sites for development of urban structures we have to predict the set of parks, green areas and
artificial barriers for protection of the wind, and other ways to save energy. Space zone designated on the
basis of qualitative parameters of the microclimate is the basis for applying the principles of bioclimatic
planning.
Planning should seek the level of energy use that would be consistent with the desired socio-economic
development [4]. To achieve this, the architects and urban constructors have to be familiar with the urban
and construction climatology and building physics. Thez also have to be informed about local climatic,
geographic, geological and pedological characteristics, supplemented by knowledge of the customs of the
people who inhabit certain regions. Through a specific project such as a family house in an appropriate
location, it will be easier to see and adopt some of the basic principles of bioclimatic design.
2. BIOCLIMATIC PRINCIPLES OF URBAN DESIGN AND PLANNING
While the energy conversion and usage are normal and continuous process in all buildings, the actual
energy requirements vary considerably between individual residential units. The main factors that
influence these requirements are:
Urban conditions (characteristics of the location where the facility is built and environmental
conditions);
Air in areas where the building is located;
Shape of the building;
Number of users and usage of the facility;
Design and construction of the building;
Energy used in the facility, type and quality of the equipment. [5]
2.1. Site Selection and Planning
To introduce and analyze the factors that are important for rational energy use in choosing the new
location the following methodology's proposed:
Collection and analysis of existing rules and regulations;
Analysis of geographic locations and climatic conditions;
Analysis of conditions of the natural environment upon energy use;
identifying opportunities that contain the existing infrastructure in terms of reducing total energy
requirements;
Analysis of conditions of the built environment;
Analysis of the impact of new buildings and planning sites. [5]
The first energy-relevant decision in the construction of a building or structure is a range of urban
locations. The choice of location is largely influenced by economic factors, availability of land and
techno-physical criteria.
During design, urban structures and types of buildings are often determined by factors that are relevant
to energy savings. These factors include, among others, adapting existing buildings on the site, terrain,
building traditions and economic parameters. The priorities that should be taken during designing are
primarily adaptation of the location and use of natural climatic conditions (application of the principles of
bioclimatic planning and design), before the use of solar energy and compact structures construction.

Figure 1 Urban plan of analyzed location

The total site analysis should include investigation of physical factors, such as: climate, land use,
configuration, drainage, soil composition, vegetation, specific characteristics, etc.
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The family house analyzed in this paper2 is designed for a site on the right bank of the river, the bridge
between the ''White'' and Medijana bridge (Figure 1). The space is almost ideal for the construction of
residential buildings. At the higher level it allows a view of the rest of the city, and enables a view toward
the river. It is also located in the quieter part of town, almost on the periphery.
One residential building is planned to be built in the block where they applied the principles of
bioclimatic urban and architectural planning (Figure 2):
Southern orientation is consistently implemented in all buildings;
Use of natural fall in the terrain in some places allows the burial of facilities and land use as a
thermal insulator;
Vegetation is of great importance: green flat roofs further improves thermal insulation by
protecting the building from overheating in summer, enabling the achievement of better
microclimatic conditions at the site and improving humidity and creation of a more pleasant
environment.

Figure 2 - Site plan of residential house in given area

2.2. Climate
One of the most important features of a location is climate, and each site has its own microclimate.
Parameters affecting the microclimate of an area are elevation, slope, orientation, terrain, proximity to
large bodies of water, etc. The influence of climate on the building can be controlled by careful design
and its position on the site.
Bioclimatic design of buildings and facilities with the application of passive solar systems requires a
good knowledge of local weather conditions and how that affects the climate conditions of the facility.
The quality of life necessary for people given specific climatic conditions relates not only to the premises
where they spend most of the time (indoor air) but also in the external environment (microclimate).
In architecture, the most significant parameters are those that determine the need for building heating
and cooling, and thus have a decisive influence on human comfort. These are solar radiation, temperature
humidity, wind and precipitation. Climate, with regards to a certain site, must be controled to ensure high
comfort level.
2

Conceptual design of student Duan Ranelovi in course Bioklimatsko i ekoloko projektovanje, IX semester, II year
master studies, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, mentors: Dr Milan Tani dia, Mr Miomir Vasov
dia

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2.3. The configuration of the terrain

Fitting of the building into the surrounding terrain is one of the most important elements of bioclimatic
planning. The preferred form is a rectangle with locations across the east side and west side of the narrow
north-south direction. Slopes facing south are ideal because they provide a more seamless exposure to
sunlight, higher temperature and improve the microclimate.
In the ground floor, on the south side it is recommended to locate living quarters, and on the north side
one extra room. Recommended are flat or slightly inclined single slope roofs in order to provide
perspective and higher density housing. Buildings are often set on hills in order to provide beautiful
views, but they consume much more energy compared to the protected sites on flat ground. At higher
elevations, on the days with clear skies, it is cooler than the lower lying ground, but sunlight can be more
intense. [3]
If the building is dug into the ground (Figure 3), which is more easily achieved on a natural sloping
terrain than upon level ground, one can take advantage of the protective properties of the soil; especially
if the soil is well drained or filtered. This is an essential prerequisite for the successful design of this type
buildings.

Figure 3 Sections of the designed house and use of the favuorable terrain

The concept of partially underground and earth covered house were created modeled on Scandinavian
and Icelandic forms of rural architecture. Plants on roofs have been known for hundreds of years for
thermal insulation, thermal accumulation and noise. The final layer of the roof, among other things,
protect from direct sun radiation.
The buildings which are protected by the land require less energy for temperature change, because the
ground temperature is higher in winter and lower in summer than the air temperature to which the
building is exposed on flat ground. Fitting of the building to the terrain and its location on the site are the
prerequisites for the successful functioning and operation of buildings.
2.4. Orientation
Considering a model of energy consumption, if the energy criteria were given priority, it would have
parallel rows of houses south oriented at uniform height, with no shear, which would lead to monotony,
and consequently to inhuman living.
Modern sanitary norms require that residential buildings and residences are located, oriented and
designed in such a way that the more space, especially that in which most reside, is sufficiently sunlit.
"The criterion of sunny" requires that the duration of insulation on the reference date, ie. February 21 or
21 October (northern hemisphere) is not less than 2 hours. [2]
South orientation (the angle from 0 to +12 ) obtained during the winter about is exposed 10-30%
more total radiation than the north side in the same climate.
2.5. Exposure to wind
Wind affects the objects in two ways: a favorable summer cooling effect by reducing the need for
artificial ventilation, whilst in other periods of the year and especially during the heating season,
significant heat loss due to higher speeds and increased infiltration through the windows and the building
envelope.

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Ideal location in relation to the wind is that of the south-facing slope, whereby the natural landscape
provides protection from northerly winds with simultaneous exposure to the sun. A shelter can be
provided by trees, shrubs and architectural features of the building.
The favorable location and layout of houses, trees and vegetation are not only aesthetic but also the
energy benefits. Buildings should be grouped so that they are facing south and are more protected from
the wind.
2.6. Vegetation
Attention should pe especially paid to the shadowing of the walls facing south, before the amount and
type of trees. It is critically important that the proper placement of deciduous trees is thought of regarding
heating in winter, cooling in summer and good illumination of the building throughout the year.
The percentage penetration of sunlight ranges from 30-85%, depending on tree species. [1]
Trees with high crown should be planted as close as possible to the south faade to improve
ventilation and prevent the diversion of the flow of air upward.
2.7. The principles of active and passive solar design
The characteristics of the terrain and location of the analyzed projects are beneficial. In this project
there is sufficient sunlight, with no strong winds, and is built on the steeper slope. These are nearly ideal
conditions for the design of a bio-climatic and ecological house. The slope is fully utilized in the design,
which is important from the aspect of energy efficiency design and makes the object in some way ''period
necessary'' to the environment.
The building was designed in three levels (Figure 4). At the first level (level 0) is the garage,
economical rooms and study room. The second level (Level -1) is reserved for sleeping rooms (night
zone), while the third level (level -2) living room, dining room, kitchen and ancillary facilities (living
area). The building is mostly oriented and open to the south. Since the river is also on the south side, the
point of view coincides with good orientation. Levels of the house are layered with regards to one another
and follow the configuration of the terrain. A large portion is buried in the ground, particularly the most
northern section, and the problem of insulation of most of the house is resolved in a natural way.
In all of these houses have been applied many principles of active and passive solar design:
Glazing of the south facade, which contributes to direct solar gains;
An orientation of the southern trombe wall regarding high storage capacity;
An orientation towards the south with large windows, allowing sunlight in during the transition
periods and in winter allowing penetration deep into the building
Construction of the pool, which enhances the reflection of solar radiation
Consistent implementation of the principle of zoning by correct allocation of space in the northern
and southern areas of the house
Thermal protection of the primary unit in northern areas that require less heat (garages,
workshops)
A stable microclimate is ensured with energy balance combination; given a variety of walls, glass
surfaces, roofs and swimming pool
Use of solar panels on the roof to heat water
The project is provided trombe wall, solar panels, solar panels and green terraces. Green terraces
are designed as an impenetrable roof above the second level (level -2). They protect the area
below, and also create good views of the third level (level 0).

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Figure 4 Plans of designed residential house with respecting the principles of bioclimatic design

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The form of the house (Figure 5) is simple, without richly detailed dimensions. This is important to
ensure a smaller loss of heat. Modern composition is obtained by the introduction of bay windows and the
presence of cube- like stractures that ''stand out'' from the compact form.

Figure 5 - The form object is simple, without any form of richly detailed dimensions

Proximity to bodies of water affects the heat loss of the building. Surface water can reflect solar
radiation and increases the burden of facades, and can cool the surrounding air.
With respect to materialise, it is intended to be covered mostly by Cladding. Wood is a natural and
ecological material, so it is easy to blend with the environment. The rest of the facade is covered with
panels of untreated concrete. Much of the southern facade is of the glass (Figure 6).

Figure 6 - North and South facades

3. CONCLUSION
Rational use of energy is one of the most important factors in the economic balance of the country,
saving resources and protecting the environment. Knowing all these bioclimatic parameters and the
proper use of local climate and microclimate conditions, the planning and design can be achieved by
improving the convenience of direct users of these facilities, as well as rational use of energy and its
exploitation. Successful compliance with the principles of bioclimatic urban design and planning depends
on knowing traditional forms of construction in different regions. Architects and city planners are
constantly fighting for the preservation of environmental values and continuity in architecture and culture.
To get construction and energy saving principles closer to the professional public, big importance has
to be made of examples of models of construction, the calculated values of energy consumption and
acceptance by the user. The purpose of this short review is to provide the basic principles and conditions
to be observed in this type of design. Adequate examples are project specific and apply these principles,
which should facilitate a greater understanding of this matter.

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REFERENCES
[1] chard, P., Gicquel, R., European Passive Solar Handbook, Brussels, 1986.
[2] ECE United Nations, ECE Compendium of Model Provisions for Building Regulations,
Residential Building; United Nations, Genva, 1990.
[3] Hebgen, H., Bauen mit der Sonne, Energie-Verlag GMBH, Heidelberg, 1987.
[4] Pajevi, M., Razvojne mere i aktivnosti na podruju racionalnog korienjaenergije u
zgradarstvu, Industrijalizovana stambena izgradnja - ISI br.4, Beograd, 1983, pg. 5-27
[5] Pucar, M., Pajevi, M., Jovanovi-Popovi, M., Bioklimatsko planiranje i projektovanje,
Beograd, 1994, pg. 8-17

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Jovana Stanii1
Milena Kamasi2

IMPACT OF URBAN SPACE ON PRE-SHOOL FACILITIES IN NOVI

SAD
Abstract: When designing buildings of preschool institutions, one of the relevant factors is the optimal
choice of location. Estate urabinity can often be the cause of unfavorable conditions for the
implementation of appropriate programs. This paper will provide a critical review of the urban spaces in
which the preschool institutions in Novi Sad were built. According to pre-formulated criteria, an analysis
of typical case studies has been done, to become aware of their advantages and disadvantages. The most
common problems and errors that occur during the planning of urban space are determined with
evaluation and comparative analysis of individual examples of these buildings. The goal of this paper is
to answer the question how and to what extent urban planning can contribute to better conditions for the
functioning and organization of educational work and educational programs for children in preschool
institutions.
ey words: preschool institutions, estate urabinity, Novi Sad.

UTICAJ URBANISTIKE LOKACIJE NA OBJEKTE PREDKOLSKIH

USTANOVA U NOVOM SADU
Rezime: Pri projektovanju objekata predkolskih ustanova jedan od relevantnih faktora je optimalan
izbor lokacije. Loi urbanistiki uslovi utiu na neadekvatno sprovoenje programa. U radu je prikazan
kritiki osvrt na urbanistika ureenja prostora u okviru kojih su izgraeni objekti predkolskih ustanova
u Novom Sadu. Prema unapred formulisanim kriterijumima, izvrena je analiza karakteristinih studija
sluaja, kako bi se uvidele njihove prednosti i mane. Vrednovanjem pojedinanih primera ovih objekata i
komparativnom analizom utvruju se najei problemi i greke koje se javljaju prilikom urbanistikog
planiranja prostora. Cilj rada je odgovoriti na pitanje kako i u kojoj meri se urbanistikim postupcima
moe doprineti boljim uslovima za funkcionisanje, rad i organizaciju vaspitnog i obrazovnog programa
za decu u predkolskim ustanovama.
Kljune rei: predkolske ustanove, urbanitet naselja, Novi Sad.
1. INTRODUCTION
The building of a pre-school facility as well as its closer and wider environment make an inseparable
unity which should be modified for children, i.e. appropriate for their needs in safe spaces and conditions.
That is the reason why one of the relevant factors, when designing these buildings is the optimal location
choice. Bad urban conditions can be the cause of unfavorable conditions for the implementation of an
adequate program, outdoors as well as indoors. The problems usually appear when the space, within
which the building of the pre-school facility is constructed, does not meet the demands in relation to
1

Jovana Stanii M.Sc. in Architecture, PhD student at Faculty of Technical Sciences, Architecture and Urban Planing,
University of Novi Sad; e-mail: jovana.stanisic87@gmail.com.
2
Milena Kamasi a student on PHD, Department of Architecture and Urban Planing University of Novi Sad ;e-mail.:
milenakamasi@gmail.com

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hygienic, ecological, traffic, communal, urban and other requirements. As we do not often have the
possibility to choose the space where to build, we are forced to use to the maximum the potential of a
given location in order to provide conditions as good as possible for work and care of the children.
This research is going to give a critical review on urban solutions in the scope of which the buildings
of pre-school facilities in Novi Sad have been built. According to previously formulated criteria, analysis
of the typical case studies of the buildings has been conducted. These are representative for particular
types of solutions of the relation: building lot wider environment (estate). Each analyzed example
contains some of the aspects which can be called pedagogical balance[1], where architecture and urban
planning, in a certain way, meet pedagogical, educational and social needs of the child. Evaluating
individual examples of these buildings and by comparative analysis of the most frequent problems and
errors which occur in the course of urban planning of a space have been established. The aim of this paper
is to give the answer to the question how and in what degree urban procedures can contribute to better
conditions, functioning, work and organization of pedagogical and educational programs for children in
pre- school facilities.
2. EVALUATION CRITERIA OF PARTICULAR EXAMPLES OF THE BUILDINGS OF PRESCHOOL FACILITIES
First forms of facilities of pre-school education in Vojvodina were formed at the beginning of the XIX
century, on the territory of the former Habsburg Monarchy, when Vojvodina represented, as far as urban
planning was concerned a homogeneous structure. Organization of kindergartens inside the already
existing houses marked the beginning of their development on these territories. After World War II the
need for the construction of new buildings for kindergartens appeared, which contributed to their
development and fitting into the urban environment of the cities in Vojvodina, which at the time were
developing rapidly. New regulations were adopted and they defined basic parameters based on which
locations for the buildings of pre-school facilities were determined. Norms defined the distance of the
kindergarten building from a residential area, that there had to be a sidewalk on the way to the
kindergarten, that there were not supposed to be any major traffic crossroads on the way to the
kindergarten, that there was a lot of greenery in the area, etc. [3] Unfortunately, due to great urban
changes, these principles were not obeyed. The increasing number of inhabitants in the cities caused a
greater need for the construction of pre-school facilities, which often, because of the lack of space were
built in inappropriate and inadequately chosen and formed locations.
When planning the construction of the buildings of pre-school facilities we should take into account
the characteristic of the area, as well as its traffic arteries in the scope of the physical structure of the city.
One of the basic conditions necessary to achieve this is the right choice of location and the right
orientation of the building.
The quality of location implies the quality of closer location, i.e. immediate environment of the
building of the pre-school facility, and the quality of the wider location implies the quality of the whole
area. [2] Basic elements of the micro-location are: place (space); activity or content and the environment.
[7] However, when we talk about the micro-location of a concrete typology of building, there are a lot
more factors that are correlated. If we start with the lot itself, intended for the construction of the preschool facility, its size and shape, the main determinant should be the child. Namely, the size of the lot is
determined by Norms, so 30 m2 should be predicted per child, at least 15 m2 of outdoor space and 10 m2
indoors. [2] The shape of the lot in most cases can not be chosen, but the square or a rectangle with the
ratio of sides 1:2 are the best shapes. If we continue talking about the perfect conditions, the longer size of
the lot should have orientation towards north-south, and the occupation or the cover of the lot by the
building should not be greater than 1/3 of its total surface. [2]
The morphology of the terrain represents the important factor for the choice of location. The terrain
determined for the construction of the building of the kindergarten should be mostly flat or slightly
sloping in the direction of the favorable orientation of the building. Slopes towards the south are ideal and
they provide a greater and undisturbed exposure to the sun. [2] While designing kindergartens on a
certain lot, it should be taken into account that the already existing surrounding buildings, and existing
greenery, by their position and height, do not jeopardize the space of the kindergarten and do not decrease
the quantity of light which reaches it. The distance from the surrounding, apartment houses has to be from
200 500 m for the children younger than 3 years old, and 200 600 m for the children younger than 7
years old. [5]
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Favorable position of the location implies satisfaction of hygienic demands. In that sense, the building
of the pre-school facility should be build in a quiet area, by a greater green surface, further form the busy
traffic arteries. The outer noise caused by the traffic, different machines, passers by and other
unpredictable things is unavoidable. However, by a good positioning of the building i.e. orientation, it is
possible to reduce noise. Greenery is most often the way of protection against noise, because by its right
choice and positioning, noise can be reduced for a couple of decibels. High trees, however, should not be
planted by the south faade, because the sun is high in summer and trees by their shades can not protect
the building from an excessive insolation, while in winter when the suns rays are low, it would reduce
the possibility of warming. Tall trees should be planted in the western side and north-west side, because
in summer they protect from an excessive heat. [2]
When designing the building of a pre-school facility, the main entrance should be positioned in the
most accessible, and at the same time most favorable street, which does not have to be the busiest traffic
artery. The place of living should not be more than 1000 m away or not more than 15 minutes walk of a
child of 3 years old.
When choosing the location for the land for the construction of the building of pre-school facility,
special care is taken to:
enable a child safety on its way to the kindergarten, safe traffic access and appropriate conditions
in order for parents to bring and take children back home safely from the pre-school facility
land is in the location where there is no noise and where the concentration of hazardous materials
in the air does not exceed maximum allowed limits, allowed for residential areas;
location is possibly in the quiet part of the city , in the vicinity of parks and greenery, and further
from factories, busy roads and shopping malls
location is exposed to natural light;
it is porous enough, without humidity and ground waters
is protected from air currents, strong and cold winds [6]
Taking into account all the above mentioned, criteria for evaluation of the typical case studies of the
buildings of pre-school facilities are defined through the following requirements:
traffic arteries
distance of the pre-school facility from the place of living
size and shape of the lot
position and environment (orientation)
terrain morphology
land quality
accessibility to the building
safety
distance from the surrounding buildings and high greenery
3. IMPACT OF URBAN LOCATIONS ON THE BUILDINGS OF PRE-SCHOOL FACILITIES
IN NOVI SAD
The development of the forms of organized childrens care in Vojvodina started in the XIX century.
Those types of care were organized only to look after children while their parents were at work, inside the
already existing houses of Vojvodina. Together with the realization about the need for introduction of
regular programs for care and education in pre- school facilities, realization for the need of creation of
spaces, indoors as well as outdoors, which would entirely be modified for their most important users
children also appeared. Forms of buildings of pre-school facilities in the course of time developed most
different forms, as well as their position within the urban matrix of the city. Depending on the interaction
of buildings with their environment, its formed position in relation to the neighborhood and the lot there
are:
purpose-designed buildings, independent, free-standing childrens facilities;
purpose designed buildings of childrens facilities within other contents: residential buildings,
schools, shopping malls, business buildings, industrial complexes;

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renovated already existing spaces in the buildings, within other contents: residential buildings,
business and office buildings, schools
renovated already existing spaces in flats, converted into kindergartens [2]

3.1. Impact of urban space on the free-standing buildings of pre-school facilities

The greatest number of the built pre-school facilities in Novi Sad is just purpose-designed, freestanding childrens facilities on the lot. These buildings are most often built on the green surfaces, in the
middle or on the borders of an estate, often in an immediate vicinity of primary schools. Depending on
the relation between the building of the kindergarten and the lot itself as well as the relation between the
building and the regulation line, different types of pre-school facilities are formed: kindergartens build on
the regulation line, where the free green surface (yard) is located at the back part of the lot, behind the
building; kindergartens which are on the regulation line, built on the green surface, where the yards are
formed at the back or/and front part of the lot; kindergartens built far away from the regulation line,
erected on the spacious green surface of the yard which is surrounded from all parts by the buildings. 3
Examples of such buildings in Novi Sad are: Detelina sa cetiri lista (Four leaf clover), Bajka
(Fairy tale) Cuperak (Hair tuft), Guliver (Gulliver), Spomenak, Suncokret (Sunflower),
Carobni svet (Magic world), Biberce (Little Pepper), Novosadjance, etc.
The building of the pre-school facility Novosadjance is situated in Banovic Strahinja Street within
Novi Sad estate Liman 4. The estate is situated in the part of the city in which an orthogonal urban matrix
is present. In the blocks formed inside the orthogonal grid of streets multiple housing prevails, so it can be
said that this is one of the quietest parts of the city where there is no heavy traffic and crossroads.
Buildings are located on the borders of the blocks, so that each of them has the access from the vehicular
road and the sidewalk. Inside the blocks prevail the pedestrian zone and common green surfaces, which
makes it a favorable place for the construction of the building for the kindergarten.
The block where the building of the pre-school facility Novosadjance is situated is surrounded by
Car Lazar Boulevard and Narodnog fronta and Banovic Strahinja streets. Car Lazar Boulevard represents
the traffic connection with the city centre. Having in mind the size of the estate, and since the lot is
situated in the middle part, the distances from certain places of living are not greater than 10 minutes walk
of children of 3 years old. The big lot, of rectangular shape, by its longer side oriented towards west-east,
and by its shorter side oriented in the direction north-south, has the exit to Banovic Strahinja Street.
Building of the kindergarten, on the lot is positioned in the way that it is situated a little further from the
regulation line of Banovic Strahinja Street, from where the access to the building is provided. Favorable
orientation of the building with its longer side orientated in the direction north-south, enables adequate
lighting in all rooms inside the kindergarten. The percentage of the part of the lot which is covered by the
building, which does not exceed the 1/3 of its total surface, leaves the possibility of creation of a big
childrens yard for different types of games and recreation. In the immediate environment of the
kindergarten multiple housings prevails which are situated at an appropriate distance, which is greater
than 10 m. They, by their height do not decrease the quantity of light which reaches the rooms themselves
inside the building. On two sides the building is surrounded by spacious, green, park surfaces on which
there is tall greenery, which at the same time represents a green belt, an isolation from the busiest traffic
artery, Car Lazar Boulevard. The main entrance to the building is accessed from a less busy vehicular
road, Banovic Strahinja Street. However there are no separate entrances to the kindergarten for children
and adults, which questions the safety of the children while coming and leaving the building of the preschool facility. Car access is also provided from the same street, which additionally decreases safety.
Apart from a couple of parking spaces, predicted for the tenants of local buildings, for the kindergarten
there are no predicted organized parking lots which would serve the users of the pre-school facility. This
causes crowds and congestion of the street in the early hours when parents bring children to the
kindergarten.
The childrens kindergarten Carobni svet is designed in the quiet part of Detelinara estate,
surrounded by green park surfaces in Banatska Street. Free-standing building on the lot is positioned a
little bit further from the regulation line, which enabled formation of the big childrens yard, of 500 m2 of
area, at the back part of the lot which is equipped by the necessary equipment for different childrens
activities. This pre-school facility is specific because of the existence of two separate entrances to the
building. They are positioned in the way that they can be approached from two different vehicular roads.
The main entrance is accessed from Banatska Street, while the lateral, economic entrance is situated on
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the opposite, yard side and is accessed from Orlovic Pavla Street. This type of functional organization of
the space contributed to the safety of children.

Picture 1 Liman 4 estate

Picture 2 -Novosadjance kindergarten

Novosadjance

Picture 3 - Lot of the kindergarten

3.2. Relation between the urban space and pre-school facilities positioned within the building for
collective housing
The increasing need for kindergartens in Novi Sad, and at the same time lack of necessary space for
the construction of purpose designed buildings, have caused the positioning of pre-school facilities in the
spaces which do not have adequate conditions and necessary equipment. Kindergartens positioned within
buildings for collective housing, most often do not comply with requirements as far as hygienic, safety,
communal and other conditions are in question. Most often these pre-school facilities struggle with the
lack of space, not only indoors, but outdoors as well. Non existence of organized, fenced yard for the stay
of children in the open air and a separate entrance to the building which would serve only to the users of
the kindergarten, are some of the basic problems which appear with this type of positioning of
kindergartens. Some of the examples of pre-school facilities formed within apartment houses in Novi Sad
are: Zil Vern (Jules Verne), Bistricak 2, Sunce (The Sun), Leptiric (Little Butterfly), etc.
The apartment house in whose basement kindergarten Leptiric is situated is located in Brace Krkljus
Street in Adamovic estate in Novi Sad. Northern border of this area is formed by Futoski road, and the
western by the new Europe Boulevard, south border is formed by Car Lazar Boulevard and the east side
by Vojvode Knicanina Street and Atanaisja Gereckog and Djordja Servickog streets. In the estate
orthogonal network of streets is present, some of which are dead-ends as for example Olge Petrov and
Brace Lucic Streets. Quiet traffic, without busy crossroads make this area suitable for the location of the
building of pre-school facility. In the blocks prevails individual housing, while on the fringes of the estate
multiple housing and business buildings are erected. Some of the important institutions in the estate are
medical high school 7 April, Vasa Stajic primary school, Higijenski zavod AP Vojvodina, (Hygienic
Institute), etc.
Premises of the kindergarten Leptiric occupy the ground floor of the four storey residential
building/tower within the block which is bordered by the streets Braca Krkljus, Djordja Magarasevic,
Laze Nincic and Cara Dusan. Futoski put, which continues towards Jevrejska Street, represents the fast
traffic connection to the city centre. Since the whole estate is composed of only several smaller blocks,
and since the traffic is mainly quiet, the distance of the pre-school facility from the residential area is not
greater than 15 minutes walk. The lot on which the building is constructed is of rectangular shape with the
longer side orientated in the direction west-east, while the ground floor of the tower is square. The
majority of the lot is covered by the building which prevents formation of the necessary childrens yard.
Since the question is about multiple housing, for the tenants, greater open spaces than those which as
common green surfaces are formed between the building and nearby buildings are not predicted
according to the design. These areas are not fenced and they have a direct access to the vehicular roads
which makes them unsuitable for the users such as children. However, at the bottom of the next lot, which
leads to Car Lazar Street, a little fenced yard aimed for children was formed. The yard is in a very bad
condition and without necessary equipment for different types of activities in the open. The building is
surrounded on two sides by high-rise residential towers which are situated at a distance of 7, 8 m. They by
their height make a shade and prevent suns rays to reach the premises of the kindergarten which are in
the basement. Also, the building is on all four sides surrounded by tall trees which additionally block
natural lighting. The access to the building for the users of the kindergarten is separated from the entrance
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door which is used by the tenants of the building. It is placed at the lateral faade and accessed from the
stairs whose height is not appropriate for childrens measures. There is concrete driveway access to the
building which is positioned just next to the entrance, on the lateral side which endangers the safety of
children. As well, around the building there is no safety fence provided, which would enable the children
to stay freely in the open air. In that case, supervision of children by their teachers is necessary at every
moment of their stay in the kindergarten.
The kindergarten Zil Vern is situated in the basement flat of the residential building in Novo
Naselje, in Djordje Niksic Johan Street. Blocks of this neighborhood are formed within the orthogonal
grid of streets, with a lot of park surfaces. In the block where there is the kindergarten there are mainly
multiple housing buildings and it is built in a way that buildings are positioned on the fringes, which
enables formation of great green surfaces within it. The apartment where the pre-school facility was
formed has two separate entrances: entrance from the street and from the yard, which provides the safety
of children during the time they spend in the kindergarten. A part of the inner block surface was separated
and fenced due to the need for formation of the childrens yard.

Picture 4 - Adamovic estate

Picture 5 - Childrens yard of the

Kindergarten Leptiric

Picture 6 - Entrance to the

kindergarten Leptiric

3.3. Relation between the urban space and pre-school facilities positioned within the renovated
existing spaces in the building (Positioning of pre-school facilities in relation to the traffic arteries)
Formation of pre-school facilities within the already existing buildings represents one of the earliest
types of their establishment. In the beginning of the XIX century, when their development started on the
territory of Vojvodina, the kindergartens were organized within the premises of typical Vojvodina
residential houses, which, at the time, according to the legislation had to be positioned on the regulation
line of the lot. This type of positioning of pre-school facilities enabled formation of childrens yard at the
back part of the lot, which was appropriate as far as safety of the children were concerned. However,
existence of only one entrance in most cases, which served as an economic as well as the main at the
same time, and its direct access to the vehicular road, endangered the safety there. Due to the lack of
space and funding for planning and building of purpose-designed buildings for that purpose, in Novi Sad
even nowadays kindergartens are formed within renovated premises of existing old residential houses
where nobody lives. Some of the examples of this type of kindergartens are: Plavi zec (Blue rabbit),
Puzic (Little Snail), Zlatna greda(Golden beam), Sigridrug, etc.
Kindergarten Plavi zec is situated within the renovated premises of the basement building in
Svetozar Miletic Street. It belongs to the old part of Novi Sad and it is in one of the oldest streets in Novi
Sad, which joins Zmaj Jova and Jovana Subotica streets. To the north Stari grad estate is bordered by
Milos Bajic street, Republic Square, Danicic and Milovan Vidakovic streets. The eastern part is bordered
by the Danube, Danube quay, western by Temerinska Street, Jovan Subotic, Safarik, Jevrejska and
Bulevar oslobodjenja streets, while the south is bordered by Car Lazar Boulevard. Shapeless structure of
the urban matrix of the central area of Novi Sad got its appearance in the first decade of XX century when
the greatest number of monumental and smaller buildings was built, which we consider nowadays
secession. Within this estate prevail individual family housing which are positioned on the border of the
blocks formed in a shapeless grid of streets. Since the question is about the very centre of the city, streets

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are busy and with a lot of busy traffic crossroads, which makes this part of the city unsuitable for the
construction of the buildings of pre-school facilities.
As already mentioned, the building of the pre-school facility Plavi zec is situated in the very centre
of the city which makes it accessible to the wider circle of users. Apart from the fact that it is made from a
shapeless grid of streets and since the position within the urbanity of the city makes it one of the busiest
parts, in the estate Stari grad (Old town) majority of the streets are of narrow cross section, which
additionally enhances circulation and crowds early in the morning and late afternoon. For that reason it is
not suitable for the children younger than 6 years old to walk to the kindergarten. Within the estate there
is a couple of more buildings of pre- school facilities, such as the kindergarten Vila (Fairy), Pcelica
(Little Bee), Zlatna greda, and because of that the distance from the place of living does not represent a
problem. However having in mind previously mentioned flaws of this position, it is not recommendable
for the children of pre- school age to walk to the kindergarten not accompanied by their parents. The
building of the kindergarten was constructed on the lot of a rectangular shape, with the longer side
orientated in the direction north-south. The basement house where there is a kindergarten nowadays was
built in 1909, the faade of which has not been changed until today is completely interpolated into the
faade and street front. The building is in the shape of the letter L and the majority of the lot is built,
which leaves a little space for the formation of the yard for free childrens activities in the open air. On
the neighboring lots, as well as on the other side of the street, there are basement houses, originating from
the time of secession style as well, and they by their height do not endanger the building of the
kindergarten as far as natural light is concerned. However, since the kindergarten is situated in the
densely built structure of the city and since in the yard of the building there are high trees planted, the
premises which are orientated towards the inner part do not have enough light. The entrance to the
building represents at the same time the main and economic entrance and is accessed directly from the car
roads. Also, due to the narrow cross section of the same street and lack of organized parking space, the
safety of children while coming and leaving the kindergarten is endangered.
Non-purpose building of the pre-school facility Zlatna greda is positioned in the central part of the
city, at number 6, Zlatne Greda Street. As already mentioned, this part of the city is not suitable for the
building of childrens kindergartens for many reasons: heavy traffic, busy traffic arteries, streets of
narrow cross section, etc. Particularity of the lot where the building was designed is its position at the
corner, which additionally endangers the safety of children. The premises of the kindergarten are
renovated within the existing, old, residential house, built on the regulation line. The advantage of the
kindergarten facility formed like this is the possibility of organization of childrens yard at the back part
of the lot.

Picture 7- Stari grad estate

Picture 8 Kindergarten Plavi zec

Picture 9- Svetozar Miletic Street

4. CONCLUSION
Presented research makes an insight into the existing state of formation of buildings of pre-school
facilities within the different urban structures of the city of Novi Sad. Existing types of locations of
kindergartens have been formulated with their good and bad sides. Through analysis of different case
studies of these buildings, in relation to their position in the scope of the urban matrix of the city, it can be
concluded that organization of their closer and wider environment should be approached by the same
degree of attention as when designing the buildings of kindergartens themselves. Space and pace of life in
which the children live nowadays, especially in urban areas, demands from architects and urban planners
special attention in the course of studying and designing of childrens playgrounds, with the aim of
reducing negative influences and in the direction of the appropriate physical development. [4]
Purpose-designed free-standing buildings of pre-school facilities in the quiet parts of the city without
greater busy traffic arteries and with a great number of organized green and park surfaces within the
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estate are imposed as the best possible solution. With this type of positioning of the kindergarten, in the
scope of the lot, the building should be positioned further from the regulation line, in order for the main
entrance not to be accessed directly from the traffic artery. In order to ensure maximum safety for
children during their stay in the kindergarten, car access should be in any case separated from the main
pedestrian access used by children. For that reason, two entrances to the building should be positioned in
the way that they are accessed from two separate streets. Big lots of free-standing buildings offer the
possibility of formation of a bigger childrens yard for different activities in the open. However, the
positioning of tall greenery should be taken into account so that it do not, by their height jeopardize the
possibility of the entrance of natural light to the premises in which the children stay.
Pre-school facilities positioned within the buildings for multiple housing, according to many aspects
do not meet the criteria which are referring to desirable conditions of urban organization of the space.
Having in mind the fact that for multiple housing buildings private yards have not been predicted, free
open spaces formed between the buildings, in that case could be used for that purpose, while they should
be obligatory fenced. It is also desirable to additionally isolate these spaces with the short sized greenery
from the traffic arteries. One of the main problems of this type of position is the lack of separate entrance
for the tenants and users of the kindergarten. The entrance to the building which would be used by the
children should not be positioned in the way that it is accessed directly from the vehicular roads. If
possible, it should be positioned on the lateral faade, with the staircase appropriate for children.
Formation of buildings of pre-school facilities in the scope of the central area of the city demands
great caution as far as the choice of location and the lot for construction are concerned. In the scope of the
shapeless grid of streets and busy traffic arteries, as the centre of Novi Sad in fact looks like, it is
necessary to find a location which is in a greater degree appropriate for the demand of desirable urban
organization of the space for kindergarten buildings. Pre-school facilities positioned in renovated
premises of already existing residential houses are suitable as far as possibilities of formation of
childrens yard at the back of the lot is concerned, which ensures the safety of the children.
REFERENCES
[1] Dudek M.: Kindergarten Architecture: Space for the Imagination, Taylor & Francis Group,
London, 2000.
[2] Ivanovi-ekularac J.: Predkolske ustanove i komfor, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 2002.
[3] Krklje M.: Tipologija dvorita predkolskih ustanova prema urbanistikoj dispoziciji u
Vojvoanskim gradovima, zbornik radova III meunarodnog simpozijuma PhiDAC, Novi Sad,
2011., str. 136
[4] Krklje M.: Deja igralita u okviru predkolskih ustanova kao faktori pravilnog psihofizikog
razvoja dece, Nauka+Praksa, Vol 12, Br. 1, Graevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet Ni, str. 95
[5] Normativi prostora, opreme i sredstava i pravilnici za rad u ustanovama za predkolsko
vaspitanje i obrazovanje u SAP Vojvodini, Pokrajinski zavod za izdavanje udbenika, Novi Sad,
1975.
[6] Pravilnik o pedagokim standardima i normativima za oblast predkolskog vaspitanja i
obrazovanja, Slubeni glasnik Republike Srpske, br. 1187/10, lan 6-(2)
[7] Stanii J.: Arhitektonska studija predkolske ustanove u Novom Sadu, master rad, Fakultet
tehnikih nauka, Novi Sad, 2011.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Vladana Stankovi 1
Nataa Petkovi 2
Milena Stankovi 3

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF ZERO ENERGY HOUSE

Abstract: Global goal of today is the construction of more energy efficiency objects. Energy efficiency is
achieved by precisely planed architectural design and applied systems for renewable energy sources with
minimal energy consumption without compromising air, thermal and acoustic comfort, standard of living
or economic activity. Zero House isnt independent of the public power grid, in favorable conditions, the
excess electricity produced can be sold back into the grid, while in the unfavorable conditions house
takes energy from the network; that it viewed as the annual balance of produced and consumed power
and its equal to zero. Using renewable energy sources, house covers all energy consumption during the
year. Architectural features of zero energy house are reflected in the form of object, orientation,
functional concept of home, size and position of openings. This type of energy efficiency object has a part
in environmental protection with zero emissions of carbon dioxide per year.
Keywords: zero energy house, energy efficiency objects, architectural features, renewable energy, energy
savings

ARHITEKTONSKE KARAKTERISTIKE KUE NULTE ENERGETSKE

EFIKASNOSTI
Rezime: Globalni cilj dananjice jeste gradnja to efikasnijih energetskih objekata. Energetska efikasnost
postie se precizno isplaniranim arhitektonskim merama i primenjenim sistemima za korienje
obnovljivih izvora energije, sagledanih kroz potronju minimalne koliine energije, bez naruavanja
vazdunog, toplotnog i akustikog komfora, standarda ivota ili ekonomske aktivnosti. Kua nulte
energetske efikasnosti predstavlja objekat koji uz pomo sistema za korienje obnovljivih izvora energije
pokriva svu svoju potronju energije tokom godine. Njena karakteristika je u tome to nije nezavisna u
odnosu na javnu elektrinu mreu ve u povoljnim uslovima viak elektrine energije koji proizvede prodaje i vraa u sistem javne elektrine mree, dok u nepovoljnim uslovima kua preuzima energiju iz
javne mree, tako da je sagledani godinji bilans potroene i proizvedene energije je izjednaen
odnosno jednak nuli. Arhitektonske karakteristike nulte energetski efikasne kue se ogledaju u formi
objekta, orijentaciji, funkcionalnom konceptu i veliini i poziciji otvora na objektu. Uloga ovakvih kua je
velika i u ouvanju zatite ivotne sredine jer imaju nultu emisiju ugljen-dioksida godinje.
Kljune rei: nulta kua, energetska efikasnost, arhitektonske karakteristike, obnovljivi izvori energije,
uteda energije
Note: This paper is realized within the first phase of national scientific project at the University of Nis,
The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering financed by Ministry of Science and Technological

Vladana Stankovi PhD student, Gradjevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Niu, Stojana Novakovia 3, 18000
Ni, s.vladana@gmail.com
2
Nataa Petkovi PhD student, Gradjevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Niu, Lole Ribara 18a, 18000 Ni,
natasapetkovic83@gmail.com
3
Milena Stankoiv PhD student, Tehnoloki fakultet u Leskovcu Univerziteta u Niu, Stojana Novakovia 3, 18000 Ni,
st.mima@hotmail.com

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Development of the Republic Serbia 2011-2014: Researching and development of Serbian zero-energy
efficiency house. (No 33015: leader of the scientific and research project Milorad Boji, PhD)
1. INTRODUCTION
Awareness of the limited sources of energy has long been imposing to the world the need for rational
usage of energy. In parallel with the pursuit of technical solutions for rational energy consumption the
solutions for cost-effectively using of solar energy as an unlimited source of energy were developed.
On Earth the huge quantities of solar energy are emitted: 1.5 x1018 kWh per year, which means that
the Sun in less than a day emits on Earth more energy than the energy potential of all the world's known
reserves of fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal).
During the period of usage of cheap fuel, the last decades, buildings were built in a way that they
were not in accordance with the climate in which they was made, and as a result that led to the
construction of energy-inefficient buildings, which today has resulted in great waste of energy for
heating and cooling.
Due to the exploitation of fossil fuel resources and global pollution of the planet, an environmental
crisis were created that has directly caused a more rational design of buildings. In this sense the need to
seek solutions for the rational use of one of the largest consumer of energy - energy to heat and cool the
space in which people live was defined. [4]
The aim at the global level is the construction of more energy efficient buildings.
The term "energy efficient home consideres the house that consumes less power than a normal house.
Energy efficiency is achieved trough orchestrated and produced measures aimed to use minimal amounts
of energy without compromising comfort, living standard and economic activities in the field of
production and in the field of energy. Simplified, the energy efficiency means less energy (fuel) to
perform the same process or function (heating or cooling, lighting, production of various products, drive
vehicles, etc.). [6]
2. ZERO ENERGY HOUSE
House with zero energy consumption and zero emissions of carbon dioxide in one year is called the
zero-energy house. The zero energy consumption means that a zero energy house can be independent of
power grids, but in practice it means that in the unadecvate periods of the yaer it would take energy from
the power grid, and in other periods returns that energy to the grid. Zero-energy houses have a big impact
in the preservation of the environment as they emit zero carbon dioxide. [4]
The zero-energy house is the type of object which with the usage of primarily solar energy, and other
systems for the renewable energy, covers all of it energy requirement during the year.
There are several types and several definitions which clearly defines the zero energy houses. The
greatest differences in the definition refer to types of buildings which are built in the Europe in relation to
buildings constructed in North America.
2.1. Net zero site energy use
The main text should be typed in Normal style. This type of zero-energy home means that the amount
of energy produced within the complex by usage of renewable sources of energy is equal to the amount of
energy consumed within the complex. In the U.S. the zero energy house is determined by this definition.
[5]
2.2. Net zero source energy use
This type of zero-energy home produces the same amount of energy which is consumed but with
that amount of energy it also must produce the energy needed during the transportation of energy to the
house. This type of calculation takes into losses of electricity transmission. This type of zero-energy
house has to create more electricity that the house with net zero site energy consumption. [5]

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2.3. Net zero energy emissions

Outside the U.S. and Canada, zero-energy house is defined as a house with zero net energy emission,
which is known more as a house with no carbon dioxide or a house with no emissions. This definition
involves the balancing of carbon dioxide that is created by use of fossil fuels within or outside the
complex, with the amount of energy that is produced within the complex using renewable energy sources.
Other definitions include not only carbon emissions in phase of the house usage, but emissions produced
during construction and house building, which are also added to the total energy calculation. [5]
2.4. Net zero cost
With this type of home, the purchased price of energy is balanced with the cost of energy to be sold in
the grid, and is generated within the complex. This depends on how energy distributor accepts the created
energy within the complex (payments, compensation, or something else). [5]
2.5. Net off-site zero energy use
According to this definition, the house could be considered zero-energy house in the case when 100%
of the energy which is purchased is generated by using the renewable energy sources no matter if these
sources of energy are outside of the complex. [5]
2.6. Off-the-grid
This group includes the zero-energy homes that are separate from the network, i.e. not connected with
any energy source which is not within the complex, but only the energy produced by it complex. Such
buildings require distributed generation from renewable energy sources and amend certain capacity for
energy storage or supplement (for the case when the sun is not shining, the wind is not blowing, the rain
falls, etc.). [5]
3. ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF THE ZERO ENERGY HOUSE
Like other energy-efficient buildings, the concept of zero energy home refers to houses that are built to
strict standards of energy efficiency.
The zero house uses a combination of low-energy techniques and technologies. To achieve high
efficiency it is required new approaches in the design and construction witch results in very efficient energy house that requires very little energy for heating or cooling.
To achieve a high standard of design and construction of the building it is necessary to consider all the
architectural elements that can affect the energy efficiency of the facility such as:
adecuate building orientation,
compact form,
thermal insulation,
ventilation,
the principle of double layer (skin),
openings, Tromb wall,
wather wall,
green house (glass porch), or heating storage,
canopy,
the colour of the walls and furniture,
burial (under the ground) [1]
The paper will analyze some of the architectural features of building a zero energy building.

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3.1. Adequate building orientatin

Site selection and location of the building in a large amoint determines its architectural concept. [2] In
designing and constructing of the buildings that use solar energy as a primary energy source, the object
must be adjusted to different climat conditions, both daily, seasonal and annual cycles in the nature.
Orientation to the south of the house is the first condition that house must fulfill. If the direct absorption
of solar energy is considered, the facade of the building should be oriented towards the south with a
possible deviation from 20 to 30 east and west. For these declination building will accommodate up to
10% less energy than the energy it would have received if it were strictly oriented towards the south. In
case of deviation of 45 from the south, the affected energy will not decrease more than 20% . [1]
3.2. Compact form
The main element which is related to the energy balance of a building and the possible utilization of
solar energy is its shape. The energy efficiency of the building depends on its external surface and the
interior floor area. The building must be designed compact, with openings - windows facing the south.
The ratio of external surface area and volume of the building is expressed trough the form factor. [4] The
outer surface area affects the investment in building and insulation material in construction of the
building, and also the energy consumption for heating purposes during its exploitation. Therefore, the
energy efficiency of buildings is very important relationship that aims to achieve the minimum area for
the external covering of a usable floor space [4]. Acording to this statement the best form of the building is
square, circular, rectangular, octagonal and elliptical objects. Buildings with an elongated form in an eastwest, providing a large surface area oriented to the south, which is ideal for collecting solar energy
(Figure 1) [3].

Figure 7 Showing elongated forms the building in east-west direction

Sloped roof, the angle position of the sun in winter alows to reduce shadows on the north side and the
possibility of higher density [2]. It is possible to meet energy efficient standards and to achieve a different
shape and form, but it also increases the exterior surface area which directly increases the price of the
building. In multistory residential buildings form factor is easily achieved because in this case the ratio of
external walls and volumes is smaller [3].
3.3. Double layer principle
The principle of the double layer is a way of improving the insulation of the building. The principle of
house in house in house design concept allows changing zone of air within the layer which is a buffer
zone. It relieves all external influences, serves as insulation and reduces the energy requirement of the
internal building [2].
3.4. Tromb wall
Tromb wall is dark wall built on the south side of the house that also serves as the absorber, the
heating storage and as a heating body to warm interior space. It is usually made of brick or concrete
thickness of 20-40 cm. At the distance of 2-10 cm in front of the wall is glass (Figure 2). In practice, two
structural variants Tromb wall are used: without holes and with holes at the base and top of the wall.
After passing through the glass solar radiation falling on Trombov wall and warms it. Heat is transvered
from the outside to the inside of the wall via conduction. Speed of heat transmission through the Tromb
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wall depends on the material from which it was created and its thickness. In order to prevent overheating
of the rooms in front of or behind the Tromb wall the appropriate thermal protection should be set [7].

Figure 8: Tromb wall

3.5. Canopy
Canopy is a facade element of passive houses which function is to during the summer prevent and
during the winter facilitate the penetration of solar radiation into the building. Dimensions of the solar
canopy should adjust acording to conditions on the ground. In usage are fixed and mobile shading.
Movable canopies are flexible and can achieve optimal operation of solar radiation throughout the year.
Dimensions of shading device for our area depend on the angle of incidence of solar radiation on 21st
June and 22th December (Figure 3).

1.
2.
3.

Suna rays on 21. Jun

Sun rays on 8. March i 21. Septembre
Sun rays on 22. Decembrre

Figure 9: Canopies and incident angle of sunlight

3.6. Openings
Energy-efficient buildings are using all the benefits of solar radiation, so that the gains of solar energy
entering through the glass, which is dimensioned to provide sufficient daylight, and covering about 40%
of heat losses from the house. Windows are manufactured with extremely high levels of resistance to heat
transmission (U-values ranging from 0.85 to 0.70 W/m2K for complete window, including frames). It is
often combined double or triple windows with glazing with low-e coating, filled with argon and
sequenced within the framework of thermal bridges. The aim of such window is to draw more heat from
the sun, and prevent heat lose through them [4]. The gain is greater if the major glass areas are oriented to
the south and are not in the shadow.
3.7. Colours of the walls and furniture
On the capture of the sun rays influence the walls painting, the dark color walls absorb more sunlight
than lighter colors of the walls. In the solar architecture colored walls are acceptable if the absorption
ratio is from 0.5 to 0.8. Among walls solar radiation heats also the furniture in the rooms. On direct
sunlight, furniture is more heated than the walls because the same surface has less mass, so it contributes
to increasment of temperature in the room. Practice shows from the standpoint of solar architecture that it
is allowed for furniture to absorb 20-30% of incident solar radiation [2].

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4. CONCLUSION
Today's possibilities of utilization of renewable sources, have been achieved so far the greatest energy
savings in construction while ensuring optimal conditions of healthy living without the emission of
harmful gases. Although there are numerous divisions of energy efficient houses, the common goal is
lower power consumption, the more savings and the better use of renewable energy. The zero-energy
house is the type of bulding that use renewable energy sources, coves all of their energy requirement
during the year, with the highest utilization of solar energy, which with this concept means that the house
in the northern hemisphere should be oriented south, and in south hemisphere oriented toward north.
Detailed analysis of major architectural elements that make the energy efficiency standards, provide
maximum protection and utilization of renewable energy sources. Job of the designer is to analyze all
these parameters and to meet the required standards in order to reach energy efficient level of the
building.
REFERENCES
[1] Pucar M., Pajevi M., Jovanovi Popovi M.: Bioklimatsko i ekoloko projektovanje
Urbanistiki parametri, IP Zavet Beograd 1994. str. 16-17, 36-40.
[2] Williams E. D.: Sustainable Design ecology, architecture and planning, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2006. str. 116-118, 126-127
[3] Roaf S., Fuentes M., Thomas S.: EcoHouse: a design guide, Third edition, ELSEVIER 2007.
str.24-28
[4] EKO KUA, januar-mart 2012. str. 50-51
[5] http://www.efikasnost.com/2010/05/19/energetski-efikasne-kuce/
[6] www.wienerberger.rs/servlet/Satellite
[7] http://www.well.org.rs/index.phpkuca
[8] http://www.crnarupa.singidunum.ac.rs_PasivnaKuca.pdf
[9] http://www.hrastovic-inzenjering.hr/primjena-energije/strucni-savjeti/115-energetskaklasifikacija-kua.html,

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Lea krinjar1
Bojan Tepavevi2
Marko Jovanovi3

DEVELOPMENT OF SHAPE GRAMMAR AS A TOOL FOR HOUSING

DESIGN
Abstract: Transformation of socio-cultural identity and radical social reorganization are constantly
creating unforeseen housing program changes which makes the differentiation of current housing space
inadequate to meet needs of modern society. Shape grammar characteristics are direct response to the
housing design problems that occur as a result of these issues. Shape grammar (SG), as a rule-based
design-oriented generative system, has proved to be the method that has potential to optimize layouts and
reduce construction costs for housing projects. It also enables constraining the design to match the
existing stylistic characteristics in a given architectural context simultaneously creating a great diversity.
This paper explores the use and the development of the shape grammar method as a housing design tool
and its potential to embrace a variety of aspects while solving a certain problem. It also discusses
possible further directions of its usage in the area of housing design.
Key words: housing, shape grammar, rule-based system

RAZVOJ GRAMATIKE OBLIKA KAO SREDSTVA ZA

PROJEKTOVANJE STANOVANJA
Rezime: Transformacija socio-kultrurnog identiteta i radikalna reorganizacija drutva stvaraju
nepredvidive programske promene koje ine diferencijaciju postojeeg stambenog prostora
neadekvatnom da podri potrebe savremenog drutva. Karakteristike gramatike oblika direktan su
odgovor problemima stanovanja koji se javljaju kao rezultat ovih pitanja. U radu su istraeni primena i
razvoj gramatike oblika kao sredstva za projektovanje stanovanja i njen potencijal da obuhvati razliite
aspekte pri reavanju odreenog problema. Istovremeno, razmotreni su dalji pravci primene gramatike
oblika u oblasti projektovanja stanovanja.
Kljune rei: stanovanje, gramatika oblika, rule-based sistemi
1. INTRODUCTION
Housing is an essential prerequisite for realization of a wide range of individual and social needs. This
make the housing one of the most complex social problem, an elementary function of each settlement and
each society quality of life indicator. Today, non-synchronization of housing organization and the market
with the user needs is very distinct. The organization of residential area today is exposed to intense
changes. Wide spectrum of factors is affecting the modification of user profiles and their housing needs
and expectations. Fast flow of information, development of new techniques and technologies, especially
the transformation of socio-cultural identity and radical social reorganization create unforeseen program
changes and make the differentiation of current housing inadequate for fulfilment of modern society
users needs. New society transformations are constantly creating a demand for various types of housing.
Looking at the typology of housing in different countries and cultures its easy to understand how
1

MSc, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, -mail:lea_skrinjar@yahoo.com

PhD, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, -mail:tepavcevicb@yahoo.com
3
MSc, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, -mail:apokmarko@yahoo.com
2

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complex and diverse these systems are. New urban housing developments thus must respond to the
context of their site and neighbourhood and to the different user needs. Furthermore, due to the
continuous increase in population constant demand for new homes occur. The satisfaction of these needs
can lead to the mass housing and uniform construction.
All the great masters of the 20th century have addressed housing design problem in their work. What
is common among their ideas is the desire to devise a scheme that could be used to generate affordable
mass housing, using industrialization as the means for lowering the costs.[3] Although not their original
intention, this has caused the appearance of uniformity, a principle "one size fits all" has emerged as a byproduct of conflict between efficient production and variety of form.
As can be concluded from present-day practice, there is not always and necessarily a conflict between
the efficient and cost effective construction and variety of forms. This brings the question, what is it that
causes the uniformity? Do, like Habraken said, design skills may become the weakest link in the chain?
[9] The problem becomes one of finding the solution that will embrace all listed aspects.
In a search for new methods on design manipulation of complex environmental forms as are
residential area and housing a certain number researchers the answer see in shape grammar (SG). SG
allows a computational approach to the generation of designs solutions [15]. It demonstrates that the
method has potential to optimize layouts and reduce construction costs for housing projects while
constraining the design to match the existing stylistic characteristics in a given architectural context.[2]
Over the past decades, SG have been a powerful means of analysing and generating housing designs.
Although it is still only in the research and academic circles, the author sees shape grammar as a powerful
tool for housing design, still an insufficiently researched in this field.
2. SHAPE GRAMMAR CARACTERISTICS
The theory of shape grammars as design-oriented generative system was first introduced by George
Stiny and James Gips in the beginning of 1970s. According to Stiny shape grammar is a formal rewriting
system for producing languages of design [15]. Formal Shape grammars deals with an algorithmic i.e.
rule based process of design through which various potential design solutions can be created. This rule
based method generates designs by performing visual computations whith shapes in two steps:
recognition of a particular shape and its possible replacement. [7] A SG consists of a set of rules which,
applied recursively starting with the initial shape, are used to specify the particular shape to be replaced
and the manner in which it is replaced.
It is possible for designers to make their explicit design knowledge in a structured framework by
modifying and expending the rules at every level of a design process. By explicitly defining the criteria
for new designs that fit a given context the designer controls its form-generation. The creation of the
rules, in the systems like this, is the basis for creativity. With a finite number of rules SGs allow
generation of an infinite number of designs. Rules can be recognized and applied to emergent shapes, that
is, shapes that are not predefined as part of the grammar. According to this, as some researcher noticed,
the act of designing is sometimes seen as an act of discovery. It has been remarked by some researchers
that they have been surprised by the forms and arrangements that they come across by playing with
spatial forms and relationships through using interactive grammar systems. [13]
From the beginning of 70s till 90s analytic grammar has been extensively used in numerous works,
creating a knowledge base for understanding particular architects composition and style characteristics
and its revealing general strategies. It also has demonstrated the existence of spatial transformation from
one style to another. What we are primarily interested in this area , for the purpose of this research , is the
SG as a synthesis tool , its ability to create new languages of design and ability to give answers to the
problems listed above.
Although the approach shape grammar as a synthesis tool appeared in 1981 in the work of T.Knight
Languages of design: from known to new where is presented how new spatial relations defined from an
known style can be used to determine a wide variety of new, original languages of design, it was not until
the late 90's and early 2000s when SGs were used as a design tool. Some of the most important works in
the field come right from the sphere of housing.
3. FROM STYLE DEFINITION TO HOUSING DESIGN
The first shape grammar application in the field of architecture was Palladian grammar made by Stiny
and Mitchell in 1971. That was analytic grammar developed as a definition of the Palladian style. [16]
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Afterwards, a lot of SG applications were made for different purposes. Figure 1, made by Chau, Chen,
McKay, DePennington shows a development of SG applications throughout last few decades.[1]

Figure 37- Shape grammar applicationsgiven by Chau et al.

However, regardless of how many applications were created, SG did not have a significant role in the
housing design until the function was introduced as a variable. The turning point was the work of
H.Koning and J.Eizenberg "The languages of the prairie: Frank Lloyd Wright's prairie houses" from
1981. where, for the first time, an additive process of design was used as a SG design strategy. Basic
compositional forms are made of spatial relations between three-dimensional rectangular parameterized
blocks which represent the volumetric spaces in the houses. A block or arrangement of blocks
corresponds to one function zone, as are living zones or service zones. Parameterization characteristic
corresponds to the different dimensions of these zones in different facilities. Additive process starts with
the fireplace as a logical center of F.L.Whrite prairie house designs, to what a living zone is added, and a
service zone is added to the living zone.[12]

Figure 38 - A catalog of basic design proposals. Different gradient of shades mark different funcrion zone. Made by Koningand
Eizenberg

That same year T.Knight gives a proposal for the creation of a new style from the existing one
showing the development of F.L.Whrites Usonian houses which were characterized as transformation of
his earlier work Prairie houses by changing the grammar i.e. rules that were defining the grammar of
prairie houses into the grammar of Usonian houses.[11]
As of this work its possible to notice two very important cases related to the definition of shape
grammar: how shape grammar could be defined and how design could originate from it. In the first case
SG could derive from: 1) a given corpus of design, which means that elements of shape grammar as are
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the vocabulary of shapes and set of spatial relations used to construct designs in particular languages are
inferred from existing corpus of design, as can be noticed in the stated examples;[10] 2) the scratch,
meaning that these elements are defined starting with arbitrary vocabulary from which set of spatial
relations is defined.[17] According to second case there are two ways how design could originate from
SG: 1) split grammar, where design is based on an abstract grid within which spaces are delineate
(splitting the grid). The example of this principles is Palladian grammar. 2) an additive process for
generating designs, which is explained on F.L.Whrites Prairie houses. It is important to point out these
definitions in order to see how it is possible to perform new housing grammar.
The next important step in the development of shape grammar as a housing design tool is the work of
U.Flemming from 1986, More than the sum of parts: the grammar of Queen Anne houses. The greatest
significance of this research, besides developing certain shape grammar, was the fact that, as part of a
larger project led by Flemming, answers the question of how new construction can be fitted into the fabric
of neighborhood so that its visual coherence and identity would not be destroyed, but strengthened and
reestablished. [8]
The introduction of function as a variable and Flemmings assumption built a base for the use of shape
grammar as a tool for housing design and directed their further development. A major step in this
direction created Birgul olakoglu and Jose Duarte in early 2000s.
olakoglu has developed in his PhD dissertation a shape grammar application for traditional Bosnian
Hayat house and its form interpolations. These new interpolations carry stylistic characteristic of an
existing design language and can be built in a contemporary Bosnian context and life style. [2] Duarte
goes one step further in developing SG application for the work of a living architect Alvaro Siza, which
housing are still to be built today. What Duarte was up to is an interactive computer system for the design
of customized mass housing where shape grammar was used as a formalism to systematize required
design rules.The compositional principles behind the generation of a Malagueira design are based on the
manipulation of rectangles representing rooms by means of rules for dissecting, connecting, and
extending rectangles, as well as rules for assigning and changing the functions associated with them. [4]

Figure 39- Partial tree diagram showing the derivation of basic patterns, types, subtypes and layouts, made by Duarte

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4. SGS VARIOUS ASPECTS AND FUNCTIONS

New situations in social structure and life style bring new questions. Housing should not be predicted
only in terms of quality, durability, change and adaptation, but also to respond to the diverse needs that
todays society requires. To answer these questions shape grammar has to satisfy two functions [5], that
within a certain language create or transform objects and to create objects that meet the requirements
given at the outset. The first issue is the basis of diversity. But, to cover all necessary issues shape
grammar must contain the define requirements (users, regulations,), which are to be included as rules
in the grammar. This is one of the major problems in using SG for housing design purposes. Duarte and
Sara Eloy solved this issue in different ways.
For that purpose Duarte has formed a discursive grammar consisting of SG and description grammar.
It is descriptive grammar that has a role of processing the user data and site data to generate the housing
program, which is the first step in Duartes designing process. In a next step, this housing program is used
to generate a housing solution, where SG and description grammar act together.[5]

Figure 40 - Technical and operative definitions of discursive grammars, made by J.Duarte

Sara Eloys work was on rehabilitation of the specific building type in Lisbon. She used SG to
transform existing dwellings and to adapt them to new requirements. For this purpose a new grammar,
transformation grammar, was developed. The grammar was needed that could identify rooms, walls and
spaces whilst taking several features into account, as are area, length, width, function, and material
properties.[6]

Figure 41 - Rehabilitation strategies that Eloy proposed: a) original dwelling; b) first strategy; c) second strategy; d) third
strategy.

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Figure 42 - Simplified derivation tree for the different rehabilitation strategies, made by Eloy

The problem of this research was not primarily how to implement a housing program in design
process but how to verify the functional adequacy of the original dwellings and the rehabilitation
proposals, and how to determine the fundamental performance criteria by which housing spaces will
fulfill functional requirements, and then to find a formalism that could be used to analyze spatial
configurations from this perspective.[6] In this purpose she used space syntax, a tool for the analysis of
spatial configurations. These two tools were combined in order to formulate, generate, and evaluate
designs.
In the paper Emergent design for humanized living: Towards a parametric-typological design tool a
group of students from ISCTE-University Institute of Lisbon developed a shape grammar for ready-made
housing for humanized living as a part of bigger ongoing project called Emerg.cities4all. The main
objective has been to generate modular, scalable, adaptable, affordable read-made design solutions by
embracing aspects as are cultural, social and spatial dynamics involved in the emergence of informal
settlements. The shape grammar developed contains three rules: fixed rules, adaptive rules and evolving
rules which are made to successfully create a house that grows with the tenant family and adapts to its
needs without compromising local lifestyle and culture. [14] The generation of housing using these rules
is shown in figure 7.

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Figure 43 - 7 A part of a tree diagram shows derivation of some modular, adaptable and evaluative housing, made by Linhares,
Alarco, Carvo, Toste, Paio

The generative process includes the urban scale as presented in figure 8.

Figure 44 - Examples of urban clusters, made by Linhares, Alarco, Carvo, Toste, Paio

This shows another new aspect of using shape grammar, its ability to cope with the complex issues as
are adaptation and formal diversity both in architecture and urban planning.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Shape grammar can certainly provide versatility, a large number of solutions which could not be
implemented by a team of architects, but still beside that many questions continue to remain open. One of
the biggest problems using shape grammar is its difficulty of implementation. Each of SG applications
presented in this paper is programed individually. This is certainly aggravating circumstance. Existing SG
applications that are universal, independent of the problem, are too simple, they cannot cope with such
complex issues, or they are not so easy to use. None of them can overcome the complex problems which
housing design require. The potential is seen in some commercial SG applications but their use in housing
design has yet to be tested.
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In this paper, development of shape grammar as a tool for housing design and its ability to fulfill all
necessary requirements were examined. The research shows shape grammar logic and assumes the way of
its further development while understanding its future value. Further research will focus on exploring the
capabilities of existing SG applications and on finding a way and the best solution for multifamily urban
housing design using SG, minimizing the existing problems of using this method for this purpose.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been undertaken as a part of a project founded by the Serbian Ministry of Science and
Technological Development (project no. TR36042).
REFERENCES
[1] Chau H.H, Chen X, McKAy A, dePennington A, Evaluation of a 3D shape grammar
implementation, Design Computing and Cognition, Netherlands, 2004, pp.357-376
[2] olakoglu B, An Informal Shape Grammars for Interpolation of Traditional Bosnian Hayat
Houses in a Contemporary Context, Generative Art and Design Conference, Milan, Italy
December 2002. pp.151-159
[3] Duarte J.P, Customizing mass housing: A discursive grammar for Sizas Malagueira houses, PhD
theses, MIT 2001.
[4] Duarte J.P, Towards the mass customization of housing: the grammar of Siza's houses at
Malagueira, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 2005, volume 32, pp. 347-380
[5] Duarte J.P, A discursive grammar for customizing mass housing: the case of Sizas houses at
Malagueira, Automation in Construction 14 , 2005, pp. 265 275
[6] Eloy s, Duarte J.P, A Transformation Grammar for Housing Rehabilitation, Nexus Network
Journal , volume 13, 2011, pp. 4971
[7] Fasoulaki E, Integrated Design: A Generative Multi-Performatiove Design Approach, master
thesis, MIT, 2008.
[8] Flemming U, More than the sum of parts: the grammar of Queen Anne houses, Environment and
Planning B: Planning and Design 1987, volume 14, pp.323-350
[9] Habraken N.J, Control of Complexity, Places, Vol. 4, No. 2. 1987.
[10]
Knight T.W, Languages of designs: from known to new, Environment and Planning B 8,
1981, pp. 213-238.
[11]
Knight T, Transformations of languages of design: part 3, Environment and Planning B:
Planning and Design 1983, volume 10, pp.155-177
[12]
Koning H, Eisenberg J, The language of the prairie: Frank Lloyd Wrights prairie
houses, Environment and Planning B 8 1981, pp. 295-323.
[13]
Krishnamurti R, Stouffs R, Spatial Grammars: Motivation, Comparison, and New
Results, CAADFutures '93, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Computer-Aided
Architectural Design Futures, Amsterdam 1993, pp. 57-74
[14]
Linhares B, Alarco H, Carvo L, Toste P, Paio A, Emergent design for humanized
living: towards a parametric-typological design tool, in proceedings of Oikodomos international
conference,2011.
[15]
Stiny G, Introduction to shape and shape grammars, Environment and planning B 7,
1980., pp. 343-351
[16]
Stiny G, Mitchell W.J, The Palladian grammar, In Environment and Planning B 5 1978,
pp. 5-18.
[17]
Stiny G, Kindergarten grammars: designing with Froebels building gifts, Environment
and Planning B, 1980, volume 7, pp. 409-462

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Petar Vrani1

STRUCTURAL CHANGES AND THE CRISIS OF PUBLIC SPACE:

A CASE STUDY OF NI
Abstract: In pursuit of a new identity in order to reposition it self in an increasingly market oriented
world, city of Ni was subjected to considerable commodification of its public space. The amount of
public space available in the city, without requiring direct or indirect monetary investment for use, is
constantly diminishing. Apart from the external forces, current city planning practice based on an
administrative and regulatory framework, lack clear development strategy and therefore prominently
contribute to intensive privatization of city public spaces. This paper aims to develop a platform for
research into public spaces of cities as well as to voice concerns over the rise of privatization of public
space, elaborating issues of privatization of public space in Ni, including threats to and challenges
facing main urban public spaces in the city, with transparent intention to provoke debate on this issues.
ey words: public space, social justice, neolibrealism, urban transformation, privatization, Ni

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1. INTRODUCTION
Society is complex system and therefore we can agree that constitution of public is highly ambiguous
and it is crude mistake to argue for a single understanding of public. As Madanipour recognizes, in
diverse society in which there are many interpretation of public, public space play different roles for
different sets of citizens and their publicness.1 Serving as medium for performance of public life, public
space has always been live value analysis of structural changes of public domain. However, challenged by
various developments and changes, above all by advancement of communication technologies, activities
that once have only been practiced as a collective and public have increasingly become available as
individualized and private. Accordingly public spaces become more limited in the scope of their
activities. In that sense the role of public space is prominently shrinking in domain of public sphere and
consequently its, political role as well.

Msc. KTH-Royal Institute of Technology, Drottning Kristinas vg 30, SE-100 44 Stockholm e-mail: petarv@kth.se

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2. THE ROLE OF PUBLIC SPACE

One of the main characteristics of livable cities and good urban design is the quality of the public
space they posses. As much of citys life does take the place in public realm so do the citys public space,
squares and streets play a vital role in enriching the life of its inhabitances in many respects. 9 In broad
terms public realm is consisted of physical and socio-cultural component that are mutually deterministic.
Spatial setting of public realm can create or inhibit opportunities for contact. In general the public realm
includes all the spaces accessible to and used by the public that serve in socio-cultural sense as
Loukaitou-Sideris and Banerjee (1998) defined it on ideal level as a forum for political action and
representation; as a 'neutral' or common ground for social interaction, intermingling, and communication;
and as a stage for social learning, personal development, and information exchange. 6 And in turn
these socio-cultural performances give meanings to particular physical space and shape it. Carmona,
Heath, Oc and Tiesdell (2003) classified public realm in the context of its spatiality in three categories:
external public space as pieces of land that lie between private landholdings such as public squares,
streets, parks, stretches of coastline, rivers, etc.; internal 'public' space or public institutions such as
libraries, museums, town halls, train or bus stations, etc. and external and internal quasi-public' space
that are although legally private, places such as university campuses, sports grounds, restaurants also form
part of the public realm, but only nominally public because their owners and operators retain rights to
regulate access and behavior there. 3 Therefore is obvious that the use of public space is largely on the
definition we attached to a public sphere.
Frequently in discussion of urban design appears overlapping in understanding of public good, public
space and commons. There is misbelieving that public space necessarily means common good as well,
even though it mightily contributes to defining of it. Harvey identified causal relation between public
good, public space and common using as departure point class struggle in the city. 7 Namely he argues
that public good is being produced by the administration in order to secure social peace between working
classes (social housing, education etc.) All these public goods have its spatial manifestation as public
spaces. But in order to create a common it is necessarily that society appropriate public space through
action. Although he argues that action has to be political in its nature, I suggest that appropriation is
achieved through everyday use of public space that is not necessarily political in its nature as well.
However he concludes that common is being created as relation between social group and physical space
or as he called through the action of commoning that has to be collective and free of the logic of market
exchange and valuation. Therefore public space can be considered as public good and capacity for
creation of common. In order to underpin public space flow of public good has to be protected.
With penetration of neoliberal agenda public services has been cut down and therefore financing of
public good decreased as well. The amount of public space available in the city, without requiring direct
or indirect monetary investment for use, is constantly diminishing. Consequently commoning has been
increasingly exposed to market logic. Old forms of collective activities related to production of common
giving a way to activities subjected to maximization of individual utility. Structural changes of urban
governance with transparent inclination towards private realm are ongoing. Under blanket of urban
revival new model of governance emerge and defines a new role of public space providing public goods
in private scenario. Extreme example of this type of governance is Business Improving District model.
Minton (2006) comments that proponents of BID trend share a vision of public space as a consumer
product, sold through the branding and marketing of the area as a location destination, offering a
particular experience. 2 Harvey (2012) argued that such contemporary urban process is influenced if
not dominated by capitalist class interests. 7
Thus enclosures, spatial controls, policing, and
surveillance upon the urban life and potentially new pre-defined forms of commoning that are being
created by such management of public realm, placed public space on top of commodity list nowadays.
Therefore challenges of public space prominently are shifting focus from political to economical.
Discussing privatization of public space arise the question of ownership as essential marker of it. Even
if it plays vital role in determining conditions for social encountering it doesnt automatically imply
controlled entry and exclusion although in some cases does. It is obvious in the case of single unite of
space such as buildings, but when we are considering space as system of interconnected unites then
ownership criterion is not a priori sufficient. Parkinson (2006) made a point equalizing public space and
common good. For him public space consists of collection of buildings or it exist as inseparable part of
built environment and therefore creates and delimits common. 10 As he argue subdivision of public
good is not possible without its destruction, which is not conditioned by fragmented ownership over its
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units (buildings or lots). For instance one can freely experience/enjoy street public life even if buildings
that define a street are privately owned. So splintering of public good / public space is more matter of
accessibility than ownership although there is usual link between two. Therefore accessibility is the key
factor for space to be public, because it has ability to limit and fragmentize it and accordingly mold the
action of commoning.
Accessibility defines the level of openness of particular space and entry criterion. Carr (1992)
identifies three forms of accessibility: visual access, physical access and symbolic access. 4 While two
first are obvious and have to do with tangible barriers later is often matter of subjective interpretation that
can be based on social, cultural or financial preconditions. Although it articulates injustice privileging
particular social groups over the other, belonging to intangible domain, symbolic accessibility
/inaccessibility hardly can be proved and contested. For instance, caf at the main public square can be
visually and physically accessible with no transparent entry criteria but with high prices of services. In
this case symbolic access is regulated by financial capacity of individual. While it will be inviting for
affluent people it wont be affordable/accessible for poor part of society. In that way symbolic
accessibility may lead to spatial fragmentation of public space. So management of and built form itself
impose directly power over performance and activities of society in general terms. As Dovey (1999) in
her suggestion of dimension of place/power mediation or dialectic in which power in place is played out,
she points out that on the one hand built form is socially produced, and has a particular capacity to make
it appear universal, or in other words to make socially constructed environment natural. And on the other
that built form has a great inertia, generating illusions of permanence a stable social order and
impossibility of change. 5 To that account, enforcing each other these two dimensions allow powerrelations to manipulate over public space imperceptibly accommodating structural changes that are not
always and necessarily for public good and often out of comprehension for wider society.
3. STRUCTURAL CHANGES, TRANSFORMATION, PRIVATIZATION
In recent decades Serbian as many other socialistic cities have seen intensive shift towards market
oriented development. The most important issue for urban growth of socialistic city was that state had
ownership over the land. Consequently there was not a platform for establishing any market mechanism
and accordingly role of urban rent was almost totally neglected. In short land was of no economical
value. Extreme developing conditions in Serbia including civil war, constant denationalization, spatial
fragmentation, intense internalization and Europization, governance decentralization and democratization
have altered the nature of urban and regional economies.
Urban planning that rely on the legacy rooted in the socialistic ideology is perceived as a limiting
factor that impedes the growth of the business, opposes market forces and puts freedom of the individual
risk. Thus transformation priority was deconstruction of socialistic governance. Development of the cities
has been exposed to a new approach that strongly expresses the fundamental mission of the neoliberal
state and that is establishment of good business climate and therefore new economic policy in order to
optimize conditions for capital accumulation. 8
Without prepared institutional infrastructure
urbanization of cites has been subjected to short-term vision development whose only parameter for
evaluation is the maximization of individual profits. New system of urban governance or more precisely
quasigovernmental institutional framework that is based upon fostering synergies between the public
sector and the elite fractions of civil society justifies the adoption of discretionary forms of management.
Accordingly, the role of lobbies, family ties, business connections, and form of clientelism and nepotism
become dominant model for urban governance in past two decades. It is needles to say that such urban
governance, following neoliberal policies, is articulated spatially and through build environment. Its
inconsistency, transientness, exclusion and clientalism are reflected in numerous spatial patchwork,
privatized public spaces and asymmetric development at all urban scale. From this point of departure,
author discuss in this article prevalent entrepreneurial planning and management and its consequences on
transformation of public space in Ni.
4. THE CASE OF NI
Due to the externally imposed contest for piece of international market in order to survive in
unmerciful neoliberal arena, not all cities succeed to transform it self into global services, commercial or
distributing hubs suitable for investment of foreign and domestic capital and consequently intra-regional
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as well as disparity between cities increased. Furthermore, centrifugal planning trend at the state level,
that is very characteristic for market-led urbanization, prioritized growth of Belgrade as competitive
national brand value in global market at the cost of demonized rest of the country.
The case of Nis, as former industrial giant, demonstrates difficulties of determining itself after the rise
of new model of urban economy. It suffers from continuous decline when major industries started to fall
apart and economy rapidly went down. Since then Ni didnt succeed to establish strategic vision for its
development and consequently experienced identity crisis decades long.
There were continues efforts of local urban governance to diminish spatial inferiority on regional level
and resurrect Ni using contemporary branding tools. Old forms of organization of space had to give a
way to a new urbanity that would stand as a test to new visionary liberal world. Investments that focus on
property development in search for profit and giving quick returns such as huge shopping centers, hotels
and office building dominated. In this period (1989-2010) Nis has undergone intense transformation
process to a great extent subjected to momentary economical and political decisions instead to objective
demands and rational development. Most of these interventions, offered from neoliberal opus that aimed
to construct new city identity failed to contribute to wider population.
Namely, after failing to compete with other cities and foster strategy for development of the city of
Ni, local authorities continue inter-municipal contest, within the metropolitan region, further
fragmentizing govern ability to the extent where capital projects were based on private and partys
connections and lead by profit and building of personal business and political career. Prominently
municipalities began to operate as enterprises. This type of urbanization reflects rising tendencies for
transferring of the control of the economy from public to private sector. Such power relation over city
development is consequence of increasing fragmentation of competences and responsibilities, which is
one of the most striking aspects of market oriented urbanization. Thus, indirectly private sector became
more influential in shaping the city and its role constantly increases. Main problem with urbanization of
this style, mainly relayed on private capital is distribution of the capital itself. It had and still has very
selective implication on urban development and it is time and program wise dynamically inconsistent and
unpredictable. Consequently position of local government has been drastically changed over time.
Namely the influence of the local government in the city of Nis, to determine land-use, decreased in this
period to the extent where the vision for the future of the area in question has been highly influenced
outside the sphere of the local government, within the informal network of local businessman.
Intentionally or not local planning authorities remained as enabler for such exclusive growth providing
extraordinary regulatory environment with minimum of public accountability.
As more and more urban development schemes were undertaken by the private sector, more and more
new public spaces of the city could be privatized. Subjected to individual utility-maximizing behavior,
public space of the city has been left in private hands with insufficient competency and professional
background to comprehend complexity of city development, often too narrowly focused simply on
creating places which generate maximum returns in terms of shopping and spending that further creates
spatial and social polarization. Namely, main city public spaces have been altered to consumer hubs,
indirectly demonizing major part of population who cant afford to consume such public life.
In following part two main public spaces in Ni are discussed: Obrenoviceva and Kopitareva Streets
and st. Sava Park. Basic assertion is that privatization of public space creates monocultural environment
and social exclusion. Methods applied in this analysis included direct observation on site. Focus is on
relation between urban settings and activity/behavioral pattern.
4.1. The case of Obrenovieva and Kopitareva Streets
The central public space in the city consisted of Obrenoviceva and Kopitareva Streets (in further text
OS and KS) are among the first cases of commodification of public space in Ni. In the late 80 OS has
been altered into pedestrian zone and identity of the city center entered period of its intensive change.
Major developments that reflected needs of the new economical model and triggered so called urban
renaissance process, started in 1989 when the first shopping mall, Kala, was built, and continued with
construction of an underground street and creation of multilevel shopping center. Both projects were
financed by private capital and built by public construction companies. In doing so, the city sold
~13000m2 of public land to private developers. With commercial content added to OS after 2000,

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business-shopping center Gora, Forum and Srbija, private banks and companies etc. whole street
got prominent consumerist identity.
Although intense privatization of public land and build environment that constitute OS transformed
urban experience to a great extent, growing trend of street cafs actually has crucial influence on the way
how OS is used as public space nowadays. In last decade amount of public space in OS that has been
seasonally rented to street cafes constantly increases. Considering their critical mass, cafe urbanism
became spatially dominant urban setting. Ratio and spatial disposition of available public and private
seats in OS clearly exemplifies that. Namely on each public seat comes nine private seats (111:985).
While public seats are mainly located at the end of the street facing crossroads, cafes are occupying
central part of it. Hence, organization of public space has been transferred form public to private sector,
which indirectly implies dominance of preferences of a minority and neglecting of environmental needs
of wider population (Figure 10).
Namely, private authorities, within the boundaries of their rented fragment of public land, retain rights
to determine or expect particular behavior that are according to their criterion socially accepted or not. So
question that arises is: what is socially accepted behavior in such public space and who has right to define
it? For instance reading a book in the caf with loud music or sunbathing, playing chess or card in the
caf for hours without constantly ordering drinks is not expectable behavior. Playing instrument or
painting, just sit and talk with friends and eat your own lunch is not acceptable either. While in public
space those are usual activities. In that way scope of optional activities in OS that are necessary platform
for social interaction, decreased and has been subjected to market logic. Consequently only possible
activates left are related to consumption behavior. Hence symbolic entry criterions are set in the major
part of the street and it is twofold: first and dominant marker is based on financially capacity of
individuals and second is defined by imposed/programmed behavioral norms. Therefore part of
population that can meet this criterion, in myriad of ways will try to avoid those places.
Relatively similar regarding content, quality and design, taking into account that they appropriate
considerable part of the street, cafs create monotonous identity characterized by soullessness and
sterility. And there is a heart of danger for reproducing monoculture conditioned by mono behavioral
patterns and make public space highly generic undermining social diversity, imposing consumption
behavior as only choice. Over time OS becomes product boosted by entrepreneurs and subjected to
monopolistic economy over the public realm.

Figure 11 Occupation of public space in Obrenovieva and Kopitareva Streets, Photo: Petar Vranic

Very often, using low fences or jardinires, caf owners clearly define thresholds between private and
public proprety. Consequently, street became fragmentized by private islands, which by its spatial
disposition reorganize mobility and activity pattern in OS. As central part of the street is occupied by
cafs, street sides remain as only space reserved for other activities. Decomposition of OS and shrunk of
available public space affect scope of possible use and activities. Thus perception of space is changed.
From open linear public space, OS became more access path for retails and cafes where pedestrians are
literally forced to walk through private property facing on the one side continuous cafes facades and on
the other strip of retail shops, constantly encountering waitress and people entering/exiting shops and
cafes. Use of OS as central public space of Ni for various scales of social activities necessary for society
to evolve such as concerts, music, dance or art festival, public meetings, protest and demonstrations etc. is
indirectly prevented. For instance for organization of street dancing festival all owners of cafes have to
take down their al fresco dining facilities. Such attempt will be considered as usurpation of private
property. It is irony that them who have temporarily occupation permission in fact permanently define use
of whole OS as public space.
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Same trend is observable in Kopitareva Street with even higher level of occupation of public land. In
late 90 local crafts workshops and manufactures have been replaced by small restaurants, taverns and
cafes. In recent years private owners took over almost the whole street living just narrow pedestrian path,
where hardly two persons can pass by each other. Taking into account its extremes, meeting square with
OS and its extension towards Republic Square (RS) ratio between public and private seats is on each
public there is fourty five private seats (15:682). Distribution of public seats is the same as in OS. They
are located at the extremes of the KS and face one of the busiest roads in the city, Nikole Paica Street.
Public seats located at RS are additionally surrounded by parking and consequently rarely used. In the
case of KS it is needless to discus possible public activities due to fact that there is almost no free public
space.
4.2. The case of St. Sava Park
St. Sava Park is the main public space in the most dense city district located along Nemanjica
Bulevard that host third of Ni population. In late 60 it has been planned as comprehensive district
center with elementary school, administrative center, recreational part etc. It stayed unfinished and
randomly used by local residences until 1989 when it was cleaned out and hosted solidarity meeting for
people on Kosovo with 200 000 citizens. Afterwards local residences started spontaneously to use the
area and appropriated it through petition with 13500 signatures, demanding from the city authorities to
organize space as a park as it was planed. In mean while, driven by market, plan has been changed and
instead for area to continue do be developed as park in the south-east part of the several objects for
commercial purpose were built. Even though after citizens protest, city officials stopped further
commercial expansion, this accompanying patchwork was the initial threat to public realm and it
gradually affected the nature of the park. Following successful privatization examples from the city
center, majority of the owners of retails and workshops turned their stores into cafes and restaurants.
Nowadays hardly few retails remain in the park.
Using the same pattern as it was used in OS and KS they occupied public land expanding their
properties which in many cases are three or four time bigger than inner cafs area itself. In that way
utilizing public land they maximize their utility and increase personal profit under very favorable
conditions, paying depressingly low occupying taxes for that purpose.2 Without control over expansion,
cafes are often spread over walking paths, public stairs and in the extreme cases over access road as it is a
case in the north-east corner of park. Main difference in comparison with OS and KS is that in the most of
the cases extension parts of cafes are directly attached to buildings. That further allows to owners of cafes
to use temporarily light plastic wind/rain protection walls and keep al fresco dining facilities as extended
interior and work through out the year. Namely in the regulations there isnt precise definition of what is
considered under temporal extension in the sense of structure and materials that are supposed to be used
for that purpose. Utilizing these legislative discrepancy owners in fact expanded their properties
permanently. In that way, considering overall area that is occupied by cafes, third of park has been
literally privatized, with clearly established visual, physical and as it is the case with OS symbolic entry
criterion as well. Taking into account that area round the SSP is dominantly residential, during working
hours cafes remain almost empty, passively occupies considerable part of public space preventing
possible social activities that are not align with caf/consumer logic. Even though in this case ratio
between public and private seats is more balanced then in the case of OS and KS and it is one public on
six private seats (350:2062) still it reflects noticeable asymmetry (Figure 2).
In recent years public space in the park started noticeably to shrink from the northern part as well.
Namely, area between elementary school Sveti Sava and Vizantijski Boulevard, without any public
consultation has been assign to developers to run private tennis and football facilities. Accordingly sports
activities has been reserve for affluent part of population that can afford to pay for it, the rest have to go
elsewhere. This brutal usurpation of public space raises serious questions about democracy and
accountability. Ironically public space that has been appropriate by citizens, so it was produced as
underpin for common good, ended up as polygon for exercising of individual power over demonized part
of society, whose rights has been neglected in decision making process.

According to article 32 from Low of Local Self Governance and declaration of communal taxes from 2009, daily tax for
occupation of public space in BID and Central city zone (Article 10) for purpose of al fresco dining facilities is RSD 40 per m2.

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Figure 2 St. Sava Park occupation of side walks, critical private-public thresholds, private sport facilities, inefficient use of
public land, Photo: Petar Vranic

4.3. Critical private-public thresholds

Tension between public and private properties caused by comodification of public land and its
implication on behavioral patterns, is at its highest at the thresholds points. In general, in most of the
cases cafs furniture is uncomfortably close to public seats. Clash of two realms negatively affects use of
public seats. Observations shows that the closer public benches are to cafs seats the lesser and shorter
are being used. People tend to congregate on benches located further from the private seats. Time wise, in
peak hours, usually benches are used between 10-15min. Activities that most frequently occur are eating,
resting, random chatting and waiting for and meeting people. Accordingly it can be concluded that
diversity of social activities are scaled down to those activities that have more transitory character.
Therefore use of remained public part of public space, has been reduced. More extreme examples in this
respect are OS and KS. In the case of SSP, apart from few instances, there is clear cut between those two;
because most of the public seats are located in the north-west part that kept the character of Public Park.
However, in both cases one can observe apparent behavioral antagonism at the threshold line. Prevalent
behavioral norms are imposed by dominant caf urban setting over the rest of the public space.
5. DISCUSSION
OS, KS and SSP are just two out of many public spaces in Ni that has increasingly been privatized in
recent years. While some of them still succeed to operate more as public such as the case of King Milan
square, other were brutally privatized with high level of restricted behavior and controlled by private
security and surveillance systems such as the case with shopping mall Merkator where literally ~4000m2
of public land attached to the river that aimed to become a new center for eastwards growing part of the
city, has been sold out to private developer and turned into parking space. I am not arguing that creation
of viable economical places is not of vital importance for the city but I want to point out that current
approaches to creating places seem to be too narrowly focused on maximization of economical efficiency,
missing out other aspects of the process essential to creating successful and socially inclusive places.
Such approaches raise serious concerns about the restrictions on public access and behavioral norms
based on financial capacity of citizens. If we take into account that Ni has 39,4% of unemployment and
average monthly income of 16512 RSD3, which is hardly enough for survival, than automatically
majority of city population cant afford to be in such public space. Therefore it is here that comes clearly
into view that main public spaces in the city remain reserved for upper middle class while the rest of
society is forced to express itself at the outskirts or underground. That further indicates that current trends
demonstrate silent rise of economical structural violence over public space and society in broad sense
causing exclusion, social stratification and injustice. Undermined social groups, who feel unsafe and
unwelcome in central public space, withdraw from the same and contribute to the emergence of a social
fragmentation.
Current planning approaches in planning processes and view of the public space only in terms of the
exchange value that a place may generate in the marketplace is a major reason for uneven development in
Ni. Development of the citys public spaces is today carried out, plagued mostly by economical priorities
that ignore needs of wider population framing their everyday life by offering certain spaces for
programmed consumerist action, while closing numbers of other possibilities necessarily for healthy

Data derived from City of Ni Housing Profile from 2006 pp. 32,35

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society. This practice has for its outcome total neglecting of social realities on the ground and harmful
development that has no deeper understanding of real lives of people who use these places and may be
deeply attached to them.

Figure 3 Shopping mall Merkator birds eye view, source: www.skyscrapercity.com; indoor view of shopping mall
Merkator, converted waterfront into parking, Photo: Petar Vranic

Intensive privatization of public space is part of what Harvey calls predatory and feral global capitalism.
7 In that respect city authorities and planning officials have to be systematically critical upon urban
revival strategies ad hoc imported from those cities considered advanced and evaluate profound effect of
their contemporary approaches on society before they use it as successful models. In order to establish
sustainable strategies in respect to creation of public spaces that can accommodate needs of diverse social
groups, and allow equal opportunities for all to use and enjoy public life, approaches that are not
subordinated to local structural changes and market ideology are needed. Therefore professional and
ethical role of us urban planers, designer and architect involved in city development, has to be urgently
repositioned as well. We have to evolve from the position of political servant to active actors in decision
making process. As Dovey (1999) pointed out if we cant imagine better public space than we cant
support it. 5 We have to get beyond capitalistic perception of space favoring accumulation of private
benefit, in order to understand, design and support public spaces in terms of its use value and in doing so
ensure public space remain accessible to the general public.
REFERENCES
[1] Madanipour A.: Public spaces of European cities, Nordic Journal of Architectural Research ,
Volume 18 Issue 1, 2005, pp 10,
[2] Minton A.: The privatisation of public space, The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
(RICS), Issue 1, London 2006, pp 17
[3] Carmona M. Heath T. Oc T. and Tiesdell S: Public Spaces Urban Spaces, The Dimensions of
Urban Design, published by Architectural Press an imprint of Elsevier, Oxford 2003. pp 111
[4] Carr S. Francis M. Rivlin L.G. and Stone A. M.: Public Space, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge 1992, pp. 138
[5] Dovey K. : Framing places: mediating power in built form, Routlage, London 1999, pp 15,18
[6] Loukaitou-Sideris, A. and Banerjee, T: Urban Design Downtown: Poetics and Politics of Form,
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 1998. p 175
[7] Harvey D.: Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution, published by Verso
London 2012. pp 67, 73-74, 157
[8] Harvey D.: Spaces of global capital: Towards a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development ,
Published by Verso, London 2003, pp.25
[9] Hass T.: European Square Ideals in Contemporery Urban Design-In Search of Sustainable Public
Space (The Case of Medival Squares), The XXI Aesop Conference, Naples, Italy 2007, in Hass T.
Urbanism 303, KTH-Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm 2010 , pp. 278
[10] Parkinson J.: Holistic Democracy and Physical Public Space, British Journal of Political Science
Conference, British Academy, London 2006, pp 4-5

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Petar Vrani1

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AT THE COST OF SOCIAL

EXCLUSION - A CASE STUDY OF THE STOKHOLM ROYAL SEAPORT
DEVELOPMENT
Abstract: The objective of the paper is the need for verification of increscent risk for creation of social
exclusion in the current urban transformation practice in Swedish cities. This paper elaborates concerns
related to possible gentrification that may occur in new developing area at the Royal Sea-Port in
Stockholm. Although sustainability program introduced in the city comprehensive plan includes strategies
that focus on the environmental and economical components of sustainability, the social component
remains underrepresented. Swedish cities are passing through intense process of redevelopment of inner
citys harbors, shifting these sites into housing and commercial areas. In respect to challenging
environmental standards required by Swedish national policy for sustainable development those, projects
call for high initial investments in order to accommodate hi-tech environmental friendly strategies. The
basic assumption, worked out in detail in the paper, is that there is a danger that pursuit for economical,
environmental and efficiency in spatial organization in the development of the Royal Seaport in
Stockholm might be reached at the cost of its distribution and social justice.
Key words: social justice, gentrification, Stockholm, urban transformation

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1. INTRODUCTION
This paper elaborates concerns related to possible gentrification that may occur in new developing area
at the Royal Sea Port in Stockholm. Although urban sustainability program introduced in city Vision
2030 and city comprehensive plan includes measures that focus on the environmental and economic
components of sustainability, the social dimension of sustainability remains underrepresented.

Msc. KTH-Royal Institute of Technology, Drottning Kristinas vg 30, SE-100 44 Stockholm e-mail: petarv@kth.se

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Stockholm was the winner of European Green Capital award for 2010 and it can be said that this title
is achieved through government intensions to brand the Stockholm as a world leading sustainable city,
fostering at the first place environmental goals. Following the same path, Stockholm Royal Seaport has
been designated as environmentally highly standardized area. In its environmental program 2008-2011,
Stockholm City Council decided to draw on the experience gained from Hammarby Sjstad, world-wide
unique environmental project in Stockholm. It also decided that Stockholm Royal Sea-Port environmental
profile should consolidate Stockholms position as leading capital in climate work, support the marketing
of Swedish environmental technology and contribute to development of the new technology, benefitial for
all housing construction in Sweden. By 2030 Stockholm Royal Seaport suposed to be fossil fuel-free.
Furthermore, City council focused on three conceptual frameworks in order to sustain city management
activities in coming decades: attractiveness, safety and accessibility. Vision 2030 suggests these
frameworks as guidelines that can prevent social fragmentation and exclusion by creating vibrant and
integrative urban areas paving the way for social inclusion and social sustainability. Although vision aims
to eliminate both social and physical barriers there is no clear saying on social sustainability, neither from
strategic nor from conceptual point of view, still environmental component remains as dominant one.
Stockholm Royal Sea-Port is the biggest redevelopment project in the city and it supposed to be corner
stone for the further development of the city of Stockholm. Question that arise is: will it become ecofriendly engineering showcase as Hammarby sjstad or project that will contribute to the quality of life of
all citizens?

Figure 1-Stockholm Royal Sea-Port-Norra Djurgrdsstaden area, stermalm City District, source:
www.stockholm.senorradjurgardsstaden

The site is one of twelve future infill redevelopment areas in Stockholm that will accommodate the
majority of the city's growth in the next three decades (Figure 1). It covers Norra Djurgrdsstaden area
that is going to be transformed into a new urban district with 10 000 new residences and 30 000 new
working places on 263ha. Building started 2010 and it is expected to be finished in 2025. It is currently
one of the biggest building sites in Europe. The provision of infrastructure such as streets, pipelines and
parks and decontamination of underground water will costs approximately 7, 5 billions SEK. With its
high environmental demands to cut carbon emission for 50% in comparison with current one, 30% of
locally produced energy and smart greed-net this area aims to be new sustainable flagship of Sweden but
Europe as well [9].This urban sustainability project, as it going to be elaborated later in the paper puts
high priority on environmental issues and economical efficiency but it seldomly includes measures of its
social component. Tension between social on the one side and environmental and economical demands on
the other side, rise up question of projected socially mixed development in the area, presented in the
Stockholm city Vision 2030, and its superficial concerns regarding possible gentrification and emerging
of economically gated community, as it happened in previous project of that type in Stockholm, in
Hammarby sjstad.
This paper is organized as follows: first, it theorized sustainable gentrification; second, it will explain
empirical data and brief assessment of Stockholm Vision 2030 for the Royal Seaport development,
particularly related to the social issues as well as housing market condition; and displays projected versus
objective social reality in Hammarby sjstad in Stockholm that serve as developing platform for the
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Royal Seaport. Mainly the assessment of the plan will be from analytical point of view, related to the
policies that take into consideration the relationship between environmental developing demands,
lifestyle, housing market and possible consequences on the social structure in new developing area.
Methodes applied in this analizis are interviews with relevant officials and analiyis of policy documentcs
and statisitcs. Finally it will discuss overall findings.
2. THE CONCEPT OF SUSTINABLE GENTRIFICATION
At the beginning term sustainable gentrification will be clarified. This term is intentionally used to
emphasize fact that in many cases social sustainability is being conceived as a left over and undermined
layer of sustainable development or as trading value in neo-liberal urbanization. It is related to reality that
gentrification is being normalized as a policy tool that follows new urban renewal projects but
camouflaged with social mix discourse as constitutional part of sustainable urban regeneration agenda
that nowadays is characterized as the ascendancy of market-based solutions to economic and social
problems. What paper wants to stress is that contemporary sustainable development concepts increasingly
remain as marriage of environmental and economic issues, with lack of strategic consideration of social
component [1, 2, 3, 8 and 4]. Consequently gentrification takes a place as a social deviation under the flag
of mix development and become inevitable outcomes of development and revitalization of cities.
Gentrification has gone through several evolutionary waves, closely related to global economic and
political restructuring [3]. But in fact there can be no single theory of an invariant gentrification process;
rather there are theoretical interpretation of how gentry are created and located in the cities, and how
gentrified housing has been produced [1]. Recent time gentrification process includes more active role for
corporate developers in urban growth [3]. State no longer have the financial interests to undertake largescale developments by itself. Local governments lack financial resources, but they owned the land. They
organize private parties to build developments they consider as necessary for the citys economy, by
providing land and financial subsidies. This type of planning is typical for Scandinavian context known as
New Nordic Style in which governance structure can be defined as polarized power relations 7]., and
dominance of vision over the sight, which are two main roots for gentrification [2. As this public-private
partnership has spread as a model of urban development, government agencies have a direct role in
gentrification. In addition author suggests that besides economic and political restructuring as two main
pillars for gentrification, rapid development of environmental friendly technology in building industry is
additional stake in co-modification of spaces on different scales and therefore directly contribute to
gentrification as contemporery revival model. As developers nowadays are more obliged to fulfill
government policies related to high environmental standards, such as case with Stockholm Royal Sea
Port, they are forced to build with strict green regulation. But they use environmental friendly
improvements like any other asset, which can be sold and exchanged in the marketplace. To cover
additional cost, created by implementation of new technology, and secure profit, developers are actively
competing for population crating attractive that increasingly correspond to sustainable residential
environments, aim to attract younger and wealthier. Moreover, long term maintenance of the
accommodated green technology reciprocally increase rents at the very beginning and create
background for social exclusion based on economical segregation. These new build developments can be
characterized as a contemporary form of gentrification that remain hiden behind sustainability agenda and
the way how new sustainable gentrified housing is being produced and new green gentry are created.
To that end, overlooked in this neo-liberal interplay, sustainability is being put on market with an
emblematic trading value. It becomes commodity for green middle class.
This definition is very relevant to the Stockholm Royal Seaport vision since it will most likely become
a neighborhood for affluent people. While developments are far from finished, it might be very well
develop into yet another example of sagregated area, silently enveloped in sustainable economically
gated community, created by dominance of neo-liberal vision over the sight. In this case term
gentrification is used as forecasted consequences of established strategy for development. Intentionally or
not Vision 2030 follows gentrification as template strategy for the future of urban neighborhoods even
though if officials and planners from the municipality oppose that anticipation (as it will be explained
further in the text). To stake this concerns following text will show empirical data that elaborate problems
and concerns related to Royal Seaport development based on Stockholm comprehensive plan, city Vision
2030 and city officials notions on the one side and lessons that can be learned form similar project on the
other side.
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3. VISIONS, REALITY, CONCERNS

3.1. Vision 2030-concerns
As has been stated in the Stockholm Royal Seaport Vision 2030, the main objective is to create an
attractive and exemplary sustainable neighborhood that can help Stockholm compete with the other cities
in a global market, through meeting the requirements of the modern-day city-dweller and keeping worldclass climate work in mind. It also states that the focus will be mainly on high-tech companies and
consumer, while at the same time plan aiming for socially diverse environment and affordable housing.
Particular attention will be paid to building less-expensive homes of a good basic standard to make it
easier for younger people and students to enter housing market. Moreover new homes will be built with
quality firmly in mind, using modern, environmentally sound, energy-efficient materials; they will be
located alongside workplaces to create a safe, secure environment that remains alive both day and night
[9].
It is controversial that all these claimes can be implemented in same time promoting social mixing as
part of overall urban development agenda. Such integrative places, as it was mentioned above, are
difficult to create and maintain, and in the face of the centrifugal trends of social polarization and
inequality, social mixing may lead to gentrification, becoming more complicated than it seems at first [4].
Leaders from the municipality of Stockholm and city planning office argue against anticipation that
social exclusion will occur in the area because of extreme environmental and locally produced energy
demands, introduced in plan which will consequently reflect on real estate price. They claim that there is
no place for such judgment, even though if in same time there isnt policy that supports social mixing,
requiring particular percentage of newly built apartments as social/affordable housing.
Furthermore,
they confirm that polices related to government subsidy for locally produced energy and its relation to
housing market doesnt exist as well, there is just relation government-developers with no implication to
affordable housing in development agenda. Linear government-developers relation doesnt consider
strategy for keeping balanced housing market that suppose to create closing loop structure and prevent
gentrification, making area accessible to wider range of income groups.
3.2. Review of Hammerby Sjstad as model for Stockholm Royal Sea-Port development
Vision 2030 to a great extent is based on the experience from Hammerby Sjstad. Hammerby Sjstad
is planed as a unique environmental project in Stockholm, with highly efficient technical solution in
respect to environment. It will serve as a departure point for sustainable solutions related to energy use,
waste management and transportation, land use, water and sewage management and building materials
but nothing is being considered regarding social structure and failure of the social mix development in the
area and how this component can be improved in the Royal Seaport project. A social sustainability lesson
from Hammerby Sjstad is very didactic. Current social profile in the neighborhood is rather socially and
economically homogenous than heterogeneous as it has been planed. Average income in Hamamrby
Sjstad is almost 20% higher, unemployment 52% lower, percentage of immigrants are 49% lower and
12% more economically active residents in comparison with the average for Stockholm city it self.2
When high income groups move into an area, as in this case, they bring with them part of the necessary
investment, associated with improvement in urban amenities and services. However, mixing may occur
only physically, but not necessarily generating social and cultural links between different groups, what is
the case with Hammarby Sjstad. What can be concluded is that this area is settled by upper middle class,
with no objective mixed social structure. There wasnt policy or any other mechanism used for
stabilization of rental costs in the housing market in Hammarby Sjstad, along development nor
afterward, and consequently, gentrification occurred over time, even if officials are arguing against that.
The same scenario for Stockholm Royal Sea-Port Development, is more then possible, regarding that
nothing strategically has been done so far to cure Hammarby Sjstad case in respect to socio- economical
segregation.
Mentioned indicators prove that the segregation problem in Hammarby Sjstad cannot be ignored. It
further indicates that there were a certain problems along the implementation process, or it was

All data derived from USK Statistics Sweden 2010 (http://www.usk.stockholm.se/)

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consciously planed as gentrified neighborhood. Stockholm City has supported the development of the
Hammarby Sjstad area with 300 million SEK (35 million Euros), and citys proposal to redevelop the
industrial area into a highly desirable residential neighborhood and lift up residential standards is realized
(EU Commission). But there is a problem with equal distribution. Who actually got the benefits of this
investments and how this neighborhood contribute to the overall living standard in the city? Resultant
properties are priced out of reach of most sections of society and the public programs present in area do
not encourage interaction with non-residents either. Thus departuring from this remarks it is logicaly to
expect improvments in domain of social sustainability in the Royal Seaport project, but still this
component remains neglected.
To summarize, using Hammerby Sjstad as development model and aiming for socially inclusive
development in the Royal Seaport is pure hypocrisy. It is reasonable to expect that apart from the other
reasons gentrification process in the Royal Seaport area can initially emerge sporadically as local
anomaly in the housing market as has been the case with the redevelopments in Hammerby Sjstad.
3.3. Housing supply and demand
Moreover, as additional concerns to what has been done so far in previous steps of the city plan
regarding follow up consequences in the housing market, are that housing production doesnt corresponds
to population growth, and city officials face alarming situation. As it can be seen in the graphs below
(Figire 2 and 3), the price of the newly-build developments in Sweden are among the highest in Europe
while at the same time total household dept rapidly grew in recent years. Furthermore there is a huge gap
between demands for housing which is about 35.000 dwellings and housing supply which is about 8.000.
So, in current situation, there is a need for approximately 26.000 new dwellings. This is an obvious
necessity, but according to Stockholm Camber of Commerce the number are 85.000 units taking into
account other indicators that are not listed in the diagrams such as transitional residences, students,
teenagers looking for place to live alone. This demand will strongly affect rental and housing prices in the
Stockholm Royal Seaport area as well, as a leading housing project in Stockholm. Pressure will lift prices
up and offer will appeal to citizens with higher socioeconomic status who will demand housing in,
establishing uniformed socio-economic landscape in the neighborhood.

Figure 2 Price development of newly built apartments in EU, source: graph is taken from Stocholm Chamber of Comerce
presentation held by Sofia Linder 28.04.2011. within the Intensive Program in Spatial Planning at KTH

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Figure 3 Population growth in respect to housing supply and demands, source: graph is taken from Stocholm Chamber of
Comerce presentation held by Sofia Linder 28.04.2011. within the Intensive Program in Spatial Planning at KTH

According to authorities in stermalm City District Office housing in the planned residential area in
the Stockholm Royal Sea-Port area will be provided for both students, elderly, disabled people and
yuppies/families, but environmentally friendly character of the project will cause housing prices to be
higher than in the surrounding areas with anticipated rental properties starting at SEK 12.000/month.
Project developers are forced to create energy efficient homes with sustainable energy solutions and this
will definitely affect housing prices, but there is no governance device introduced so far regarding that
issue. Fact is that officials are aware of the situation but without any concrete response or explanation,
accepting more than possible gentrification and social segregation based on economical status as planning
left over.
From mentioned above awareness of problems and social mix policy failure for new development area
obvious even before project is finished, but what is questionable why there is not adequate response to it
within the planning document for further development and from the city officials. It will most likely
become yet another case that confirm social mix policies as cosmetic policies rather than ones prepared to
deal with the whole host of complex social, economic and cultural reasons.
The objective concerns are how plan is going to achieve socially inclusive environment within the area
in reality that already has noticeable problems on housing market, avoid delirious rise of price of the real
estate and emerging of economical gated community, while at the same time keeps its demand for high
environmental friendly character and attractiveness of newly build environment creating competitive
spatial capital under any cost. It is ironic that a process that results in segregation and polarization is being
promoted via social mix policies as positive solution to social exclusion. By abstractly celebrating
formal equality under the law, the rhetoric of social mixing tends to conceal the inequalities of fortune
and economic circumstance that are produced through the process of gentrification. [8].
4. DISCUSSION
The case of the Stockholm Royal Seaport is one more example that confirms gentrification as
contemporary method for neo-liberal urban development, because economic and technological efficiency
has been considered before fair distribution of city services while planning. It is paradox that projects
such as Royal Seaport in Stockholm that are aim to be leading sustainable district worldwide, coming
from the social welfare system and social democratic regime typical for Scandinavian countries, going to
be developed and build almost literally neglecting socially inclusive strategy but in the same time
promoting social mix hypocrisy polices. Moreover, in practice such policies also destroy their moral
authority because they socially construct the middle class or middle-income groups as a natural category
in contrast to a demonized working class or low-income groups and this is done spatially [1].
Accordingly, there is a concern for this project to stay just as a sustainable competitive brand value
in global economical market and gentrified area without noticeable benefit for the wider majority of city
population. Commodification of sustainability leads to mobilization of projected sustainable lifestyle as
marketing ploy. That further allows real estate developers to promote area as consumable product. And as
such, area might become incubator for sustainable elite that emerge through the process of gentrification
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justified by sustainable morality and its display for spatial articulation of their green identity, cognitively
inaccessible to majority of citizen that cant afford to live in such neighborhood [5]. Accordingly, this
strategy becomes automatically antagonistic to any principal of social inclusion and social justice.
Furthermore concerns related to the Royal Seaport development go beyond the case it self. Scaling up
issue and putting the case in global frame, it is one more island of sustainable renewal in the seas of decay
[6]. Thus, question is what about the rest of people who cant afford to be part of environmental friendly
neighborhoods such as Hammerby Sjstad, Hafen City, the Royal Seaport etc; how long is the
unsustainable queue for accessing such neighborhood and be able to consume such sustainability as
commodity made for green middle class? Should planners and designers take the centrifugal forces of
economic stratification and cultural differentiation for granted, or should they try to confront these forces
as much as they can within its professional scope? The outcome of blindly accepting imperatives of
market forces and prioritizing of certain social groups is that it could generate parallel worlds, whereby
different social classes may live in their own enclaves. Do we have right to do so?
Instead to conclude, author want to point out that there is real danger that model of sustainable
gentrification, created as market-driven urbanism device where economically and environmentally
friendly real estate industry is into definitional core of it, has potential to be established as ultimate model
for urban revival and as a such create platform for further social polarization in the cities. To that end
there is a question that emerges: should the role of urban design be accepting social fragmentation as a
given and try to design appropriate spaces for it, or should urban design try, in its limited ways, to
overcome fragmentation and segregation? [4]. It is of great importance for us involved in Urban Studies
to keep gentrification issues open and tensions between it and sustainable development alive, and in that
way constitute a progressive research that will lead us to rethink neo-liberal urbanization as practical
solution to urban decline in the cities around the world.
REFERENCES
[1] Beauregard, A. R. (1986): Chaos and complexity of Gentrification published in The
Gentrification Reader ed. by Lees L, Slater T. & Wyly E., Routledge, London, 2010 pp. 11-24
[2] Clark, E. (2005): The order and simplicity of gentrification-political challenge published in The
Gentrification Reader ed. by Lees L, Slater T. & Wyly E., Routledge, London, 2010 pp. 24-31
[3] Hackworth, J. and Smith N. (2001), The Chaining State of Gentrification, published in The
Gentrification Reader ed. by Lees L, Slater T. & Wyly E., Routledge, London, 2010 pp. 65-77
[4] Madanipour A.: Living together or apart; Social mixing, social exclusion and gentrification,
Companion to Urban Design , Routledge, New York 2011 pp. 484-494
[5] Rofe, M.W. (2003): I want to be Global : Theorizing the Gentrifying Class as an Emergent Elite
Global Community, in The Gentrification Reader ed. by Lees L, Slater T. & Wyly E.,
Routledge, London, 2010 pp. 421
[6] Wyly, E.K. & Hammel, D.J. (1999): Islands of Decay in Seas of Renewal: Housing Policy and
the Resurgence of Gentrification in The Gentrification Reader ed. by Lees L, Slater T. & Wyly
E., Routledge, London, 2010 , pp. 455-495
[7] Lind H. : Market-Oriented Land-Use Planning: A Conceptual Note, PLANNING &
MARKETS, University of Southern California, Vol. 5, No.1, Los Angeles 2000, pp 5
[8] Lees, L. : Gentrification and Social Mixing: Towards an Inclusive Urban Renaissance? Sage
Journal Urban Studies (Online) Vol.45, London 2008 pp.15
[9] Executive Ofice of Stockholm :Stockhololm Royal Seaport Norra Djurgrdsstaden-Vision
2030, EO Gfiska AB, Stockholm 2007

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milica Vujoevi1

ABOUT SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE

Abstract: What is sustainable architecture? Architecture that sustains itself? Or something else? Since
the definition of the term "sustainability" or "sustainable development" by the United Nations Brutland
Commission in 1987, the word "sustainable" is implemented mainly in the context of the sustainability of
humanity on planet Earth. That trend in science has led to the fact that everything that is created needs to
be "sustainable." This created a new trend in architecture called "sustainable architecture", in which
each new architectural idea should be based on the principles of sustainability. What exactly is meant by
that is presented in this paper.
The subject of this paper is to interpret the word "sustainable" in the field of architecture. This word will
be analyzed from its inception through presentation of its meaning in a broader context that would
eventually put an emphasis on its use in the field of architecture. The aim is to examine the relationship
between the use of this words in different contexts, show its importance in general, and finally determine
what is meant by sustainable architecture and what kind of approaches in creating sustainable
architecture exist until now.
ey words: sustain, sustainable, sustainability, sustainable architecture

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2
This research has been carried out as a part of scientific research project Spatial, Ecological, Energy and Social aspects of
the Development of Settlements and Climate Changes Mutual Influences, financed by Ministry of Education and Science of
the Republic of Serbia

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1. MORPHOLOGY AND MEANING

Origin of the word sustain:
Latin sustinre to hold up, sus- up + tenre to hold
Old French sustenir, Middle English sustenen
First known use of the word sustain - 13th century
First known use of the word sustainable year 1727
Table 3- Word familly

verb
noun

adverb

adjective

sustain
sustains; sustained; sustaining [+ obj]
sustainability
sustainment
sustainer
sustainably
sustainedly
sustainingly
sustainable / unsustainable (more sustainable; most sustainable)
sustained
sustaining

Definition of sustainabl:
capable of being sustained
relating to, or being a method of harvesting or using a resource so that the resource is not depleted
or permanently damaged (sustainable techniques, sustainable agriculture),
relating to a lifestyle involving the use of sustainable methods (sustainable society). [5]
capable of being continued with minimal long-term effect on the environment: (sust. agriculture),
capable of being maintained at a steady level without exhausting natural resources or causing
severe ecological damage (sustainable development). [6]
able to be used without being completely used up or destroyed (sustainable energy resources,
sustainable water supply). [7]
Related to sustainabl: [5]
Synonyms: defendable, defensible, justifiable, maintainable, supportable, tenable
Antonyms: indefensible, insupportable, unjustifiable, unsustainable, untenable
Related Words: rational, reasonable, sensible, well-grounded; acceptable, admissible, allowable,
exceptionable, legitimate, passable, unobjectionable, viable, warrantable; confirmable, provable,
verifiable; explainable, explicable
Sustainability is the capacity to endure. In ecology, the word describes how biological systems remain
diverse and productive over time. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of
sustainable biological systems. For humans, sustainability is the potential for long-term maintenance of
well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions.
Sustainability interfaces with economics through the social and ecological consequences of economic
activity. Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and national
law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism. Ways of living
more sustainably can take many forms from reorganising living conditions (e.g., ecovillages, ecomunicipalities and sustainable cities), reappraising economic sectors (permaculture, green building,
sustainable agriculture), or work practices (sustainable architecture), using science to develop new
technologies (green technologies, renewable energy), to adjustments in individual lifestyles that conserve
natural resources. [8]
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However, since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability on
planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability and sustainable
development, that of the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20, 1987: sustainable
development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. [13]

Figure 45 - Sustainable development: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sustainable_development.svg

Already in 1993, at their convention in Chicago, the International Union of Architects defined
sustainable design in their Declaration of Interdependence for a Sustainable Future. In their definition,
sustainable design integrates consideration of resource and energy efficiency, healthy buildings and
materials, ecologically and socially sensitive land use and an aesthetic that inspires, affirms and enables.
This definition is based on the general concept of sustainability being supported by the economic, social
and environmental pillars of responsible development (figure 1). [14]
Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability on planet Earth
thanks to the Brundtland Commissions definition. At the 2005 World Summit it was noted that it
requires the reconciliation of environmental, social and economic demands - the "three pillars" of
sustainability. [13] This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses
indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually
reinforcing (figure 1). [4]
A universally accepted definition of sustainability is elusive because it is expected to achieve many
things. But sustainability is also a call to action, a task in progress or journey and therefore a political
process, so some definitions set out common goals and values. [9] The Earth Charter speaks of a
sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a
culture of peace. [12]
To add complication the word sustainability is applied not only to human sustainability on Earth, but
to many situations and contexts over many scales of space and time, from small local ones to the global
balance of production and consumption. It can also refer to a future intention: "sustainable agriculture" is
not necessarily a current situation but a goal for the future, a prediction. [2] For all these reasons
sustainability is perceived, at one extreme, as nothing more than a feel-good buzzword with little meaning
or substance [3] but, at the other, as an important but unfocused concept like "liberty" or "justice". [1] It
has also been described as a "dialogue of values that defies consensual definition". [11]
2. USE OF THE WORD SUSTAINABLE IN ARCHITECTURE TEXTS
Sustainability and sustainable development have recently been involved in many aspects of research.
Since the word sustainability can be applied in various contexts, in the following section will only be
discussed sustainability in architecture. Several architecture text segments are shown in which the authors
explain the concept of sustainable architecture and trying to define what it exactly means.

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2.1. Sustainable Architecture: Social, Cultural and Technological Aspects in Reconstruction of

War-Torn Societies [15]
2.1.1 The Brundtland Report:
Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of
sustainable development does imply limits - not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present
state of technology and social organization on environmental resources and by the ability of the
biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. But technology and social organization can be both
managed and improved to make way for a new era of economic growth (p. 11).
Therefore, sustainable development includes social, technological, economic, and environmental
factors that affect the direction and character of development strategies. Although social and economic
development are mentioned, cultural sustainability is not addressed as a component of development
strategies.
The idea of sustainable architecture, as a method for the design of environmentally friendly buildings,
has been evident since the 1970s in western societies. In that context, sustainable architecture was
sometimes expressed as nostalgia for the past with its simple vernacular ways of living. Sustainable
technology embraces local materials, site-specific conditions, and complex interactions between
occupants, architecture, site, and climate. In developed countries, there is a substantial focus on energy
usage, materials, recycling, and building operation.
2.1.2 Methodologies for Sustainable Design
Architectural practice has always relied on technological innovations in materials and scientific
advancements. Sustainable materials are those that exhibit sensitivity to the environment in terms of
production, fabrication and use. Sustainable practices offer radical changes to the built environment in
terms of energy usage, thermal behavior, structural performance and aesthetics.
The Solaire Building, a sustainable residential building in New York, is an example of the methods
generally used in the design of eco-friendly buildings in this part of the world (figure 2). It incorporates
Building Management System (BMS), which controls heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC)
system, fire, lighting, security and other systems; integration of photo-voltaic cells on the faade and roof;
and sensor controls and high-efficiency fixtures.

Figure 46 - Solaire Building, New York

On the other hand, there are low tech methods for design and construction of sustainable buildings.
Shigeru Ban, a Japanese architect, developed a method for construction of paper tube structures made
from recycled cardboard. He designed paper tube houses for Kobe, Japan after the devastating earthquake
in 1994 (figure 3). The solution for the structure was a foundation using sand-filled containers with walls
of rolled paper tubes and a tent roof. The roof and the ceiling were kept separate in summer to allow air to
circulate for natural ventilation, and closed in winter to maintain warm air. The paper tubes and
containers were easy to transport, construct on site, and recycle after use. Although the paper tube houses
were temporary, they incorporated sustainable methods that were cost-effective, site-specific, and
affordable.

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Figure 47 - Papir tube house, Kobe, Japan

2.1.3 Context-Specific Approaches

The different approaches for sustainable practices in building construction are context specific. In the
industrialized countries, energy usage is an extremely important factor since these societies tend to use
more energy compared to the developing countries.
The methods for sustainable design include faade design, energy conservation, use of renewable and
sustainable materials, and integration of systems. In areas where access to energy sources is unreliable or
non-existent, the use of alternative energy sources, such as solar energy and wind power, can be
considered.
2.1.4 Integration of Social Factors, Culture and Technology
A focus on energy usage, advanced materials, and intelligent systems is characteristic of a high-tech
approach for sustainable architecture. But, there are also other approaches that influence the
environmental performance of the building, such as building orientation, shape, layout, surrounding
vegetation, local materials and material reuse.
2.2. Sustainable Architecture: A Definition [10]
Whilst one could be forgiven for defining sustainable architecture as, buildings that will stay intact
for a prolonged period, what we are in fact concerned with is the search for and the promotion of
building methods that people can go on using with the skills and resources available to them.
However, this is an elusive target. The global and local context in which we live is evolving rapidly.
Local approaches to achieving shelter that have in many instances been sustainable over many centuries
are now unable to cope with today's needs or relate adequately to today's available resources. In this
environment, new solutions and approaches that seem genuinely sustainable are hard to find. Where they
exist, they need to be encouraged if we are to keep pace with growing needs. Sustainable architecture
brings together at least five key characteristics:
environmental sustainability: does the approach avoid depleting natural resources bases and
contaminating the environment?
technical sustainability: can the skills be introduced and passed on to others, and are the tools needed
accessible?
financial sustainability: can money or service exchange be accessed to pay for the work that needs to
be done?
organizational sustainability: is there a structure of sorts that allows one to bring together the
different stakeholders without, for example, needing to call on outside expertise on each occasion?
social sustainability: does the overall process and the product fit within and satisfy the needs of
society?

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2.2.1 Sustainable architecture takes time to put into place

A sustainable architecture package cannot be transferred as a ready-made product. In searching for
sustainable architectural approaches and an end result, we know that an overall idea may appear on paper
to satisfy the characteristics listed above, but in practice many of these components may need to be
developed to the point where they achieve sustainability in their given context. This takes time, to train
and develop skills, to demonstrate an idea, or to put in place an organizational or financial system that can
become sustainable.
2.2.2 Sustainable architecture is context specific
As illustrated above, the sustainable architecture approach brings together several characteristics.
However, each of these characteristics is essentially context specific, and relate to the resources that are
locally available, or to the customs and needs of the local population.
Thus one cannot classify a particular building technology as being a sustainable architecture
technology, nor can one assume that a credit system that works well in one place will work well in
another. But we can assess the potential of a particular process or material to make a valid contribution
towards sustainable architecture in a given locality.
When considering what techniques and approaches may potentially produce popularly accessible and
sustainable architecture that responds to the characteristics above, the following criteria form a basis for
assessment - sustainable architecture:
makes substantial use of locally available materials and local means of transport;
uses resources that are available in sufficient quantity to satisfy a general demand and not damage
the environment;
does not depend on equipment that is not easily available;
uses skills that can be realistically developed in the community;
can be afforded within the local socio-economic context;
produces a durable result;
responds to and resists the effects of the local climate;
provides flexibility to adapt to local habits and needs;
can be replicated by the local community.
Many successful examples of sustainable architecture already exist and match these criteria, achieved
through the efforts of local initiatives and of external support. However, more needs to be done to bring
these examples to the attention of a wider audience.
2.3. Contributions of Silicone Technology to Sustainable Architecture [14]
Any sustainable design or architecture must meet the 4P strategic requirements, which relate to:
Project the design quality,
Prosperity or profit the economic quality,
Planet the environment quality, and
People the social quality.
This is also called the 4P tetrahedron, which was suggested by Prof. Kees Duijvestein of the Delft
University of Technology, Holland (figure 4).
Sustainable architecture is more than just energy-efficient buildings. However, energy efficiency is the
most important measure that allows addressing the three current issues: environmental damage, climate
change and energy security.
Operational energy reduction is a key priority, since the most sustainable energy is energy saved.

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Figure 48 Tetrahedron of sustainability

From the presented definitions we see that sustainable architecture is not just the application of the
latest technological advances to reduce the negative impact of buildings on the environment, but it is also
achieved by a simple application of local materials and building techniques. That is an aspect of
sustainability that speaks about fitting buildings to the local context, whether it is spoken of aesthetics,
natural conditions or socio-economic aspects of construction (figure 5).

Figure 49 - Sustainable architecture paradigm Fallingwater house, F.L.Wright

3. CONCLUSION
In today's speech, the word "sustainable" is used much more frequently than twenty years ago. The
reason for this lies in the fact that today's society has recognized the negative impact on the environment
and the imperative for the improvement. Everything is done with the aim to be sustainable, that not only
meets current needs, but to enable the future generations to use the benefits of life on planet Earth in the
same way as we do. Therefore, this word is sometimes unnecessarily inserted in a statement, just to raise
its significance. Because when something is sustainable, then it is also considered to be carefull and
sensitive. This game of words is so exaggerated that we will sone have to find new, more appropriate
term for something sustainable. Because everything we talk about is sustainable, and nothing we do is
not.

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REFERENCES
[1] Blewitt, J.: Understanding Sustainable Developmen, London: Earthscan, 2008
[2] Costanza, R. & B.C. Patten: Defining and predicting sustainability, Ecological Economics, 15
(3), 1995, pp. 193196.
[3] Dunning, B.: Sustainable Sustainability, Skeptoid. 2006,
[4] Forestry Commission of Great Britain. Sustainability
[5] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sustainable
[6] http://www.thefreedictionary.com/sustainable
[7] http://www.learnersdictionary.com/search/sustainable
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
[9] Markus J., et al: Creating Adventures in Wonderland: The Journey Metaphor and Environmental
Sustainability, Organization, 13(6), 2006, pp. 801-839
[10]
Norton, .: Sustainable Architecture: A Definition, Habitat Debate - Construction and
Architecture, Vol. 5, No. 2, HABITAT, 2002
[11]
Ratner, B.D.: Sustainability as a Dialogue of Values: Challenges to the Sociology of
Development, Sociological Inquiry, 74(1), 2004, pp. 5069.
[12]
The Earth Charter Initiative: The Earth Charter, 2000, Retrieved on: 2009-04-05.
[13]
United Nations General Assembly: Report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development: Our Common Future, United Nations General Assembly, 1987, http://www.undocuments.net/ocf-02.htm
[14]
Wolf, A.T.: Contributions of Silicone Technology to Sustainable Architecture, Dow
Corning GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany, 2010
[15]
Zisko-Aksamija, A., and L. Whalley: Sustainable Architecture: Social, Cultural and
Technological Aspects in Reconstruction of War-Torn Societies, Rebuilding Sustainable
Communities in Iraq: Policies, Programs and Projects, University of Massachusetts at Boston,
2007, pp. 161-180.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Vinja ugi 1

ARCHITECTURE AND SPACES OF ILLUSION: THE DISSOLUTION OF

CONTEXT
Abstract: This paper explores the relations between real architectural spaces and spaces of illusion by
analyzing the levels of their mutual overlapping. In the context of cinematization and theatralization of
the city, spaces of illusion refer to a range of spaces created by the application of technologies on
architecture as a bounding element of urban space.
The analyses show that architecture has a tendency of becoming a mere projection screen. The facade is
established as a new layer of a building, which re-articulates public space, generating spaces of
simulation, in the culture of seduction. Innovative technologies create ephemeral changes in existing
three-dimensional spaces. If temporary transformations of public spaces permanently influence the way
they are perceived in reality - is it possible to establish some kind of identity in such a context?
Finally, if architecture becomes a projection surface, how does design methodology adjust to this
situation? If the inputs are radically changed, what is the relevant context to refer to in a design process?
Keywords: illusion, architecture, public space, context, technology

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1. INTRODUCTION
The postmodern world is defined as the world of images. The main characteristic of this image-based
world is the predomination of visual over all other senses. Image has become the main medium through
which one perceives the world, so instead of experiencing our being in the world, we behold it from
outside as spectators of images projected on the surface [1]. In an architectural context, authors such as
1

Assistant, Department for architecture and urbanism, Faculty for Technical Sciences, Dositeja Obradovia Square 6, e-mail:
visnja.zugic@gmail.com

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Pallasma are trying to find the alternative to this condition, developing the concept of architecture of the
senses [2]. At the same time, the visual remains the basic starting point for reading, experiencing and
evaluation of the society today, and it seems that, at least in the field of architecture, it has been difficult
to escape from that fact.
Precisely, the term surface, which highlights a two-dimensional category - one layer, is used by Jean
Baudlliard to describe the main feature of the culture that emerges in the world based on images - the
culture of seduction [3]. The main characteristics of seduction itself are appearance and representation.
Contemporary cultural condition is described through its fixation with appearances, surfaces and instant
impacts that have no sustaining power over time [4]. Since the world is oversaturated with images that
are constantly changing, their ephemeral nature allow no time for more than just what remains on the
surface. Baudrillard also suggests that seduction is something opposed to reality, describing it as the
mastery of the strategy of appearances, against the force of being and reality [5].
It seems that the whole theory of culture of seduction puts in focus one provoking question: how real
is, actually, the world as we perceive it? Baudrillard points out that the 1980s have established the third
level of losing reality in the space of images, introducing the notion of hyperreality [6]. The very term
hyperreality is defined as a means to characterize the way consciousness defines what is actually real
in a world where a multitude of media can radically shape and filter an original event or experience [7].
Hyperreality is also used to describe a hypothetical inability of consciousness to distinguish reality from
fantasy, especially in technologically advanced postmodern cultures [8]. Each definition clearly
emphasizes technology and the media as something that is a precondition to hyperreality itself.
In the forming of the character of a contemporary city,the production and consumption of events
plays a special role [9], precisely owing to the media and communication. This communication is being
acomplished through the usage of scenic means which shape the events. In that way, in a contemporary
city, an image becomes the basic means of communication, taking over the place which buildings or
written texts had in the marking of the city. [10]
If the world is determined by the culture of seduction, where the visual overdominates all other senses,
where society communicates only through images, and visual perception is being captivated by seduction,
we could question everything that is perceived as authentic. If our engagement with the world, and space
itself, never goes beyond the first layer of the ever-changing image, the question that emerges is: what is
established as a permanent (architectural) value, and how does architecture react in such a cultural
context?
This paper strives to explore the physical manifestations of the current cultural discourse, in the
context of architecture and urban landscape.
The paper analyzes relations between real architectural spaces and spaces of illusion by classifying the
levels of their mutual overlapping. In the context of cinematization [11] and theatralization [12] of
the city, spaces of illusion refer to a range of spaces created by the application of technologies on
architecture as a bounding element of urban space.
2. TYPOLOGY
The following typology which decompoes this phenomenon into several levels is suggested:
the image - architecture as a collection of surfaces that carry a still, two-dimensional image
(advertisements);
the screen - moving image technologies applied to the building facades (urban screens, media
facades, etc);
the illusion - applying 3D technologies in public spaces (3D projection mapping, holograms, etc),
as well as all transitional categories between the defined types. In the following chapters each category
will be explained through the analyses of several examples.
2.1. The image
The first level of this phenomenon refers to the image, in which case architecture appears as a
collection of surfaces that carry a still, two-dimensional image, most usually an advertisment.
Commonplace in contemporary cities is the usage of vast architectural surfaces for adverising in public
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space. This phenomenon reveals the media function of architecture in urban space. It has been strongly
exploited in complicity with the developement of technologies, ever since the potentials of their mutual
influence have been awakened.
One of the best examples of the level in which the advertisment can take over architecture, to the
extent of being the very material which builds urban environment, is the animated short film Logorama,
directed by Franois Alaux, Herv de Crcy and Ludovic Houplain.
The story takes place in the city of Los Angeles, the architecture of which is represented as an
immense collection of cubes wrapped entirely in brands and logos of different kinds (Figure 1). Even
though the subject of analysis is a virtual and non-existing city, the way it is overdone makes the
reflection upon real life situation truer.

Figure 12 Opening scene of the animated short film Logorama, showing Los Angeles as a city built entirely of cubes coated in
advertisements and logos.

The spatial organization of the presented city is strictly ortogonal, as well as the geometry of the
buildings themselves. Both of these characteristics, together with the uniform height of the buildings, and
essentially changeable skin that wraps them, suggest the lack of reference for orientation. instead of an
existentially grounded plastic and spatial experience, architecture has adopted the psychological strategy
of advertizing and instant persuasion; buildings have turned into image products detached from existential
depth and sincerity. [13]
In architectural theory, this topic was explored through the question of neglected spatiality of
architecture oposed to its communicational potentials: This architeture of styles and signs is anti-spatial;
it is the architecture of communication through spaces. [14] However, one of the main demands of a
contemporary city is keeping track with the requests of consumerist society. The usage of architecture as
a collection of surfices for advertising became so dominant that some authors such as Gordon Cullen
recognize and emphasize the advertisment as a legitimate architectural means of expression: However,
out of all things, this is the most characteristic and potentially most precious contribution of the city
landscape of the twentieth century. A new, never-before-seen in histry, night landsacpe was made.
[15] In the overall urban scenery, the sign became an element that is hard to ignore, and this
situation initiates a deeper reviewing of the communicatinal function of architecture, making it an
important question of the design programme.

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2.2. The screen

The second level explores the connections between the contemporary city and the moving image, and
the way in which moving image technologies, once they are applied in architecture, shape and transform
the way we percieve the city today. Koeck and Roberts describe cinema as a quintessentially urban set of
practices [16] which makes the city and the moving image inseparable constituents of the modern urban
imaginary. [17]
The relationship between architecture as material, and moving images as immaterial or virtual
comoponents of urban scenery, goes in both directions the increasing presence of urban screens in
public space has a strong impact on the way we percieve architecture, while the physical structure of
architecture and its morphology set the precondition for the development of new light advertisements and
illuminated facades. It is clear that the general typology of the physical phenomena that emerge from this
overlaping will, above all, refer to the building facades as the bounding elements which envelope the
inside, and give character to the outside the public space. The most dominant forms of moving images
in public space are urban screens and media facades.

Figure 2 - Overlapping of architecture and moving image: IDENTIDADE, s site-specific facade projection on the Prefeitura (city
hall) of Sao Paulo, Brazil

The convergence of material structures of urban space and moving image technologies results in
virtualized spaces of representation that have increasingly come to define the phantasmagoric landscapes
of postmodern cities. [18] While some would argue that we are passive spectators [19] of the society we
live in, our visual context is determined by the concept of mobility and movem ent (Figure 2). This marks
an essentially dynamic and active urban environment, both in the way we understand and read it, and on
the level of concrete design and physicality.
2.3. The illusion
The third level of applying new technologies on architecture, has the creation of complex spaces of
illusion as an outcome. The merging of real and virtual spaces in these interventions result in different
levels of the complexity of the final outcome. The main feature of the resulting state is a confusion in
distinguishing real from fantasy. Spaces of illusion represent a certain type of a hybrid, combining
elements of digital space and real physical space. Facing the way in which they coexist as a unique
phenomenon it is no longer possible and no longer useful to determine which of the two sides is
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more important. Does the media aspect support the physical appearance of the building or is the
building its shape and its facade simply a function of its communication goals? [20]
Contemporary projection methods can be divided into two major disciplines: 3D projection mapping
and the usage of holograms in public space.
3D projection mapping reveals a deep connection with architecture since each work is made precisely
for a specific building. These, in a certain sense, site-specific digital works most usually have a result in
the form of the distortion of true space, demonstrating the superior technical level and a creative potential
of manipulating ones perception (Figure 3). In the example of the Perspectives Lyriques project, the fact
that projection is made on the facade of a theatre building, reveals the need of this architectural typology
to communicate through its scenic function. By the emphasized need for representation, it marks itself as
a generator of public urban life and at the same time as the theatre, which is based on the production of
illusion. We could say that 3D projection mapping is the instrument which, in this case, contributes to the
scenic function of the theatre building so that, the theatre has not only lost its traditionally dominant
urban position, but it also constantly develops it. [21]

Figure 3 - Sound & light show "Perspectives Lyriques" projected on the Clestins Theater, Lyon, France for the 2010 edition of
the Fte de la Lumire

With the developement of 3D projection technologies, and its application in architecture, a real urban
drama starts to unfold. The contours of this virtual space and its various contents can be generated,
manipulated, and to some extent controlled in ways unheard of in the space(s) that we normally take for
granted. [22]
If the 3D mapping creates illusions by operating on the surface of existing building facades, holograms
in public space open a whole new dimension for the illusion possibilities. The holograms ability to
question the physical limitations of space seems almost infinite. It works through disrupting the everyday
setting of space and the way we percieve it, and it introduces the zone of the in-between, exposing the
field between present reality and represented fiction. The in-between in architectural space is not a literal
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perceptual or audible sensation, but an affective somatic response that is felt by the body in space. This
feeling is not one arising from fact, but rather from the virtual possibility of architectural space. [23]
The in-betweenness of the experience that emerges from being involved with the spaces of illusion is
one of its strongest characteristics. One cannot clearly tell if the sensation is linked to real or imaginary
spaces, which gives the sense of floating between two realms. Central to the phenomenon is the great
level of manipulation, not only of space but also of time. Figure3 shows four different points of the
projection intervention. The building is radically changed in a short period of time. This is what, par
excellence is oposed to architecture in its most conventinal form (static, long lasting and permanent
structure). This quality can be desribed by the term photognie, which Jean Epstein relates to the theory
of a fourth dimension the mediums ability to manipulate space and time. [24] The permanent
changeability becomes the only permanent value of architecture in such a context.
3. CONCLUSIONS
In the world of overall globalization, technology has taken a leading role not only in disciplines such
as architecture and art, but on every level of contemporary life. The society dominantly shaped by the
media, phisically appears as a compound of virtual and real spaces. Considering the overwhelming power
of technology to change the existing space, the question of the environmental values of public space, once
all its characteristics are reassessed, undoubtly positions itself in the foreground of the disscussion.
It can be argued that the media function of architecture, if achieved only in the two-dimensional layer
of a building facade, neglects the real organic communication of architecture with public space. Instead,
a vertical backdrop raises objects isolated from their referential context to the status of pure signs.
[25]
At the same time, the cinematization of urban space has ushered in an era of optimized,
responsive, and interactive faades. The electronic pixilation of urban environments provides hitherto
unrealized and unexploited narrative possibilities for cities. [26] The usage of technologies in public
spaces results in a truly ephemeral state of urban lanscape. Although temporary, the transformations that
are happening in public space have a long-lasting influence on the meaning of the space itself. The nonlinear multiplicity of experiences [27] that it offers, represent the main characteristic, potential and value
of a postmodern city. Since the technology of illusion is still in its uplift, the question of the adjustment of
architecture and the design methodology to these inputs is still developing. What is certain, is the fact that
comunication and the media function of architecture, and the way they achieve the required
communicational goals, must become an integral part of the programme in architecture. In that way, this
question is considered in the very begginning of the developement of the design brief, rather than being
an additional attachment to the existing building facade.
REFERENCES
[1] Pallasma J, The eyes of the skin: Architecture and the Senses, Wiley-Academy, Place, 2005, p.
30
[2] Pallasma J, The eyes of the skin: Architecture and the Senses, Wiley-Academy, Place, 2005.
[3] Baudrillard J, Seduction, New World Perspectives, 1990.
[4] Ibid. 2, p. 30
[5] Ibid. 3, p. 10
[6] Ibid. 3
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreality
[8] Ibid.
[9] Dadi Dinulovi T, Savremeni grad kao prostor spektakla: Pozornica ili scena, Kultura, broj
126 Kulture ritmova i spektakla, Zavod za prouavanje kulturnog razvitka, Beograd, 2010, p.
87
[10]
Ibid. p. 87
[11]
Koeck R, Roberts L, The City and the Moving Image: Urban Projection, Palgrave
Macmillan (2010), p 4
[12] Dinulovi R, Arhitektura pozorita XX veka, Clio, Belgrade, 2010.
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[13] Ibid. 1, p. 31
[14] Venturi R, Scott Brown D, Izenour S, Learning from Las Vegas: The Forgotten Symbolism of
Architectural Form, The MIT Press, 2001, p. 9
[15] Cullen G, Gradski Pejza, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, p. 151
[16] Ibid. 11, p. 1
[17] Ibid. p. 1
[18] Ibid. p 5
[19] Ibid. 2
[20] Krautsack D, 3D Projection Mapping and its Impact on Media & Architecture in
Contemporary and Future Urban Spaces, Media-N, v.07 n.01, 2011.
[21] Ibid. 12, p. 20
[22] Grosz E, Architecture from the Outside: Essays on Virtual and Real Space, The MIT Press,
2001, p. 99
[23] Ibid, p. 15
[24] Ibid. 11, p. 9
[25] Ibid. 3, p. 62
[26] Ibid. 11, p. 12
[27] Ibid.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Ashar Ahmed1

SOLVING THE SINGLE LANE PARALLEL QUEUING PROBLEM FOR

CAPACITY ESTIMATION OF UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
Abstract: The standard practices for capacity analysis of unsignalized intersections around the world are
based on the assumptions of lane discipline, however under heterogeneous traffic conditions a unique
situation is created known as parallel queuing or Horizontal Bunching.
This phenomenon has been addressed in the literature using binary logit models and multiple linear
regression techniques. Such models can only predict results pertinent to the intersections whose traffic
data has been used for modelling. Hence these models cannot be used as a general practice for capacity
estimation for all unsignalized intersections. Furthermore adaptation of such models is very cumbersome.
This paper presents the first ever analytical loom to solve the issue of Horizontal Bunching. A rational
approach is adopted for explaining the procedure of vehicle arrivals. The formula thus derived will be
universal and will be applicable to all kinds of queuing that may occur at any priority controlled
unsignalized intersection.
ey words: Capacity Analysis, Unsignalized Intersection, Heterogeneous Traffic, Queuing, Horizontal
Bunching

1. INTRODUCTION
Since roads have been invented, unsignalized intersections have remained an integral part of them. In
modern times unsignalized intersections can be classified into three types. Uncontrolled non-priority
junctions, Priority junctions and Roundabouts [1]. An unsignalized intersection is often controlled by
give-way or STOP signs and markings. They are the most common intersection type, with lower
capacities as compared to signalized intersections but they play an important role in the transportation
system [2]. A poorly operated unsignalized intersection will not only affect a signalized network but can
decrease the performance of an Intelligent Transportation system as well.
Under any given traffic conditions, if the unsignalized intersection is not able to meet the requirements
of desired performance by the commuters then it becomes necessary to change its traffic control. This is
dependent upon its Level of Service judged on the basis of its capacity. Therefore correct capacity
estimation is essential for correct remedial measures to be taken by the relevant authorities. Different
procedures were developed by different researchers to estimate capacities of unsignalized intersections
for various geometric and traffic configurations. In the following sections shortcomings of the existing
practices and development of a new capacity analysis methodology for unsignalized intersections will be
discussed.
2. OVERVIEW OF EXISTING MODELS
The primary models for the estimation of capacities were developed for simple unsignalized
intersections with one lane minor road crossing a one lane major road. It was assumed that between every
two major stream vehicles which are moving in succession a minimum safe distance is being maintained
known as the minimum gap(). The minor stream vehicles will cross only when they find a gap greater

PhD student, School of Civil Engineering, University Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Nebong Tebal Pulao Peneng,
Malaysia, email: ashar.ue17@gmail.com

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than or equal to the critical gap (tc), that is all gaps less than tc will be rejected and all gaps greater than it
will be accepted by minor stream drivers, among the major stream vehicles. The follow up time (t f), that
is the time between the departure of one vehicle from the minor stream and the next vehicle using the
same major stream critical gap, is assumed to be different for different minor stream vehicles. Thus the
capacity formula [3] is given by
(

(1)

Where,
C - is the capacity of minor stream in vehicles per hour
q - is volume of major stream in vehicles per hour
A different kind of approach in which the major stream vehicles were assumed to be moving freely
without the influence of each other, with constant follow up times for vehicles in the minor stream, was
used to formulate a simpler capacity model [4] given by
(2)
Assuming the same free flow major stream traffic conditions but with different follow up times for
different minor stream vehicles, a modified model [5] was presented as
(3)
Where,
to - is known as the zero gap
The gap between two major stream vehicles, which are not moving under the influence of each other,
can take the value of zero. The most abundantly used formula for the calculation of capacity was based on
the explanation that the portion of headway greater than the minimum headway is independent and
exponentially distributed [6], [7] given in [8] as
(

(4)
Where,
- is the proportion of free (unbunched) vehicles in the major stream
- is an equation constant given by

All the above models presented here were proved to be significant and matched well with the observed
values. They provided the basis for the analysis of bigger intersections with multiple lanes in major
stream. The formula presented in [3] was initially modified for one minor stream crossing n major
streams. The modification was made by taking into account the bunching of major road vehicles
producing a variation among the gaps offered to the minor stream vehicles[9] in multiple major lanes.
The capacity is given by
*

)
(

+
)

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(5)

Here q is the combined flow of all major lanes required to be crossed by minor stream vehicle. The
units and the rest of the variables are same as described earlier. While using the concept of a probability
distribution of minor road vehicles known as the starting distribution of minor road vehicles and headway
distribution of major road vehicles, the formula in [3] was further generalized for the case of different
critical gaps(tc) and follow up times (tf) in each lane of the major stream. The solution for n lanes was
derived [10] and the capacity is calculated by
*

(6)

Where,
- is the summation of the decay constant() for all major lanes
k and tck are the parameters for the kth major lane
m and tcm are the parameters for the mth major lane
The units and the rest of the variables are same as described earlier. The above mentioned models
addressed the multilane case very well but when the movements in an unsignalized intersection were
ranked on the basis of their priority over one another than a new approach was required to solve the
capacity problem that cannot be calculated from the models presented till now. Hence a different kind of
methodology was adopted in which the movements of a priority controlled unsignalized intersection were
classified into four ranks (1-4). Movements of Rank 1 are the through and right-turning traffic from the
major stream. Left-turning traffic from the major stream and right-turning traffic onto the major stream
are termed as Rank 2. Through traffic on the minor stream are Rank 3 movements. Rank 4 movements is
the left-turning traffic from the minor stream which only occurs in a four legged intersection [11].
Movements of Rank 1 have absolute priority while all other movements from 2 to 4 are required to giveway or yield to their preceding rank. This gave rise to the probability of no-blockage by higher ranked
movements conflicting with the lower ranked movements (Rank 4) to cross the intersection, resulting in
the development of a new method known as Addition of critical movement flows. It was first developed
by [12] then extensively modified by [8] resulting in a universal formula for capacity calculation
presented as follows
(

(7)

Where,
Cs - is the capacity of minor stream in free-space state (vehicle/sec) i.e. when it is not blocked by any
existing or upcoming vehicle of higher rank
po,S,I - is the probability of queuing-free state for ith lane jth movement
po,B,i,j - is the probability of bunching-free state for ith lane jth movement
po,F,i,j - is the probability of vehicle-free state for ith lane jth movement.

3. HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC AND ITS MODELS

When the mix of vehicles using any traffic facility includes many types such as twowheelers(motorcycle), three-wheelers(auto rickshaw), cars, wagons, light goods vehicle, trucks and buses
then it can be termed as Heterogeneous Traffic. The basic assumption in the models presented earlier,
assumes that only one vehicle will be standing in one lane of the minor road traffic stream waiting for an
acceptable gap to cross the intersection. The type of vehicles will be consistent and lane discipline will be
observed. This assumption fails when two or more vehicles, which are usually two wheelers, stand
parallel to each other at the Stop Line. Moreover breach of lane discipline and priority ranking enabled
more vehicles to cross the intersection as compared to the number of vehicles predicted by the models.

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Thus the differences in calculated and observed capacities lead to the formation of models which were
specific to heterogeneous traffic conditions.
For mixed vehicle types and inconsistent driver behaviour in the minor stream the model presented in
[3] was modified. It was found that for a realistic class of major headway distributions, the minor stream
capacity is actually the harmonic mean of the capacities for each individual vehicle type [13]. For a
continuous range of vehicle types the capacity formula is given as
(

)(

)(
) * (

)(
)

(8)

Where,
The calculated capacity and q is in vehicles/sec
- is an equation parameter corresponding to a particular type of distribution for a particular type of
minor vehicle.
The rest of the variables are same as described earlier. Another derivation was made, assuming the
same traffic conditions as described earlier in this section, but for minor stream vehicles crossing m
major lanes. The new capacity formula [14] is given as

*(

)(
(

)+

(9)

Where the variables are same as described earlier for model (6). A similar model for China was
developed by [15] comprising of two channels in a single minor stream crossing multiple major streams
of higher prioriy. Binary Logit models for calculating capacity at unsignalized intersections in Vietnam
were developed by [16] which were of the form
U =V +i

(10)

Where,
Ui - is the utility of alternative response i for a given driver
Vi - is the systematic component of the utility, given below
V X i = i
Where,
Xi- is a vector of factors contributed to the gap decision
i- is a vector of coefficients to be estimated
i- is random component
The total gap was calculated by subtracting the longitudinal gap from the lateral gap in the major stream
vehicles.
4. HORIZONTAL BUNCHING
Under highly heterogeneous traffic conditions in the absence of any lane discipline as well as
dominance of small footprint vehicles, i.e. the vehicles that occupy a very small area as compared to the
standard vehicle having Passenger Car Unit value equivalent to one unit, in the total traffic mix, a
unique situation is created known as parallel queuing or Horizontal Bunching. The formation of a
Horizontal Bunch is a four stage process:

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Stage 1:
There should be atleast one vehicle standing at the stop line
Stage 2:
The second vehicle should arrive
Stage 3:
The second vehicle which arrives while the first one is still standing should be a motorcycle
Stage 4:
The second vehicle i.e. the motorcycle should stand parallel to the first vehicle

STOP

HORIZONTAL
BUNCH
STOP

ith
vehicle

(i 1)th
vehicle

Figure 13 Parallel queuing of vehicles to form a Horizontal Bunch

A vehicle (ith vehicle) will be standing at the stop line only when the major stream vehicles are
blocking its path, whose probability is given by
Pr[A] = (

Where,
Pr[A] = Probability of minor stream vehicle being blocked by existing and upcoming major
stream vehicle
Q
= Major stream traffic flow
tsi
= Occupation time caused by one major stream vehicle
tai
= Time for major stream vehicle blocking minor stream vehicle in advance of its arrival
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The arrival of the second vehicle {(i-1)th vehicle} is the probability of having two or more vehicles in
the system and is given by
Pr[B] = 1 -(tc-)
Where,
Pr[B] = Probability of having two or more vehicles in the system

= Minor stream traffic flow

tc
= critical gap
The probability that the next vehicle {(i-1)th vehicle} is a motorcycle is given by
Pr[C] = qm/
Where,
Pr[A] = Probability of next vehicle being a motorcycle
qm = flow of motorcycle in minor stream
The second vehicle {(i-1)th vehicle} will stand parallel to the first vehicle (ith vehicle) only when all of
the above conditions are met simultaneously, thus Horizontal Bunching is given by
Pr[A] Pr[B]Pr[C] = (

{1 -(tc-)}

The common methodology presented in [11] considers all vehicles to form one queue in a sinle lane
serving th minor stream traffic flow. If 50% of the total traffic in the minor stream comprises of
motorcycles than according to [11], the estimated capacity will be 50% less or half the actual vehicles
flowing through the intersection. Therefore, for accurate estimation of traffic capacity it is necessary to
use the model derived.
5. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a brief summary of the models in practice for the estiation of capacities at
unsignalized intersections of different geometric configuration and traffic type. It was found that the
shortcomings in one model became the basis for the derivation of the next within the domain described.
It was found that the existing models available in the literature are either not in accordance with the
conditions on field or not predictiting the capacity accurately. Hence a new model was derived to reflect
the original indigenous behaviour of traffic at the intersections under highly heterogenous traffic mix.
Further research is required to check the accuracy of the models obtained, for providing satisfactory
results for randomly organized minor stream vehicles creating forced entry into the major stream and
abstaining to observe lane and intersection control discipline.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Slinn, P. Matthews, P. Guest: Traffic Engineering Design Principles and Practice, 2nd Ed,
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005, pp. 72.
[2] R.J. Troutback, W. Brilon, Chapter 8, Revised Monograph on Traffic Flow Theory, Federal
Highway Administration, 1992, pp. 8-1.
[3] J. C. Tanner, A Theoretical Analysis of Delays At An Uncontrolled Intersection, Biometrica
49(1 and 2), pp. 163-70, 1962.
[4] J. Harders, Die Leistungsfhigkeit Nicht Signalgeregelter Stdtischer Verkehrsknoten (The
Capacity of Unsignalized Urban Intersections), Schriftenreihe Strassenbau und
Strassenverkehrstechnik, Vol. 76, 1968.

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[5] W. Siegloch, Die Leistungsermittlung an Knotenpunkten Ohne Lichtsignalsteuerung (Capacity

Calculations
for
Unsignalized
Intersections,
Schriftenreihe
Strassenbau
und
Strassenverkehrstechnik, Vol. 154, 1973.
[6] R.J. Cowan, Useful Headway Model, Transportation Research, 9(6), pp. 371-375, 1975.
A. W. Plank, and E. A. Catchpole, A General Capacity Formula for an Uncontrolled
Intersection, Traffic Engineering Control 25(6), pp. 327-329, 1984.
[7] N. Wu, A universal procedure for capacity determination at unsignalized (priority-controlled)
intersections, Transportation Research Part B 35, pp. 593-623, 2001.
[8] C.S. Fisk, Priority Intersection Capacity: a Generalization of Tanners Formula,
Transportation Research Part B 23B No.4, pp. 281-286, 1989.
[9] O. Hagring, A Further Generalization Of Tanner's Formula, Transportation Research Part B
Vol 32 No.6, pp. 423-429, 1998.
[10]
Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 2000.
[11]
A.W. Gleue, Vereinfachtes verfahren zur Berechnung signalgeregelter Knotenpunkte,
Forschung Strassenbau und Strassenverkehrstechnik, 136, Bonn, 1972.
[12]
E.A. Catchpole and A.W. Plank, The Capacity of a Priority Intersection,
Transportation Research Part B 20B No.6, pp. 441-456, 1986.
[13]
W. Li et al, Capacity of Unsignalized Intersections with Mixed Vehicle Flows,
Transportation Research Record 1852, Paper No.03-2077, 2003.
[14]
H. Li et al, Capacities of Unsignalized Intersections Under Mixed Vehicular and
Nonmotorized Traffic Conditions, Transportation Research Record No.2130, pp. 129-137, 2009.
[15]
V.A. Tuan and T. Shimizu, An analysis of the interactions between vehicle groups at
intersections under mixed traffic flow conditions, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for
Transportation Studies, Vol. 8, 2009.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Iva Despotovi1
Zoran Grdi2

TIME DEPENDENT DEFORMATIONS OF SELF - COMPACTING

CONCRETE
Abstract: Self-compacting concrete has significant environmental advantages in comparison to the
vibrated concrete: absence of noise and vibrations during placing provides a healthier working
environment. Time related deformations of self compacting concrete are creep and shrinkage which are
tested in the same way as in the vibrated concrete. At the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture of
Nis, the years long extensive research of various physical and mechanical characteristics of selfcompacting concrete with different mineral admixtures (lime, ash and silica fume) and with different
percentage of coarse recycled aggregate (0, 50, and 100%) has been conducted. In this paper, the results
of shrinkage of every of nine different concrete mixes have been presented.
Key words: selfcompacting concrete, shrinkage, creep

DEFORMACIJE SAMOUGRAUJUEG BETONA ZAVISNE OD

VREMENA
Rezime: Samougraujui beton ima znaajne ekoloke prednosti u poreenju sa vibriranim
betonom:odsustvo buke i vibracija tokom ugraivanja doprinosi znatno zdravijem random
okruenju.Vremenske deformacije samougraujueg betona su teenje i skupljanje koje se ispituju na isti
nain kao i kod vibriranog betona. Na Graevinsko arhitektonskom fakultetu u Niu je sprovedeno
viegodinje opseno ispitivanje razliitih fiziko mehanikih karakteristika samougraujueg betona sa
razliitim mineralnim dodacima (krenjak, pepeo i silikatna praina) i sa razliitim procentima krupnog
recikliranog agregata (0, 50 i 100%). U ovom radu su prikazani rezultati ispitivanja skupljanja svake od
devet razliitih betonskih meavina.
Kljune rei: samougraujui beton, skupljanje betona, teenje betona

1. INTRODUCTION
Deformations of the self-compacting concrete taking place in time are creep and shrinkage. They
unfold very slowly, and thus the tests are long lasting and are performed in the same way as in the case of
vibrated concrete. Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a very fluid concrete showing several advantages
such as environmental, human, technological and economical. However, because of the particular
composition, often resulting in a higher fines content and a higher paste volume, SCC could be more
sensitive to cracking than traditionally vibrated concrete. Besides the effect of increased paste volume, the
autogenous shrinkage is also influenced by changes in the capillary network due to the presence of
mineral additions [1].

1
MscCe, Iva Despotovi, University College of Applied Studies in Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Belgrade, Serbia,
ivicka2006@yahoo.com
2
Full Prof. Zoran Grdi, University of Nis, The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
street, 18000, Nis, Serbia, zoran.grdic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

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A large number of results of various tests of shrinkage and creepage both of vibrated and selfcompacted concrete is available. literature data concerning the timedependent behaviour of SCC are often
contradictory because of differences in formulations (both mix design philosophy and locally available
materials), experimental procedures (e.g. age and rate of loading, specimen size, curing conditions) and
material properties (e.g. moisture content, stress/strength ratio). Therefore, it is not surprising that the
time-dependent deformability results reported in the literature scatter over a wide range, going from
lower, over equal, to higher time-dependent deformations for SCC compared to TC. In a RILEM state-ofthe-art report on SCC [9], a similar statement is made: Shrinkage and creep are as most concrete
properties dependent on several parameters while the basis for comparisons is important for the
conclusions drawn. . . .The choice of constituent materials will, to a lesser or bigger extent, influence the
properties. Therefore, it is the authors conviction that SCC cannot be treated as a group of materials
with a comparable hardened state behaviour: although different SCC mixtures can show a comparable
fresh state behaviour, they can show a very different hardened state behaviour (mechanical properties,
durability, timedependent behaviour, . . . ) due to different strategies for mixture proportioning and
different locally available materials [5].
2. TIME - DEPENDENT DEFORMATIONS
Creep is defined as a gradual increase of deformation in time under the constant stress, including
other time dependent deformations which are not related to the applied stress, for instance shrinkage,
swelling, etc. Creep under the stress pressure reduces the pre-stress forces in the pre-stressed elements
and causes slow transfer of loading from concrete to reinforcement. As opposed to that, the creepage
under tensile stress can be useful as it partially takes away the stresses caused by other limited
displacements (hydraulic shrinkage, thermal effects). Creepage takes place in the cement matrix, and it is
caused by its porosity which is directly related to the water cement ratio. During the hydration, the
porosity of the cement matrix is reduced, so in the observed concrete, with the increase of strength, the
creepage is reduced. The type of cement affects the creepage process, especially if the load duration time
is limited, since the hydrating cement will faster cause higher strength under load, lower stress/strength
ratio and lower creepage. The influence of the aggregate used for making concrete will cause the creepage
to decrease with the increase of volume and elasticity modulus of the aggregate.
Due to the higher volume of the cement matrix, one may expect higher creepage deformation in SCC
in comparison to vibrated concrete of the same strength, but such differences are small and covered by
the safety preconditions given in the Eurocode [4].
Shrinkage is a deformation which is a function of time and occurs due to the shrinkage of hydration
products (hydration shrinkage), due to water evaporation during cement binding period (plastic shrinkage)
and evaporation of water in the cement matrix setting period, that is, in the period after the completion of
cement setting (hydraulic shrinkage). As concrete is a non-homogenous material, the value of shrinkage
depends on the quantity and type of cement, water cement ratio, particle size distribution, type of
aggregate, concrete strength [2].
Plastic shrinkage is the highest, compared to other mentioned forms, and is not uniform, which causes
emergence of tensile stresses in the concrete mass, but it occurs very fast, in the first several hours, so as
such it is usually not registered at all. Its detrimental effects (emergence of cracks and fissures on the
surfaces of concrete elements, especially on slabs) are easily eliminated through the proper curing of
concrete, so the tested values of shrinkage on the hardened concrete represent the sum of hydration and
hydraulic shrinkage.
Hydraulic shrinkage also leads to the emergence of cracks or warping of the concrete structure
elements, so expansion joints are designed in the slabs, in order to prevent the onset of cracks or to limit
them to a desired location where they can easily be repaired by some sealing material. The factors
affecting the value of hydraulic shrinking are numerous and can be divided into those concerning the
characteristics of the cement matrix, concrete itself and environmental conditions. [2].
The information in the literature about the influence of mineral admixtures on the drying shrinkage
mechanism is found to be somewhat contradictory. Some researchers stated that incorporation of mineral
admixtures such as low-lime and highlime fly ashes reduced the drying shrinkage in comparison with the
SCC mixtures without fly ash. They also stated that a possible mechanism contributing to the reduction of
drying shrinkage in SCCs is the matrix densification due to FA addition, which may prevent internal
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moisture evaporation. An alternative mechanism is that unhydrated FA particles serve as fine aggregates
to restrain the shrinkage deformation. Moreover, Jianyong and Yan stated that ultra-fine GGBFS and SF
will greatly increase the amount of AFt hydrates and CSH gel hydrates as well as the density of
hardened cement paste, which make concrete stronger and more resistant to deformation caused by force
applied on it. They also stated that on the same conditions of test, the amount of creep and drying
shrinkage of concrete will decrease greatly. However, Mokarem et al. stated that supplemental
cementitious material mixtures exhibited greater drying shrinkage than the associated Portland cement
concrete mixtures. This could be due to the denser matrix produced by the fly ash, microsilica, and slag
cement. This denser matrix would create smaller capillary voids, and the bulk of drying shrinkage in
concrete occurs from the loss of water from the smaller capillary voids. Moreover, Gesoglu et al. and
Wiegrink et al. stated that free shrinkage related to other factors in addition to weight loss. Gesoglu et al.
and Regourd uttered that concrete with higher amount of cementitious materials has finer pore structure
that may proportionally increase free shrinkage [3,6-10].
3. OUR EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
9 concrete mixes were made for the examination purposes, for which is used pure Portland cement
(CEM I 42.5 R by Holcim, density: 3120 kg/m3, specific area: 3930 cm2/g, compressive strength after 28
days: 61.2 MPa) and as mineral filler lime (rock powder by Jelen do, density: 2710 kg/m3), silica fume
(silica fume by SIKA, density: 2200 kg/m3), and fly ash (from coal-fired power plant Obrenovac, density:
2692 kg/m3, content SiO2: 53.84%). For each mineral filler three types of concrete were made: with river
aggregate only (all three fractions), with fraction 8/16 from the recycled aggregate and with both coarse
fractions (4/8 and 8/16) from the recycled aggregate. The admixture was Viscocrete 5380 by SIKA,
which belongs to the group of superplasticizers. The composition of concrete mixtures is presented in
Table 1 (all values are in kg/m3).
From Table 1 can be noticed that dosage of Silica fume is much smaller than other two. This can be
explained by nanoparticles nature. Suppose that nanoparticles are uniformly dispersed in concrete and
each particle is contained in a cube pattern, therefore the distance between nanoparticles can be
determined. After the hydration begins, hydrate products diffuse and envelop nanoparticles as kernel if
the content of nanoparticles and the distance between them are appropriate, the crystallization will be
controlled to be a suitable state through restricting the growth of Ca(OH)2 crystal by nanoparticles.
Moreover, the nanoparticles located in cement paste as kernel can further promote cement hydration due
to their high activity. This makes the cement matrix more homogeneous and compact. Otherwise, the
distance between nanoparticles decreases with increasing content of nanoparticles, and Ca(OH)2 crystal
cannot grow up enough due to limited space and the crystal quantity is decreased, which leads to the ratio
of crystal to strengthening gel small and the shrinkage and creep of cement matrix increased [7]. The high
reactivity and consumption of calcium hydroxide has prompted questions relating to the pH level of the
concrete and the corresponding effects on steel passivity and carbonation rate.In normal practice the
highest dosage advised for concrete is 15 per cent and this should have no deleterious effects.
Table 1 Composition of concrete mixtures for 1 m3

cement
min.filler
Fraction 0/4
Fraction 4/8
Fraction 8/16
Water
Admixture

EK
400
120
771
306
532
170.8
4.94

EP
400
120
771
306
532
192.6
4.94

ES
400
52
771
306
532
185.7
4.94

50K
400
120
809
306
505
182.8
4.94

50P
400
120
809
306
505
214.2
4.94

50S
400
52
809
306
505
197.1
4.94

100K
400
120
809
306
505
193.1
4.94

100P
400
120
809
306
505
222.8
4.94

100S
400
52
809
306
505
211.4
4.94

The first mark of concrete mixture relates to the aggregate; E is the mixture only with river aggregate
(benchmark), 50 means substitution of fraction by 8/16 recycled aggregate, and 100 means fractions 4/8
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and 8/16 by recycled aggregate; the other mark is for the mineral filler: K lime, P fly ash and S
silica fume. The requirement in designing mixtures was to achieve the same consistency class, in this case
Slump-flow class SF2 (from 660-750 mm) according to the European guidelines for SCC because it
corresponds to the concretes for everyday use. The goal of the experiment was to examine how
different mineral fillers, combined with recycled aggregate affect the properties of fresh and hardened
concrete.
4. SHRINKAGE TEST RESULTS
The shrinkage tests were performed by deformeter with the 25 cm gauge, on the samples 12x12x36
cm large, in all according to the SRPS U.M1.029.
The test samples, according to the mentioned standard, were first kept in the molds for 24 h, and then
in drinking water having temperature 20 4 C for the next 48 hours. After 72 h since the finish of
making, the samples are extracted from the water, wiped with damp cloth and exposed to conditioned
thermohygrometric conditions. The air humidity was chosen to be 70 5 % and the constant temperature
20 4 C, which is prescribed by the standard for the structures and elements which will be in the open
areas. The first measure is taken 72 0.5 h after the finish of making the samples, and the after 4 and 7
days. After this, the further measures are performed after every 7 days until the process is stabilized.
In table 2 are presented the results of shrinkage test results after 4,7,14,21,28 and 35 days.
Table 2 Shrinkage test results in 10-3mm/m

4 days
7 days
14days
21days
28days
35days

EK
19
105
209
253
256
267

EP
50
100
157
234
355
376

ES
53
133
211
252
296
332

50K
35
148
271
319
392
396

50P
20
80
143
213
224
321

50S
31
104
267
320
355
416

100K
13
73
184
243
268
281

100P
36
85
188
252
291
316

100S
24
65
209
231
343
364

5. RESULT ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION

After 2 days, the shrinkage of the mixture with recycled fractions 4/8 and 8/16 with limestone
was the lowest; it should mention that this sample has the highest compressive strength after 2
days.
After 7 days the benchmark group had larger shrinkage than the mixtures with one or two coarse
recycled fractions.
After 28 the highest shrinkage is measured in the group with the recycled fraction 8/16mm.
The highest shrinkage was measured in samples designated 50S with silica fumes and recycled
fraction 8/16; for 4.8% higher than the limestone sample and 22.8% higher than the sample with
ash.
The samples with silica fumes and samples with ash in benchmark mixtures and mixtures with
100% of coarse recycled aggregate had significantly higher shrinkage in comparison to the
samples with limestone, irrespective of the type of aggregate.
The obtained results demonstrate that no general conclusion can be drawn, nor a regularity can be
observed, to anticipate shrinkage of SCC depending on the mineral admixture or the type of
aggregate, but every mixture has to be tested separately.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper is a part of investigation within the research project
TR 36017
Utilization of by products and recycled waste materials in concrete composites in the scope of
sustainable construction development in Serbia: investigation and environmental assesssment of possible

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applications supported by Ministry for Science and Technology, Republic of Serbia. This support is
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]

[4]

[5]
[6]

[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]

Craeye B. et al.: Effect of mineral filler type on autogenous shrinkage of Self compacting
concrete; Cement and Concrete Research 40; 2010; pp. 908-913.
Grdi Z: Tehnologija betona, Graevinsko arhitektonski fakultet Ni, 2011.
Guneyisi E, Gesogly M, Ozbay E: Strenght and drying shrinkage properties of self
compacting concrete incorporating multi system blended mineral admixtures, Construction
and Building materials 24; 2011; pp. 1878-1887.
Despotovi I: Svojstva i tehnologija samougraujueg betona sa posebnim osvrtom na
mogunost upotrebe recikliranog agregata za njegovo spravljanje, magistarski rad,
Graevinsko arhitektonski fakultet Ni, 2009
Heirman G. et.al.: Time dependent deformations of lime powder self compacting
concrete; Engineering Structures 30; 2008; pp.2945 - 2956.
Leeman A., Lura P, Loser R: Shrinkage and creep of Self compacting concrete The
influence of paste volume and binder composition, Construction and Building materials 25;
2011; pp. 2283 - 2289.
Nazari A, Rialhi S: The effects of SiO2 nanoparticles on physical and mechanical properties
of high strenght compacting concrete, Composites, Part B 42, 2011, pp. 570 - 578.
Roziere E. et.al.: Influence of paste volume on shrinkage cracking and fracture properties of
self-compacting concrete; Cement & Concrete Composites 29; 2007; pp. 626 636.
Skarendahl , Petersson . Self-compacting concrete, state-of-the-art report of RILEM
technical committee 174-SCC. Bagneux: RILEM Publications SARL 2000.
Valcuende M, Marco E, Parra C, Serna P: Influence of limestone filler and viscosity
modifying admixture on the shrinkage of self compacting concrete; Cement and Concrete
Research 42; 2012; pp. 583-592.

-298-

IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Igor Dolev1
Maja Momirov2

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE OPTIMUM INSULATION

THICKNESS OF FAADE WALL
Abstract: This paper presents an economic analysis used to determine the optimum insulation thickness
of the faade wall, with the shortest payback period of investment, depending on the type of energy source
used for heating and cooling, as well as geographical climate factors that influence the level of energy
consumption. The analysis was performed for two types of energy sources: natural gas (heating) and
electricity (cooling). Two cities in Serbia were considered, representing moderate and cold climate
regions: Ni and Kopaonik. The results indicate thicker insulating layers in colder regions. The relatively
short payback period of invested funds contributes to the implementation of additional insulation, in
order to reduce the energy consumption of buildings, which is required by the new regulations on energy
efficiency.
ey words: insulation, heating degree days, cooling degree days, energy saving, U-value

:
, ,
,
. :
() (). ,
: .
.
, ,
, .
: , , , , U-

1. INTRODUCTION
Energy saving is the most important part of each country's energy strategy. whose importance will be
increasing in the future, due to the fact that energy is a crucial factor for social and economic
development of society, and energy consumption is rapidly increasing due to increasing population,
urbanization, migration into urban areas and improvements in standards of living.
Buildings account for 40% of total energy consumption in the European Union. The sector is
expanding, which is bound to increase its energy consumption. Therefore, reduction of energy
consumption and the use of energy from renewable sources in the buildings sector constitute important
measures needed to reduce the Unions energy dependency and greenhouse gas emissions.
The first significant reflection of the limited energy quantity appeared after the first oil crisis in 1973.
The current thermal regulations in Serbia date back from 1984. For the analysis of thermal performance
of existing buildings, it is important to know the year of the construction or major reconstruction of the
1
2

MSc.Civ.Eng, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, Novi Sad, Serbia, idzolev@uns.ac.rs
MSc.Arch.Eng, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, Novi Sad, Serbia, majammomirov@gmail.com

-299-

building. Buildings built before 1984 have not considered any calculations of heat losses and energy
consumption. They were built based on experience, satisfying the static of structure. Such massive old
buildings with thick walls and relatively low level of space heating, did not have great heat losses, unlike
newer, light concrete structures without thermal insulation. However, the introduction of regulations
concerning higher comfort of living, and increasing the space heating to a temperature higher than 18C,
resulted in increased heat losses. The overall heat transfer coefficient of the envelope elements of such
buildings does not meet the requirements of today's active regulations, nor will it meet for the new
upcoming regulations for energy efficiency of buildings.
Building stock analysis show that large percentage of buildings date back from the period in which
there were no thermal regulations in Serbia (Figure 1). [5]

Figure 14 Existing building stock in Belgrade

These buildings are the largest energy consumers. The renovations of such buildings could potentially
gain the greatest savings, as well as provide the shortest payback period of investments.
Assuming the period of reconstruction of 30 years, many of these buildings, built in the period of
1970s, are scheduled for a large reconstruction:
1. the total cost of the renovation relating to the building envelope or the technical building systems
is higher than 25 % of the value of the building, excluding the value of the land upon which the
building is situated, or
2. more than 25 % of the surface of the building envelope undergoes renovation. [6]
In such cases, the EPBD requires that the aspect of improving the thermal protection of building must
be considered.
Average annual energy consumptions for buildings heated through the distance heating systems in
Serbia are 171 kWh/m2 and 194 kWh/m2 for the residential and commercial buildings, respectively. [8]
Some analysis show that increasing the insulation thickness of the external walls and changing the
windows can lower the thermal losses to 60-90 kWh/m2a, which results in energy savings up to 60%.
The employment of thermal insulation is one of the most effective ways of energy conservation.
Increased thickness of insulation layer reduces the overall heat transfer coefficient of the wall, lowering
the energy losses. However, this increases the total cost of the wall. If the costs of retrofitting can be
compensated through the energy saved during the lifecycle period of insulation layers, such investment is
considered justified.
The aim of the following analysis is to determine the optimum thickness values of the insulating
layers, for which the investment in improving the thermal characteristics of the faade wall is
economically feasible in the shortest period of time.
2. CALCULATION OF THE OPTIMUM INSULATION THICKNESS
2.1. Basic assumptions

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The study assumes a simple linear investment, based on the incremental costs per centimeter
insulation thickness based on an average. It does not take into account additional investments and/or
avoided or lower investments brought about by the need for physical changes to the building resulting
from change in insulation thickness nor does it allow lower investments in other energy efficiency
measures or in the design concept of the building. [4].
The total costs are a combination of the investment costs and energy savings, and the optimum is
placed in the minimum zone of the total costs curve.
The following assumptions were neccecary for the analysis:
3. climate data for cities Ni and Kopaonik (HDD and CDD)
4. energy sources used in analysis: natural gas and electricity
5. a single building component is analyzed, a specific faade wall
6. a simplified linearity in the investment costs
7. market prices of the insulation material, as well as auxiliary materials
8. current energy prices and their future forecast
9. interest rate for invested funds.
2.2. Calculation methodology
The U coefficient (U-value) is a measure of heat flow through a material or set of materials. U
represents the amount of energy (W) transfered through the material, for each degree of temperature
difference (K) over the unit surface area (m2). Influencing the reduction of the U-value, the energy losses
are lowered, resulting in better energy performance of the building.
The most effective reduction of the U-values is gained by increasing the thickness of the layers of the
wall with lower thermal conductivity values, i.e. by increasing the insulation thickness, which also
increases the overall price of the wall. As long as the insulation expenses can be compensated by the
energy savings through the service lifetime of the insulation, that investment is considered feasible.
The main elements of these analyses are capital costs and annual running costs. To compare the
investments with the annual running costs, the investments are converted into constant annual capital
costs by multiplying with the equivalent annual cost factor or annuity factor:
a

1 i n i
1 i n i

a
i
n
The overall
insulation:

(1)

annuity factor
interest rate [%/100]
service lifetime [years]
investment costs can be divided into fixed costs and additional costs per centimeter of

IC IC f ICd d

(2)

IC
investment costs
ICf
fixed costs (regardless of the thickness of insulation applied) [8.5/m2]
ICd
additional costs per cm of insulation (material, labor costs) [0.6/cm/m2]
d
thickness of insulation [cm]
Heating and cooling energy savings, as the result of the lower U-values and therefore less heat flow
transmissions, are calculated as:
(3)
EH HDH U
(4)
EC CDH U
2
2
EH
energy savings (per m surface area of the constructed element) [kWh/m a]
HDH
heating degree hours (HDD24/1000) [kKh/a]
CDH
cooling degree hours (CDD24/1000) [kKh/a]
U
difference in U-values before and after retrofit measures [W/m2K]

-301-

The degree day method for estimating the heating and cooling degree days is based on the assumption
that energy consumption is proportional to the difference between the daily mean temperature and the
heating and cooling base temperature (18C and 24C, respectively) [9], added to a certain period of time.
Cooling degree days are calculated according to the following:
N
IF Tm Tb thenCDD Tm Tb
CDD (CDD j )
else CDD 0
j 1

Tm
daily mean air temperature Tm=(Tmax+Tmin)/2 [C]
Tb
cooling base tempereature [24C]
N
period of time, number of days in the year [365]
An analog equation can also be derived for the calculation of heating degree days (HDD).
The final equation of the total costs as a function of the insulation thickness (d) is determined as:

f d IC f ICd d a HDH EPH CDH EPC U

(5)

(6)

EPH
heating energy price, depending on the heating energy source (natural gas) [/kWh]
EPC
cooling energy price, depending on the cooling energy source (electricity) [/kWh]
For the insulation thickness d, for which the f(d) < 0, the annual energy savings are higher than the
annual investment costs for the insulation, making the investment feasible.
The payback period for the optimum insulation thickness is defined as the ratio of the total investment
costs and the annual saved energy costs [3]:

A
A

IC
EH EPH EC EPC
payback period [years]

(7)

2.3. Input parameters

Optimum insulation thickness is calculated for the external faade wall of the building. A typical wall
(inside mortar 1cm, hollow block 25cm and outside mortar 2cm), U = 1.634 W/m2K was analyzed. The
insulation is assumed to be attached on the outer surface of the external wall.
The service lifetime of 30 years and the interest rate of 6% were assumed, leading to the annuity factor
a = 0.07265.
Heating degree days (HDD) [7] and cooling degree days (CDD) [2] for Ni and Kopaonik are given in
Table 1. The number of CDD for Kopaonik is very low and can be neglected for the analysis. Energy
prices are calculated and given in Table 2.
ble 2- Heating and cooling degree days for Ni and Kopaonik

City
Ni
Kopaonik

HDD
2613
5349

CDD
252
/

ble 2- Prices for different energy sources used for heating and cooling

Price per
Net
Energy
unit
Efficiency
energy
price
energy
price
WEO
[]
[kWh]
[/kWh]
[%]
[/kWh] [/kWh]
Natural gas
Nm3
0.426
9.19
0.0464
96
0.0483
0.0744
Electricity
kWh
0.065
1.00
0.0650
100
0.0650
0.1001
The table shows the current market energy prices, as well as the predicted energy prices for the period
of 30 years, according to the World Energy Outlook (WEO) reference scenario, that projects the increase
of the primary energy prices by 1.5% annually. [10].
Energy
source

Measuring
unit

Price per
unit

Energy
per unit

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The new Energy efficiency regulations in Serbia tend to limit the maximum U-values of thermal
elements of the building envelope, much more rigorous then the current thermal regulations. While the
outer faade wall was so far limited by the Umax = 0.90W/m2K (achieved with a 2cm thick thermal
insulation layer for the observed wall), the new regulations require lower values, Umax = 0.40W/m2K
(7cm) for existing buildings, and Umax = 0.30W/m2K (11cm) for new buildings. The reduction of the Uvalue depending on the insulation thickness is given in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Minimum values of insulation thickness depending on the regulations

Figure 3 shows the investment costs, energy savings and total costs curve, depending on the thickness
of the applied insulation in the city of Ni. The minimum of the total costs curve defines the optimum
insulation thickness for which the annual profit has extreme value.

Figure 3 Total costs curve and optimum insulation thickness of the observed wall for the city of Ni

The investment costs in Ni and Kopaonik are the same. The larger value of HDD in the colder region
results in much more energy saved, leading to larger annual profit (Figure 4). The optimum insulation
thickness, corresponding U-values and payback periods of the invested funds are given in Table 3.

-303-

Figure 4 Total costs curve of the observed wall for the city of Kopaonik
ble 3- Optimum insulation thickness, corresponding U-values and payback periods

City
Ni
Kopaonik

d [cm]
19.11
26.53

U [W/m2K]
0.18
0.13

A [years]
2.61
1.70

4. CONCLUSION
The optimum insulation thickness is higher in the colder climate regions. In the moderate climate
regions, the energy needed for heating is dominant in relation to cooling, but both need to be considered.
Neglecting cooling energy would lower the energy needs, leading to lower values of the insulation
thickness. The corresponding U-values are significantly lower than the ones determined by the new
regulations. Regulations provide minimum requirements which are often not economicly justified and
need to be considered. As the investment costs depend only on the thickness of the insulation applied, the
payback period is reduced with higher energy savings accomplished, leading to lower periods in the
colder regions. Relatively short payback periods and high energy savings, resulting in reduction of the
emission of CO2, would lead Serbia closer to EU objectives, necessary to be met by 2020. [1]
REFERENCES
[1] Analysis of options to move beyond 20% greenhouse gas emission reductions and assessing
the risk of carbon leakage, European Commission Brussels, 26.5.2010, pp 2
[2] Degree days, Weather data for energy professionals, http://www.degreedays.net, 20.08.2012.
[3] Ecofys, Cost-effective climate protection in the EU building stock of the new EU member
states,
http://www.eurima.org/uploads/Documents/documents/ECOFYS4_V07.pdf,
15.04.2012, pp 19
[4] Ecofys,
U-values
for
better
energy
performance
of
buildings,
http://www.eurima.org/uploads/ModuleXtender/Documents/88/documents/EURIMAECOFYS_VII_report_p1-65.pdf, 15.04.2012, pp 13
[5] Jovanovi-Popovi M., Analiza strukture graevinskog fonda, Arhitektonski fakultet
Univerziteta u Beogradu, 2003, pp 12
[6] Official Journal of the European Union, C 123 E. Volume 53. 12 May 2010, pp 39
[7] Pravilnik o energetskoj enfikasnosti zgrada, Sl. glasnik RS", br. 61/2011
[8] Program ostvarivanja strategije razvoja energetike republike Srbije u AP Vojvodini (od 2007.
do 2012. godine), www.psemr.vojvodina.gov.rs/pdf08/M%2012.pdf, 03.10.2011, pp 209
[9] Rehman S., Al-Hadhrami L. M., Khan S., Annual and seasonal trends of cooling, heating,
and industrial degree-days in coastal regions of Saudi Arabia, Theoretical and Applied
Climatology, 2011, Volume 104, Numbers 3-4, pp 479-488
[10] World
energy
outlook
2009,
ISBN
978-92-64-06130-9,
pp
74
-304-

IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Marin Ivan1
Adrian Ivan2
Vinicius Precupas3

THE NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF A DOME

WITH ARCHES AND RINGS
Abstract: The dome with ribs and rings, which covers the ROMEXPO pavilion from Bucharest, was
designed after the collapse of the single layer reticulated dome. In this paper, it was made verifications
upon the structure, under the initial design loads and according to the actual design Romanian codes.
Under the action of this loads, it was checked the elements in the case of static linear and nonlinear
computation. The studied dome is formed by 32 spatial semi arches and three rings: one circular ring
located at the top of the dome and another two rings, design as trusses, the first near the supports and the
second as an intermediate rings above the skylights. In this paper was analyzed the dome in three models,
the first model is formed just with the arches and the rings; the second model formed from arches, rings
and the cooperation of the purlins; and in the third case the model is formed from arches, rings, the
cooperation of the purlins and the bracings. The results from the static linear and nonlinear computation
were compared to determine the influence of the nonlinear computation.
Key words: dome, linear, nonlinear, static, analysis.

1. STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION
The analyzed structure is a spherical dome with ribs and rings, the geometry of the sphere is given by
the quadratic equation, using the Cartesian system of coordinates x, y and z.

x2 y 2 z 2 R2

(1)

The main geometric characteristics of the dome are: the span 93,5m, the curvature radius 70m and the
height of 17,90m.
The dome is divided in 32 spatial semi arches, with triangular cross section; pin supported on a prestressed concrete ring at the bottom, and the continuity of the semi arches is assured at the top by a central
ring, designed as a caisson.

1
Professor, Marin Ivan, Politehnica University of Timioara, Faculty of Constructions, Metallic Constructions and
Construction Mechanics Department marin.ivan@ct.upt.ro
2
Associate Professor, Adrian Ivan Politehnica University of Timioara, Faculty of Constructions, Metallic Constructions
and Construction Mechanics Department adrian.ivan@ct.upt.ro
3
PhD Student, Vinicius Precupas Politehnica University of Timioara, Faculty of Constructions, Metallic Constructions
and Construction Mechanics Department vinicius_precupas@yahoo.com

-305-

Figure 1 General view

2. GEOMETRY OF THE DOME

The dome is made from 32 semi arches and three rings. The arches have a curvature of 70m and
they are made as spatial trusses, triangular with the height of 2,1m.
The chords of the semi arches are executed curved with the exterior diameter of 146-152mm and with
the thickness of 14-18mm, the distance between the two bars of the upper chord, vary between 1.202.00m.
The diagonals are formed from pipes with the diameter of 70-89mm, the thickness of 6-10mm and
placed in shape of X and struts between them.
The bracings are arranged in the plane of the purlins in K system, with the cross section of 60x6mm,
an in the skylight zone are arranged in X system with same cross section. The quality of the used material
for the metallic pipes is OLT45.
The purlins which sustain the cover have circular shape and are made from pipes with the diameter of
70-127mm and with the thickness of 6-12mm.

Figure 2 Longitudinal section of a semi arch

To take over the efforts from the pushing of the arches, are disposed three rings: the ring beam A, at
the base of the dome, the ring beam B placed above the skylight and the central ring.
The ring beam A from the base of the dome is formed as a spatial beam with three chords: two from
curved pipes 121x12mm and one from I profile.
The ring beam B, is made from curved pipes of 127x11mm and diagonals from 70x6 pipes.
The central ring is the element which makes the bounding of the semi arches at the top, its cross
section is made as a caisson, made by metallic elements riveted together. The radius of the ring is
2825mm.

-306-

Figure 3 Central ring

3. COMPUTING MODELS
The analyzed structure is made from 32 semi arches and has been considered the following
constructive models and space cooperation:
Model I the dome is made only by the 32 semi arches, pin connected at the bottom and the three ring
beams: beam A, B and the central caisson ring;

Figure 4 Model I Dome with arches and rings, without purlins and bracings

Model II the dome is made by the 32 semi arches, the three ring beams and the cooperation with the
purlins, which provides general stability of the semi arches, preventing their buckling, out of their plane;

-307-

Figure 5 Model II Dome with arches, rings and purlins, without bracings

Model III the dome is made by the 32 semi arches, the three ring beams and the cooperation with the
purlins and bracings in K in the purlin plane and in X in the skylight zone.

Figure 6 Model III Dome with arches, rings, purlins and bracings

4. STRUCTURE CALCULATION
The computing was made on the three models, in which it was taken into account the cooperation of
the purlins, respectively the cooperation of the purlins and bracings in K and X in the skylight zone.
4.1. The initial design loads
The initial loads, after which the structure analysis was made, are:
Self-weight of the structure, including the cover and the walkway;
The live load of the suspended ceiling
The live load from the handling of the exhibits: 4 concentrated forces of 50kN;
Uniform snow loading of 100 daN/m2;
Unsymmetrical snow loading: 100 daN/m2 on half of the surface;
Uniform snow loading of 200 daN/m2;
Unsymmetrical snow loading: 200 daN/m2 on half of the surface and 100 daN/m2 on the
other half;
Exceptional snow loading, throw agglomeration on 1/8 of the surface, as it was resulted
experimentally from the wind tunnel. The agglomeration is possible because of the perimeter
ring structure near the base of the dome;
80 daN/m2 at the top;
400 daN/m2 at the edge skylight;

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 800 daN/m2 at the bottom of the dome, loading possible due to the shape of the adjacent
structure near the base of the dome;
Wind loading : general suction of 100 daN/m2;
Wind loading : pressure-suction, determined by the following formula:

p p0 sin cos
Where

(2)

p 0 = 35 kg/m2 for pressure;

p 0 = 18 kg/m2 for suction;

- defines the variation in vertical plane;

- defines the variation in horizontal plane.

Seismic action according to P13/1963
Temperature variation 35.
4.2. Actual computing loadings
The actual computing, after which was made the analysis:
Self-weight of the structure, including the cover and the walkway;
The live load of the suspended ceiling
The live load from the handling of the exhibits: 4 concentrated forces of 50kN;
Uniform snow loading of 160 daN/m2;
Exceptional snow loading, was considered the initial loading, as it was resulted experimentally
from the wind tunnel;
Wind action according to NP-082-04
Seismic action according P100-1/2006
Temperature variation 35.
Coefficients and combinations taken according to Bases of Design Code.
4.3. Static computation
The modeling and static computation was made with the help of SAP2000 Nonlinear v11 program. On
the three models with/without cooperation of the purlins of bracings, were computed the efforts in bars
and displacements after the linear static and nonlinear static computation.
The chords of the 32 semi arches are considered continue, pin connected at the base in the pre-stressed
concrete ring and up at the top in the central ring. Similar the chords of the ring beams A and B are
continue, articulated in contact with the semi arches. The diagonals of the semi arches and of the rings,
respectively purlins and bracings are considered all articulated.
The length of the finite elements for nonlinear computation is considered the length between two
adjacent nodes.
5. THE INFLUENCE OF NONLINEAR COMPUTATION
The structure being formed from trusses, the dominant efforts are axial, so the influence of
nonlinear computation is determined with the relation:

N II
1
NI

(3)

A comparison between the efforts in the domes elements from linear and nonlinear computation
is made in table 1 and 2. In table 1 the efforts are taken from initial design loadings and in table 2, the
efforts results from the loads from actual design codes.

-309-

Table 1 Efforts in structural elements of the dome from initial design loads
INITIAL DESIGN LOADS
Element

Section

Effort

Bracings

60x6

N min
[kN] max

Model I
Linear

Nonlinear

Model II
II

N /N

Semi arches chords

Nonlinear NII/NI

-48.904

-50.144

1.025

104.863

105.534

1.006

-86.157

-107.227

1.245

-70.348

-84.196

1.197

215.263

0.971

179.199

167.24

0.933

127x10

min

-43.042

-60.898

1.415

-46.601

-59.552

1.278

184.274

177.841

0.965

168.29

158.045

0.939

-42.628

-52.799

1.239

-42.158

-52.16

1.237

165.729

159.086

0.960

168.793

159.521

0.945

-46.446

-56.4

1.214

-46.379

-56.151

1.211

166.158

159.039

0.957

185.329

176.523

0.952

-45.25

-53.713

1.187

-45.473

-53.761

1.182

154.306

N
[kN] max

147.94

0.959

185.715

178.391

0.961

N min
108x8
[kN] max

-38.946

-44.89

1.153

-39.321

-45.12

1.147

129.171

124.767

0.966

166.207

161.411

0.971

89x10

N min
[kN] max

-51.861

-44.984

0.867

-50.042

-45.24

0.904

164.956

177.962

1.079

177.194

174.359

0.984

89x6

N min
[kN] max

-34.771

-36.892

1.061

-35.084

-37.114

1.058

124.928

122.089

0.977

156.16

155.769

0.997

86x6

N min
[kN] max

-27.985

-28.187

1.007

-28.263

-28.405

1.005

104.548

103.573

0.991

127.492

128.986

1.012

70x7

min

N
[kN] max

-26.117

-24.813

0.950

-26.411

-25.067

0.949

97.96

98.231

1.003

117.788

120.735

1.025

70x6

min

-34.427

-28.371

0.824

-33.922

-20.119

0.593

88.154

90.849

1.031

106.417

61.088

0.574

N
[kN] max
N min -730.898
[kN] max 167.566

-757.447

1.036 -696.824

-692.431

0.994 -666.964

-676.679

1.015

146.518

0.874

120.328

137.157

1.140

30.329

26.001

0.857

146x14

min -566.651

N
[kN] max 251.361

-582.949

1.029 -566.349

-557.504

0.984

-556.24

-563.069

1.012

292.395

1.163

203.75

1.120

72.646

152x18

min -605.415

-613.902

1.014 -568.358

146x16

N
[kN] max 226.599

N min
[kN] max
N min
89x8
[kN] max
N min
83x6
[kN] max
N min
76x6
[kN] max
N min
70x6
[kN] max
N min
83x10
[kN] max
N min
121x12
[kN] max
N min
70x6
[kN] max
N min
127x11
[kN] max
N min
70x6
[kN] max
89x6

Semi arches trusses

Linear

221.661

N min
108x10
[kN] max

Ring B

Nonlinear N /N

N min
[kN] max

N min
108x11
[kN] max

Ring A

127x12

N min
127x9
[kN] max

Purlins

Linear

Model III
II

298.26

1.316

181.881
197.8

-574.181

1.010 -521.392

207.33

1.048

67.6

94.286

1.298

-520.205

0.998

73.671

1.090

-93.673

-105.25

1.124

-94.962

-98.803

1.040

-70.637

-72.471

1.026

167.951
-119.154
70.992
-44.382
41.911
-69.073
47.575
-136.857
86.107
-92.408
98.589
-443.175
1.274
-72.451
78.956
-272.315

167.448
-122.833
73.467
-49.156
40.438
-71.402
50.811
-163.196
93.476
-100.349
91.067
-450.173
-0.453
-75.723
83.85
-366.584

0.997
1.031
1.035
1.108
0.965
1.034
1.068
1.192
1.086
1.086
0.924
1.016
-0.356
1.045
1.062
1.346

167.647
-105.21
61.966
-40.319
31.406
-57.034
39.454
-122.983
101.791
-86.232
60.296
-426.188
3.453
-71.325
83.802
-187.532

167.967
-107.35
63.088
-40.902
32.013
-56.587
37.96
-110.051
117.172
-85.143
55.129
-435.92
2.234
-74.375
86.905
-208.654

1.002 163.594
1.020 -96.491
1.018
53.71
1.014 -34.377
1.019 29.217
0.992 -55.577
0.962 34.925
0.895 -65.793
1.151 60.778
0.987 -65.133
0.914 42.569
1.023 -375.303
0.647
4.22
1.043 -68.124
1.037 71.605
1.113 -161.649

162.802
-99.047
55.062
-34.932
28.696
-56.511
34.988
-65.774
61.045
-68.344
43.596
-377.223
3.024
-70.414
73.256
-174.938

0.995
1.026
1.025
1.016
0.982
1.017
1.002
1.000
1.004
1.049
1.024
1.005
0.717
1.034
1.023
1.082

430.124
-68.471
61.345

418.393
-81.217
71.527

0.973
1.186
1.166

218.789
-66.73
62.529

215.584
-72.006
65.051

0.985
1.079
1.040

181.648
-60.548
54.777

0.955
1.025
1.012

-310-

190.114
-59.067
54.134

Table 2 Efforts in structural elements of the dome from actual design loads
ACTUAL DESIGN LOADS
Element

Cross
section

Effort

Bracings

60x6

N min
[kN] max

Model I
Linear

Model II
II

Nonlinear N /N

N min
127x12
[kN] max

Purlins

Semi arches chords

Semi arches trusses

Nonlinear N /N

Linear

Nonlinear NII/NI

-122.06

-124.734

1.022

137.367

137.471

1.001

-280.539 -302.448 1.078 -255.121

-258.47

1.013

226.066

239.376

186.957

186.337

0.997

-201.283 1.074

-203.22

-206.617

1.017

196.673

176.053

1.059

N min
[kN] max

-187.41

176.484

1.002

127x9

N min
[kN] max

-136.947 -146.145 1.067 -182.101 -186.964

1.027

177.201

0.887

108x11

N min
[kN] max

-118.548 -119.169 1.005 -182.101 -185.386

1.018

184.239

206.272

1.004

108x10

min

-112.221 -112.766 1.005 -162.326 -165.869

1.022

183.137

182.918

0.999

212.944

214.051

1.005

-92.735

-93.134

1.004 -132.488

-135.93

1.026

167.266

167.082

0.999

196.829

1.008

-91.257

-122.775 1.345 -125.744 -129.569

1.030

256.598

253.355

0.987

247.174

246.885

0.999

-73.049

-73.26

1.003

-104.12

-108.184

1.039

166.632

191.6

N
[kN] max

N min
108x8
[kN] max

179.786
185.117

1.026
1.015
1.005

205.421
205.421

195.348

182.26

89x6

N min
[kN] max

166.363

0.998

195.84

198.423

1.013

86x6

N min
[kN] max

-54.068

-54.177

1.002

-82.238

-86.173

1.048

141.583

138.527

0.978

164.06

166.787

1.017

70x7

N min
[kN] max

-47.747

-47.784

1.001 -115.024

-81.723

0.710

137.175

132.929

0.969

160.04

1.014

70x6

N min
[kN] max

-55.488

-55.504

1.000

-75.488

-79.289

1.050

133.473

140.622

1.054

151.714

154.239

1.017

N min -891.599 -858.459

[kN] max 311.619 333.785

0.963 -962.057 -907.013 0.943 -882.173 -877.958

0.995

1.071

157.586

1.023

146x14

N min -684.633
[kN] max 372.595

-659.69

0.964 -750.624 -703.081 0.937 -742.894 -744.072

1.002

386.633

1.038

142.443

1.037

152x18

N min -888.678 -926.823

[kN] max 356.702 339.267

1.043 -882.533 -897.852 1.017 -765.661 -774.122

1.011

0.951

1.041

146x16

N min
[kN] max
N min
89x8
[kN] max
N min
83x6
[kN] max
N min
76x6
[kN] max
N min
70x6
[kN] max
N min
83x10
[kN] max
N min
121x12
[kN] max
N min
70x6
[kN] max
N min
127x11
[kN] max
N min
70x6
[kN] max
89x6

Ring B

127x10

N min
89x10
[kN] max

Ring A

Linear

Model III
II

259.804
295.707
260.989

301.628
301.074
254.636

1.161
1.018
0.976

157.807

154.009
137.387
65.654

68.374

-148.172 -160.947

1.086 -145.203 -167.186 1.151 -106.879 -109.171

1.021

235.567

239.669

1.017

239.117

247.885

1.037

235.294

1.011

-160.478
93.606
-80.502
59.917
-90.827
64.869
-160.167
136.833
-122.319
138.773
-598.728
151.962
-97.529
109.443
-589.749

-163.062
94.937
-86.207
64.88
-86.223
67.845
-176.362
150.18
-122.204
142.717
-603.04
162.116
-102.717
114.208
-641.775

1.016
1.014
1.071
1.083
0.949
1.046
1.101
1.098
0.999
1.028
1.007
1.067
1.053
1.044
1.088

-158.967
92.805
-60.598
49.139
-86.155
60.891
-193.478
156.94
-129.431
121.85
-596.784
124.686
-97.823
107.352
-385.121

-162.231
95.497
-62.265
53.94
-79.886
64.963
-140.07
222.063
-118.645
126.474
-608.787
135.82
-104.507
116.075
-419.093

1.021 -144.758 -147.143

1.029 78.384
79.643
1.028 -50.95
-51.285
1.098 48.582
49.595
0.927 -79.762 -78.398
1.067 49.515
49.091
0.724 -96.85
-98.211
1.415 88.222
89.316
0.917 -93.607 -89.557
1.038 83.153
84.156
1.020 -556.729 -556.695
1.089 58.994
60.009
1.068 -93.826
-97.37
1.081 96.049
98.851
1.088 -335.479 -342.135

1.016
1.016
1.007
1.021
0.983
0.991
1.014
1.012
0.957
1.012
1.000
1.017
1.038
1.029
1.020

451.752
-93.516
72.535

475.599
-103.569
78.774

1.053 239.022 265.279 1.110

1.108 -106.978 -110.031 1.029
1.086 95.175 104.155 1.094

-311-

232.661

234.046
-96.717
72.568

233.303
-98.529
74.749

0.997
1.019
1.030

Table 3 Stresses in structural elements of the dome from initial design loads
STRESSES OBTAINED FROM NONLINEAR COMPUTATION
Element

Bracings

Cross
section
60x6
127x12
127x10
127x9
108x11
108x10

Purlins

108x8
89x10
89x6
86x6
70x7

Semi arches chords

70x6
146x16
146x14
152x18

Combination

89x8
83x6
76x6
70x6
83x10
121x12

Ring A
70x6
127x11
Ring B
70x6

Model II

[N/mm2]

Combination

Model III

[N/mm2]

Combination

[N/mm2]

min

P+Vps+T+Za

-49.26

max

P+Vs+T+Za

103.68

min

P+Vps+T+Za

-24.73

P+Vps+T+Za

-19.42

max

P+Vs+T+Za

49.65

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

38.58

min

P+Vps+T+Z200-100

-16.57

P+Vps+T+Za

-16.20

max

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

48.38

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

43.00

min

P+Z100

-15.83

P+Z100

-15.63

max

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

47.68

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

47.81
-16.75

min

P+Z100

-16.83

P+Z100

max

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

47.44

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

52.66

min

P+Z100

-17.45

P+Z100

-17.46

max

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

48.05

P+Vs+T+Za

57.94

min

P+Z100

-17.86

P+Z100

-17.95

max

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

49.64

P+Vs+T+Za

64.22

min

P+Z100

-18.13

P+Z100

-18.23

max

P+Vs+T+Za

71.71

P+Vs+T+Za

70.25

min

P+Z100

-18.12

P+Z100

-18.23

max

P+Vs+T+Za

59.97

P+Vs+T+Za

76.52

min

P+Z100

-18.02

P+Z100

-18.16

max

P+Vs+T+Za

66.20

P+Vs+T+Za

82.44

min

P+Z100

-17.91

P+Z100

-18.09

max

P+Vs+T+Za

70.90

P+Vs+T+Za

87.15

min

P+Z100

-23.52

P+Z100

-16.68

max

P+Vs+T+Za

75.31

P+Z100+T+S

50.64

min

P+Vps+T+Za

-115.91

P+Vps+T+Za

-105.97

P+Vps+T+Za

-103.55

max

P+Vs+T+Za

22.42

P+Vs+T+Za

20.99

P+Z100

3.98

min

P+Vps+T+Za

-100.41

P+Vps+T+Za

-96.03

P+Vps+T+Za

-96.99

max

P+Vps+T+Za

50.36

P+Vs+T+Za

35.10

P+Vs+T+Za

16.24

min

P+Vps+T+Za

-81.02

P+Vps+T+Za

-75.77

P+Vps+T+Za

-68.65

P+Vps+T+Za

39.36

P+Vs+T+Za

27.36

P+Vs+T+Za

max
89x6

Semi arches trusses

Model I
Stress

min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max

P+Vps+T+Z200-100 -67.27
P+Vs+T+Za
-63.15
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Za
107.03
P+Vps+T+Za
107.36
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Za
-60.34
P+Vps+T+Za
-52.73
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Za
36.09
P+Vps+T+Za
30.99
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Za
-33.87
P+Vps+T+Za
-28.18
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T 27.86
P+Vps+T+Za
22.06
P+Vs+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Za
-54.11
P+Vps+T+Za
-42.89
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Za
38.51 P+Z100/2+4F+Vps+T 28.77
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Z200-100 -135.28 P+Vps+T+Z200-100 -91.22
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T 77.49
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T
97.13
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Za
-43.76 P+Z100/2+4F+Vps+T -37.13 P+Z100/2+4F+Vps+T
P+Vs+T+Za
39.71 P+Z100/2+4F+Vps+T 24.04 P+Z100/2+4F+Vps+T
P+Vps+T+Za
-109.55
P+Vps+T+Za
-106.08
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Z100
-0.11
P+Z100
0.54
P+Z100
P+Vps+T+Za
-62.77
P+Vps+T+Za
-61.65
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Z200-100 69.51
P+Vs+T+Za
72.04
P+Vs+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Z200-100 -91.45
P+Vps+T+Za
-52.05
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T 104.37
P+Vs+T+Za
53.78
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T
P+Vps+T+Z200-100 -67.32
P+Vps+T+Za
-59.69
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Z200-100 59.29
P+Vs+T+Za
53.92
P+Vs+T+Za

-312-

9.72
-46.32
104.06
-48.65
27.05
-24.07
19.77
-42.83
26.52
-54.52
50.60
-29.80
19.01
-91.80
0.74
-58.37
60.72
-43.64
45.31
-50.19
45.41

Table 4 Stresses in structural elements of the dome from actual desing loads

STRESSES OBTAINED FROM NONLINEAR COMPUTATION

Element

Cross
Stress
section

Bracings 60x6
127x12
127x10
127x9
108x11
108x10

Purlins 108x8
89x10
89x6
86x6
70x7

Semi arches
chords

70x6
146x16
146x14
152x18

Semi arches trusses

89x6
89x8
83x6
76x6
70x6
83x10
121x12

Ring A
70x6
127x11

Ring B
70x6

Model I

Model II

Combination

Model III

[N/mm2]

min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
P+Za+T
-131.37
max P+Za+U+4F+V1
51.08
min
P+Za+T
-113.63
max
P+Za+V1
66.60
min
P+Za+U+4F
-122.31
max
P+Za+V1+T
44.77
min
P+Za+U+4F+T
-102.87
max
P+Za+U+4F+T
153.19
min
P+Za+T
-80.10
max
P+Za+T
46.63
min
P+Za
-59.40
max
P+Za
44.70
min
P+Za+T
-65.35
max
P+Za+T
51.42
min
P+Za+U+4F+T
-146.19
max P+Za+U+4F+V1 124.49
min
P+Za+4F
-53.29
max P+Za+U+4F+V1
62.23
min
P+T+V1+Za
-146.75
max P+Za+U+4F+V2
39.45
min
P+T+V1+Za
-85.15
max
P+T+V1+Za
94.67
min
P+Za
-160.10
max P+Za+U+4F+V1+T 118.64
min
P+Za+T
-85.85
max
P+Za+U+4F+T
65.30

Combination

[N/mm2]

P+Za
P+Za+U+4F+V2+T
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Zu
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Zu
P+T+U+4F+V2
P+Zu
P+T+U+4F+V1
P+Za+U+4F
P+T+V2+Za
P+Zu
P+T+U+4F+V1
P+Zu
P+T+U+4F+V1
P+Zu+U+4F
P+T+V2+Za
P+Zu+U+4F
P+T+V2+Za
P+Za+T
P+Za+U+4F+V1
P+Za+T
P+Za+V1+T
P+Za+U+4F
P+Za+V2+T
P+Za+U+4F+T
P+Za+U+4F+T
P+Za+T
P+Za+T
P+Za+4F+T
P+Za+4F
P+Za+T
P+Za+U+4F+V2
P+T+Za
P+Za+U+4F+T
P+Za+4F+T
P+Za+U+4F+V2
P+T+Za
P+Za+U+4F+V2
P+T+Za
P+T+U+4F+Za
P+Za
P+Za+U+4F+V2+T
P+Za+U+T
P+Za+U+4F+T

-69.76
55.21
-54.76
53.51
-43.80
53.89
-35.55
55.22
-36.63
59.41
-37.06
66.48
-49.47
102.08
-35.99
81.72
-34.63
88.54
-34.49
95.95
-46.01
116.57
-138.80
46.16
-121.10
51.86
-118.49
33.60
-106.86
158.44
-79.69
46.91
-42.90
37.16
-60.54
49.23
-116.11
184.08
-51.73
55.15
-148.15
33.05
-86.63
96.22
-104.55
66.18
-91.21
86.34

-313-

Combination
P+Za
P+Za+U+4F+V1+T
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Za
P+T+V1+Za
P+Za+4F
P+T+U+4F+V1+Za
P+Za+U+4F
P+T+U+4F+V1+Za
P+Za+U+4F
P+T+V1+Za
P+Za+U+4F
P+T+V1+Za
P+T+Za
P+V1+U+4F+Za
P+Za+T
P+Za+V1+T
P+Za+U+4F+T
P+Za+V1
P+Za+T
P+Za+U+4F+T
P+Za+T
P+Za+T
P+Za+T
P+Za+U+4F+V2
P+Za+T
P+Za+T
P+T+Za
P+Za+U+4F+T
P+4F+Za+T
P+Za+U+4F+V2
P+T+Za
P+Za+U+4F+V2
P+T+Za
P+T+V1+Za
P+Za
P+T+U+4F+V2+Za
P+Za
P+Za+U+4F+T

[N/mm2]
-122.54
135.06
-59.62
42.98
-56.21
48.01
-56.04
54.63
-55.30
61.54
-53.88
69.53
-54.08
78.32
-52.21
99.48
-53.14
97.47
-55.08
106.61
-58.99
115.52
-65.73
127.85
-134.36
24.12
-128.16
24.54
-102.16
9.02
-69.78
150.39
-72.28
39.12
-35.33
34.17
-59.42
37.21
-81.41
74.04
-39.05
36.70
-135.48
14.60
-80.71
81.94
-85.35
58.20
-81.67
61.96

For the initial loadings, by comparing the results, it was obtained the following maximal
increases/decreseas of efforts, regarding the linear static, for:
Bracings: the maximal decrease in elements is -0.85%, in the combination, P+Vs+T+Za, and
maximal increase is 5.25%, in the combination P+Vps+T+Za;
Purlins: the maximal decrease in elements is -17.59% in the combination P+Z100, maximal
increase is 41.49%, the maximal increase is 41.49%, in the combination P+Vps+T+Z200100;
Semi arches chords: the maximal decrease in elements is -14.27%, in the combination
P+Z100, and the maximal increase is 31.62%, in the combination P+Vps+T+Za;
Semi arches trusses: the maximal decrease in elements is -10.52%, in the combination
P+Vps+T+Z200-100, and the maximal increase is 19.25%, in the combination P+Vs+T+Za;
The ring beams: the maximal decrease is -135.56%, in the combination P+Z100, but at small
values, from 1.274 kN to -0.453 kNl; neglecting this extreme values, the maximal decrease is
-35.30%, in P+Z100 combination, and the maximal increase is 34.62%, in the combination
P+Vps+T+Z200-100.
For the actual loadings, by comparing the results of nonlinear static analysis with linear static
analysis, it was obtained the following maximal increases/decreases of efforts, for:
Bracings: the maximal decrease in elements is -0.97%, in the combination P+Za+T and
maximal increase is 4.79%, in the combination P+Za+U+4F+T;
Purlins: the maximal decrease in elements is -28.95% in the combination P+Za+4F+T /
P+Za+U+4F, maximal increase is 34.54%, in the combination P+Zu / P+Za+U+4F;
Semi arches chords: the maximal decrease in elements is -6.33%, in the combination
P+Za+U+T / P+Za+T, and the maximal increase is 16.10%, in the combination
P+Za+U+4F+V1;
Semi arches trusses: the maximal decrease in elements is -27.60%, in the combination
P+Za+4F+T / P+Za+U+4F, and the maximal increase is 41.50%, in the combination
P+Za+U+4F / P+Za+U+4F+T;
The ring beams: the maximal decrease is -0.32%, in the combination P+T+U+4F+V2+Za,
and the maximal increase is 10.99%, in the combination P+Za+U+4F+V2+T
From the comparison of the nonlinear computation from actual loads with the nonlinear
computation from initial loads, it was observed the rising of the efforts in bars and also the redistribution
of efforts, due to the redistribution of the loads regarding the initial loads.
In table 3 and 4, was presented the stresses in structural elements of the dome from initial and
actual loads, the results are given for nonlinear computation of the structure, it can be observed, that the
maximal efforts are smaller than the admissible strength of the material (OLT45 R c=240N/mm2 for
t16mm and Rc=230N/mm2for t>16mm).
The maximal stresses in different elements, from initial loads, are:
bracings: 103.68 N/mm2, from P+Vs+T+Za combination;
purlins: 92.67 N/mm2, from P+Vs+T+Za combination;
semi arches chords: 115.91 N/mm2, from P+Vps+T+Za combination;
semi arches trusses: 135.28 N/mm2, from P+Vps+T+Z200-100 combination;
ring beams: 109.55 N/mm2, from P+Vps+T+Za combination.
The maximal stresses in different elements, from actual loads, are:
bracings: 135.06 N/mm2, from P+Za+U+4F+V1 combination;
purlins: 127.85 N/mm2, from P+T+V1+Za combination;
semi arches chords: 138.80 N/mm2, from P+Za+T combination;
semi arches trusses: 184.08 N/mm2, from P+Za+U+4F+T combination;
ring beams: 160.10 N/mm2, from P+Za combination.
The maximal vertical displacements at the level of the central ring from linear/nonlinear static
computation, obtained from serviceability limit state combinations, are presented in table 5 and table 6.
Table 5 Extreme vertical displacements at the level of central ring from initial loadings

-314-

DISPLACEMENTS AT THE LEVEL OF THE CENTRAL RING FROM INITIAL LOADINGS

MODEL I [mm]
Displacement
[mm]

Combination

MODEL II [mm]
Displacement
[mm]

MODEL III [mm]

Combination

Displacement
[mm]

Combination

min
max

-15.11
50.68

P+Z100
P+Vs+T+Za

LINEAR COMPUTATION
min
max

-44.74
108.61

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T min -14.95

P+Z100
P+Vps+T+Z200-100 max 84.41
P+Vs+T+Za
NONLINEAR COMPUTATION

min

-69.96

P+Vps+T+Z200-100

min

-18.18

P+Vs+T+Z200-100

min

-11.83

P+Z100

max

140.25

P+Vps+T+Z200-100 max

94.98

P+Vs+T+Za

max

55.12

P+Vs+T+Za

Table 6 Extreme displacements at the level of central ring from actual loadings
DISPLACEMENTS AT THE LEVEL OF THE CENTRAL RING FROM ACTUAL LOADINGS
MODEL I
Displacement
[mm]
min
max

-66.65
78.46

min

-73.28
85.22

MODEL II

Combination

Displacement
[mm]

MODEL III

Combination

LINEAR COMPUTATION
P+Za+U+4F+V1 min
-58.57
P+Za+U+4F
P+Za+V1+T
max
74.21
P+T+Za
NONLINEAR COMPUTATION
P+Za+U+4F
min
-68.40
P+Za+U+4F
P+Za+T

max

83.09

P+Za+T

Displacement
[mm]

Combination

min
max

-25.41
50.35

P+Za+U+4F
P+T+Za

min

-26.46

P+Za+U+4F

max

51.35

P+T+Za

Comparing the vertical displacements of the central ring, it can observed that in nonlinear
analysis the maximal displacements for initial design loadings increase up to 56.36%, from -44.74mm in
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T+U combination, to -69.96mm in P+Vps+T+Z200-100 combination; for actual
design loadings the maximal increase of the displacement is 16.77%, from -58.57mm to -68.40mm, both
for P+Za+U+4F combination.
The maximal vertical displacement of the central ring, for initial design loadings, are in model I
up to 108.61mm in linear analysis, respectively 140.25mm in nonlinear analysis. Taking into account the
cooperation with the purlins in model II, their displacements diminish up to 66.58% to -14.95mm in linear
analysis and with 74.01% to -18.01mm in nonlinear analysis. Further when we take the cooperation of the
purlins and bracings (model II) the displacements halves; they diminish compared with the second model
with 39.96% to 50.68mm in linear analysis and with 41.96% to 55.12mm in nonlinear analysis.
Similar conclusions can be obtained for the vertical displacements in the case of actual design
loadings, but at a lower scale. For the model I the maximal vertical displacements are the highest in
model I, where they are up to 78.46mm in linear analysis, respectively 85.22mm in nonlinear analysis. In
the second model they diminish with 12.11% to -58.57mm in linear analysis and with 6.66% to -68.40 in
nonlinear analysis. The highest reductions are in the third model where the displacements decrease with
56.62% to -25.41mm in linear analysis and 61.31% to -26.46mm in nonlinear analysis.
From the comparison of the initial design loadings with the actual design loadings, we can see
that the vertical displacements in +Z direction are lower, and higher in Z direction. The maximum
increase in Z direction is up to 291.78% from -14.95mm (P+Z100) to -58.57mm (P+Za+U+4F)), and
maximum decrease in +Z direction is -39.24%, from 140.25mm (P+Vps+T+Z200-100) to 85.22mm
(P+Za+T)
In the following tables, are presented the maximal displacements, obtained from serviceability
limit state combinations, of the nodes on the intermediate ring B, in x, y and z direction, from initial
design loadings (table 7), actual design loadings (table 8).

-315-

Table 7 Displacements at the level of ring B from intial loadings

DISPLACEMENTS AT THE LEVEL OF RING B - INITIAL LOADINGS
Ymax
Combination
Combination
Zmax [mm]
[mm]

Model

Xmax
[mm]

I-L
II - L
III - L
I - NL
II - NL

26.77
13.54
6.85
26.54
14.02

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T
P+Vs+T+Za

27.07
24.41
13.82
27.68
26.43

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Vps+T+Za+U
P+Vps+T+Za
P+Vps+T+Za

44.58
32.07
18.22
44.19
33.06

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T+U
P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T
P+Vs+T+Za

III - NL

6.44

P+Vs+T+Za

14.54

P+Vps+T+Za

17.88

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T

Combination

Table 8 Displacements at the level of ring B from actual loadings

DISPLACEMENTS AT THE LEVEL OF RING B - ACTUAL LOADINGS
Model

Xmax
[mm]

Combination

Ymax
[mm]

Combination

Zmax
[mm]

Combination

I-L
II - L
III - L
I - NL
II - NL

15.77
11.14
5.02
16.70
12.21

P+Za+U+4F+V1+T
P+Za+U+4F+V1+T
P+V1+U+4F+Za+T
P+Za+U+4F+V1+T
P+Za+U+4F+V1+T

-34.03
-30.28
-17.49
-35.47
-31.83

P+Za+V1
P+Za
P+Za
P+Za
P+Za+4F

-44.95
-40.78
-26.46
-47.28
-42.79

P+Za+V1
P+Za
P+Za
P+Za
P+Za+4F

III - NL

5.04

P+V1+U+4F+Za+T

-17.77

P+Za

-26.88

P+T+Za

In the case of ring B, the nonlinear effect is smaller, the maximal increase in horizontal direction
is 8.30% for initial loadings (P+Vs+T+Za/P+Vps+T+Za) and 9.64% for actual design loadings
(P+Za+U+4F+V1+T); in vertical direction the increase is 3.10% for initial design loadings
(P+Vs+T+Za+U/ P+Vs+T+Za) and 5.18% for actual design loadings (P+Za+V1/ P+Za). Comparing the
actual/initial loadings, it can be observed that the displacement decrease for the actual design loadings up
to 41.09% in X direction, increase with 28.13% in Y direction and increases up to 50.32% in Z direction
(in absolute value).
The displacements horizontally and vertically in model I are the highest, they diminish in the
second model up to 49,44% for initial design loadings and up to 29.38% for actual design loadings. In the
last model they diminish even more, compared with the second model, up to 54.10% for initial design
loadings and up to 58.71% for actual design loadings.
In the following tables, are presented the maximal displacements in the semi-arches, in x, y and z
direction, obtained from serviceability limit state combinations, from initial design loadings (table 9), and
the actual design loadings (table 10).
Table 9 Maximal displacements, on the arches from intial loadings
MAXIMAL DISPLACEMENTS OF THE DOME - INITIAL LOADINGS
Xmax Joint
Model
[mm] position
I-L
II - L
III - L
I - NL
II - NL

Combination

Ymax Joint
[mm] position

Combination

Zmax Joint
[mm] position

Combination

38.51
20.06
9.19
42.69
22.75

11
13
12
15
15'

P+Z100/2+4F+Vs+T
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Vps+T+Z200-100
P+Vs+T+Za

39.60
29.57
15.06
46.62
31.52

13
14
8'
14
13

P+Z100/2+4F+Vps+T
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Vps+T+Za+U
P+Vps+T+Z200-100
P+Vs+T+Za

110.15
86.35
52.52
141.20
96.25

19
18
18
19
19

P+Vps+T+Z200-100
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Vs+T+Za+U
P+Vps+T+Z200-100
P+Vs+T+Za

III - NL 9.17

12

P+Vs+T+Za

15.88

9'

P+Vps+T+Za

56.50

19

P+Vs+T+Za

Similarly, in the case of entire structure, the maximal displacements increases, due to nonlinear
effect, up to 17.72% in horizontal direction and 28.19% in vertical direction for initial loadings. For
-316-

actual design loadings the displacements increases with 23.21% in horizontal direction and 11.45% in
vertical direction. Comparing the actual design loadings with the initial design loadings, it can be
observed that the displacement decrease for the actual design loadings up to 38.46% in X direction and up
to 38.73% in Z direction, and increases up to 25.49% in Y direction.
Table 10 Maximal displacements on the arches from actual loadings
MAXIMAL DISPLACEMENTS OF THE DOME - ACTUAL LOADINGS
Xmax Joint
Ymax Joint
Zmax Joint
Model
Combination
Combination
Combination
[mm] position
[mm] position
[mm] position
I-L
II - L
III - L
I - NL
II - NL

23.70
19.18
7.72
27.62
23.63

12
14'
11'
19
15'

P+Za+U+4F+V2+T
P+Za+U+4F+T
P+Za+U+4F+V1+T
P+Za+U+4F+T
P+Za+U+4F+T

40.84
34.87
18.91
42.82
37.18

9
9
7
9
9

P+Za+V1
P+Za
P+Za
P+Za
P+Za+4F

80.76
75.42
51.63
86.51
84.05

17
19
19
18
19

P+Za+V1+T
P+T+Za
P+T+Za
P+Za+T
P+Za+T

III - NL 7.90

11'

P+Za+U+4F+V1+T 19.22

P+Za

52.59

19

P+T+Za

The highest values of the displacements are in the first model, diminishing in the second model
up to 47.92% for initial design loadings and up to 19.08% for actual loadings. For the third model
compared with the second model the diminishing is higher up to 59.70% for initial design loadings and up
to 66.55% for actual design loadings.
Looking at the position of the joints, where the maximal displacements take place, we can
observe that most horizontal displacements are around the middle of the semi arch, while the maximal
vertical displacements are nearby the central ring. The joint position is given on the longitudinal section
of a semi arch (see figure 2).
6. COOPERATION WITH PURLINS AND BRACINGS
After comparison of the efforts and displacements from the three models:
Model I: Dome with arches and rings;
Model II: Dome with arches, rings and purlins;
Model III: Dome with arches, rings, purlins and bracings;
As a result of the cooperation of purlins with the structure made of arches, it can be observed, a
general diminution of efforts in arches and rings up to 20% from efforts obtained without cooperation of
the purlins. In the same time, it can be observed an increase of efforts in the struts from the top chord of
arches, where the efforts doubles, these elements take a big part of efforts transmitted by the purlins.
Comparing the third model with the other two it can be observed a significant diminution of
efforts in the semi arches. The biggest effect is at the level of ring beams, where the purlins and bracings
take an important part of efforts. It can also be observed the increasing of efforts in purlins when they
concur with the bracings.
Similar conclusion can be made, comparing the displacements of the three models. In the first
model, only with arches and rings, we have the biggest displacement, after we take the cooperation of the
purlins in the second model, the displacements in the structure are diminishing and finally after bracing
the structure in the third model, we have the smallest displacement from the models.
When we compare the displacements, of the rings, or maximal displacements of the dome, we
can observe similar effects. For the first model the displacements are the biggest, in the second model
they decrease slowly and in the third model the displacements, the decrease is more pronounced, reducing
the displacements at half the value of the first model.
7. CONCLUSIONS

The cooperation with the purlins and bracings have a an positive effect upon the efforts from bars
of the dome;
The obtained efforts from the static nonlinear analysis are generally smaller than the ones
obtained from linear static analysis;
-317-

The redistribution of efforts after the loadings from current codes, in comparison with the initial
design loadings;
The displacements obtained after the static nonlinear analysis are bigger regarding those obtained
from linear static analysis;
The displacements obtained using current codes loadings are generally, smaller than those
obtained from initial design loadings for model I and II, and in case of model III, the
displacement increases;
The cooperation of the purlins and bracings in model II and purlins + bracings in model III,
reduce the displacements.
Significant increases of efforts in bars from nonlinear computation regarding the linear
computation have been in bars with small efforts and the computing strength in bars according to
the nonlinear computation has not been exceeded.

REFERENCES
[1] D. MATEESCU and collaborators, Welded metallic dome of National Economy Exhibition
Pavilion of R.P.R.
[2] D. MATEESCU, I. FLESERIU, M. IVAN s.a., Comparative study upon the distribution of
efforts determined from different ipothesys of spatial collaboration at a dome with rings and
ribs. Buletinul tinific i tehnic al Institului Politehnic Timioara, Tom 9, Fasc. 2, 1964, pag
601-616
[3] Adrian IVAN, Single layer reticulated metallic dome instability, Romanian Academy
Publishing, Bucharest, Ph. D Dissertation, 2001.
[4] Technical design Remaking of the National Economy Pavilion roof developed by collective of
I.P.C.M.C. Bucharest, 1963
[5] Seismic design code Part I Design provisions for buildings, code P100-1/2006.
[6] Design code CR 0-2005, for bases of design for structures in construction.
[7] Design code NP-082-04.. Bases of design and actions on constructions. Wind loading.
[8] Design code CR 1-1-3-05 for evaluation of snow loadings upon constructions.
[9] STAS 10108/0-78 Steel elements computation.
[10]
Design code STAS 8183-68 Steel carbon for pipes, marks OLT35 and OLT45
[11]
Em. BAICULESCU, M. ENESCU, The design of the pavilion of National Economy
Exhibition of R.P.R. in Revista constructiilor si a materialelor de constructii. No.3/1962 pag.
114-123
[12]
Mircea SOARE, N. PTRNICHE, The metallic reticulated dome from National
Economy Exhibition pavilion of R.P.R., in Revista constructiilor si a materialelor de constructii.
No.3/1962 pag. 124-135
[13]
Tudor DINESCU, M. ANASTASESCU, The mounting design of the dome from National
Economy Exhibition pavilion of R.P.R., in Revista constructiilor si a materialelor de constructii.
No.3/1962 pag. 136-145

-318-

IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Dejan Koblika1
Zoran Boni 2
Verka Prolovi3

STATNAMIC LOAD TESTING

Abstract: The increasing use of piles in modern building construction imposes the need for
modernization of techniques and research in their field of study. In recent times, among others, appears
a new method for testing piles - Statnamic method. The advantages of this method compared to
conventional are: short test duration, lower cost and easier performance, high reliability of obtained
datas, flexibility of use in different types of piles and methods of their analysis. The paper briefly
presents the method, its theoretical basis, the manner of performance, type of use and reliability of
obtained datas.
ey words: Statnamic, test, loading, pile,measurement, force, displacement, acceleration

: Sve vea upotreba ipova u savremenim graevinskim konstrukcijama namee potrebu i za
istraivanjima i osavremenjivanjem tehnika u oblasti njihovog ispitivanja. U novije vreme, pored
ostalih, javlja se i nova metoda za ispitivanje ipova Statnamik metoda. Prednosti ove metode u
odnosu na konvencionalne su: krae vreme trajanja ispitivanja, manja cena kotanja i lake izvoenje,
velika pouzdanost dobijenih podataka i fleksibilnost primene kod razliitih vrsta ipova i naina
njihovog ispitivanja. U radu je ukratko dat prikaz ove metode, njena teorijska osnova, nain izvoenja,
vrsta primene i pouzdanost dobijenih podataka.
: , , , , , , ,
1. INTRODUCTION
Frequent use of piles in civil engineering constructions requires determining their carrying capacity,
which can be calculated in several ways:
According to computational static expressions - static methods
According to the expressions regard on the resistance at driving of piles - the dynamic methods
Based on results of penetration tests
Based on experience at performed piles in similar ground conditions
According to pile load tests
New method for determining the carrying capacity of piles appeared recently. Since its begining in
1988, Statnamic testing of piles and deep foundations has gained popularity with many designers largely
due to its time efficiency, cost effectiveness, data quality, and flexibility in testing existing foundations.
Where large capacity static tests may take up to a week to set up and conduct, the largest of Statnamic
tests typically takes no more than a few days. Further, multiple smaller-capacity tests can easily be
1

Msc, Faculty of Technical Scinces, Kosovska Mitrovica, Kneza Milosa 7, e-mail:dkobliska@gmail.com

Phd, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nis, A. Medvedeva 14, e-mail:zokibon@yahoo.com
3
Phd, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nis, A. Medvedeva 14, e-mail:vprolovic@yahoo.com
2

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completed within a day. The direct benefit of this time efficiency is the cost savings to the client and the
ability to conduct more tests within a given budget. Additionally, this test method has boosted quality
assurance by giving the contractor the ability to test foundations thought to have been compromised by
construction difficulties without significantly affecting production.

Figure 1 Comparison of test equipment for Statnamic (left) and static load test ( right) [3]

Statnamic testing is designated as a rapid load test that uses the inertia of a relatively small reaction
mass instead of a reaction structure to produce large forces, Figure 1. Rapid load tests are differentiated
from static and dynamic load tests by comparing the duration of the loadingevent with respect to the
axial natural period of the foundation (2L/C), where L represents the foundation length and C represents
the strain wave velocity. Test durations longer than 1000 L/C are considered static loadings and those
shorter than 10 L/C are consider dynamic (Janes et al., 2000; Kusakabe et.al, 2000, according [2]). Tests
with a duration between 10L/C and 1000 L/C are denoted as rapid load tests. The duration of the
Statnamic test is typically 100 to 120 milliseconds, but is dependant on the ratio of the applied force to
the weight of the reaction mass.
Longer duration tests of up to 500 milliseconds are possible but require a larger reaction mass.
The Statnamic force is produced by quickly-formed high pressure gases that in turn launch a reaction
mass upward at up to twenty times the acceleration of gravity, Figure 2. The equal and opposite force
performed on the foundation is simply the product of the mass and acceleration of the reaction mass. It
should be noted that the acceleration of the reaction mass is not significant in the analysis of the
foundation; it is simply a by-product of the test. Secondly, the load produced is not an impact in that the
mass is in contact prior to the test. Further, the test is over before the masses reach the top of their flight.
The parameters of interest are only those associated with the movement of the foundation (i.e. force,
displacement, and acceleration).
Typical analysis of Statnamic data relies on measured values of force, displacement and acceleration.
A soil model is not required, hence, the results are not highly user dependent. A new method of analysis
is introduced that extends present methods by incorporating additional measured values of strain at
discrete points along the length of the foundation.
2. STATNAMIC METHOD DESCRIPTION
The Statnamic load test is based on Newtons second and third laws which state that force is equal to
mass times acceleration (F=ma) and that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Loads
ranging from 5 tons up to 5,000 tons are generated (axially or laterally) by moving a reaction mass
upward off the foundation. Since the mass is in contact with the foundation prior to the test, the force
associated with moving of this mass acts equally and oppositely onto the foundation. Statnamic load
testing requires no reaction piles, no reaction beam, no hydraulic jack, and because of that takes only a
part of the cost and time of Statik load test.

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A speciel fuel is burned to generate gas pressure inside a cylinder and (analogous to a gas actuated
jack). As the pressure builds, it reacts against a heavy mass above the pile (typically 5 to 7 percent of the
desired test load). The pressure builds rapidly which moves the reaction mass upward, in turn a
downward load is simultaneously applied to the pile top which is many times greater than the weight of
the reaction mass. The fuel type produces a smooth increasing force and controlled venting of the
pressure produces a soft unloading. The load produced is not an impact but rather an impulse load
typically with a duration on the order of 1/2 second and less.

Figure 2 Stages of a Statnamic Load Test [1]

Statnamic load testing requires no reaction piles, no reaction beam, no hydraulic jack, and is set up in
a fraction of the cost and time. The Statnamic device is set up on the pile top and includes a calibrated
load cell and displacement measuring system.
During a Statnamic test, a high-speed data acquisition system scans and records the load cell,
displacement transducers, accelerometers and embedded strain gages (if any). The test measurements
provide a high degree of resolution fully defining the piles load and deflection response with as many as
100,000 data points recorded during a typical second test. Because the duration of the axial Statnamic
test is adequately longer than the natural period of the foundation element, the entire foundation remains
in compression. Thus, stress waves do not exist and a simple model can be used to determine the static
capacity. However, the measured Statnamic force is not simply the foundation capacity but must be
corrected for inertia and damping forces through the fundamental equation of motion (1).
(1)
Fstatic Fstn ma cv
Where:
Fstatic - the derived static load (kx),
Fstn measured Statnamic force,
ma measured inertia
cv foundation/soil damping
m mass of foundation
a acceleration of the foundation
c foundation/soil damping coefficient
v velocity of the foundation

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Figure 3 Statnamic measured load (with inertia and damping) and static component of foundation behavior

In the process of loading is necessary to ensure that there is no repetition of loading due to a drop og
reaction mass in the initial position. This is achieved in two ways. One is using mechanical or hydraulic
catch mehanism (Figure 2), and the other by filling space between the ground and counter load gravel.
All tests use the same basic equipment and the same measuring devices, which send data to
the same devices for data acquisition. It is a highly sophisticated digital equipment, where pile
(foundation) displacement is observed and recorded photovoltaic converter and remote laser source.
3. STATNAMIC ACCURACY, RELIABILITY AND RECOGNITION
University of Florida research focuses on the comprehensive study of data collected from 34 deep
foundations load test sites where both Static (SLT) and Statnamic (STN) testing was conducted. The
main bearing soil strata of each pile was divided broadly into four subgroups: rock, sand, silt, and clay.
As the nature of Statnamic testing induces loading rate effects, the affect in various soil types was
therein considered.
A rate effect factor was introduced to unify the reliability and statistical probability of failure for
Load and Resistance Factor Design. Based on the ratio of SLT to STN and the standard deviation of the
data set, a resistance factor was determined for Statnamically load tested foundations. The results of this
study are summarized in Table1. Included in this table are the bias factors (), standard deviations, and
calculated resistance factors () for each soil subgroup. This summary shows a good correlation
between the STN and SLT capacities for Rock and Sand indicated by a bias factor nearly equal to 1.0
and a standard deviation less than 9%. The results also show a relatively good correlation between the
STN and SLT capacities for Silt and Clay with bias factors larger than 1.0 and standard deviations less
than 12%. The combined values of all soil types show that the STN capacity analysis method performs
very well with a bias factor slightly larger than 1.0 and a standard deviation of less than 10%.
ble 3- Statistical datas for Statnamic tests in different kind of soils
Rock

Sand

Silt

Clay

All Soils

0.999

0.994

1.041

1.035

1.017

Standard Deviation

0.068

0.083

0.116

0.119

0.097

Resistence Factor

0.739

0.726

0.737

0.730

0.734

Bias Factor

4. LATERAL STATNAMIC LOAD TEST

Lateral Statnamic load testing is a significant contribution to the engineering community since it
models more closely lateral loading events, i.e. wind, seismic, ship impact, wave action, etc. and it does
not require the construction of a costly reaction shaft. The same Statnamic equipment used to perform

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axial load tests is assembled horizontally on a special sled. The lateral load produced is transmitted to
the foundation through a large hemispherical bearing that produces rotations typical of lateral load tests.
Lateral Statnamic load tests may be performed between loads of 15 tons to 2000 tons. Lateral load
testing accounts for approximately one third of all Statnamic load tests.
An analysis method developed at Auburn University allows quantification of both dynamic and static
lateral capacity components from a Statnamic lateral load test.

Figure 4 Lateral load test in progres [3]

Figure 5 Testing of the group of piles over piles cap [3]

5. APPLICATIONS
Statnamic results are not affected by non-uniform cross-section since the load and displacement are
measured directly with a load cell and displacement transducer. This is one reason it is particularly
applicable to drilled shafts, augered cast-in-place piles, and shallow foundations. The most common
foundation types tested are:
Bored Piles (drilled shafts, augered cast-in-place piles, micro-piles, driven piles, prestressed concrete
piles....)
Shallow Foundations (plate load tests, stone columns, vibro concrete columns)
Lateral Load Testing (single and groups)
6. CONCLUSION
Statnamic load testing has many advantages in the process of determining piles capacity and their
behavior in the axial and lateral loading.
Statnamic load testing does not require installation of reaction piles, reaction beam system, no
hydraulic jack, and no reference beam.
Faster to set up and perform test than static testing.
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More economical than static testing

A direct measurement of load and displacement suggests that the precision of measurement of
Statnamic testing is higher than those measuring only strain or hydraulic jack pressure.
Embedded strain instrumentation can be installed to allow measurement of load distribution, toe
displacement and accurate separation of side shear and end bearing components.
It requires no special construction procedures so installation is more representative of actual
production pile construction. This allows Statnamic to be used for random quality control
testing and for problematic foundations.
Side effects from installation of reaction piles or reaction pile spacing relative to the test pile are
completely eliminated.
Capable of loading to 5,000 tons or greater with same equipment.
Cyclic loading is performed very quick and easy.
It is the most repeatable of any test method.
Statnamic analysis is not effected by uncertainties in pile properties because top load and
displacement are measured directly with a calibrated load cell and displacement sensor. This
makes it particularly attractive over dynamic methods for testing non uniform piles.
Does not require complex user dependent signal matching analysis to which there is no unique
solution.
The duration of the axial Statnamic test is longer than the natural period of the foundation
element precluding formation of stress waves. The entire foundation remains in compression
during the test, Therefore, no damaging tensile stresses exist like those of a dynamic test.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The paper is result of the investigation in the project TR 36028 financed of the Ministry of
Education and Science, Republic of Serbia
REFERENCES
[1] Justason D. M.: Statnamic Load Testing of Drilled Shafts, 2006, (www.berminghammer.com) ww

[2] Mullins G., Lewis L.C., Justason D. M.: Advancements In Statnamic Data Regression Techniques,
Deep foundations 2002, pp.915-930
[3] Roje-Bonacci T.: Statnamik metoda ispitivanja nosivosti pilota, 2010

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

ore Lainovi1
Vladimir Vukobratovi2

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE SEISMIC RESPONSE OF

GROUND-SUPPORTED CONCRETE CIRCULAR LIQUID STORAGE
TANKS
Abstract: Ground-supported concrete liquid storage tanks represent common structures in various
facilities. Experience shows that inadequately designed or detailed tanks suffered extensive damage
during past earthquakes, which implies that the satisfactory seismic response of such structures is very
important. This paper presents the results of analysis of the seismic response of ground-supported
concrete circular liquid storage tanks with various geometrical properties. The ratio of the liquid height
and the inner radius of the tank is the geometrical property which was primarily analysed, since the
seismic response of the tank structure is mostly influenced by it. Seismic response was analysed in
accordance with the provisions defined by Eurocode 8 and a comparative analysis of the obtained results
is presented. The main objective of this paper is to give an insight into the seismic response of groundsupported circular concrete tanks and to provide results which can be of practical importance for
everyday practice.
Key words: circular tanks, impulsive mode, convective mode, base shear force, overturning moment,
Eurocode 8

KOMPARATIVNA ANALIZA SEIZMIKOG ODGOVORA NADZEMNIH

BETONSKIH KRUNIH REZERVOARA ZA SKLADITENJE TENOSTI
Rezime: Nadzemni betonski kruni rezervoari za skladitenje tenosti predstavljaju uobiajene
konstrukcije u razliitim objektima. Iskustvo pokazuje da su neadekvatno projektovani ili oblikovani
rezervoari pretrpeli znatna oteenja tokom prethodnih zemljotresa, to nagovetava da je zadovoljavaju
seizmiki odgovor takvih konstrukcija veoma znaajan. U radu su predstavljeni rezultati analize
seizmikog odgovora nadzemnih betonskih krunih rezervoara za skladitenje tenosti koji imaju razliite
geometrijske karakteristike. Odnos visine fluida i unutranjeg poluprenika rezervoara je geometrijska
karakteristika koja je primarno analizirana, s obzirom da najvie utie na seizmiki odgovor konstrukcije
rezervoara. Seizmiki odgovor je analiziran u skladu sa odredbama definisanim Evrokodom 8 i prikazana
je komparativna analiza dobijenih rezultata. Glavni cilj ovog rada je pruanje uvida u seizmiki odgovor
nadzemnih krunih betonskih rezervoara i prikaz rezultata koji mogu biti od praktinog znaaja u
svakodnevnoj praksi.
Kljune rei: kruni rezervoari, impulsivni ton, konvektivni ton, bazna smiua sila, moment preturanja,
Evrokod 8

PhD in Civil Engineering, Professor at the University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Civil Engineering
Department, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, Novi Sad. Email: ladjin@uns.ac.rs
2
MSc in Civil Engineering, Phd student at the University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy. Employed
as a teaching associate at the University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Civil Engineering Department, Trg Dositeja
Obradovia 6, Novi Sad. Email: vladavuk@uns.ac.rs

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1. INTRODUCTION
Ground-supported liquid storage tanks represent common structures in various facilities. Any collapse
of such structures usually results in heavy consequences, and therefore the satisfactory seismic response is
crucial. During a seismic action, inertial forces are induced due to the acceleration of a tank structure and
hydrodynamic forces are induced due to the acceleration of liquid. The liquid mass in the lower part of a
tank behaves like a mass that is rigidly connected to the tank wall and it is termed an impulsive liquid
mass, which accelerates along with the wall and induces impulsive hydrodynamic pressure. The liquid
mass in the upper part of a tank undergoes sloshing motion and it is termed convective liquid mass, which
induces convective hydrodynamic pressure. The analysis presented in the following text was conducted
according to the provisions of Eurocode 8.
2. A DYNAMIC MODEL OF A TANK STRUCTURE
A dynamic analysis of a tank structure can be carried out using the concept of generalised singledegree-of-freedom systems (SDOF), representing the impulsive and convective modes of vibration (see
Fig. 1). Seismic response of SDOF systems may be calculated independently and then combined in order
to provide the response of a structure. The first modes of vibration need to be considered in the analysis.

Figure 50 A dynamic model of a circular tank structure

In the dynamic model presented in Fig. 1, mi and mc denote impulsive and convective masses of liquid
respectively, hi is the height where the resultant of impulsive pressure on the wall is located, while hi' is
the height where the resultant of impulsive pressure on the wall and the base is located. Similarly, hc is the
height where the resultant of convective pressure on the wall is located, while hc' is the height where the
resultant of convective pressure on the wall and the base is located. All of the heights are measured from
the bottom of the tank wall. The inner radius of the tank is denoted as R.
The parameters of the dynamic model depend on tank geometry. These parameters are different in
cases of tanks with rigid and flexible walls, although the difference is not substantial. In the following
text, all attention will be focused on concrete tanks, which could be considered as tanks with rigid walls.
According to Eurocode 8, recommended design values of the dynamic parameters are defined in the Tab.
1. These values are related to the first impulsive and convective modes of vibration and they depend on
the ratio H/R, where H denotes the height of liquid. Additionally, ml denotes the total mass of liquid.
Table 4 Dynamic parameters for the first impulsive and convective modes of vibrations according to Eurocode 8

H/R
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0

Ci Cc [s/m] mi / ml mc / ml
9.28
2.09
0.176 0.824
7.74
1.74
0.300 0.700
6.97
1.60
0.414 0.586
6.36
1.52
0.548 0.452
6.06
1.48
0.686 0.314
6.21
1.48
0.763 0.237
6.56
1.48
0.810 0.190
7.03
1.48
0.842 0.158

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hi / H hc / H hi / H hc / H
0.400 0.521 2.640 3.414
0.400 0.543 1.460 1.517
0.401 0.571 1.009 1.011
0.419 0.616 0.721 0.785
0.439 0.690 0.555 0.734
0.448 0.751 0.500 0.764
0.452 0.794 0.480 0.796
0.453 0.825 0.472 0.825

Besides already defined quantities, coefficients Ci and Cc also appear in the Tab. 1. They are related to
the natural periods of the impulsive and convective modes of vibrations, which will be shown below.
It should be noted that sometimes additional vertical structural elements are present inside a tank.
These elements cause obstruction to sloshing motion of liquid. Unfortunately, no study is still available to
quantify the effect of such obstructions but it is reasonable to expect that the impulsive component will
increase and that the convective component will decrease.
3. SEISMIC RESPONSE
Seismic response of a tank structure should be analysed in terms of natural periods of vibrations, base
shear forces and overturning moments. As already mentioned, these quantities will be determined in
accordance with the provisions defined by Eurocode 8.
Modal properties of a tank structure should be determined at the beginning of the analysis. The natural
periods of the impulsive and the convective modes are calculated by the Eqns. 1 and 2, respectively.

Timp = C i

H r
s/R E

(1)

Tcon = Cc R

(2)
where:
s - equivalent uniform thickness of the tank wall (in the case of a wall with constant thickness, s is
equal to the wall thickness),
E - modulus of elasticity of tank material,
- mass density of liquid.
The total base shear should by calculated by the Eqn. 3.

Q = ( mi + mw + mr ) Se ( Timp ) + mcS e ( Tcon )

(3)

where:
mw - mass of the tank wall,
mr - mass of the tank roof,
Se(Timp) - impulsive spectral acceleration (obtained from a 5% damped elastic response spectrum for
the case of reinforced concrete tanks, for both damage limitation and ultimate limit state),
Se(Tcon) - convective spectral acceleration (obtained from a 0.5% damped elastic response spectrum in
all cases).
The overturning moment immediately above the base plate (M) should be calculated by the Eqn. 4.

M = ( mihi + mw hw + mr hr ) Se (Timp ) + mchcS e (Tcon )

(4)

where:
hw - height of the center of gravity of the tank wall,
hr - height of the center of gravity of the tank roof.
The overturning moment immediately below the base plate (M') should be calculated by the Eqn. 5.

M ' = ( mi hi' + mw hw + mr hr ) Se (Timp ) + mc hc' S e (Tcon )

(5)
It is obvious from Eqns. 3 5 that Eurocode 8 suggests the absolute summation rule to combine
response from impulsive and convective modes. The basis for this suggestion is that the natural period of
the convective mode is usually much greater than the natural period of the impulsive mode. Therefore, the
peak response of the impulsive and convective modes will occur simultaneously, i.e. when the convective
mode response is near its peak. However, some recent studies show that SRSS combination rule gives
better results than the absolute summation rule.

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4. PARAMETRIC STUDY
Seismic response of a ground-supported circular concrete tank is primarily influenced by its
geometrical properties. According to Eurocode 8, the ratio of the liquid height and the inner radius of the
tank (H/R) defines the parameters of the dynamic model of a tank structure. A comparative analysis of the
seismic response of tanks with various geometrical properties was investigated through a parametric study
and the results are presented in the following text. All of the quantities introduced in the previous section
were taken into account within the study.
In the parametric study, the following input data were used:
1. Values of H/R from the Tab. 1 were taken into account in the analysis in order to be
consistent with Eurocode 8
2. Liquid which was considered was water (=1000 kg/m)
3. Volume of water (V) was taken to be a constant value for all analysed tanks and it equaled 4000
m, which means that the mass of water was also a constant value (ml=4000 tons)
4. Tank material was concrete C 35/45 (E=34109 N/m)
5. The thickness of the tank wall (s) was taken to be a constant along the wall height for all analysed
tanks and it equaled 0.40 m (it is clear that in the case of tanks of great height 0.40 m is not enough
from the concrete design aspect and that wall thickness should be increased, but it does not
significantly affect this analysis)
6. Analysis considered tanks without roof (in this way analysis was significantly simplified since the
roof mass and the height of its center of gravity did not need to be calculated)
7. The height of a tank wall (Lw) was always taken to be 1.0 m greater than the water height (in tanks
without roof spilling of liquid should be prevented during the seismic action and although the
provisions of Eurocode 8 define sloshing wave height, for the purpose of this study 1.0 m was
adopted as a conservative value which satisfied all analysed tanks)
8. In the analysis Eurocode 8 elastic spectrum type 1 was used, soil type B, reference peak ground
acceleration agR=0.20g, importance factor for the structural class III I=1.20 (which gives design
ground acceleration ag=0.24g), damping ratio for the impulsive mode (for the case of reinforced
concrete tanks) i=5% and damping ratio for the convective mode c=0.5% (damping correction
factor =1.35)
The choice of a constant value of water volume (mass) is quite logical, since the main idea of the study
was to investigate the influence of tank geometry on its seismic response. This way, H and R values
changed for each selected H/R ratio.
Besides theoretical, this study should also possess practical significance. Therefore, realistic input data
were chosen with the slight exception regardnig the wall thickness and the sloshing wave height, which
has already been explained.
Based on the input data described above and values given in Tab. 1, dynamic properties of tanks with
different H/R were calculated and the results are presented in Tab. 2. Additionally, values of Lw, hw, and
mw were also calculated.
Table 5 Dynamic properties of tanks with different H/R

H/R

R [m]

H [m]

0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0

16.2
13.7
12.2
10.8
9.5
8.6
8.0
7.5

4.9
6.8
8.5
10.8
14.2
17.2
20.0
22.5

mi

mc

[ton]

[ton]

704
1200
1656
2192
2744
3052
3240
3368

3296
2800
2344
1808
1256
948
760
632

hi [m]

hc [m]

2.0
2.7
3.4
4.5
6.2
7.7
9.0
10.2

2.6
3.7
4.9
6.7
9.8
12.9
15.9
18.6

hi

hc

Lw

hw

mw

[m]

[m]

[m]

[m]

[ton]

12.9
9.9
8.6
7.8
7.9
8.6
9.6
10.6

16.7
10.3
8.6
8.5
10.4
13.1
15.9
18.6

5.9
7.8
9.5
11.8
15.2
18.2
21.0
23.5

2.95
3.90
4.75
5.90
7.60
9.10
10.50
11.75

620
694
754
831
944
1026
1103
1159

Seismic response of the analysed tanks is presented in the Tab. 3 and the Figs. 2 and 3.
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Table 6 Seismic response of the analysed tanks

H / R Timp [sec] Tcon [sec] Se(Timp) [g] Se(Tcon) [g] Q [kN] M [kNm]
0.3
0.050
8.41
0.432
0.007
5837
14307
0.5
0.053
6.44
0.441
0.018
8688
27556
0.7
0.056
5.59
0.449
0.028
11259
43730
1.0
0.061
5.00
0.464
0.038
14434
71732
1.5
0.072
4.56
0.495
0.046
18476 123006
2.0
0.085
4.34
0.533
0.051
21797 177814
2.5
0.101
4.19
0.579
0.055
25078 237931
3.0
0.117
4.05
0.625
0.058
28116 300816

M [kNm]
50018
68197
84042
105872
145998
192271
248973
309076

It is obvious from the results presented in Tab. 2 that the periods of the impulsive and the convective
modes are rather distant which justifies the use of absolute summation rule for the combination of
responses from impulsive and convective modes.

Timp [sec]

Tcon [sec]

H/R

(a)

H/R

(b)
Figure 51 Dependence of the (a) impulsive and the (b) convective periods of vibrations of the ratio H/R

Q [kN]

M, M'
[kNm]

M
M'

H/R

(a)

H/R

(b)
Figure 52 - Dependence of the (a) base shear force and the (b) overturning moments of the ratio H/R

All of the examined quantities except the convective period of vibrations increase almost linearly with
the increase of the ratio H/R. The convective period of vibrations is practically a constant value for the
H/R>1.5. Therefore, it can be concluded that the seismic response of a circular tank structure mostly

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depends on the response in the impulsive mode, although the convective part of the response must not be
neglected in order to conduct an accurate seismic analysis.
The values of Q and M should be used for the calculation of the stresses and stress resultants in the
tank wall and at the connection to the base. The value of M' should be used for the verification of its
supporting structure, base anchors or foundation. The increase of base shear force and overturning
moments controlled by the increase of the ratio H/R directly influences the detailing demands which are
in certain cases hard to fulfill. It should also be noted that with the increase of the ratio H/R the difference
between the overturning moments tends to decrease which is the fact that can be of great practical
significance.
Unfortunately, the geometry of a tank structure (i.e. the ratio H/R) is in most cases pre-defined and it
mainly depends on technological demands inside the facility which means that a structural designer
practically has no influence on its choice.
5. CONCLUSION
A simple procedure for the analysis of the seismic response of ground-supported concrete circular
liquid storage tanks was presented. Obligatory provisions of Eurocode 8 were fully taken into account.
The effect of both the impulsive and the convective component was considered. A comparative analysis
of the seismic response of tanks with various geometrical properties was conducted through a parametric
study. Since the seismic response of ground-supported concrete circular tank is primarily influenced by its
geometrical properties, the ratio of the liquid height and the inner radius of the tank (H/R) was chosen to
be the main parameter in the analysis. The study showed that the impulsive period of vibrations, base
shear force and overturning moments increase almost linearly with the increase of the ratio H/R whereas
the convective period of vibrations is practically a constant value for the H/R>1.5. It was therefore
concluded that the seismic response of a tank structure mostly depends on the response in the impulsive
mode. In addition, it should be noted that the increase of base shear force and overturning moments
controlled by the increase of the ratio H/R directly influences the detailing demands.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the Serbian Ministry of Science and Technology, Grant No. 36043.
REFERENCES
[1] CEN (2004). Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part 1: General rules, seismic
actions and rules for buildings, European Standard EN 1998-1:2004. European Committee for
Standardization, Brussels.

[2] CEN (2006). Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part 4: Silos, tanks and pipelines,
European Standard EN 1998-4:2006. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Polina Lemenkova1

WATER SUPPLY AND USAGE IN CENTRAL ASIA, TIAN SHAN BASIN

Abstract: The paper focuses on analysis of Central Asian hydro-energetic system and water usage in Tian
Shan region. Tian Shan system is important water resource in Central Asia: mountains river waters are
intensely taken for hydropower energy, urban systems, irrigation. But geopolitics in Tian Shan is
difficult: it crosses five densely populated countries. Current problem consists in water delivery between
territories located in the highlands with excellent water supply and those located in valleys with water
shortage. Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan control river basins, and Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan depend on
water supply. The problem of water use causes debates among these countries. Besides, climate warming
affects glaciers and causes water deficit. Altogether, this leads to difficulties in hydro-energetics. A
multidisciplinary analysis was performed in research: geopolitical problems of water supply in Tian
Shan, spatial distribution of hydro-energetic resources and climate impact on hydro-energetics.
Key words: hydro energy, Tan Shan, geopolitics, water usage

,

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Tian Shan. Tian Shan :
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Tian Shan : .

. Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan
, Kazakhstan Uzbekistan .
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1. INTRODUCTION
The paper focuses on environmental analysis of Central Asian energetic system and usage of waters
from Tian Shan glaciers. The Tian Shan is a Central Asian mountain system extending to 2,500 km
breadthwise. It is one of the major water supply in Central Asia, since it contains 7,590 glaciers with an
overall area of 13,271.45 km. Many rivers originate in these glaciers and snowfields and feed major river
streams. Intensely taken for hydropower energy production, sustainable functioning of urban systems,
agricultural activities, irrigation and other human needs, river waters are highly important hydrological
resource for local population. At the same time, geopolitical location of Tian Shan is difficult: it crosses

PhD student, TU Dresden, Technische Universitt

Polina.Lemenkova@mailbox.tu-dresden.de +372-588-910-19

Dresden

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Helmholtzstr.

10

01069

Dresden,

Germany,

five densely populated Central Asian countries. Therefore, actual problem of water usage system region
consists in water delivery pattern.
Tian Shan region can be divided on territories located in the highlands of plateaux with rich
hydrological resources and excellent water supply, and region with water shortage, located in the
lowlands and valleys. For example, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan control basins of Syrdaria and Amudaria
rivers, while Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are dependent on water delivery. Nowadays, the problem of
water supply is a subject of discussions and conflicts among neighboring countries in Tian Shan region.
Apart from geographic location, there are impacts of environmental and climate change on water
resources. Global climate warming seriously affects Tian Shan hydrological system and causes glacier
reduction, decrease of snow coverage in high mountains, and deficit of waters. Multiplied by geopolitical
questions, this leads to difficulties in water supply and usage. A multidisciplinary analysis was performed
in current work: geopolitical problems of water supply in Tian Shan caused by regional distribution of
hydropower resources, and impact of climate change on the hydrological settings within study area.
2. GEOGRAPHIC SETTINGS OF TIAN SHAN REGION
2.1. Geographic location of the study area
The Tian Shan is a Central Asian complex mountain system extending in westward direction (Fig.1).
Geographically Tian Shan straddles five countries with population mostly supporting traditional style of
life which include livestock husbandry, intense grazing, farming and other agricultural activities. Tian
Shan is the northernmost existing montane range with elevations of peaks reaching higher than 7.000 m.
Environmental settings of Tian Shan are influenced by combination of Northern (boreal) and Asian
climatic factors. Therefore, Tian Shan has unique and diverse montane environment, with more than 4000
wild species, many of which are endemic, rare and relict.

Figure 1. Study region: Tian Shan mountains, Central Asia.

Source: Britannica Encyclopedia Online.

The Tian Shan (sometimes referred as Tien Shan), or Celestial Mountains, is one of the largest high
mountain systems in continental climate of Central Asia, covering covers 800 000 km. Geographically,
Tian Shan extends 2,500 km westwards across Central Asia between 39-46 N and 69-95 E.
The Tian Shan ranges compose large, isolated montane system, surrounded by the Tarim desert basin
of north-western China, Lake Issyk Kul, and north-western desert regions in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
The altitude belt of the mountain range lies between the 2,800 and 7,400 m Above Mean Sea Level
(AMSL) with most major peaks located at 4000-6000 m, and the highest altitude reaching 7,349 m [18].
2.2. Environment of Tian Shan: current problems
Since mid-1970s the observation of the remotely located areas of the Earth has been facilitated due to
the development of the satellite industry, which provided remote sensing data for glacier monitoring.
Systematic monitoring of the mountainous areas enabled to detect rapid changes in the glacier coverage
of Tian Shan since past four decades.

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According to the numerous reports [2], [3], [6], [8], [10], there are changes in the current glaciation in
Tian Shan mountains, which causes changes in hydro-energetic resource supply. There are twofold
reasons for environmental and hydrological changes in this area, caused by climate reasons and by the
anthropogenic factors. These factors are discussed below.
1.2.1 Impact of climate on hydro resources
The main reason for the deglaciation is overall increase of summer temperatures and decrease of the
precipitation, which are the consequences of the climate change. Thus, the average rise in air temperature
in Tian Shan mountains is 0.01C yr over the range, and the precipitation in the Tien Shan increased to
1.2 mm yr since 1950s [1]. Due to the geographical diversity of Tian Shan, there are certain variations in
the temporal changes of environmental parameter, such as surface air temperature, precipitation, runoff,
glacier mass, and snow thickness. Hence, the precipitation increase is lesser at high altitudes at above
2000. The low altitudes in northern and western regions are mostly affected by climate change comparing
to inner and southern regions [1].
Recently increased in air temperatures in Tian Shan reinforced thawing of the glaciers, the period and
intensity of melt. However, due to the strong impact of the geographic location and local climate factors,
glaciers in different regions of Tian Shan melt with different rates. The most intensive glacier retreat is
detected on the northern ranges of Tian Shan: -361km, which constitutes 14,3% [18], while the southern
areas are the least affected. Also high rates in melt are detected in the central and inner areas: 287 and 244
km with 10% and 5% respectively [18].
Climate change has also affected hydrological systems of semi-desert area of Aral Sea, which in turn
are affecting seasonal water availability for irrigation in the Aral Sea. Thus, it is reported [15] that
recently the summer floods, which is necessary for irrigation in Uzbekistan is reduced in the last decades.
Water shortage necessarily affecting hydro-economic sectors of the countries located in the disaster area,
such as Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
1.2.2 Impact of anthropogenic factors
Possible anthropogenic threats, that can induce environmental changes, include overgrazing at higher
elevations by the local people, and local deforestation, which may lead to the partial decrease in
biodiversity of the Tian Shan. Finally, the work of forest management and guarding has been weakened in
the last years. As a result of cattle overgrazing, fires, deforestation, terracing of slopes, assignment of the
grounds under construction of various objects and other factors there is an essential reduction of an area
of distribution of wood and tangled vegetation. Due to the environmental threats and increased
anthropogenic pressure on such fragile environment, the environment of Tian Shan will degrade: for
example, the mountain forest area would decrease by 10-20% with 50 years.
Another problem is connected to Aral Sea: due to the salinization and drying of the Aral Sea in Central
Asia, which is a part of Tian Shan basin, the large areas of saline soil have now formed. Additionally,
monsoon winds carry over towards south direction of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, naturally contribute to
the intensive melting of glaciers. It is demonstrated [5] that the Aral Sea basin has suffered an enormous
shortage of water resources during the last decades. The consequences of drying lakes and rivers have
extremely negative effects on the society, economic sector and hydro energy supply. The humancontrolled hydrological regime of the major tributary rivers, Amu Daria and Syr Daria, flowing into Aral
Sea, is a major factor affecting ecosystem sustainability, which are especially sensitive in the conditions
of the semi-arid climate of Aral Sea Basin [17].
2. HYDRO-ENERGETIC RESOURCES OF TIAN SHAN
2.1. Glaciation of Tian Shan
The general hydrologic settings and distribution of glaciers in Tian Shan are largely influenced by the
climatic factors and geographic location in the Central Asia. The annual air temperatures affect
precipitation regime of Tian Shan: runoff, snow and ice coverage. Totally, there are 7,590 glaciers with
an overall area of 13,271.45 km detected in Tian Shan [18], which makes it one of the major water
supply in Central Asia. The most prevalent glacier type is large valley glacier, which takes 82% of all
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glacier areas [18]. Glaciers often occur along the crests of the mountain ranges. The largest glaciers are
concentrated in central, inner part of Tian Shan. Since the Late Pleistocene Maximum, there are
fluctuations in Tian Shan glaciation with the maximum level corresponding to the Issyk-Kul lake
transgression [8]. The changes in the glaciation regime are still presented, which includes general trend of
warming, but also some advances of small glaciers occurred recurrently, as proved by moraine sediments
[8].
2.1. Hydrology and climate of Tian Shan
The rivers in Tian Shan have typically mountain character Since there is a significant difference in
elevations between the mountain ridges and the plains at their base, river streams, usually plunge down
the mountain slopes through deep and narrow gorges (Fig.2). After they flow out onto the plains, they
form vast fan-shaped deposits of silt and mud. Climatic conditions of Tian Shan directly affect hydroenergetic resources and influence formation of glaciers and snowfields. In general, Tian Shan has typical
continental climate, which is caused by Central Asian location.
However, there are some local climatic differences formed in various geographic conditions: the most
extremely cold and dry climate is in inner parts of mountains on the high plateaux, while northern and
western slopes of Tien-Shan are characterized by more temperate climate. Thus, the mean summer
temperature is 3.7C at the altitude of the Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) in the western regions and 8.1C in the east; the annual precipitation is 1500-2000 mm in the west and 200400 mm in the east,
respectively. [8]. The northern slopes of Tian Shan, such as Kyrgyz Alatau and Zailinsky Alatau, have
major influence of cyclonic activity. Precipitation in Tian Shan reaches its maximal level in spring and
summer seasons, which coincides with the ice and snow melt. In winter the Siberian anticyclone prevents
much precipitation in this area [3].

Figure 2. A typical mountain river in Tian Shan.

Source: ecosystema.ru

In general, the precipitation also increases with altitude. According to the moisture conditions, i.e.
precipitation and evaporation, the alpine zone in Tian Shan ranges is similar to the zonal ecosystems of
other mountain vegetation alpine zones in boreal and subboreal palearctic regions.
3. WATER USAGE AND SUPPLY IN TIAN SHAN REGION
Geopolitically, Tian Shan crosses borders of several Central Asian countries and western China.
Approx- approximately half of the Tian Shan mountains, the Eastern region from 80 E (eastwards from
Issyk Kul Lake), is located in China, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Western territories are
situated in Kyrgyzstan (including Issyk Kul lake depression), and northern ranges of Tian Shan are placed
in Kazakhstan. Some small ranges of the Tian Shan spread to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
3.1. Hydro energy systems in the region

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Hydropower resources are a major factor directly affecting and influencing sustainable development of
the politician and economic systems in Central Asia. The main water resources in Central Asia are located
in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, which control major river basins. It is caused by the upper location on Tian
Shan plateau of both of these countries. For example, on the territory of Tajikistan 64 km of water flow
of the Aral Sea basin is formed, which is ca 60% of the total flow towards Aral Sea basin [19]. The
particularity of Tajikistan consists in hydro-energetic sector as the most powerful and influencing the
overall economy of the country: 95% from all energetic sectors are taken by hydro-energy, while usually
this part is not exceeding 10-20 % in other countries [14]. At the same time, only about 10% is used for
internal purposes within republic from the total country runoff. The rest of the runoff goes downwards
from the country where it is used e.g. for irrigation. In Kazakhstan, on the contrary, it is demonstrated [4]
that electricity demand in the country is high for all sectors: the industrial, service, and residential sectors,
but the country is depending of water resources. As for Kyrgyzstan, this country is rich in hydro energetic
resources, and generates ca 90% of its electricity from large-scale hydroelectric power stations, located
along the cascade of the Naryn River. However, after the fall of the USSR, water resources in Kyrgyzstan
have declined due to climate change issues, ineffective management and cross-border water claims
among Central Asian states [13].
3.2. Problem of water supply and usage: regional conflicts and decisions
The reason of the hydro-energetic problems and water usage in Central Asia lies in the fact that water
resources in Central Asia are unevenly distributed: Central Asian region is clearly divided into water-rich
countries (Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan) and those dependent on them (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and
Kazakhstan). Kyrgyzstan majorly controls Syr Darya River basin, and Tajikistan - the Amu Darya river
(Tab.1). The Amu Darya is the largest, longest and the most important river in Central Asia. The river is
2400 km, basin area is over 500 thousands km. Syr Darya has its most drainage areas in Kyrgyzstan,
where it loses water for irrigation in its lower reaches.
ble 4- Formation of Syr Darya and Amu Daria rivers in Central Asian republics. Source: [12]
Basin
drainage

Uzbekistan

Kyrgyzstan

Kazakhstan

Tajikistan

Iran

Syr Daria

15.2%

75.2%

6.9%

2.7%

0%

Amu Daria

13.9%

0%

0%

74%

8.5%

With the total annual hydropower resources in the country of ca 600 billion kWh, Tajikistan is the
third largest in the world and second in the new independent (post-Soviet) countries after Russia. For
example, the Nurek hydroelectric power station (capacity of 3 million kWh) controls about 40% of water
resources needed by Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan [20]. Additionally, Tajikistan has significant fresh
water reserves mostly stored in glaciers (over 60% of Central Asia). The uneven distribution of water
resources in Central Asia evidently leads to regional and local conflicts of interest among key water
providers (Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan) and its major customers (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and
Turkmenistan). In particular, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are interested to use generate hydro power
electricity both to meet their own needs and for export to third countries. They are opposed by
Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, which insist on the primarily irrigation water usage, for old
built in Soviet times hydro power plants, as well as for the planned new ones [21].
ble 5- Area under irrigation under Aral Sea basin, thousands of ha and %. Source: Eurasian Development Bank, 2008.
Yea

Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

Tajikistan

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

Total

r
1990

782 (10.5%)

410 (5.6%)

714 (9.4%)

1339 (18.0%)

4222 (56.5%)

7507 (100%)

1995

786 (9.8%)

416 (5.2%)

719 (9.1%)

1736 (21.7%)

4298 (54.2%)

7955 (100%)

2000

786 (10.0%)

415 (6.0%)

719 (9.0%)

1714 (22.0%)

4259 (53.0%)

8101 (100%)

The main point of claims from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the neighboring countries consists in
financial expenses that they bear due to the hydro plants exploitation. They require that Uzbekistan,
Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan increase their financial contribution for Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The
main demand is to contribute equally to the expenses of hydroelectric power production. Kyrgyzstan and
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Uzbekistan debate over the years about prices to maintain hydro-technical infrastructure. Kyrgyzstan
consider water as a commercial product and wants to introduce monetary charge for water in the future
(nowadays, Kyrgyzstan receives some compensation for excess in generated electricity from Uzbekistan
and Kazakhstan). But the problem in the region is that that price elasticity in the region is very low [4],
which means that it is with difficulties that countries perform a dialog about market relationships.

Figure 3. Rogun dam for planned hydro power plants of Vakhsh

River (under construction), Tajikistan. Source: http://procella.ru

In view of this, a paid water usage on the commercial basis is the worst idea to be introduced in
Central Asia. Possibly it can cause high risks of social and political rebels and revolutions in the countries
within the region. The official purpose of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan is to receive reasonable market
compensation from other central Asian countries for services that they provide with water supply [12].
Though both these countries are trying to solve current financial problems by increasing state wealth, but
current strategy should be adjustment into a regional scenario of sustainable geopolitical development
with all countries as beneficiaries and no those one in disadvantage position. Another problem within the
region consists in active water usage for agricultural needs, which is in generally increasing (Tab. 2)
An additional factor of hydro energetic difficulties in the region is caused by an artificially accelerated
development of hydro power energetics in Tajikistan comparing to actual water usage, since the country
does not have enough oil and gas reserves. Thus, as planned on the governmental level, by 2010,
Tajikistan plans to become energy independent state and start electricity export to Iran, Pakistan and
India. For instance, in Tajikistan it is planned to construct 14 hydroelectric power plants on the river Panj,
a major tributary of the Amu Darya, and on river Rogun (Fig.3).
ble 6- Structure of energy sources in Central Asia. Source: Eurasian Development Bank, 2008.
Country

Hydro energy

Gas

Oil

Coal

Total

Tajikistan

96%

2%

Kyrgyzstan

82%

2%

1%

1%

100%

5%

11%

100%

Kazakhstan

1%

Uzbekistan

1%

16%

50%

33%

100%

84%

13%

2%

Turkmenistan

100%

0%

83%

17%

0%

100%

Total

2%

48%

33%

17%

100%

This project is interesting to investors from the United States and Pakistan and China. Kyrgyzstan is
also seeking foreign investors for the construction of the cascade of Kambarata hydro power plants on Syr
Darya. This situation caused negative reaction of neighbor countries, because construction of new
hydropower plants will involves serious changes in water delivery: huge dams will be constructed and
large territories will be filled out by the water (Fig.3), which will cause water shortage in the surrounding
territories. Evidently, the non-diplomatic, one-sided energy policy of energy-rich countries can lead to
the difficulties in the geopolitical relationships, especially with strategic neighboring countries. The
problem of water usage and delivery is a constant and important topic in the energy debates in Central
Asia. Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan are countries with predominant natural gas economy, rich in
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hydrocarbon resources [16]. Kazakhstan has the most significant oil resources and natural gas reserves,
and is expected to become one of the worlds top 10 oil producers within the next decade [11]. Therefore,
these hydrocarbon rich countries threaten to make pressure on Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, using resources
of natural gas that they almost totally control (Tab.3).
Lack of water in the densely populated Ferghana valley in Uzbekistan is a serious potential trigger of
social revolution, which may arise in case of deficit of water. In such situation special attention should be
paid to oil and natural gas resources stored in Caspian Sea basin which is potential major reservoir for
energy [7]. However, a consensus in the energy usage should be strongly observed for all parties, since
the supply in oil, gas, hydro and coal resources are distributed highly uneven in the study region
(Tab.3).Local Uzbek-Kyrgyz conflicts concerning water supply happen from time to time in Ferghana
valley (Uzbekistan). The main claim of Uzbekistan is to provide necessary amount of water for Uzbek
agriculture. However, the prices for the water resources are often a point of disagreement. The debates
about new hydro plants construction arise, because it will negatively affect sensitive environment and a
man-nature balance within the region. To reduce water supply conflicts, water management should be
based on effective operating existing hydro power plants rather than construction of new water supply
systems [9]. The effective management options and decisions for economic values should be taken in an
integrated manner, so that problem of water scarcity can be smoothly solved.
4. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The Central Asian region is one of the most complex regions of the world, due to the difficult
geopolitical situation, complex boundaries pattern and concentration of the densely populated countries
with huge demand for water resources. At the same time, after the fall of the USSR the financial situation
of Central Asian countries became difficult. Lack of development investments leads to the outdated style
of economy and agrarian system (e.g. ineffective, water-consuming irrigation). The situation is
aggravated by natural factors (fundamental climate issues and glacier melt).
Since the independence of Central Asian countries after the disintegration of the USSR, there were
serious tensions n the point of sharing water resources. The main reason for these conflicts is caused by
uneven distribution of the resources and geospatial location of the involved countries: Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan, located in the lower reaches of Tian Shan region, have lack of the
resources though demand huge amount of water for various needs, while Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan,
typically mountain countries, are rich in water resources and control almost all hydro-energetic resources,
supply and delivery within the region.
The paradox in this situation consists in the overall availability of the water resources in the Tian Shan
region. In general, there are more than enough water resources in Central Asia. The most problems are
caused by ineffective resource management. Thus, excessive loss of water use in Central Asia is mostly
caused old irrigation system, which is still traditionally used in agriculture, when water consumption
exceeds 3-10 times the world standards. The transition towards modern agricultural system and
sustainable water management will save considerable amounts of the water resources in the region.
Another problem is that the modernization of the Central Asian agriculture and introduction of modern
city management require serious internal support and external financial investments.
That being said, the optimal decision of the sustainable water usage in Central Asia, should be based
on well-balanced and politically wise decisions, which consider interests of all countries. This should be
taken as a major, general direction for further development of hydro energetic system in Central Asia.
Thus, the decisions taken at governmental level should be well discussed and agreed by all parties, with
strictly coordinated actions at local, regional and national levels of water and hydro-energy management.
Furthermore, the decisions should be exact and concrete. Finally, the inter-governmental contradictions
between the states controlling water resources and those consuming them, should be regulated. Advisable
can also be involvement of the independent third governmental party with no interest in local conflict,
which could assist in solving dubious questions of water energy usage and supply.
Current paper performed critical analysis of the geopolitical situation caused by uneven distribution of
hydro energetic resources within Central Asia, as well as discussion and an overview of some of the
current local conflicts and tensions caused by ineffective management of water resources. Besides, a
geospatial analysis of the current environmental problems within the study area, caused by the climatic
and anthropogenic factors, is made.
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REFERENCES
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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Ivan Luki1
Vesna Bulatovi2
Duan Kovaevi3

DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC MODULUS OF CONCRETE USING

COMPOSITE AND FEM MODELS
Abstract: Method for predicting the elastic modulus of concrete proposed in this paper is based on the
simulation of the two-phase meso-structure of concrete and the Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis of
stress and strain in concrete. Cement paste matrix and aggregate particles are modelled with triangular
shell elements. Three series of results are analyzed. Values of moduli of elasticity and volume fractions of
cement paste matrix and aggregate are varied. Results are compared to the accepted composite models
(Series, Parallel, Hirsch, Counto and Hansen model) without experimental confirmation, and it is
concluded that modulus of elasticity obtained by presented FEM model coincides well with proposed
composite models.
Key words: concrete, meso-structure, FEM, modulus of elasticity, composite model

:
- (MKE).
shell .
.
.
(, , , a )

.
: , -, , ,

Asistent, Fakultet tehnikih nauka, Trg Dositeja obradovia 6, Novi Sad, e-mail: lookic@uns.ac.rs
Asistent, Fakultet tehnikih nauka, Trg Dositeja obradovia 6, Novi Sad, e-mail: vesnam@uns.ac.rs
3
Prof. dr , Fakultet tehnikih nauka, Trg Dositeja obradovia 6, Novi Sad, e-mail: dusan@uns.ac.rs
2

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1. INTRODUCTION
Prediction of the mechanical properties of the composites has been an active research area for several
decades. Except for the experimental studies, either micro-, meso- or macro-mechanical methods are used
to obtain the overall properties of composites.
Micro-mechanical method provides relations of properties of composite based on interaction of the
various phases taken into account, meso-mecanical method provides behaviour of the composites from
known properties of their constituents, while in the macro-mechanical approach heterogeneous structure
of the composite is replaced by a homogeneous medium with anisotropic properties. The advantage of the
meso-mechanical approach is that, not only the global properties of the composites but also various
mechanisms such as damage initiation and propagation, can be studied through the analysis.
Concrete is heterogeneous material, and on meso-scale, consists of two distinctive phases, aggregate
and cement paste matrix, each with different material properties. From the cost and time consuming point
of view, performing straightforward experimental measurements on a number of material samples, for
various phase properties, volume fractions and loading histories in order to determine the overall
macroscopic properties is a hardly feasible task. On the other hand, due to usually enormous differences
in length scales involved, it is impossible, to generate a finite element mesh that accurately represent the
microstructure and also allows the numerical solution of the macroscopic structural component within a
reasonable amount of time. To overcome this problem, several homogenization techniques have been
created to obtain a suitable constitutive model to be used at the macroscopic level.
2. THEORETICAL APPROACH
2.1. Elastic theory of concrete
Concrete is a heterogeneous, three-phased composite, consists of aggregate, cement paste matrix and
aggregate-cement paste interface (interfacial transition zone ITZ) that behaves differently under various
loads [ HYPERLINK \l "Sha94" 1 ]. Thus, a change in quantity or quality of one of phases may, as a
consequence, result in behaviour of concrete different than expected.
From typical - curves of aggregate, hardened cement paste and concrete, loaded in uniaxial
compression it becomes apparent that unlike typical aggregate and cement paste, concrete is not a linearelastic material. However, it has elastic behaviour under low stresses; therefore, concrete is considered as
an elastic material in engineering calculations. For the stress range below 0,3fp - 0,5fp (fp compressive
strength of concrete), - curve of concrete is almost linear elastic so we can apply following expression:
4 E tg0

(1)

Figure 53- Typical stress-strain behaviour of cement paste,

aggregate, and concrete [2]

Figure 54 - - curve of concrete[3]

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2.1. Analytical composite models

The simplest point of view is that a heterogeneous material behaves macroscopically in the same way,
as do its constituents, but with different, effective, values of the appropriate material constants. The most
common composite models used for calculating E-modulus with a constant strain and strength on
composite materials are given in Figure 3.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

Figure 55 - Traditional two phase composite models: a) serial model, b) parallel model, c) Hirsch model d) Counto model, e)
Hansen model [ HYPERLINK \l "TOP07" 4 ]

1 Va Vm
- Series (Reuss) model

Ec Ea Em

(2)

Ec Ea Va Em Vm - Parallel (Voigt) model

(3)

V V

1
1
1 x a m x
- Hirsch model
Ec
Ea Em VaEa VmEm

(4)

1 1 Va
1
- Counto model

Ec
Em
1 Va
Em Ea
Va

(5)

V E 1 Va Ea
Ec m m
E - Hansen model
(6)
1 V E V E m
a
m
m g

where:
Ec - Modulus of elasticity of the composite,
Ea - Modulus of elasticity of the aggregate particles,
Em - Modulus of elasticity of the matrix,
Va - Volume fraction of the aggregate particles,
Vm - Volume fraction of the matrix,
x - Relative contributions of the parallel and series models (usually x=0,5).
The presented models are limited in computing the effect of voids, cracks, and phase changes. Another
shortcoming of these methods is that they do not take into account ITZ or any of the specific geometrical
features of the phases. Also, these models do not take into account how the pores and aggregate particles
interact with one another under various loading conditions.
3. FEM SIMULATION OF THE MESO-STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE
Modulus of elasticity of concrete using FEM simulation of the meso-structure of concrete is
determined on the simulation domain considered as a rectangle with sides of 150mm and 300mm,
dimensions corresponding to the cross section of standard testing concrete cylinder according to the ISO
6784 standard. Software used for FEM is AxisVM 11.
In order to predict the elastic modulus of the concrete as accurately as possible, detailed knowledge of
the meso-structure of concrete is essential. This can be achieved through simulating the distribution of
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aggregates and cement matrix in concrete, since the meso-structure of concrete in practical use is random
by nature. Through random simulation, the heterogeneity of concrete can be represented as realistically as
possible. At present, the simulation of the meso-structure of two-phase concrete is limited to two
dimensions.
Concrete meso-structure consists of cement matrix phase (cement paste+fine aggregate) and aggregate
phase. Aggregate particles are modelled as hexagonal shell elements with various size and arrangement
(Figure 3). Number, size and distribution of aggregate particles are adopted in order to achieve three cases
regarding volume fractions of phases. Cement paste matrix and well as each aggregate particle are
modelled as a separate domain with adopted properties. All domains are meshed. Size of the mesh is
chosen to be less than a half of the minimum aggregate size.
Modulus of elasticity of the cement matrix (cement paste + fine aggregate) is adopted to be 25GPa,
while modulus of elasticity of aggregate varies. The adopted values of moduli of elasticity and volume
fractions of cement paste matrix and aggregate are presented in table 1.

Figure 15 Random distribution of aggregate and cement matrix

Table 7 - Batch properties

Batch

II

III

a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c

Volume fractions
Cement
Coarse
matrix
aggregate
0,59
0,41
0,71
0,29
0,84
0,16
0,59
0,41
0,71
0,29
0,84
0,16
0,59
0,41
0,71
0,29
0,84
0,16

Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

Cement
Coarse
matrix
aggregate
25

20

25

50

25

80

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To compare the developed FEM method with composite models, three series of results are analyzed.
Values calculated according to composite models and FEM model are presented in Table 2, while relative
difference between FEM model and composite models are presented in Table 3.

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Table 8 - Calculated values of Modulus of Elasticity

Batch

Series
model
22.7
23.3
24.0
31.4
29.2
27.2
34.8
31.2
28.1

a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c

II

III

Parallel
model
23.0
23.6
24.2
35.3
32.3
29.0
47.6
41.0
33.8

Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

Hirsch
Counto
model
model
22.8
22.9
23.4
23.5
24.1
24.2
33.3
33.3
30.7
30.8
28.1
28.2
41.2
40.0
36.1
35.3
30.9
30.8

Hansen
model
22.8
23.4
24.1
32.9
30.4
27.8
38.7
34.0
29.6

FEM
model
23.1
23.5
24.2
33.0
29.9
27.9
38.5
33.0
29.2

Table 9 - Difference in % between FEM model and proposed composite models

Batch
I

II

III

a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c

Series
model
-1.92
-0.81
-0.71
-4.94
-2.29
-2.82
-10.65
-5.75
-4.02

Parallel
model
-0.70
0.21
-0.04
6.38
7.26
3.66
18.99
19.37
13.55

Hirsch
model
-1.30
-0.30
-0.38
1.04
2.72
0.52
6.46
8.50
5.57

Counto
model
-1.13
-0.11
-0.21
0.99
2.91
1.01
3.62
6.49
5.00

Hansen
model
-1.26
-0.26
-0.35
-0.26
1.45
-0.44
0.40
2.76
1.20

Analyzing results of Batch I, it can be seen that there is no significant difference between all
composite models and FEM model are practically same (maximum difference is 1.92%). This can be
explained with the fact that there is no significant difference in moduli of elasticity of component
materials, and therefore, differences in volume fractions does not have influence on results. Values of
modulus of elasticity are higher for Batch 1c then Batch 1a, which can be explained with higher volume
fraction and lower modulus of aggregate phase in Batch 1a.
Batch II has been calculated with Ea=50GPa which is two times higher than Em. This led to slightly
higher dispersion of results and it is more noticeable for Series and Parallel model (maximum difference
is 7.26%).
Batch III has been calculated with Ea=80GPa which is 3.2 times higher than Em. For this batch,
difference between FEM model and Series and Parallel models ranges between 4% and 19.4%, while for
the other models, maximum difference is 8.5%.
As it can be seen from Table 3, difference is more noticeable at the batches with higher values of
aggregate modulus of elasticity. Reason for this difference lay in a fact that results obtained by Series and
Parallel models represent lower and upper boundary value of calculated modulus of elasticity. This is
because the equal-stress assumption (Series model) satisfies the stress equations of equilibrium, but, in
general, gives rise to displacements that are discontinuous at the interfaces between the two phases.
Similarly, the equal-strain assumption (Parallel model) leads to an admissible strain field, but the
resulting stresses are discontinuous.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Based on comparative analysis of the values of modulus of elasticity of concrete estimated with
composite models and FEM model it was concluded:
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 Results obtained by FEM model coincides quite well with proposed composite models.
Difference between results obtained with FEM model and composite models is not significant for
similar values of modulus of elasticity of cement paste matrix and aggregate.
High value of aggregate volume fraction has significant influence on modulus of elasticity only for
higher Ea/Em values.
Equations related to E-modulus written in accordance with the principles of composite models, as well
as FEM modelling can be used for estimating modulus of elasticity of concrete. However, the results
should not be accepted as exact solutions.
Method for predicting the elastic modulus of concrete proposed in this paper is based on the
simulation of the two-phase meso-structure of concrete and the Finite Element Analysis of stress and
strain in concrete. At this point, results are compared to the accepted composite models without
experimental confirmation. Next stage of research is introducing third phase, ITZ, into the FEM model
and confirmation with experimental results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper is a part of the investigation within the research project TR 36017
"Utilization of by-products and recycled waste materials in concrete composites in the scope of
sustainable construction development in Serbia: investigation and environmental assessment of possible
applications", supported by the Ministry for Science and Technology, Republic of Serbia. This support is
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] SP Shah, AD Lange, Z Li, and K Mitsui, "Relationship between microstructure and mechanical
properties of the paste-aggregate interface." ACI Journal, vol. 91, no. 1, pp. 30-39, 1994.
[2] M. Neville, Properties of Concrete (Fourth and Final Edition). New York: John Wile & Sons,
Inc., 1996.
[3] Kumar P. Mehta and Paolo J.M. Monteiro, Concrete - Microstucture, Properties and Materials,
3rd ed.: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2005.
[4] I. B. TOPU and A. UURLU, "Elasticity Theory of Concrete and Prediction of Static EModulus for Dam Concrete Using Composite Models," TEKNK DERG DGEST, vol. 18, no. 1,
pp. 4055-4067, January 2007.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Miroslav Marjanovi1
ore Vuksanovi2

TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF CROSS-PLY

LAMINATED COMPOSITE PLATES
Abstract: This paper describes the transient response of cross-ply laminated composite plates. Possibility
of achieving the transient response of cross-ply composites by the use of Reddys generalized laminated
plate theory (GLPT) is evaluated in this work. Layerwise linear variation of displacements components,
as well as linear kinematic relations and Hooks law are assumed. Navier solution is applied for
expansion of generalized displacements in double trigonometric series. The governing partial differential
equations are reduced to a set of ordinary differential equations in time. The equations of motion are
solved using Newmarks integration schemes. Transient response is calculated with an example of simply
supported (0/90) laminate. Different number of layers and variants of stacking sequences are taken into
consideration by parametric study. Transient response is investigated using different schemes of dynamic
loading (forcing functions). For all loading types, results taking into account the influence of time step
are presented. Results are compared with those of other theories existing from the literature. Variety of
new results is presented.
Key words: composite plate, transient analysis, layerwise theory, Navier solution

DINAMIKI ODGOVOR CROSS-PLY

LAMINATNIH KOMPOZITNIH PLOA
Rezime: U ovom radu opisan je dinamiki odgovor cross-ply laminatnih kompozitnih ploa. Razmatrana
je mogunost odreivanja dinamikog odgovora cross-ply kompozita korienjem Reddy-eve Opte
laminatne teorije ploa (GLPT). Pretpostavljena je slojevita linearna varijacija komponenata pomeranja,
kao i linearne kinematike relacije i Hook-ov zakon. Navier-ovo reenje je primenjeno za razvoj
generalisanih pomeranja u dvostruke trigonometrijske redove. Uslovne parcijalne diferencijalne
jednaine su redukovane na sistem obinih diferencijalnih jednaina po vremenu. Jednaine kretanja su
reene primenom Newmark-ovih integracionih ema. Dinamiki odgovor je sraunat na primeru
slobodno oslonjene cross-ply (0/90) laminatne ploe. U parametarskoj analizi su razmatrani uticaji broja
slojeva u laminatu, kao i razliite varijante ema laminacije. Dinamiki odgovor je sraunat za razliite
eme dinamikog optereenja (forcing functions). Za sve tipove optereenja prezentovani su rezultati koji
uzimaju u obzir uticaj vremenskog inkrementa. Rezultati su uporeeni sa nekim rezultatima po drugim
teorijama koji postoje u literaturi. Prikazano je i mnotvo novih rezultata.
Kljune rei: kompozitna ploa, dinamika analiza, laminatna teorija, Navier-ovo reenje

1
Teaching Assistant PhD Student, University of Belgrade Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: mmarjanovic@grf.rs
2
Full Professor, University of Belgrade Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, 11000 Belgrade,
Serbia, e-mail: george@grf.bg.ac.rs

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1. INTRODUCTION
A wide range of mechanical properties, suitable for different design purposes, can be achieved by the
use of laminar composites [1]. Since the fiber direction can be altered arbitrarily, laminated composite
plates are attractive in design stage. Development of refined mathematical models of laminar composites
is obviously of a great importance. Two main approaches arise in a field of laminated composite plates:
Theories based on a single equivalent layer (ESL) CLPT, FSDT, HSDT theories etc.,
Layerwise theories (LWT) the modern approach in the analysis of thick and composite plates.
For the study of laminated composite plates, orthotropic materials are of the greatest importance. They
mainly appear in the form of thin plies (lamina). Each ply is composed from fibers, oriented in a certain
direction. In engineering practice, it is necessary to form a material that will be able to remain stable
under loads from multiple directions. This is achieved by composing multiple laminas in a laminate.
2. GENERALIZED LAMINATED PLATE THEORY (GLPT)
Generalized Laminated Plate Theory [2] is a significant step in stress/strain analysis of the laminated
composite plates. The plate is analyzed as a multilayered in the true sense of word. GLPT allows
independent displacement fields interpolation (as well as of stresses/strains). It is based on the piece-wise
linear variation of in-plane displacement components, and constant transverse displacement through the
thickness. Considerable computer time cost, which was one of the main disadvantages of 3D-elasticity
theory, is significantly reduced in GLPT [3]. Shear deformation due to anisotropic structure is included.
2.1. Basic assumptions and displacement field in GLPT
Material follows Hooks law, and each ply (of constant thickness) is made of orthotropic material,
with fibers oriented in arbitrary directions. Kinematic relations are linear, and inextensibility of normal is
imposed. Displacement and stress distributions over thickness coordinate are determined using linear
Lagrangian interpolations. Displacement field (u1, u2, u3) in the point (x, y, z, t) of laminate is written as:
u1 ( x, y, z, t ) u( x, y, t ) U ( x, y, z, t )
u2 ( x, y, z, t ) v( x, y, t ) V ( x, y, z, t )
u3 ( x, y, z, t ) w( x, y, t )

(1)

In previous expressions, (u, v, w) are the displacement components in three orthogonal directions in
the middle plane of the laminate. U and V are functions which vanish in the middle plane of the plate.
Following expansions are used to reduce functions U and V to 2D format:
N

U ( x, y, z, t ) U I ( x, y, t ) I ( z )

V ( x, y, z, t ) V I ( x, y, t ) I ( z )

I 1

(2)

I 1

UI and VI are coefficients to be derived, I (z ) are layerwise continuous functions of the thickness
coordinate (linear, quadratic or cubic Lagrangian interpolations). Linear interpolation is chosen through
the thickness coordinate. These functions are presented in detail in [3, 4, 5]. Using assumed displacement
field, cross section warping is taken into account. More information about GLPT can be found in [3, 4].
2.2. Kinematic relations of single ply in GLPT
Linear strain displacement relations are given as follows:

u N U I I
xx

x I 1 x
N

xz U I
I 1

dI
dz

v N V I I
yy

y I 1 y
N

yz V I
I 1

xy

u v N U I V I I

y x I 1 y
x

(3)

dI
dz

Obviously, in-plane deformation components are continuous through the plate thickness, while the
transverse strains need not to be. Lamina constitutive equations should be used to derive stress-strain
relations of the laminated plate. These relations are linear and they are given in detail in [4, 5, 6].

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2.3. Equations of motion

Dynamic version of virtual work principle is:
T

U V K 0 ,

(4)

U , V and K are virtual strain energy, virtual work of external forces and virtual kinetic energy,
respectively. Loading is acting in the middle plane of the plate. There are no tractions on the boundary
surface of the plate homogeneous boundary conditions.
q wdxdy

(5)

u N U I I
v N V I I

xx

yy

y
I

1
I

h
2

u v N U I V I I

dz dxdy
xy

x I 1 y
x
h
y

2
I
I
N
N

w
d

w
d

xz
U I
yz
V I

z
z
I 1
I 1
x
y

(6)

I
u

w
dxdy

I I U I u uU I V I v vV I

I 1
N N
dxdy
IJ I
J
I
J

I U U V V

I 1 J 1

I0

h
2

dz ,
0

II

h
2

dz
I

(7)

and I IJ

h
2

dz are elements of consistent mass matrix.

We will incorporate following stress resultants:

N I xx h2 xx
I
I
N yy yy dz
N I h
xy 2 xy

N xx h2 xx

N yy yy dz
N h
xy 2 xy
Qx

Qy

(8)

h
2

xz
h yz dz

I
I

Q x
2 xz d

dz
I

Q
dz
yz

h
y

2.4. Laminate constitutive equations and Euler-Lagrange equations

Stress resultants will be incorporated as follows, according to matrix equations [5]:

N A B
0

and

I 1

A Q (pqk ) dz ,
n zk 1

k 1 zk

N B D
I

JI

(9)

J 1

D Q dz

B Q dz ,
I

n zk 1

(k )
pq

k 1 zk

JI

n z k 1

k 1 zk

(k )
pq

Introducing Eq. (9) in (4-7), we derive Euler-Lagrange (equilibrium) equations:

N
N xx N xy

I 0u I I U I 0
x
y
I 1

N xy
x

N yy

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I 0 v I IV I 0
I 1

(10a-b)

Qx Qy

I0 w q 0
x
y

(10c)

N xyI

I
N
N xxI N xy

QxI I I u I JIU J 0
x
y
J 1

N yyI

QyI I I v I JIV J 0

(10d-e)

J 1

3. NAVIER SOLUTION
By derivation of (10), we have obtained 2N+3 partial differential equations, with 2N+3 unknown
displacements components. Navier solution for simply supported rectangular plate under transient loading
will be presented. Assumed displacement fields are chosen to satisfy equilibrium conditions on boundary
edges. Loading should be expanded in double trigonometric series, too. System of ordinary differential
equations in time is then derived and solved. Solution for static loading is given in detail in [5].
Cross-ply is a special type of laminar composites, in which fibers are oriented alternately, with angles
of 0 or 90. Some elements of elastic coefficients matrix are identically zero:
(k )

Q13

Q23

(k )

Q45

(k )

0 and A13 A23 A45 B13 B23 B45 D13 D23 D45 0

(11)

3.1. Equilibrium equations, boundary conditions and assumed displacement field

After incorporation of (11) and constitutive equations of lamina from [4], system (10) is compacted.
After that, displacement components and loading function are expanded in the following manner:
u ( x, y , t )

X mn (t ) cosx sin y

v ( x, y , t )

m1 n1

w( x, y, t )

Ymn (t ) sin x cos y

m1 n1

Wmn (t ) sin x sin y

(12)

m1 n 1

U I ( x, y , t )

I
(t ) cosx sin y
Rmn

V I ( x, y , t )

m1 n 1

I
(t ) sin x cos y
S mn

m1 n1

q( x, y, t ) qmn (t ) sin x sin y

Loading expansion:

(13)

m1 n1

m
n
,
.
a
b
Xmn, Ymn, Wmn, RImn, SImn are Fourier coefficients time functions.
Assumed displacement field satisfies the following boundary conditions for simply supported
laminated composite plate:
m and n denote number of members in Fourier series, while

x 0, a :

u w U I N xx N xxI 0

x 0, b :

I
v w V I N yy N yy
0

I 1,2,..., N

N n 1
0t T

(14)

After incorporation of (11) in (10) and re-arranging of expressions, we derive the matrix form of
differential equations in time:

k
I
k

where:

X mn
Y
mn
kI

m
W

JI mn
k I mI
R
mn

Smn

X mn 0

Ymn 0
mI

qmn ,
W
JI mn
m I
0
R
mn

I
Smn

A11 2 A33 2

k A12 A33

K M F

A12 A33
A22 A33
2

0
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2
2
A44 A55
0

(15)

I
I
B11
2 B33
2
I
I
k I B12
B33

B44

I
I
B12
B33

I
2
I
B22 B33 2

B55I

I0
m

I0

JI 2
D JI 2 D33
D44JI
k JI 11 JI
JI
D12 D33

I I

, mI 0

0
I 0

0
I JI
JI
I
m

I ,

JI 2
JI 2
D22
D33
D55JI
JI
JI
D12
D33

I JI

is the global stiffness matrix, denotes vector of unknown Fourier coefficients, M is

is a vector of second derivations of Fourier coefficients. Above matrix

consistent mass matrix, and
equations must be satisfied in all time points 0 t T . Global stiffness, as well as consistent mass
matrix, remains constant in all time points. In the time point tn, we have following matrix equation:
K M F
(16)
n

4. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
Different forcing functions which act on laminated composite plate are analyzed. Other types of
dynamic loading can be incorporated easily. Transient response deals with two steps in solution process:
assumption of the spatial variation of displacements and then reduction of governing partial differential
equations to ordinary differential equations in time, and solving of system of equations in time using
analytical or numerical methods.
4.1. Equations of motion and numerical time integration

Step Loading

Normalized Loading F/F0

F (t ) F0

t
F (t ) F0 sin

T
t

F (t ) F0 1
T
F (t ) F0 e t

Sine Loading
Triangular Loading
Blast Loading

STEP
SINE
TRIANGULAR
BLAST

0
0

250

500

750

1000 1250 1500

Time [s]
Figure 1 Different forcing functions

System (15) has to be solved in all time points t n. Superposed dots denote differentiation with respect
to time. In the following discussion we will assume homogenuous initial conditions (initial displacements
and their first derivatives velocities, are zero). Then, the Fourier coefficients Xmn, Ymn, Wmn, RImn, SImn,
and their first derivatives in time are equal to zero. It is assumed that loading F 0 acts perpendicular to the
mid-plane of plate. Load change through time is done according to these loading schemes:
The system of differential equations in time for any fixed m and n can be solved exactly using Laplace
transform method or the modal analysis. Alternatively, it can be solved numerically, using the Newmark
integration schemes for second-order differential equations. Truncated Taylor series are applied, so the
solution is not continuous time function. Terms up to the second derivative are included:

n1 n t n 1 t 2 n

1 n n1

n1

n t

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(17)

t t n1 t n is the time increment, t n is the current and t n1 is the next time point in which we seek
the solution. Incorporation of first equation into second two gives:

(18)

n1 n a1
2
n1 a3 n1 n a4 n a5 n
n
n1

In above expressions, a1 1 t , a2 t , a3

, a4 a3 t and a5

Parameters and are selected to be 0.5, which correspond to constant-average acceleration method
(unconditionally stable) [3]. Stability conditions, as well as more information on this topic, are given in
detail in [3, 7]. System of differential equations (17) is solved in the following manner. First, we solve:
(19)
K F

n 1

K K

where

n1

a3 M n1 and

F F

n1

a

M n1 a3 n a4
5
n
n

From (19) it is obvious that initial conditions 0 ,

and

are needed for obtaining transient

are known from initial conditions which may or may not be zero. However,
is unknown from initial conditions, and should be calculated from:
acceleration vector

response. 0 and

M F K
1

(20)

5. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Several examples of application of proposed methodology are presented here. In all of the numerical
examples, zero initial conditions were assumed. Following lamina properties was used in all calculations:
= 8 10-6 Ns2/cm4
E2 = 2.1 106 N/cm2

h = 1 cm
E1 = 52.5 106 N/cm2

12 = 0.25
G12 = G13 = 0.5E2

(21)

w w 100E2 h 3 / qa4

Normalized center transverse deflection is presented in all examples:

5.1. Influence of number of elements in Fourier series

In the preliminary calculation, influence of number of members in Fourier series on normalized

transverse deflection is analyzed. Composite 2-layer laminate (0/90), with a = b = 25 cm, was examined.
Table 10 Normalized center transverse deflection at selective times, for different values of mn

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

11

t=100s
0.4697

1.6270

2.8513

3.4860

3.1907

2.1239

0.8576

0.0708

0.1856

1.1403

33

0.4127

1.5855

2.8477

3.4173

3.1681

2.1080

0.7849

0.0667

0.1485

1.0777

55

0.4185

1.5864

2.8520

3.4202

3.1701

2.1130

0.7853

0.0727

0.1487

1.0823

mn

Table 1 clearly shows that the number of members in double trigonometric series does not affect
severely the transient response of laminated composite plate. According to this, in all following
calculations it is assumed that m = n = 1.
5.2. Influence of time increment
Influence of time increment was investigated with 2 composite plates with characteristics (21): 2-layer
(0/90) and 8-layer plate (0/90)4. Different time steps were used: t = 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 s. It is
obvious that larger time step increases the period of oscillation, and reduces the amplitude. Note that the
maximum transient deflections of both plates are about 2 times that of the static deflection.
2-layer:

wmax,dynamic 3.5009

wmax,static 1.7519

wmax,d / wmax,s 1.998

8-layer:

wmax,dynamic 1.5824

wmax,static 0.7912

wmax,d / wmax,s 2.000

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1.60

3.00

Normalized Deflection

Normalized Deflection

3.50

2.50
2.00
50
1.50
100
1.00

125

0.50

1.20

0.80
50
100

0.40

125

150

150

0.00

0.00
0

250

500

750

1000

250

Time [s]

1000

Figure 3 - Simply supported 8-layer cross-ply (0/90)4 laminate

subjected to uniformly distributed step loading

Normalized Deflection

Normalized Deflection

750

Time [s]

Figure 2 - Simply supported 2-layer cross-ply (0/90) laminate

subjected to uniformly distributed step loading

1.10

0.60
50
75
100
150

0.10

500

0.70

0.20
50
75

-0.30

100
150

-0.40

-0.80
0

250

500

750

1000

Time [s]
Figure 4 - Simply supported 8-layer cross-ply (0/90)
laminate subjected to uniformly distributed triangular loading

250

500

750

1000

Time [s]
Figure 5 - Simply supported 8-layer cross-ply (0/90)
laminate subjected to uniformly distributed blast loading

5.3. Influence of lamination scheme

Normalized Deflection

2.50
2 layers
6 layers
8 layers

2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0

500

1000

1500

Time [s]
Figure 6 - Simply supported cross-ply laminates subjected
to uniformly distributed step loading (t = 25s)

Figure 7 - Simply supported cross-ply laminates subjected

to uniformly distributed sine loading (t = 25s)

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5.4. Response of plate under different schemes of dynamic loading

The influence of the dynamic loading type is investigated using a simply supported 2-layer (0/90)
laminate under uniformly distributed loading. For this purpose, exponential blast loading is chosen as:
F (t ) F0 e0.002t
3.50

Normalized Deflection

3.00

2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00

0.50
STEP
SINE
TRIANGULAR
BLAST

0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50

250

500

750

1000

1250

1500

Time [s]
Figure 8 - Simply supported 2-layer cross-ply (0/90) laminate subjected to different schemes of
uniformly distributed transient loading (t = 50s, T = 1500s)

6. CONCLUSIONS
Dynamic version of GLPT is introduced. Using the derived system of differential equations in time,
Navier-type solution, as well as Newmark integration scheme, was applied for calculating the transient
response, using MATLAB code. It is obviously that the number of elements in double trigonometric
series does not affect severely the results of calculation. Using different time steps, influence of time
increment on the accuracy of the solution was studied, and it is obvious that larger time step increases the
period of oscillation, and reduces the amplitude. Lamination scheme affects the results in a way that
reduction in a number of layers leads to a more flexible response of plate it is increasing the amplitude
as well as the period. Using more cross-ply layers in a same plate thickness, we get much stiffer response.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial support of the Government of the Republic of Serbia - Ministry of Education and
Science, under the Project TP-36048, is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Staab GH: Laminar Composites, Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
[2] Reddy JN, Barbero EJ, Teply JL: A plate bending element based on a generalized laminate
plate theory, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 28, 1989, pp.
2275-92.
[3] Reddy JN: Mechanics of Laminated Composite Plates: Theory and Analysis. CRC Press,
1996.
[4] etkovi M: Nonlinear behavior of laminated composite plates. PhD Thesis (in Serbian).
University of Belgrade Faculty of Civil Engineering, 2010.
[5] etkovi M: Analytical solution for multilayer plates using general layerwise plate theory,
Facta Universitatis, Vol. 3, 2005, pp. 121-36.
[6] etkovi M, Vuksanovi : Bending, free vibrations and buckling of laminated composite
and sandwich plates using a layerwise displacement model, Composite Structures, Vol. 88,
2009, pp. 21927.
[7] Hinton E: Numerical Methods and Software for Dynamic Analysis of Plates and Shells,
Pineridge Press, Swansea, 1988, pp. 1-47.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Nemanja Markovi1
Dragoslav Stoji2
Tamara Nestorovi3

DAMAGE DETECTIN OF STEEL STRUCTURES WITH

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS AND LAMB WAVES
Abstract: Piezoelectric sensors/actuators are widely used to detect different types of damage in various
types of steel structures and showed great potential in Civil engineering applications. Lamb waves are
highly suitable for damage detection in thin plates because they have property of propagation through a
relatively long distance with a very small amplitude decrease. In this paper we report various types of
methods (Pitch-Catch method, Pulse-Echo method and Time Reversal method) for damage (vertical
notches with different orientation, holes and corrosion) detection. By analyzing the signal output we can
quantify damage by defining damage index. Among other, in this paper we report various signal
processing methods (Wavelet Analysis (WA) and Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT)).
Key words: piezoelectric, Lamb waves, signal processing, damage detection, damage index

DETEKCIJA OTEENJA KONSTRUKCIJA OD ELIKA POMOU

PIEZOELEKTRINIH SENZORA I LAMB TALASA
Rezime: Piezoelektrini senzori/aktuatori se dosta primenjuju za detekciju razliitih tipova oteenja kod
velikog broja razliitih elinih konstrukcija i pokazuju veliki potencijal u primeni kod graevinskih
objekata. Lamb talasi su naroito pogodni za detekciju oteenja kod ploastih elemenata zbog svoje
osobine da se prostiru kroz relativno veliku duinu sa malom promenom amplitude. U ovom radu su
prestavljene tri metode (Pitch-Catch metoda, Pulse-Echo metoda i Time Reversal metoda)za detekciju
oteenja (vertikalni zarezi razliite orjentacije, rupa i korozije). Analizom dolaznog signala moemo da
kvantitativno odredimo veliinu oteenja pomou indeksa oteenja. Izmeu ostalog, u ovom radu su
prikazane i metode analize signala (Wavelet Analysis (WA) i Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT)).
Kljune rei: piezoelektrino, Lamb talas, analiza signala, detekcija oteenja, indeks oteenja
1. INTRODUCTION
Lamb waves have been widely used for damage detection of steel structures in recent years. Ultrasonic
guided waves, like Lamb waves, are suitable for damage detection in large civil engineering structures.
Tree methods for damage detection are specifically imposed in the practical implementation and in this
paper we presented them (Pitch-Catch method, Pulse-Echo method and Time Reversal method). P. S.
Tua [4] used piezo-actuated Lamb waves for detection cracks in metalic plates. In paper [5] Jeong-Beom
Ihn and Fu-Kuo Chang used Pitch-Catch method for damage detection in plate like aircraft structures.
Victor Giurgiutiu [2] in his book present all tree damage detection methods and practical apllications with

PhD student, University of Ni , The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni,
Serbia, nemanjamarkovic85@gmail.com
2
PhD, full professor, University of Ni , The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva
14, Ni, Serbia, dragoslav.stojic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
3
PhD, professor, University of Bochum, The Faculty of Civil Engineering, Germany

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appropriated experiments. B. Poddar [6] used Time reversal Lamb wave method for damage detection in
metalic plate. Also, damage detection is not possible without signal processing methods and definition of
damage indexes. Wavelet analysis method and Fast Fourier transformation method are presented in this
paper.
2. LAMB WAVES
Lamb waves, a.k.a., guided plate waves, are a type of ultrasonic waves that are guided between
two parallel free surfaces, such as the upper and lower surfaces of a plate. Lamb waves can exist in two
basic types, symmetric and antisymmetric. For each propagation type there exist a number of modes
corresponding to the solution of the Rayleigh-Lamb equation. The symmetric Lamb waves resemble the
axial waves, whereas the antisymmetric Lamb waves resemble the flexural waves. In fact, it can be
proven that, at low frequencies, the symmetric Lamb waves approach the behavior of the axial plate
waves, whereas the antisymmetric Lamb waves approach the behavior of the flexural plate waves. Lamb
waves are highly dispersive, and their speed depends on the product between frequency and the plate
thickness. The waves-speed dispersion curves are obtained from the solution of the Rayleigh-Lamb
equation. At a given frequency-thickness product, for each solution of the Rayleigh-Lamb equation, one
finds a corresponding Lamb-wave speed and a corresponding Lamb-wave mode.
Without a detailed performing, we will present the final forms for symmetric and antisymmetric
Lamb wave modes.
(

(1)

Equation (1) is the Rayleigh-Lamb wave equation for symmetric modes. The solution of this
transcendental equation is not easy, because p and q also depend on . Numerical solution of equation (1)
yield the symmetric (S) eigenvalues,
.

Figure 1 - Wave speed dispersion curves for symmetric Lamb waves in an aluminum plate (cs -shear wave speed, d-half
thickness of the plate)

(2)

This is the Rayleigh-Lamb equation for antisymmetric modes. The solution is also not easy, and
yields the antisymmetric (A) eigenvalues,
.

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Figure 2: Wave speed dispersion curves for antisymmetric Lamb waves in an aluminum plate (cs -shear wave speed, d-half
thickness of the plate)

3. FINITE ELEMENT MODELING AND SIMULATION

Lee and Staszewski in his paper [3] summarized the major achievements of modeling Lamb
waves for the purpose of damage identification. The approach include finite element method, finite
difference method, boundary element method (BEM), finite strip element method, spectral element
method and local interaction simulation approach. Among the different approaches, finite element method
based modeling and simulation is the most cost-effective with commercial software available such as
ABAQUS, ANSYS and Patran.
Basically, the use of finite element method to simulate the propagation of Lamb waves in a solid
medium has two components: activation of Lamb waves, and acquisition of Lamb waves upon travelling
a certain distance. For the activation, in accordance with particle motion, S0, A0 and SH0 wave modes can
be activated by imposing radial in-plane, out-of-plane and tangential in-plane constraints (e.g.,
displacement, force or stress), respectively, on the finite element method nodes of the actuator.
4. DAMAGE DETECTION METHODS
Victor Giurgiutiu in his book [2] gave a comprehensive overview of damage detection methods in
structural health monitoring, and in this paper we were show a short review of these methods.
4.1. Pitch-Catch Method
The Pitch-Catch method detects damage from the changes in the Lamb waves traveling through a
damage region. The method uses the transducers in pairs, one as transmitter, and the other as receiver.
The Pitch-Catch method can be used to detect changes that take place between a transmitter transducer
and a receiver transducer. The detection is performed through the examination of the guided wave (Lamb
wave) amplitude, phase, dispersion, and TOF in comparison with a pristine situation. Guided wave
modes that are strongly influenced by small changes in the material stiffness and thickness (such as the A0
Lamb wave) are well suited for this method. Typical applications include (a) corrosion detection in
metallic structures; (b) diffused damage in composites; (c) disband detection in adhesive joints; (d)
delaminating detection in layered composites, etc. Pitch-Catch method can also be used to detect the
presence of cracks from the wave signal diffracted by the cracks.

Figure 3: Ultrasonic damage-detection techniques with pitch-catch method

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4.2. Pulse-Echo Method

The Pulse-Echo method follows the general principles of conventional Lamb wave nondestructive
evaluation. A piezoelectric transducer attached to the structure acts as both transmitter and detector of
guided Lamb waves traveling in the structure. The wave sent by the piezoelectric transducers is partially
reflected at the crack. The echo is captured at the same piezoelectric transducer acting as receiver. For the
method to be successful, it is important thet a low-dispersion Lamb wave be used. The selection of such a
wave, e.g., the S0 mode, is achived through the Lamb-wave tuning methods.

Figure 4: Ultrasonic damage-detection techniques with pulse-echo method

4.3. Time Reversal Damage Detection Method

The Time Reversal method was developed by Fink (1992) in connection with the Pitch-Catch
method. The signal sent by the transmitter arrives at the receiver after being modified by the medium in
which it travels. If the received signal is time reversed and sent back from the receiver to the transmitter,
the effect of the medium is also reversed. This reversal is quite spectacular in the case of dispersive Lamb
waves.
Lamb-wave time reversal method is a new and tempting baseline-free damage detection
technique for structural health monitoring. With this method, certain types of damage could be detected
immediately without prior baseline data. However, this method is complicated by the existence of the
least two Lamb modes at any given frequency and by the dispersion nature of the Lamb wave modes. The
theory of Lamb wave time reversal is still under development.

Figure 5: Lamb wave time-reversal procedure block diagram

5. SIGNAL PROCESSING
In this part of paper, we will present the basic expressions of direct Fourier Transform, Short-Time
Fourier Transform and Wavelet analysis.
5.1. Fourier transform and short-time Fourier transform
The classical Fourier transform (FT) determines the frequency contents (spectrum) of a stationary
signal by comparing it with an infinite number of sine and cosine functions of different frequencies. The
mathematical expressions of the direct Fourier transform (FT) of the inverse Fourier transform (IFT) are,
respectively:

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( )

( )

(3)

( )

(4)

( )

Equation (5) is called short-time Fourier transform (STFT) since only the signal around the interest
time t0 is analyzed.

( ) (

(5)

5.2. Wavelet analysis

The presence of short-duration high-frequency signal bursts occur are hard to detect, whereas in our
pulse-echo damage detection, burst signals are often used. Time-frequency method, the wavelet
transform, are used as an alternative to overcome the disadvantages of the STFT. Wavelets can keep track
of time and frequency information, zooming in on short bursts or zooming out to detect long, slow
oscillations.
The Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) of signal x(t) by using mother wavelet

(
Where

| |

( )

( ) is:
(6)

( ) is called the mother wavelet.

6. DAMAGE INDEXES
The damage index is a scalar quantity that serves as a metric for the damage present in the
structure. Sun et al. (1995) used a damage index based on the root mean square deviation (RMSD)
change of the E/M impedance real part spectrum. The damage index compares the amplitudes of the two
spectra (damaged vs. pristine) and assigns a scalar value based on the formula:

( )
[

(
(

)]

)]

(7)

Where N is the number of sample points in the spectrum, and the superscript 0 signifies the pristine
state of the structure.
7. CONCLUSION
This paper presents new developed damage detection methods, methods for signal analysis and
defining the damage using damage indices. Tree active sensing methods were presented for monitoring
and crack detection in steel structures: 1) Pitch-Catch method, 2) Pulse-Echo method and 3) Time
reversal method, for damage (vertical notches with different orientation, holes and corrosion) detection.
Pitch-Catch method can be used when the damage is between the piezoelectric sensor and actuator, so the
signal passes through the damaged area of the element. Pulse-Echo method doesnt required the presence
of damage between the actuators and sensors, because the one piezoelectric element is actuator and
sensor. Disadvantage of this method is the detection of a large number of damages. Time-reversal method
doesnt require the existence of the results of the undamaged structure, unlike the first two methods, and
this is the main advantage of this method. By analyzing the signal output we can quantify damage by
defining damage index and we present a root mean square deviation (RMSD) damage index. The direct
Fourier Transform, Short-Time Fourier Transform and Wavelet analysis are shown in this paper.
REFERENCES
[1] Zhongqing Su, Lin Ye, Identification of Damage Using Lamb Waves, Springer, 2009.
[2] Victor Giurgiutiu, Structural Health Monitoring with Piezoelectric Wafer Active Sensors,
Elsevier, 2008.

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[3] Lee B. C., Staszewski W. J., Modelling of Lamb Waves for damage detection in metallic
structures: part I wave propagation, Smart Materials and Structures 12, 804-814, 2003.
[4] P. S. Tua, S. T. Quek, Q. Wang, Detection of cracks in plates using piezo-actuated Lamb
waves, Smart Materials and Structures 13 (2004), 643-660.
[5] Jeong-Beom Ihn, Fu-Kuo Chang, Pitch-Catch Active Sensing Methods in Structural Health
Monitoring for Aircraft Structures, Structural Health Monitoring 7, (2003).
[6] B. Poddar, A. Kumar, M. Mitra, P. M. Mujumdar, Time reversal of a Lamb wave for damage
detection in a metallic plate, Smart Material and Structures 20 (2011).

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Biljana Matejevi1

CRITICAL PATH IN RESOURCE-DEPENDENT SCHEDULE

Abstract: The critical path has a quite important role in realization of accomplishment of dynamic plan
of construction works. It gives a possibility of identifying the critical activities within a project, upon
which an attention needs to be paid, with an aim of their completion on time. In case when the critical
activities are being done in timely manner, without a delay, the project is going to be completed in
accordance to a schedule, i.e. within a time-deadline. The mostly used planning methods, such as the
Critical Path Method (CPM) as well as the Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM), however, do not
consider resource constrains, thus influencing the reality and sustainability of the plan. Such planning,
without considering the availability of resources, results in a mistaken opinion on shorter project
durability. The critical path, that is based only on technological dependence among activities, is not
realistic, since it does not show critical activities in a real way, as these activities could be resourcedependent aparth from technology-dependent. If the plan based on technological dependence only, results
in over-allocation of the available resources, then it could be leveled by means of redistribution of
resources according to one of existing criteria. Distribution of resources only within available float is not
going to result in prolongation of based deadline; but in real schedule, however, this measure will not be
able to solve the problem completely, considering postponed activities, prolonged deadline, and finally a
non-continuous critical path. In this paper is presented a simple example of network diagram based on an
unconstrained and constrained resource (labor). Preallocation of resources according to different
criteria is performed, critical activities and critical path are determined and a final comment on the given
solutions is made.
ey words: constrained resource, critical path, critical activity, levelling, allocation

:
.
.
, , .
. , ,
(CPM) (PDM), ,
. ,
, .
,
, ,
. ,
, , .
.
, ,

MSc Assistant lecturer, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture Ni, A. Medvedeva, 14, email: biljana.matejevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
1

-359-

 ,
, .
(
). ,
.
: , , , ,

1. INTRODUCTION
It is known that the critical path has a quite important role in realization of dynamic plan of
construction works on a building because it gives a possibilitty of identifying the critical activities within
a project, upon which an attention needs to be paid, with an aim of their completion on time. In case
when the critical activities are being done in timely manner without a delay, the project is going to be
completed in accordance to a schedule, i.e. within a time-deadline.
The most widely used methods of planning: Critical Path Method (CPM) and Precedence
Diagramming Method (PDM) are usually used for dynamic planning of construction works. Application
of this methods, however, assumes the availability of unlimited resources, thus influencing the reality and
sustainability of the plan, because it is not usually case in practice. Plan that is based only on
technological dependences among the activities, without considering the availability of resources, will
have an unrealistic duration (usually less).
2. INTRODUCTION OF RESOURCE CONSTRAINT IN PLANNING
The assumption of unlimited resources is not valid in most practical examples. To overcome this
problem, it is possible to do leveling, i.e. redistribution of resources according to one of existing criteria.
Several methods are developed for resource leveling, and generally each is composed of two phases:
Schedule activities without resource constraints;
Allocation of resources.
There are numerous methods that are used to solve this problem: Gray-Kiddov algorithm, heuristic
methods, dynamic programming, genetic algorithms, and others.
Redistribution of resources is done by moving the appropriate activities. Non-critical activities are
moved within their available time slack, as the first, and in this way a planned deadline is not prolonged.
This procedure does not have to give a solution, and then other changes are introduced, such as:
increasing the duration of activities with engagement of minor amounts of resources or postponement of
activities by the time when the requested resource is available.
In the literature one can find numerous attempts to introduce methods which would allow planning
within limited resources. Goldratt proposes a methodology to identify the critical chain, which is defined
as "the longest chain of dependent steps, where the dependence between steps can be the result of
technology or common resources" 2. The critical path and critical chain is based on the same concept.
The difference is that critical chain uses activities with a reduced duration. Lu and Li 6 proposed
Activity Resource Critical Path Method (RACPM), where the "dimension of resources is considered in
addition to the activities and time." Kim 5 developed Resource Constrained Critical Path Method
(RCPM) to calculate the time reserve in the case of limited resources, without so called "Phantom float".
3. CONSIDERATION OF CRITICAL PATH WITH RESOURCE CONSTRAINT BY AN
EXAMPLE
To illustrate the above, the simple example of a network plan of 12 activities is considered, which is
done applying software package MS Project 2010. Table 1 presents data of the activity: activity name,
duration, previous activity and number of labor, and Figure 1 shows a network plan with a critical path.
For each activity were calculated: the earliest (ES) and latest (EF), start, the earliest of (EF) and latest
(LF) finish and total float (TF). Activity were obtained: A, C, F, G, H, J, L as a critical and they make the
critical path. One type of resources (labor) is taken in consideration, bacause of easier understanding.
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ble 7- List of activities with relationships, duration, total slack and resources

ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Task Name
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L

Predecessors
/
1
1
2,3
2
3
5,6
4,7
7
8,9
8,9
10,11

Duration
2 days
3 days
1 day
4 days
3 days
5 days
2 days
6 days
4 days
3 days
2 days
2 days

Total Slack
0 days
2 days
0 days
3 days
2 days
0 days
0 days
0 days
2 days
0 days
1 day
0 days

Figure 16 Network diagram (in case: unconstrained resource)

Figure 2 Gantt chart and resource graph (in case: unconstrained resource)

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Resource
Names
labor [3]
labor [4]
labor [1]
labor [2]
labor [5]
labor [3]
labor [2]
labor [4]
labor [2]
labor [3]
labor [5]
labor [1]

Considered activities are given only as a function of technological dependence by relationship Finishto-Start and at first it is assumed that there is no limitation of resources (in this case unlimited number of
labor is available). Gantt chart and resource graph are given in Figure 2. Resource graph is shown in blue,
which means that there is no over-allocation of resources. However, if a restriction is introduced, for
example, that the maximum number of workers engaged in all activities that occur on the same day,
limited to 6 workers, there will be over-allocation of workers and the diagram will look like in Figure 3
(red in the diagram shows the over-allocation of permitted amount of resources).

Over-allocation of
resources

Figure 3 Gantt chart and resource graph (in case: constrained resource)

Since the maximum number of workers is exceeded on the fourth through the eighth day and the
eighteenth and nineteenth day, it is necessary to perform resource leveling. The program offers the
possibility of manual and automatic leveling. If the selected resource leveling, moving only non-critical
activities within their time reserves, which does not prolonged the deadline for execution of works, labor
diagram will look like in Figure 4.

Noncritical activities which

are changed position

Figure 4 Gantt chart and resource graph (in case: leveling within only available slack)

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Activities: B, D, E and K are moved within the time of its time-slacks, the deadline remains the same,
22 days, moved non-critical activities have become critical, but there is still over-allocation of resources.
The reduction of resources only appeared on the seventh day, where there is a need of 8 instead of 10
workers, which is still higher than allowed.
If leveling is performed automatically without using any options in the program, which gives the
required results, diagram of the workforce does not show the over-allocation (Figure 5), but the deadline
was extended from 22 to 29 days. Activities A, D, G, H, I and L, in terms of criticality have remained the
same, and all others have changed, become critical and vice versa. It may be noted that in this plan,
despite the existence of critical activities, there is not more continuity of critical path, which is contrary to
its definition.

Interruption of the
critical path

Figure 5 Gantt chart and resource graph (in case: automaticaly leveling)

In Figure 6, where the plan shows the network obtained after leveling, there is a visible interruption of
critical path between activities A and E. Both of these activities are critical, but there is no relationship
between them. There is activity B between them, which is not critical. Also, it is evident that there are
critical links (red arrow) between critical and non-critical activities, and vice versa, non-critical links
(blue arrows) between critical and non-critical activities (Figure 6). It is known that for the critical
activities the relation is valid: EF = ES, LS = LF. In this case, for the activities E and K, which are
critical, applies that LF LS. The earliest start of activity E is on 6-th and the latest start is on 12-th day,
whereas the latest start and finish is the same, which is the 14-th day.

Critical
activity

Nonctitical
activity

Noncritical
link
Critical activity
with LFLS !!!

Critical link

Figure 6 Network diagram (in case: automaticaly leveling)

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4. CONCLUSION
This paper considers the long-term problem in planning with limited resources and the impact of
introducing restrictions on the critical path. At first, a simple example of network diagram with the
assumption of unlimited resources is shown. Relationships between activities are conditioned only by
technology of completion, while resource dependency is not considered. Then, as it is often the case in
practice, constrain of resources was introduced and resource leveling done only in the available slack,
which did not give satisfactory results. Then, a suitable moving of all activities that have impact on the
solution is made, and the diagram obtained without exceeding the available resources of the same
quantity, but the deadline for execution of works has changed, and the critical activities and critical path.
According to the Critical Path Method (CPM), critical path is defined as a continuous sequence of critical
activities and it is the longest path in the network. However, by analysis of the considered examples of
network plan has been observed discontinuity of critical path, which is in contradiction with its definition.
Discontinuity occurred after leveling of resources aimed to no over-allocation of available resource
quantities.
The case of critical path discontinuity can be explained by inadequate links given between activities.
If, in addition to technology, it could be assigned resource links also, planning should be more realistic
and such phenomena should not occure. However, taking into account the availability of resources is
feasible only for simple plans with a small number of activities. With the increasing scope of the plan and
a number of different resources, it is practically impossible to perceive all the effects.
REFERENCES
[1] Bowers J.A: Criticality in Resource Constrained Networks, the Journal of the Operational
Research Society, Vol. 46, No 1 (1995), pp. 80-91
[2] Goldratt, E: Critical Chain, The Nort River Press Publishing Corporation, 1997.
[3] Ibbis W, Nguyen L: Schedule Analysis under Effect of Resource Allocation, Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 133, No 2 (2003), pp. 131-138
[4] Kastor A, Sirakoulis K: The effectiveness of resource levelling tools for Resource Constraint
Project Scheduling Problem, International Journal of Project Management, Vol. 27 (2009), pp.
493-500
[5] Kim K, Jesus M. de la Garza: Phantom Float, Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, Vol. 129, No 5 (2003), pp. 507-517
[6] Lu M, Li H: Resource-Activity Critical-Path Method for Construction Planning, Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 129, No 4 (2003), pp. 412-420
[7] Matejevi B.: Primena dinamikih planova u graevinarstvu, magistarski rad, Graevinskoarhitektonski fakultet, Ni, 2010.
[8] Pantouvakis J, Manoliadis G: A Practical Approach to Resourse-Constrained Project Scheduling,
Operational Research An International Journal, Vol. 6, No 3 (2006), pp. 299-309
[9] Petri J.: Operaciona istraivanja, Savremena administracija, Beograd, 1976.
[10]
Zlatanovi M., Matejevi B.: Kriterijumi kvaliteta dinamikih planova, Zbornik radova
Graevinsko-arhitektonskog fakulteta u Niu, 2010.
[11]
Zlatanovi M, Matejevi B: Usage of dynamic plans in civil engineering of Serbia, Facta
universitatis - series: Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2011, ISSN 0350-4605, vol. 9, iss. 1,
pp. 57-75

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Bojan Mati1
Ranko Okuka2
Sinia Sremac3

IMPROVED MODEL FOR PREDICTING MAXIMUM SURFACE

PAVEMENT TEMPERATURE
Abstract: Temperature range in the pavement construction can lead to different pavement deformation.
Therefore, it is very important to know the temperatures that can occur in the pavement. In the eighties
and nineties of last century were performed research on the effect of ambient temperature conditions on
pavement temperature in Serbia, and the later analysis of data obtained by the models that predict the
minimum and maximum surface pavement temperature. This paper presents an improved model for
predicting the maximum surface pavement temperature, based on collected data from 2010-12. year.
Key words: model, pavement, temperature, maximum, predicting

:
.
.
, a

.
, 2010-12. .
: , , , ,

1. INTRODUCTION
It is known that the stress and strain in the pavement often based on the theory of elasticity, which is
justified in "normal" temperature range where asphalt mixtures behave nearly elastically, especially when
the effect of short-term loads. However, the occurrence of high temperatures in the hottest periods of the
year can significantly increase the influence of visco-plastic components in the behavior of asphalt
mixtures and to lead to major deformations of pavement, particularly at the effect of hardloaded point of
slow moving or stationary (extreme case are bus stops, traffic belts for heavy vehicles on a hill, etc..).
For this reason it is especially important to determine the risk of deformations under conditions of
extreme temperature and primarily determine the amount and duration of temperature and in detail
analyze the traffic load. The highest peak traffic occurs between noon and end of working hours when
temperatures are highest and where asphalt creating a durable deformations. On the other hand, in winter,
the lowest temperature in the pavement is during the morning rush hour. Then, there is the danger of the
formation of cracks due to bending of the layers under the traffic load at the simultaneous effects of

Teaching assistant, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, e-mail: bojanm@uns.ac.rs
Teaching assistant, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, e-mail: okukaranko@yahoo.com
3
Teaching assistant, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, e-mail: sremacs@uns.ac.rs
2

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significant internal stresses caused by shrinkage in the material due to low temperatures. So, it can be
concluced that pavement temperature largely depends of the season and the position of the Sun, Figure 1.

Figure 1 Defining the position of the Sun (Diefenderfer, B., 2002)

For a good analysis of the loads and fatigue need to be known the behavior and duration of pavement
temperature. For specific periods with a relatively homogeneous temperature condition in the asphalt
layers can be calculated the partial sum of the damages with given temperature conditions. Summing
partial sums of damages for the whole year (annual amount of damage), it can easily determine the
lifetime of the pavement as the ultimate goal of all analytical procedures. Failure of pavement depends on
the required functional pavement characteristics: the volume of traffic, participation and weight of
vehicles, ambient conditions, the proper speed of vehicles, operating costs and maintenance costs. The
picture shows the scheme of load transfer from the axle of vehicle through the pavement layers, subbase
and subgrade, Figure 2.

Figure 2 Flexible pavement and load distribution [5]

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If it is not selected materials that meet the appropriate capacity at various loads and different
environmental conditions (primarily temperatures and humidity) lead to various defects and damages of
the pavement, which may be manifested throughout the pavement construction (through all layers, for
example: longitudinal and transverse cracks), or only in the upper layer (surface defects, mostly asphalt
layers). Cracks that are manifested throughout the pavement construction occurring in lower layers and
reflect in the upper layers of the pavement, and the causes may be different: bed materials (with lots of
organic matter and bed granulometric composition), low density and etc. On the following pictures are
showed some of the special cases of damage pavement, Figure 3, Figure 4.
a)

b)

c)

d)

FIgure 3 - Pavement damage: (, b) line and grid cracks (c) alligator skin without denivelation of pavement, (d) loss of
surface course [4]

a)

b)

c)

d)

Figure 4 - Pavement damage: () reflected crack, (b) rutting, (c) svell, (d) pothole [4]

There was general theory about pavement cracks, that manifested through the entire pavement
construction from lower to upper layers of the pavement ten years ago. However, it has been added the
new theory about fatigue where cracks propagate opposite, from the surface to lower layers - longitudinal
cracks parallel with rutting and this is included in the new AASHTO Guide.
2. DATA FOR ANALYSIS
Data were taken from the pilot project between the PE "Roads of Serbia" and the Swedish
government. Pavement surface temperature and ambient conditions were monitored using sophisticated
meteorological station (Road Weather Information System, RWIS) at six sites during the part of 2010, the
entire 2011 and part of 2012 due to winter road maintenance. The plan was to monitor only the
temperature in the winter months, but at the insistence and request of the Faculty of Technical Sciences
for monitoring the temperature throughout the year for scientific research, PE "Roads of Serbia" approved
monitoring in other months.
Acquisition of meteorological data that is contained in the database, including temperature is
performed every 30 min. GMC server calls weather stations every half an hour and sends all the measured
data. Communication was made via modem GMC. RWIS measures the following values: air temperature,
humidity, dew point temperature, type of precipitation, surface pavement temperature, the maximum
wind speed, Figure 5.

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S1

S6
S2

S3

S5

S4

Figure 5 - The installed Road WeatherInformation Stations in Serbia [2]

3. MODELS FOR PREDICTING MAXIMUM SURFACE PAVEMENT TEMPERATURE IN

SERBIA
The first model was developed to predict pavement surface temperature, based on regression analysis
of data. Formed regression equations are used for predicting the maximum and minimum pavement
surface temperature, depending on the maximum (at 15:00 h) and minimum (at 07:00 h) air temperature,
based on the data [4]. Data analysis was performed in STATISTICA 10.
The model which predicts the maximum temperature of pavement surface can be presented by the
following equation [1], Chart 1:

Yp,max=1,268887xa,max+0.065567

(1)

Where we have:
Yp,max
xa,max

predicted maximum daily pavement surface temperatures, C;

maximum daily air temperatures (15:00h), C.

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Chart 1 Graphical representaton of regression equation used for predicting maximum pavement surface temperature[1]

Standard model error is 3.0016 C. Correlation coefficient is 0.972651.

Validation has been performed by comparing measured and predicted maximum surface pavement
temperatures. The Mean Absolute Error (MAE) is 2,291912 C.
Also, validation has been performed by comparing measured maximum surface pavement
temperatures collected during 2010-2012. and predicted according to model Matic et al., 2011 based on
data [4]. It was concluded that MAE is 4,743167 C.
The improved model which predicts maximum pavement surface temperatures can be presented by the
following equation:

Yp, max 1,269329 X a, max 1,459487

(2)

Where we have:
Yp,ax
predicted maximum daily pavement surface temperatures, C;
xa,max
maximum daily air temperatures, C.
Standard model error is 4.24378 C. Correlation coefficient is 0.90774.
The Mean Absolute Error (MAE) is 3,1356 C, and less then the model Mati et al, 2011, where MAE
is 4,743167 C.
4. CONCLUSION
The continental part of Serbia is an area in which great attention must be paid to temperature
sensitivity of asphalt mixtures, because cold winters do not allow the use of solid bitumen, and a hot
summer asks the opposite claim. The solution could be bitumen with a low temperature sensitivity, using
elastomers and suitable granulometric composit of mineral mixture that will provide solid and stable
skeleton of wearing surface. Therefore, it is very important to determine the temperature range that occurs
in the pavement.
It was concluded that ambient temperature has the greatest influence on the pavement temperature, but
due to climatic changes in the last thirty years on the territory of Serbia, model that was developed on the
basis of the data (Uzelac ., 1986) gives less accurate results for the current pavement temperature
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compared to model which was developed later, based on data that were measured during 2010-2012. year.
Also, it was concluded that the improved model predicts a maximum pavement surface temperature with
appropriate precision and model can be reliably applied.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper is a part of the investigation within the research project TR 36017
"Utilization of by-products and recycled waste materials in concrete composites in the scope of
sustainable construction development in Serbia: investigation and environmental assessment of possible
applications", supported by the Ministry for Science and Technology, Republic of Serbia. This support is
gratefully acknowledged. Also the authors acknowledge the support of research project 174019, funded
by the Ministry of Education and Science of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] Mati B., Tepi J., Sremac S., Radonjanin V., Mati D., Jovanovi P.: Development and
evaluation of the model for the surface payment temperature prediction, Journal Metalurgija 51,
Croatian Metallurgical Society, Zagreb, Croatia, 51(2012)3, pp. 329-332.
[2] Mati B., Awadat H.S., Mati D., Uzelac .: Development and validation of a model to predict
pavement temperature for winter maintenance operations in Serbia, 8TH ASIA Conference,
Transportation and the Environment (8TH APTE 2012), 6-8 June.
[3] .:
, , , 1986.
[4] .: ,
, , 2003.
[5] .: ,
, , 2011.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Mladen Milanovi1
Milan Goci2
Slavia Trajkovi3

ANALYSIS OF THE SPI IN THE AREA OF NIS FOR THE PERIOD FROM
1980 TO 2010
Abstract: It is important to study climatic parameters of every geographical area for the purpose of
determining the occurrence of global climate, especially drought as one of the extreme events.
The paper contains an analysis of precipitation as one of the basic climatic parameters for the area of the
city of Nis, i.e. the basin of Nis. The analysis was based on the meteorological data obtained from
meteorological station Nis by performing a calculation of the standardized precipitation index (SPI) for
the following: (1) one month (SPI 1), (2) three months (SPI 3), (3) six months (SPI 6) and (4) twelve
months (SPI 12). The used precipitation data involves the data for the period from 1980 to 2010. The
possibility of observing the SPI from a different temporal scale was also used, enabling the possibility of
registering the drought in a timely manner and following its duration.
By analyzing the SPI value, it was concluded that drought years are more frequent in the period from
1986 to 2000. Furthermore, it was noted that the conditions of humidity are highly unfavorable during
the period of observation.
Keywords: drought, precipitation, standardized precipitation index, humidity
1. INTRODUCTION
Understanding the global changes in climate is of great importance for life, since these changes have
always dictated the manner and the tempo of everyday life, and have had an especially strong impact on
commercial activities.
As a temporary phenomenon, as well as a normal characteristic of the climate, caused by natural
climatic changes which lead to the lack of precipitation over a certain period, owing to the prolonged
period of anticyclone weather, drought causes damage to various commercial sectors, i.e. causes the
deficit of drinking water, damages the crops, leads to the occurrence of low water levels of rivers, and
there is an increased danger of forest fires.
Pursuant to the Law on the confirmation of the UNs convention on the struggle against desertification
in countries which have severe droughts drought represents a natural phenomenon which occurs when
the quantity of precipitation is significantly lower than the normally recorded level, causing serious
hydrological disturbances which have a harmful effect on the production systems of fertile land.
The problems which appeared as the consequence of droughts, as well as great damage, especially in
agriculture, have required undertaking certain actions for the purpose of reducing and forecasting the
unfavorable impact of droughts. The measures undertaken in the struggle against drought involved
several different solutions, such as monitoring, early announcement, risk estimate and alleviating the
consequences of drought.
There are a great number of drought indicators (indexes) in the world, which are used to define the
intensity, duration and frequency of the drought. In order to reach greater estimation accuracy, various
drought indicators are used simultaneously, such as: Palmers Drought Strength Indicator (PDSI),

1 MSc, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, mmsmladen@gmail.com 064 24 15 752
2 MSc, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, mgocic@yahoo.com 064 14 79 423
3 PhD, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, slavisa@gaf.ni.ac.rs 063 10 58 673

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Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), De Martonnes Drought Index (I), Langs Rain Factor (KFg),
Selyaninovs Hydrothermal Coefficient (KS) [8].
One of the most frequently used drought indicators is the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI),
which more clearly shows the cyclic nature of the period of rain and the period of drought. The index was
developed for the purpose of defining and observing drought, and, based on long-term observation, it is
possible to analyze the appearance of drought over a certain time period (month, season, year, etc.).
Literature contains countless examples of calculations and drought observation [1-11] and the
common link in the papers is that various indexes are used as indicators, but the crucial forecasting
element is the SPI. Guttman [4] recommended that the SPI may be used as a primary drought index
because it is simple it only requires the data on precipitation quantities, and is spatially independent in
its interpretation. Furthermore, this index is recommended for use in the whole world and by the
Agrometeorological Committee of the World Meteorological Organization.
This paper contains a calculation of four standardized precipitation indexes for different periods, i.e.
SPI 1 for 1 month (June), SPI 3 for 3 months (from May to July), SPI 6 for 6 months (from January to
June) and SPI 12 for 12 months (from January to December).
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Data
The paper involves data on the precipitation for the city of Nis (longitude 21 054, latitude 43020,
elevation 204 m) for the period from 1980 to 2010. The data was taken from the meteorological annuals
issued by the Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia (www.hidmet.gov.rs) - the RHMSS.
Figure 1 contains the display of the total precipitation quantities per year for the city of Nis, for the period
from 1980 2010. The mean value with the standard deviation of the precipitation used in this study is
49.247 8.308.

900

[mm]

800
700

500
400
300
200
100

Time in years
Figure 1 Annual precipitation value for the city of Nis for the period from 1980 2010.

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2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

0
1980

Precipitation

600

2.2. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI)

The SPI was developed by McKee et al. [7] to quantify the precipitation deficit for multiple time
scales (1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 months). This versatility allows the SPI to monitor short term water supplies,
such as soil moisture, important for agricultural production, and long term water resources, such as
ground water supplies, steam flow and reservoir levels. It depends only on precipitation.
Calculating the SPI for a certain time period at any place requires a long sequence of monthly data for
the quantity of precipitation, at least 30 annual sequence [9].
When calculating the SPI, it is necessary to summarize the monthly values of precipitation for each
year. Mathematically speaking, SPI is based on the cumulative probability of some precipitation
appearing at the observation post. Research has shown that precipitation is subject to the law of gamma
distribution. One whole period of observation at one meteorological station is used for the purpose of
determining the parameters of scaling and the forms of precipitation probability density function:

( )

(1)

( )

where:
a form parameter,
b scale parameter,
x precipitation quantity,
( ) gamma function defined by the following statement:

() =

(2)

Parameters a and b are determined by the method of maximum probability for a multiyear data
sequence, i.e.:

(
A=

(3)

( )

(4)

(5)

where:
mean value of precipitation quantity,
precipitation measurement number,
quantity of precipitation in a sequence of data.
The obtained parameters are further applied to the determination of a cumulative probability of certain
precipitation for a specific time period in a temporal scale of all the observed precipitation. The
cumulative probability can be presented by the following statement:

( )

( )

(6)

Since the gamma function has not been defined for x = 0, and the precipitation may amount to zero,
the cumulative probability becomes:

( )

) ( )

(7)

where:
probability that the quantity of precipitation equals zero, which is calculated using the following
equation:
(8)
where:
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 number which signified how many times the precipitation was zero in a temporal sequence of
data,
precipitation observation number in a sequence of data.
For the calculation in this paper, parameter
signifies the number when the precipitation value was
lower than 10 mm on a monthly level, as the quantity of precipitation did not equal zero in any month,
according to the data from the RHMSS.
The very calculation of the precipitation index is performed on the basis of next equation [2, 5, 6]:
(

( )
(9)

( )

where is determined as

( )

( ( ))
(

and
= 2.515517,

(10)
( )

( ))

are coefficients whose values are:

= 0.802853,
= 0.010328,
= 1.432788,

= 0.189269,

= 0.001308.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this paper, the SPI values have been calculated based on the monthly precipitation quantities from
one meteorological station (Nis) in Serbia. A calibration period was selected from 1980 to 2010 for
determining the parameters of the gamma distribution. The SPI values for 2010 were considered in the
following manner: (1) for a one-month period June (SPI 1), (2) for a three-month period from May to
July (SPI 3), (3) for a six-month period from January to June (SPI 6) and (4) for a twelve-month period
January-December (SPI 12).
The obtained SPI values have been categorized according to the classification used by the RHMSS
(Table 1).
Table 1 Humidity conditions, according to the RHMSS

SPI value

Humidity conditions

SPI -2.326

Exceptional drought

-2.326 SPI -1.645

Extreme drought

-1.645 SPI -1.282

Strong drought

-1.282 SPI -0.935

Moderate drought

-0.935 SPI -0.524

Drought

-0.524 SPI +0.524

Normal humidity conditions

+0.524 SPI +0.935

Slightly increased humidity

+0.935 SPI +1.282

Moderately increased humidity

+1.282 SPI +1.645

Very humid

+1.645 SPI +2.326

Extremely humid

SPI +2.326

Exceptionally humid

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Table 1 shows that the negative values of the SPI index represent periods when droughts occur, while
the positive values of the SPI index represent conditions where humid climate dominates, i.e. where the
drought ceases, and the intensity of the drought (moisture) can also be read from Table 2.
Table 2 The relations between the SPI index and cumulative probability

SPI

Cumulative probability H(x)

- 3.0
- 2.5
- 2.0
- 1.5
- 1.0
- 0.5
0.0
+ 0.5
+ 1.0
+ 1.5
+ 2.0
+ 2.5
+ 3.0

0.0014
0.0062
0.0228
0.0668
0.1587
0.3085
0.5000
0.6915
0.8413
0.9332
0.9772
0.9938
0.9986

The summarized results of the SPI for 2010 have been categorized based on Tables 1 and 2 presented
in Table 3.
Table 3 Humidity conditions based on the SPI values for year 2010

Type

SPI

Class

1
3
6
12

0.411
0.287
1.595
0.915

0.660
0.613
0.944
0.820

Normal humidity conditions

Normal humidity conditions
Very humid
Slightly increased humidity

When we consider the calculations and the diagram for June 2010, it can be seen that humidity
conditions cover 7 categories, while the drought and humid years almost alternate. The maximum value
of the drought index amounts to -2.102 for 1996, while the maximum humidity value equals 1.624 for
1980, which is seen in Figure 2.

SPI 1

2
1.5
1
0.5

-0.5
-1

-1.5
-2

Time in years
Figure 2 SPI 1 values

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2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

-2.5
1980

SPI

Based on the standardized precipitation index diagram for a three-month period (May to July), it can
be seen that drought and humid conditions alternated over a period of 31 years, which covered eight
categories of humidity conditions according to the RHMSS. Year 1980 recorded the maximum humidity
of 1.913, and maximum drought was recorded in 1990 with an intensity of -1.528 (Figure 3).

SPI 3

2.5
2
1.5
1

SPI

0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

1980

-2
Time in years
Figure 3 SPI 3 values

By looking at the SPI calculation results for the six-month period (January June), Figure 4, constant
changes in humid and dry periods for the observed sequence of years can be noticed. According to the
classification of the RHMSS for the period of 6 months, eight categories of humid conditions stand out,
ranging from extreme droughts to extremely humid conditions. Droughts appear in 1984, then from 1986
to 1988, from 1990 to 1994, from 1996 to 1998, as well as 2000, 2003, 2007 and 2008. Greatest intensity
droughts occurred in the period from 1986 to 1998 with a maximum value of -1.628. On the other hand,
the greatest values of increased humidity were recorded in year 2005, and they amounted to 1.775.

SPI 6
2
1.5
1

0
-0.5
-1

-1.5

Time in years
Figure 4 SPI 6 values

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2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

-2
1980

SPI

0.5

When we consider the obtained values for the twelve-month period, seven categories of humid
conditions can be noticed, ranging from conditions of normal humidity to extremely dry and humid
conditions (Figure 5).
It can be noticed that the droughts were more intense in the period from 1986 to 1995, and the
maximum drought was recorded in 2000, with an SPI index value of -1.474. Periods of increased
humidity were prevalent from 1980 to 1986, and from 2004 to 2010, with maximum humidity values for
2004, which amounted to 1.585.

SPI 12

2
1.5
1

SPI

0.5

0
-0.5
-1
-1.5

2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

1980

-2

Time in years
Figure 5 SPI 12 values

4. CONCLUSION
By comparing SPI diagrams for the observed temporal scales (1, 3, 6, 12), it can be concluded that the
conditions of humidity are not extremely unfavorable in the basin of Nis. On the contrary, owing to global
warming, more drought periods could have been expected, especially in the period of vegetation, i.e.
during May, June and July.
Since the end of the eighties of the previous century, there has been greater irregularity in precipitation
(cyclicality excluded).
In the period from 1990 to 2004, the values of climatic elements are more extreme, i.e. deviate from
the multiyear average more or less. Also, the performed analysis shows that both the drought years and
the rain years occur irregularly.
According to all drought indicators, a more frequent occurrence of drought years may be noted after
year 1987. The causes of this are lower quantities of precipitations, lower relative humidity, greater air
temperatures and sums of exposure to the suns rays, which causes greater evapotranspiration.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This article was realized as a part of the projects TR 37003 and TR 37018 financed by the Ministry of
Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia within the framework of technological development for
the period 2011 2014.
REFERENCES
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Tematski zbornik radova Melioracije 11, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad, 16-24.
[2] Bordi, I., Frigio, S., Parenti, P., Speranza, A., Sutera, A. (2001): The analysis of the Standardized
Precipitation Index in the Mediterranean area: large scale patterns, Annali di geofisica, 44 (5/6),
965978.
[3] Byun, H.R., Kim, D.W. (2010): Comparing the Effective Drought Indeks and the Standardized
Precipitation Index, Economics of drought and drought preparedness in a climate change context,
Options Mditerranennes, 95, 8589.
[4] Guttman, N. B. (1999): Accepting the standardized precipitation index: A calculation algorithm,
Journal of the American Water Resources Association.
[5] Khadr, M., Morgenschweis, G., Schlenkhoff, A. (2009): Analysis of Meteorological Drought in
the Ruhr Basin by Using the Standardized Precipitation Index, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology, 57, 607616.
[6] Lloyd-Hughes, B., Saunders, M. (2002): A drought climatology for Europe, International journal
of climatology, 22, 15711592.
[7] McKee, T., Doesken, N., Kleist, J. (1993): The relationship of drought frequency and duration to
time scales, Eighth Conference on Applied Climatology, Anaheim, California.
[8] Raji, M., tula, S. (2007): Klimatske promene i pojava sua na podruju june Bake, Letopis
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[9] Seiler, R. A., Hayes, M., Bressan, L. (2002): Using the Standardized Precipitation Index for
Flood risk monitoring, International journal of climatology, 22, 13651376.
[10] Spasov, P. (2003): Pojava sue u Srbiji, njeno praenje i mogunosti prognoze, Vodoprivreda,
35, 3036.
[11] Strievi, R., urovi, N., Pivi, R. (2007): Primena standardizovanog indeksa padavina za
odreivanje pojava sufisita i deficita vode na podruju Surinskog donjeg polja, Vodoprivreda, 39,
366-375.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Bojan Miloevi1
Marina Mijalkovi 2
arko Petrovi 3

ANALYSIS OF LIMIT BEARING CAPACITY OF FRAMES EXPOSED TO

THE ACTION OF VARIABLE REPEATED LOAD
Abstract: By applying limit structural analysis it is possible to determine maximum safe load paremeter
or the load increasing parameter when the load acting on the structure proportionaly increases, while by
applying shakedown analysis it is possible to determine safe limit load when the structure is exposed to
the action of variable repeated load. Failure force obtained by applying shakedown analysis is less than
failure force obtained by applying limit structural analysis and depending on character of variable
repeated load there is incremental and alternative failure force. The goal of this paper is defining of limit
and incremental failure force of frame structures by applying limit and shakedown analysis. Difference
between the failure force values depending on the character of a load, as well as on the ratio height to
width of a frame, is presented in this paper in percentage terms. The results are used to assess
justification for application of the shakedown method in the analysis of the limit bearing capacity of the
frame structures.
Key words: Frame structure, Limit failure force, Incremental failure force, Residual bending moment

ANALIZA GRANINE NOSIVOSTI RAMOVA IZLOENIH DEJSTVU

PROMENLJIVO PONOVLJENOG OPTEREENJA
: Primenom granine analize konstrukcija mogue je odrediti maksimalni parametar optereenja
ili parametar uveanja optereenja kada je konstrukcija izloena dejstvu optereenja koje proporcionalno
raste, dok je primenom metode adaptacije mogue odrediti optereenje loma kada je konstrukcija
izloena dejstvu promenljivo ponovljenog optereenja. Optereenje loma dobijeno primenom metode
adaptacije manje je od optereenja dobijenog primenom granine analize, a u zavisnosti od karaktera
promenljivo ponovljenog optereenja postoji inkrementalno i alternativno optereenje loma. Cilj ovog
rada je da se u zavisnosti od karaktera optereenja primenom granine analize i metode adaptacije
odrede granina i inkrementalna sila loma ramovskog nosaa i izvri analiza granine nosivosti rama. U
radu je prikazana procentualna razlika izmeu veliina sila loma u zavisnosti od karaktera optereenja i
odnosa visine i irine rama kako bi se dolo do zakljuka o opravdanosti primene metode adaptacije u
analizi granine nosivosti ramovskih nosaa.
Kljune rei: Ramovski nosa, Grania sila loma, Inkrementalna sila loma, Zaostali moment savijanja

1
Mr, Lecturer, College of Applied Studies in Civil Engineering and Geodesy, University of Belgrade, Hajduk Stankova 2,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia, prodic_80@yahoo.com
2
Dr, Full Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Ni,
Serbia, maca@gaf.ni.ac.rs
3
Mr, Assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Ni,
Serbia zarko@gaf.ni.ac.rs

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1. INTRODUCTION
Engineering structures or some of their parts are exposed to various types of load, some of which
acting independently. Some of these loads are constant, while others are not defined in the course of time
and they belong to the group of variably repeated loads [1]. In a large number of cases only the domain to
which the variably repeated load belongs can be defined.
Application of shakedown theory in assessment of safety of elasto-plastic structures exposed to the
action of variable, repeated load is important, and often indispensable. The structure in this case
undergoes failure due to one or both forms of failure called incremental collapse and alternating collapse
[2]. The incremental collapse occurs due to accumulation of plastic deformations during each load cycle
(progressive deformation), causing reduction of structure durability, while the alternating collapse results
from the repetition of plastic deformations of the opposite sign (without accumulation of plastic
deformations) causing in this manner a phenomenon of low cycle fatigue.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the limit bearing capacity of mutually rigid frame on joints
applying limit and shakedown theorem, and to show the percentage difference between the values of
failure force, depending on the character of the load and ratio between height and width of the frame, in
order to conclude validity of the application of shakedown theorem in limit bearing capacity of frame
girder.
2. LIMIT AND SHAKEDOWN THEOREM
The basic theorems of limit analysis can be applied to all the types of static systems, irrespective of
whether they are statistically determinate of statically indeterminate. The basic theorems of limit analysis
consist of static theorem or the theorem of the lower border of limit load and kinematic theorem or the
theorem of the upper border of limit load.
The static theorem can be expressed in the following way: if there is any distribution of bending
moments in one static system which is simultaneously safe and statically permissible under the load P,
then the value must be lower or equal to the factor of failure load C, (C>). The actual limit load
(CPPp) can be equal or higher than the given one.
It can be concluded that one static system can really bear the limit load without failure, considering
that C is the maximum factor of load where the static equilibrium cannot be achieved without formation
of plastic joints.
In the case when the failure mechanism is known, the factor of failure load C, i.e. the limit load (CP),
is determined the equalizing the work of external forces with the work absorbed in plastic joints. In the
case when the failure mechanism which corresponds to the limit is not known in advance, the equation of
the work can be written for each assumed failure mechanism, whereby the values (P) are obtained, that
are corresponding to the assumed failure mechanisms.
The kinematic theorem can be expressed in the following way: for the given static system, exposed to
the external load P, the value which corresponds to any assumed failure mechanism must be higher or
equal to the factor of failure load C, that is, C.
Shakedown theorems have a role to set the main conditions under which the plastic yield in the
structure finally ceases, regardless of how frequently in what sequence the load was applied.[3] The
bending moment of the observed cross section j can be presented as:
M j mj M j

(1)

where: Mj is the actual bending moment of the cross section, Mj is the elastic bending moment of the
cross section, mj is the retained bending moment of the cross section.
Thus it can be said that the structure has adapted under the action of variable repeated load, if at some
point the condition (1) has been satisfied, and all the following loads cause only elastic change of bending
moments. On the basis of conditions (1) the static theorem of adaptation can be expressed in the
following form: if there is any distribution of retained bending moments mj in the structure, and this
distribution is statically possible in the case when structure is not loaded and when it is satisfied for any
cross section j, it is necessary to meet one of the conditions:
-380-

m j M max
Mp
j

, M

Mp
, m j M min
j

max
j

M min
2 Me j
j

(2)(3)(4)

a value will be equal to or smaller than the factor of safe limit load S.
Each structure strives to adapt to the action of variable repeated load in a best possible way.
Depending on the calculated load factor it is possible to determine the safe limit load which depends on
the type of variable repeated load, on the basis of meeting some of the requirements of the equations (2)
and (3), as incremental conditions of plasticity and equation (4), as alternative plasticity conditions [4].
Assuming that the observed failure mechanism is known, rotations of formed plastic joints can be
noticed in the certain number of characteristic cross sections. If the rotation in any cross section is
positive (+), then it can be said that the total bending moment in this cross section aspires to reach the
value +MP, and if the rotation of formed plastic joint is negative ( -), the bending moment aspires to
reach the value -MP. On the basis of the introduced assumptions, the equations (2) and (3) can be written
in the form:

, for j .

m j M max
Mp
j
m j M min
Mp
j

, for j ,

(5)

(6)

If the equations (5) and (6) are multiplied by the corresponding rotation of the formed plastic joint in
the cross section j, then, they have the form:

m j j M max
j j Mp

m j j M max
j j

j ,

p j

j .

(7)
(8)

Adding up of equations (7) and (8), of all the plastic hinges which have been formed on the observed
failure mechanism, give the following:

max

m j j M max
j j M j j Mp j j

(9)

As the distribution of retained bending moments is in equilibrium when the structure is unloaded, and
the rotation of the cross section where the plastic joint has been formed, the equation of the principle of
virtual work can be written in the following form: m j j 0 , thus (9) becomes:

max

M max
j j M j j Mp j ,

(10)

which represents the basic equation of incremental failure.

On the basis of equation (10) it is possible to express the kinematic theorem of adaptation in the
following way: the value of parameter , which corresponds to any assumed failure mechanism
(alternative a or incremental I), must be higher or equal to the value of the parameter of safe limit load
S.
The kinematic theorem of adaptation in this form was first defined by Koiter .
3. ANALYSIS OF LIMIT BEARING CAPACITY OF FRAME GIRDER DEPENDING ON THE
CHARACTER OF THE LOAD
Depending on the the character of the load, with application of adequate method, limit bearing
capacity of the frame, shown on Figure 1.(a), was analyzed. The analysis was conducted with application
of limit and shakedown theorem, depending on the character of the load and change of the coeficient ()
which defines the relation between the height (h) and width (l) of the frame.

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Figure 1. (a) Frame; (b) Sway failure mechanism; (c) Combined failure mechanism

Elastic distribution of bending moments if only V force acts on the frame, that is, only the force H, is
presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Elastic distribution of bending moments (a) from V; (b) from H.

3.1. Limit load failure

When the frame is exposed to the proportionally increases load, the failure force can be determined by
some of the limit analysis theorem. For each of the possible failure mechanisms, applying the kinematic
theorem, the following equations are obtained:
Mp Mp hH ,

(11)

l
Mp 2 M p 2 hH V .
2

(12)

With equations (11) and (12) the failure force equations are gathered, which corresponds to side and
combined failure mechanism, respectively:
H

2M p
h

(13)

2hH Vl 8Mp .

(14)

If H=V=F, based on (12) and (13) the failure force values are:
Fcrt

Fcrt

2M p

8M p

l 2 1

(15)

(16)

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Change of the limit failure force depends on the change of the ratio of height to width of the frame, as
displayed in Figure 3.(a), while change of the limit failure force depending on the change of height h and
width l of the frame displayed in Figure 3.(b)

Figure 3. (a) The change of limit failure force and applicable failure mechanism, depending on ; (b). Limit failure force
depending on h and l

In Figure 3.(a) it can be observed that for 0,50 the combined failure mechanism forms, while in
case of 0,50 the sway failure mechanism forms.
3.2. Incremental load failure
If frame is exposed to the action of variable repeated load acting in the range: (0, H), (0, V) failure
load (incremental failure force) is determined applying the kinematic or static theorem, shakedown
method.
On the basis of the condition that residual bending moments on the potential failure mechanisms are in
equilibrium (Figure 1.(a) and Figure 1.(b)) the following equations can be written:
m2 m4 0 ,

(17)

m3 2 m4 2 0 .

(18)

By solving the equations (17) and (18) the following expressions are obtained:
3Vl 24H l 16Hl 2 16Mp 3 2 ,

(19)

Vl 2Hl 8Mp ,

(20)

on whose basis, in case when H=V=F the incremental failure forces are obtained in the form:

Finc

Finc

16M p 3 2

l 3 24 16 2
8M p

l 1 2

(21)

(22)

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able 8 - Maximum and minimum values of bending moment in elastic area and residual bending moment

moment

M+

Hh
2

M-

3
V l 4 3
8 2 3

3V l
16 24

Hh
3V l

2 16 24

/
0

On the basis of the conditions (2) i (3) by application of static shakedown theorem it is possible to
determine incremental failure force, as well as value of residual bending moment. For the cross-sections
2, 3 and 4, the following equations can be written:
cross sections 2:

Hh
m Mp ,
2

(23)

3V l
m Mp ,
16 24

(24)

cross sections 3:
V l 4 3
8 2 3

m Mp ,

(25)

0 m Mp ,

(26)

cross sections 4:
0 m Mp ,

(27)

Hh
3V l

m Mp .
2 16 24

(28)

By solving the equations (23) and (28) the following expressions are obtained:

Hh
3V l

Mp ,
2 2 16 24

(29)

3V l
.
16 3 2

(30)

on whose basis are obtained incremental failure force, and residual bending moment for H=V=F (Figure
1.(b)), when sway failure mechanism occurs:

Finc

16M p 3 2

l 3 24 16 2
3M p

3 24 16 2

(31)

(32)

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By solving the equations (25) and (28) the following expressions are obtained:

2Hh Vl
Mp ,
2
m

(33)

3hH 2hH V l
.
4 3 2

(34)

on whose basis are obtained incremental failure force, and residual bending moment for H=V=F (Figure
1.(c)), when combine failure mechanism occurs:
Finc

8M p

l 1 2

4M p 1

1 2 3 2

(35)

(36)

On the basis of the expression (21) and (22) the diagrams are constructed (Figure 4.(a)) where change
of incremental failure force and change of failure meganism depending on is observed. Thus for 0,29
combined failure mechanism is formed and for 0,29 sway mechanism is formed. Diagram in Figure
4.(b), constructed on the basis of the expression (32) i (36), shows chenge of residual bending moment. It
is obviouse that maximum residual bending moment ( 0,264911Mp) is for =0,29.

Figure 4. (a) Change of incremental force and applicable failure mechanism, depanding on ; (b) Chenge of residual bending
moment depending on ; (c) The percentage difference between limit and incremental failure force, depending on

When 0,29 is relevant limit failure force, while for =0,50, when the relevant failure mechanism
change occurs, difference of limit and incremental failure force is maximum and amounts to 15,78%. For
0,50 this difference decreases from 15,78% to 2,61% (=2,0).
Chenge of incremental failure force and residual bending moment depending on h and l are showen on
Figure 5.(a) and Figure 5.(b).

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Figure 5. (a) Incremental failure force depending on h and l; (b) Chenge of residual bending moment depending on h and l

4. CONCLUSION
Using static and/or kinematic theorem of limit or shakedown method it is possible to analyze the
bearing capacity of frame structures depending on the character of the load. By kinematic theorem of the
limit analysis and kinematic shakedown theorem it is possible to determine a limit failure force and the
incremental failure force in a quick and easy way. Static theorem of limit analysis and static shakedown
theorem enable monitoring of the process of formation of plastic hinges, as well as defining the residual
bending moment in the case of acting variable repeated load. In this paper the limit and the incremental
failure force, as well as residual bending moment, is calculated depending on the character of the load by
use of above theoremes on the example of a frame structure with one degree of static indeterminacy.
Depending on the nature of the load and the ratio height to width of the frame, a comparative analysis of
failure force was done in order to draw conclusion about justification for application of the shakedown
method in the analysis of the limit bearing capacity of the frame structures.
When analysed frame is exposed to the action of proportionally increasing load, change of limit failure
force is presented on Figure 3.(a). It can be observed that for =0,5 change of relevant failure mechanism
occurs. When frame is exposed to variably repeated load, change of incremental failure force is shown in
Figure 4.(a), while change of residual bending moment is displayed in Figure 4.(b). It is obvious that
relevant failure mechanism changes at =0,29, when the value of residual moment reaches maximum
value (0,264911 Mp ). By comparative analysis of the values of limit and incremental failure force, it is
concluded that the limit failure force is relevant in the case of considered frame when the ratio height to
width of the frame is 0,29, while for =0,50 the difference between corresponding failure forces is the
highest and amounts to 15,78%.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is supported by The Ministry of Science of the Republic of Serbia, within the framework of
the project Development and improvement of methods for analyses of soil-structure interaction based on
theoretical and experimental research (TR 36028) for the period 2011.-2014.

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REFERENCES:
[1] Baker J.; Heyman J.: Plastic Design of Frames, Fundamentals, Vol 1., Cambridge University
Press, London, 1969.
[2] Chakrabarty J.: Theory of plasticity, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2006
[3] Ghani R.A.: Shakedown Design of Engineering Structures, MN Services International, Dhaka,
2008
[4] Heyman J.: Plastic Design of Frames, Vol.2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1971
[5] Lubliner J.: Plasticity Theory, University of California at Berkeley, 2006
[6] Miloevi B.: Analiza granine nosivosti linijskih nosaa primenom metode adaptacije,
magistarsi rad, Graevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet u Niu, Ni, 2010.
[7] Miloevi B.: Mijalkovi M., Petrovi ., Hadimujovi M.: The Application of the Limit
Analysis Theorem and the Adaptation Theorem for Determining the Failure Load of Continuous
Beams, Scientific Tehnical Review, vol 60, no 3-4, 2010, p. 82-92
[8] Miloevi B., Mijalkovi M., Petrovi ., Hadimujovi M.: Comparative Analysis of Limit
Bearing Capacity of a Continuous Beam Applying the Limit and Shakedown Analysis Depending
on the Character of the Load, Technical Gazette, vol 18, no 4, 2011, p.485-495
[9] Neal B.G.: The Plastic Methods of Structural Analysis, Chapman & Hall, London, 1977

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Vuk Miloevi1
Dragan Kosti2

THE PROBLEM OF LARGE DEFLECTIONS IN MEMBRANE

STRUCTURES
Abstract: Membrane structures are the lightest structural system currently in use. They are often used
when lightness, luxury and attractiveness of the structure are desired. However, membranes also have
some negative characteristics. Their life span and thermal characteristics are not as good as those of
traditional structural systems. Structurally, their biggest problem are deflections. Membranes are
tensioned elastic structures with double curvature. Because of their lightness and low stiffness they are
subject to large deflections under external loading. This paper analyses the different ways of reducing
deflections in membrane structures. Some deflections are necessary in order to resist the external loads,
and these deflections will certainly be larger than in traditional structures. However, they must not cause
discomfort for the people using the space. This research has been conducted by experimenting on a
model, using finite element software. The model is a 10x10 m saddle shaped membrane. Some
characteristics of the model were modified in order to draw conclusions about their influence on
deflections. The aim of the paper is to define the best solution for reducing deflections in membrane
structures.
ey words: Membrane Structures, Deflections, Boundary Conditions, Prestress, Double Curvature,
Tension

:
. ,
. , .
.
, .
.
.
.
, ,
.
, .
10x10 m.
.
.
: , , , ,
,
1
PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni, Serbia,
vukamer@yahoo.com
2
Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni, Serbia,
dkostic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

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1. MEMBRANE STRUCTURES
Membranes are one of the most advanced structural systems today. They were invented in the second
half of the twentieth century, and their popularity is still growing year after year. Membranes are the
lightest structural system, which means they have the least self weight per square meter. Their weight is
about 1-2 kg/m2, while they can span distances of over 100 m. Because of their attractive and unusual
forms, membranes raise the aesthetical values of the space they are located in. They are a typical
representative of the minimalist architecture [1], and one of the best successors of the Bauhaus school of
architecture. Today membranes are used to cover public spaces, sport arenas, open air theaters, stands,
shopping centers and different types of enclosed buildings [6]. Wherever lightness, luxury and
attractiveness are desired or need to be shown, membrane structures are applied.
While other structural systems usually resist external loads by their mass, membranes do so by using
their form and tension. The form of the membranes is always double curved with the negative Gaussian
curvature. The two most frequently used shapes are the saddle shape and the cone, but the ridge and
valley, and the arch supported shape can also be used [2]. There are two types of textile materials used as
structural material for membranes. The first one is a polyester fabric coated with PVC and the second one
is fiberglass fabric coated with PTFE [9]. The two principal directions in the fabric are called warp and
weft. Membranes are surface structures because the length and the width of the material are far bigger
than the thickness, which is usually only about 1 mm. The material itself, being so thin, practically does
not have any stiffness. This is why the material has to be tensioned in order to be stable [5]. This type of
material resists tension very well, but fails for compression. This is the reason why membranes have to be
tensioned in every point, all the time. In order to achieve this, they have to be pretensioned, or in other
words, tensioned even when there is no external loading. Pretension is a type of internal loading that is
introduced during the erection phase, and acts as a permanent load. During time it will decrease
somewhat, due to the properties of the material.
Membranes also have some negative properties. Their price is still relatively high, which is somewhat
justified by the luxury they represent. Because of their small thickness they have very bad thermal
properties. The design and manufacture of these structures are very complicated and require expensive
software and production machines. But for the end user the biggest problem with membranes are the large
deflections under external loading. Deflections of the membrane have to be larger than in traditional
structures because of the characteristics of this system, but they must not cause discomfort for the users.
The field of membrane structures has mostly been undefined by the regulations of most of the countries in
the world. Consequently, the value of deflections has not been limited, which leaves it to designer to
judge whether they are too large or not. This paper represents a study carried out on the different aspects
of the structure that influence the extent of deflections. The aim of the paper is to show how to reduce
these deflections by changing some parameters of the membrane structure.
2. THE EXPERIMENT
As the appropriate way of proving the hypothesis about the influence of different factors on the value
of deflections, experimental methodology was chosen. The results of the experiment are justified by the
theoretical discussion. Modeling and testing were done using the software Sofistik. This is a finite
element software that allows the calculation of such structures. The model is a 10x10 m saddle shaped
membrane. High points are at a height of 4 meters above the low points. In the Figures, in the deflection
presentations, the high points are shown as the upper left and the lower right corners. The direction of the
warp is from one high point to another, as it is usually the case. Weft direction is perpendicular to warp,
that is, from one low point to another. There are a few types of external loading that act on the
membranes. The most common ones are snow and wind. The snow load acts vertically down on the
structure, while the wind forces are distributed in the direction normal and parallel to the surface of the
membrane. Wind is a dynamic load, but is usually calculated as a static load with different safety factors
and pressure coefficients. In this experiment, external load has an intensity of 0,5 kN/m2, and acts
vertically down, thus representing snow load. This type of loading was chosen because it allows an easier
comparison between different models. The material properties will not be changed in the shown
examples, but this is also one way of influencing the deflections. Generally speaking, if the used material
is stiffer, the membrane structure will have lower deflections. One other way of affecting the deflections
is the insertion of a ridge cable in the structure.

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2.1 Prestressing
Membrane structures are very elastic structures with low stiffness, because of the type of structural
material used. One of the ways of increasing the stiffness of the membrane structure is to increase the
amount of prestress. Model 1 and the deflections under the external load are shown in Figure 1. In this
model, the edges are fixed. Prestress is 4 kN/m in both warp and weft. Maximum deflection under these
conditions is 166.7 mm. The point with the maximum deflection is located in the middle of the structure.

Figure 1 Model 1 and the deflections under load (maximum 166.7 mm)

The next model has all the same properties as Model 1, except the prestress has been increased to 8
kN/m in both warp and weft. Model 2 and its deflections are shown in the Figure 2. It can be noted that
there is no visible difference between Model 1 and Model 2. This is because the stresses in warp and weft
directions are the same, and thus the membrane takes the minimal surface form [10]. If the stresses are
changed, but their ratio stays the same, the form of the membrane will remain the same [3]. However, the
membrane does not react to the load the same. Since the prestress in Model 2 is higher, the membrane is
stiffer and it deflects less. The maximum deflection is 147.0 mm, and is in the point in the middle. This
undoubtedly shows that an increase in prestress reduces the deflections of membranes.

Figure 2 Model 2 and the deflections under load (maximum 147.0 mm)

Model 3 has a warp prestress of 8 kN/m, and a weft prestress of 4 kN/m. Here the difference in shape,
compared to Models 1 and 2, is visible. Since the warp fibers have more prestress, they lift the membrane
up. The equilibrium is achieved in a way that warp fibers have more prestress, but also lower curvature,
unlike weft fibers. The curvature is indirectly proportional to the radius of the curvature and the stresses
[8]. Here the deflection is 125.7 mm. An even lower deflection compared to Model 2 was expected, in
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spite of the fact that the total prestress is lower, since the prestress is distributed in the right way to resist
the applied type of loading. If the load acts vertically down, like the one applied to the models, than the
warp fibers become the load bearing ones [7]. Since they have high prestress they will not allow large
deflections. This means that if we anticipate one type of loading we can apply different prestress to warp
and weft, and in such way lose the minimal surface shape, but lower the deflections. In real life, the
problem is that we can rarely expect only loading pushing down or lifting up the membrane, and
accordingly set the ratio of prestress.

Figure 3 Model 3 and the deflections under load (maximum 125.7 mm)

2.2 Boundary conditions

Models 4 and 5 have different boundary conditions compared to the previous models. For the first
three models all of the edges are selected to be fixed, so that the differences in prestress could easily be
compared and the results would be correct. Fixed edges are sometimes applied in practice, although the
ones with the cable edges are significantly more popular. The geometry of 4 support points is the same
here as before. Model 4 has an even prestress of 4 kN/m in both warp and weft. The prestress of the edge
cables is 100 kN. It was expected that we would get larger deflections when compared to Model 1 that
has the same prestress, since edge cables have less stiffness than fixed edges, so they can deform and
deflect themselves [4]. The expectations were proven by testing, which showed that the maximum
deflections for this model are 296.5 mm. Here the maximum does not occur in the middle point, but
slightly towards the low points. The reason for this is that the high point supports do not deflect, while the
edge cables do, thus providing less support than the 4 fixed points.

Figure 4 Model 4 and the deflections under load (maximum 296.5 mm)

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Model 5 has identical properties as model 4, except the prestress of the edge cables, which is lowered
to 60 kN. This means that the stiffness of the cables is lower, and that they will deflect more, causing the
membrane to deflect more. This is proven by the experiment whose results showed that the maximum
deflection is 328.1 mm, as in Model 4. The lower cable prestress leads to them having a higher curvature,
compared to Model 4, in order to achieve equilibrium. This higher curvature of the cables can also be
noted in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Model 5 and the deflections under load (maximum 328.1 mm)

2.3 Curvature
The last parameters that influence the deflections studied and shown in this paper are in the field of
membrane curvature. Models 6 and 7 have increased curvature compared to the previous models because
the height of their high points is increased by 2 meters. This should result in a drastic reduction of
deflections. Model 6 has edge cables prestressed with 80 kN, and warp and weft prestress of 4 kN/m.
Maximum deflection is 206.1 mm, which is considerably lower compared to Model 4, even though Model
6 has more prestress in the edge cables.

Figure 6 Model 6 and the deflections under load (maximum 206.1 mm)

Model 7 has the same prestress in warp and weft, but instead of edge cables has fixed edge supports.
Maximum deflections in this situation are only 88.3 mm which is significantly lower than any other
model tested here. The main reason for this is the high curvature of the system, but also the high stiffness
of the supports. Fibers with more curvature have a higher ability of resisting external loads, as it has been
proven here.

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Figure 7 Model 7 and the deflections under load (maximum 88.3 mm)

3. DISCUSSION
The first conclusion from this experiment is that the type of edge supports, the amount of prestress and
the curvature of the membrane really do influence the value of deflections of the membrane. The prestress
is one of the requirements for the existence of membranes. It is shown here that two prestress factors have
an effect on the deflections, and these are the intensity of the prestress and the ratio of prestress.
Increasing the intensity of the prestress makes the membrane stiffer, and thus less sensitive to deflections.
Even though it may seem like a good solution, based on this conclusion, to increase the intensity of the
prestress by large amounts is not practically possible. The limitation in this respect is the tension strength
of the membrane material. The material can resist only a certain amount of tension, after which it breaks.
Pretension is just a part of loading that a material should resist, in addition to external loads. The action of
these external loads will increase the stresses in the material, and if it is not dimensioned correctly, it will
break. Hence, even though the increase in prestress helps with the reduction of deflections, we need to be
very careful when designing the intensity of the prestress. It has also been proven in this experiment that
the ratio of the prestress in warp and weft directions is an important factor for reducing deflections. If we
only expect loads pushing down or lifting up the membrane, we can set the ratio of the warp to weft
prestress to allow smaller deflections. This will also result in a change of the form of the membrane,
which will no longer be a minimal surface for the given boundaries. The tension forces will also be higher
here, so the aspect of membrane stresses should be monitored parallel to the change in pretension.
The boundary conditions also have an influence on the value of deflections, perhaps even more than
the prestress. Two types of boundary supports were analyzed: fixed, which means the ones with infinite
high stiffness, and cable edges with defined prestress. The testing showed that Models 4 and 5, which
have cable edge supports, have deflections approximately twice the size of the deflections of Models 1, 2
and 3, which have fixed edges. Between the two models with cable edges, the one with more cable edge
prestress, that is, higher edge stiffness, has lower deflections. It proves that the larger the stiffness of the
edges, the lower the deflections. This could lead us to the conclusion that it would be better to always use
fixed edges with membranes, but such edges also have some downsides. In order to construct a fixed edge
in practice, a relatively large steel, concrete or timber construction has to be designed at the edge. In some
cases this is feasible, but most of the time this would have a bad architectural impact on the structure.
Such a large edge construction would be a contrast to the lightness of the membrane, and the membrane
structure would lose one its most important characteristics.
Finally, the curvature of the membrane plays a big role in defining the value of deflections. The
increase in height of the two high points in Models 6 and 7 by only 2 meters reduced the deflections
significantly. The curvature is directly connected to the stresses that are present in the structure, and to the
way external forces are distributed. If the curvature is higher, the membrane will more easily receive
loads, and will not have to deflect as much in order to distribute them. The change of curvature is easily
obtained by the change in the support geometry of the structure. The support geometry change largely
influences the form of the structure. This can possibly be a problem because by wanting to increase the
curvature, we change the geometry, thus significantly altering the form. This can lead to distancing from
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the preliminary architectural idea we had about the structure, which is not acceptable in some cases.
Teams of architects and designers should work on this problem alongside structural engineers in order to
find the best solution, both for the problems of form and deflections.
4. CONCLUSION
This study carried out by experimenting on models, along with the discussion, proved the basic
hypothesis set before any of the results were obtained. An increase in the stiffness in any part of the
structure will lead to a decrease in the membrane deflections. The final conclusion is that in order to get
the membrane with the lowest deflections, we need to design a membrane with high prestress, with edges
as stiff as possible, and with a high curvature. This may not lead to aesthetically and architecturally best
solutions, and thus should be used only when there is an absolute need to lower delfections. By the time
national standards about the maximum allowable deflections of membranes are adopted, it is up to
designers, engineers and the investor to decide on the deflections they want to have in their structure. It is
absolutely crucial to understand that membrane structures have to have much larger deflections than
traditional structures, but also to be knowledgeable of how to reduce these deflections, if needed.
REFERENCES
[1] Drew P.: New Tent Architecture, Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, 2008, pp. 208
[2] Foster B., Mollaert M.: European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures, TensiNet,
Brussels, 2004, pp. 354
[3] Kosti D., Miloevi V.: Application of the Saddle Shape Form for Covering the Stadium in
Niska Banja, TensiNet Symposium 2010, Sofia, 2010, pp. 281-290
[4] Kosti D., Miloevi V.: Modeliranje atorastih sistema u zavisnosti od graninih uslova,
Teorijska i eksperimentalna istraivanja konstrukcija i njihova primena u graevinarstvu, Ni,
2010, book 2, pp. A175-185
[5] Kosti D., Miloevi V.: Modelovanje geometrije atorastog krova nadstrenice stadiona u
Nikoj Banji, Graevinarstvo nauka i praksa, abljak, 2010, book 1, pp. 323-329
[6] Kosti D., Velimirovi N., Miloevi V.: Geometric Aspects of Elastic Structural Systems, XVI
Geometrical Seminar, Vrnjaka Banja, 2010, pp. 65-81
[7] Lewis T. S.: The Form-finding of Structures Possessing a Constant Surface Stress, doctoral
dissertation, University of Warwick, Warwick, 1997, pp. 311
[8] Miloevi V., Nikoli V.: The Form-Force Relation in Membrane Structures, 3rd International
Scientific Conference moNGeometrija 2012, Novi Sad, 2012, pp. 271-278
[9] Seidel M.: Tensile Surface Structures: A Practical Guide to Cable and Membrane Construction,
Ernst and Sohn, Berlin, 2009, pp. 229
[10]
Velimirovi Lj., Radivojevi G., Stankovi M., Kosti D.: Minimal Surfaces for
Architectural Constructions, Facta Universitatis: Architecture and Civil Engineering, Vol. 6,
No. 1, 2008, pp. 89-96

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Ivana Miljojkovi1
Milan Goci2
Dragan Milievi3

DEFINING THE PROBLEMS, OBJECTIVES AND MEASURES FOR

DECISION MAKING IN INTEGRATED PROTECTION OF WATER
RESOURCES QUALITY OF BASIN - A CASE STUDY OF TOPLICAS
RIVER BASIN
Abstract: Solving complex problems of integral protection of water resources quality in the basin
requires careful planning and iterative planning process, which consists of several stages, in order to
achieve the desired goals. A key step in developing a water quality protection plan is to identify water
quality problems and potential causes of problems and differentiating causes of symptoms. When
problems are identified, the goals of water quality protection plan establish and perform an assessment to
become achievable goals. The objectives of the plan should be indicated in a clear and concise
manner. When goals are clearly defined, potentially feasible measures to achieve the established goals
and solve water quality problems can be selected. Possible measures should clearly describe the activities
that can be undertaken in a defined time frame and according to a specific budget and measurable key
results for the tracking efficiency. Such defined problems, objectives and possible measures are the basis
for the use of spatial decision support systems and making appropriate decisions for the definition and
implementation of optimal strategies for protection of water resources in the basin, which will achieve the
objectives established in accordance with defined criteria.
In this paper is briefly presented what is called "best practice" in developing a plan for the protection of
water quality on the example of Toplicas river basin, with special reference to the phase of defining the
problem, objectives and measures, according to their importance in the whole process.
Keywords: humidity integral protection of water resources quality, decision support system
1. INTRODUCTION
The communitys growing concern about the condition of water bodies has led to demands for change
in the way of managing natural resources. High water quality for household consumption and adequate
water supplies for agricultural and industrial production are believed to be essential for the future of
human society. At the same time, the interest in the use of water resources for recreation and for the
maintenance of ecological systems increases.
Today, the international community recognizes the seriousness of the problems caused by
deterioration of water quality. Moreover, it agreed formally to take protective measures towards the
quality of fresh water resources at numerous international conferences. Along with the increased
awareness and concern about the pollution, new approaches towards achieving sustainable use of water
resources have been developed. The growing understanding of the fundamental relationship between the
quality of water resources management and economic growth must be reflected in decisions about the use
of resources and their protection from pollution. Managing water resources and their protection from
pollution is an iterative process of integrated decision-making regarding the use and modification of water
resources and associated land in the basin. It relies on the application of systematic approach to formulate
the problem of water management and use of systems analysis in finding their solutions.
1 MSc, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, Scholarship of Ministry of Education and Science , libelamb@yahoo.com 065 95 00 101
2 MSc, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, mgocic@yahoo.com 064 14 79 423
3 PhD, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, drgara@gaf.ni.ac.rs 063 171 26 20

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More complex problems which should be solved and new high expectations for the aquatic
environment, included in the current wave of directives and regulations, cause additional complexity in
relation to the application of systems analysis tools in the management of water resources and their
protection from pollution. Besides, the imperative is the necessity of developing and distribution of new
generation of tools and integrated applications that will ensure effective computing coordination,
integrated resources, management and an effective coordination at national and regional level between the
policy makers and administration.
2. IT SUPPORT FOR INTEGRATED PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES FROM
POLLUTION
Water resources management encompasses a broad set of related problems which should be
considered together because they strictly interact with the consumption of water availability and quality
of water resources. It should provide a framework for integrated decision-making, within which managers
seek to: (1) evaluate the nature and status of water resources systems; (2) define short and long term goals
for the system; (3) determine the objectives and actions required to achieve the targets; (4) assess the
benefits and costs of each action; (5) implement the desired action; (6) estimate the effects of actions and
(7) progress toward goals and reassess targets as part of an iterative process.
In general, information is the basis for any planning, management and control. The assumption of
success in planning, management and control in all fields of human activities is an effective monitoring
program and a quality information system that enables the collection, storage, processing and access to
information when it is needed, so that the information system becomes support not only to operational but
also to strategic decision making. The relationships between information and key components of modern
information system for integrated water resources management are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Integrated water resources management system components [1]

Among the several systems and approaches to information engineering that is now increasingly
applied in the system of environmental protection and management of water resources, two systems are
particularly interesting: (1) geographic information systems (GIS) and (2) decision support systems
(DSS). According to modern views, comprehensive definition of GIS should include DSS or from another
perspective, the definition of a DSS should include GIS [2].
Problems of water resources management in the basin, by their nature, are poorly structured, complex,
and have some aspects that are unique to a certain domain or geographical area. Because of that, there are
limits on the use of existing decision support systems that have been developed to address specific nonspatial problems. Since the nature and complexity of the identified problems, and their distinct spatial
orientation, as support to their solution, spatial decision support systems are very useful, which according
to the type, belong to a group decision support systems based on models.
Generally speaking, spatial DSS systems combine analytical tools with features that are available in a
GIS, as well as spatial and no spatial simulation models and models for assessing the various options [2].
Their overall goal is to provide an integrated set of flexible options for decision making in solving poorly
structured or unstructured spatial problems.

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Spatial DSS should be designed to facilitate ease of use, flexibility of using, easy adaptation, support
for analytical methods and problem solving through the presentation of a number of alternatives. In order
to achieve this characteristics, spatial DSS should include a number of interconnected modules [3],
including GIS, database, systems analysis tools, communication tools and reporting capabilities, and
alternatively, the application field of knowledge (Figure 2).

Figure 2 - The modular architecture of the software prototype of spatial DSS [1]

At the Faculty of civil engineering and architecture in Nis, a few years is being worked on developing
an initial prototype of software of spatial decision support system, which is described in this paper [1,3].
The overall modules of prototype system (database management, visualization, presentation of results,
and communication), and the most of the components and submodule tools for system analysis have been
partially or fully developed, and connecting all these components into a single system is currently
working on.
3. APPLICATION OF SPATIAL DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM IN SOLVING PROBLEMS
ON BASIN - A CASE STUDY, THE RIVER BASIN TOPLICA
The concept of spatial decision support systems enables the successful implementation of the system
not only in the phase of planning, but later in the phase of the operational management, for defining
solutions which correspond to the technical and financial needs and requirements of the protection of
water resources in the basin.
Before starting any activity on the management of water resources and their protection from pollution,
programs / studies should be stated in clear and concise manner. Establishing the objectives of the
program / study is a key step, which involves identifying issues related to water resources and potential
causes of problems and differentiation reasons from symptoms. Once goals are clearly defined,
appropriate methods for solving problems can be selected and plan of program/ study can be developed.
3.1. Case study description
Area of river Toplicas basin is bordered on the north with Rasinas basin, on the west and southwest
with the river Labs basin and other smaller tributaries of the Ibar River, and on the south with Jablanicas
and Pusta rivers basins. It covers an area of 2217 km2 from source to the confluence to the South Morava
near Doljevac. It extends in the direction east - west by skyway about 80 km in length, and width of the
north - south (from Veliki Jastrebac to Dobri Dol) is about 55 km.
Hydrographic network of the basin is highly developed (Figure 3). In the upper course, river Toplica
passes through a narrow valley from the source to Kursumlija where the river bed width and width of
valley gradually increase in the middle and lower courses and the speed of water slow on the stretch from
Kursumlija to Prokuplje and continue to the confluence to South Morava. On its way from west to east
with flow length of 124 km receives many tributaries, most notably Lukovska and Banjska rivers,
Kosanica arising from the Small and Large Kosanica, Djerekapska and Boranska rivers. Smaller
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tributaries of Toplicas river are Bankovica, Small Tmavska, Arbanaska, Draguska, Planska and
Bogdanovska river. Mean monthly flow of significant streams of this area in the last 30 years are ranging
from 1.6 to 7.7 m3/ s for river Toplica, 1.2 m3/s for Lukovska River, 1.0 m3/s for Banjska river and 2.1
m3/s for Kosanica, and they are result of data analysis of watermeter stations installed at the above
mentioned rivers (Fig. 3).
Water structures which have been built since now are smaller accumulation "Rastovnica", "Krajkovac"
"Pridvorica", "Bresnica" and "Popovacka" which have the primary role in water supply of local residents
with drinking water and in places were carried regulation works of river Toplica and flood protection of
high water for fifty years, also local. During the construction of a multipurpose accumulation "Selova",
which has regional significance because it will secure the supply of municipal and industrial water in the
region (including the city of Nis), flood protection of downstream areas, and provide biological minimum
of 0.5 m3/s. In addition to these primary requirements, accumulation Selova will also be able to irrigate
3500 ha of agricultural land.

Figure 3 - Hydrographic network of river Toplicas basin and the location of hydrological stations

Area of river Toplicas basin extends over the territory of the seven municipalities: Brus, Blace,
Kursumlija, Merosina, Prokuplje, Zitoradja and Doljevac. According to the territorial belonging to all
settlements within the boundaries of cadastral municipalities it was found that 268 settlements and 121
753 inhabitants gravitate to river Toplicas basin.
Industrial production is poorly developed, and the most common are alcohol, food and textile
factories. Agricultural potential is large, but poorly utilized. On the area of the river Toplicas basin which
is 2217 km2, agricultural fields are represented by 61.5% on the area of 136 256 ha. They are mainly
concentrated in river valleys, although to a lesser extent are represented in the hilly area. Significant parts
of the basin are mostly higher, mountainous and covered with trees. Land use in the basin is made in
accordance with the needs of the population, but without any regional plan that is necessary to maintain
ecological balance in the basin.
Climate significantly influences the hydrological characteristics of river Toplicas basin. Climatic
characteristics of Toplicas region are formed under the influence of a very highly indented relief of 300
to 1000 m.a.s.l. and vary considerably in character going from lower eastern to higher western regions.
Thus, in areas to 800 m above sea level is moderate continental climate and at higher altitudes it is
gradually taking the characteristics of sub-alpine mountain climate with abundant precipitation. Based on
available data from 60 rainfall stations that exist on the river Toplicas basin and its immediate
environment, a multi-year averages for these rainfall stations range from 534 to 939 mm, and average
precipitation for the basin is 645 mm.
3.2. Data collection and defining problems
The core of spatial DSS is the GIS, which in addition to its primary function of collecting, processing
and analysis of spatial data and visualization, fulfills the role of database management and the
management dialogue. Databases fill with the information needed to manage and implement the policy
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included in the DSS. Assessment of the basin includes a careful analysis of all water resources in the
basin and stresses. The geographical scope of the project is an important factor in determining the
complexity of the project because the ground and surface water are fundamentally linked.
When the basin boundaries are marked, it is necessary to identify and map geological features
(including land), land use and management patterns, sensitive environmental and water resources areas in
the basin (Fig. 4). Spatial data are collected from existing and available engineering drawings and
technical documents, and will be the initial entry in a spatial database. If its needed to supplement the
content, data collect with modern methods of recording such as remote detection, stereophotogrametry
(for a DMT-basins), GPS, LIDAR laser scanning, etc.

Figure 4 - Types of water streams (left) and water bodies (right) on the river Toplicas basin

In addition to mapping the different physical characteristics, inventory of available data and local
knowledge should be completed. Inventory data and information are related to the covered natural
resources, as well as social and economic considerations. A complete inventory of land, water, animals,
plants, air, and economic conditions, becomes the driving force that translates a planned partnership into a
position of knowledge.
The integration of data in the spatial DSS is particularly important, not only because integrated models
need a "real" data for their successful work, but also because it should be possible to make comparisons
and validation of model calculations with data monitoring and observation of the real world .
Assessment and analysis of available data and information are vital to clearly define the problem of
natural resources, sources of problems and critical areas. In the phase of problem definition, the DPSIR
framework carries out to assess whether a problem exists, determines which components, subsystems and
elements are involved in the considered problem, and defines interactions between components and
subsystems. These estimates provide the information necessary to formulate a common goal, and
measures to achieve the goal. The DPSIR framework for the assessment of pollution on the river
Toplicas basin is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 - DPSIR framework for the assessment of pollution pollution on the river Toplicas basin [1]

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3.3. Planning measures to improve the situation

3.3.1 The objectives of water resources protection
The main objective of the plan of water resources protection from pollution on the river Toplicas
basin is to provide a comprehensive definition of pollution problems and propose measures to solve these
problems. The proposed measures should include technical projects of proposed measures, and
recommendations for monitoring and institutional strengthening.
Since the identified problems in the basin, the following basic objectives of protection of water quality
for river Toplicas basin can distinguish:
Improvement of water supply and irrigation, development of tourism and recreation, improving
conditions for the fishery;
Improve the physical, chemical and biological status of water bodies;
Increasing environmental values of water bodies and basins.
3.3.2 The planning horizon
Sewerage systems, pumping stations and plants for wastewater treatment require capital investment.
Besides, they are designed for project period of 25 to 50 years (pumping stations, WWTP) or longer
(sewer systems).
To avoid untimely investment and/or amortization of capital, planning of protection of water resources
should be adjusted for a planning horizon of 25 years or longer.
3.3.3 Measures to achieve the desired goals
Measures to achieve the desired goals are defined based on the analysis of pressures, conditions and
impacts. Based on the analysis, it is evident that on the river Toplicas basin must be taken the following
measures to protect water quality:
Measures to reduce diffuse sources of pollution (erosion, agriculture),
Measures to reduce point sources of pollution (households and industry):
The construction of sewage systems in settlements with more than 500 P.E., with no sewage
system,
Construction of the central plant for waste water,
Construction of treatments on site for settlements with less than 500 P.E.
3.3.4 Definition of alternative solutions
Possible alternative solutions are combination of defined measures to achieve the desired goals. The
following alternatives are suggested:
1. Alternative 1
Measures to reduce diffuse sources of pollution
Central city plants for each particular municipal center (WWTP Kurumlija, Prokuplje
WWTP, WWTP Zitoradja, Doljevac WWTP)
2. Alternative 2
Measures to reduce diffuse sources of pollution
Central City plant for Kursumlija and Prokuplje and common city plant for Doljevac and
Zitoradja (WWTP Kursumlija, Prokuplje WWTP, WWTP Doljevac and Zitoradja)
3. Alternative 3
Measures to reduce diffuse sources of pollution
Common city plant for all settlements (WWTP Doljevac, Kursumlija, Prokuplje and
Zitoradja).

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3.4. The application of simulation and optimization models

Managing water resources and their protection from pollution, is an iterative process of integrated
decision-making regarding the use and modification of water resources and associated land in the basin. It
relies on the application of systematic approach to formulate the problem of water management and use
of systems analysis in finding their solutions. System analysis involves the use of rigorous methods to
determine the desired plans, planning and operational strategies for complex systems, often large scale.
To assess the effects of certain alternative of spatial DSS, the appropriate model domain (e.g. HSPF for
runoff from agricultural areas, SWMM for runoff from urban areas, QUAL2E, CE-QUAL-W2, WASP
for water quality in streams, etc.) and economic model of development should be connected, perform the
calibration of sub-models and then corresponding simulations. For choosing the most appropriate
alternative solutions for the given criteria, within the spatial DSS, the corresponding optimization models
should be also connected. Since the problem of finding the best alternative solution for the given criteria
has an infinite number of solutions, for solving this problem a method of global search space solutions
should be chosen, such as genetic algorithms and simulated annealing.
The integration scheme of simulation and optimization models and generating and evaluation of
scenario of water quality management on the river Toplicas basin, which is implemented in spatial
decision support system is shown in Figure 6 [4]. Integration of three models provides consistent
definition and scenario analysis [5]: the model of water quality in streams and accumulations in the basin,
agro-environmental models and socio-economic development models. Analysis and evaluation of the
scenarios is performed using multicriteria optimization tools (genetic algorithms, simulated annealing,
etc..) which spatial DSS contains.

Figure 6 - The scheme of integrating models and generating and evaluating scenarios [4]

4. CONCLUSION
The assumption of success in planning, management and control in all spheres of human activities is
an effective monitoring program and information system with high-quality that enables the collection,
storage, processing and access to information when it is needed, so that information system is not only
operational support but also strategic decision making.
The spatial decision support system in an integrated solution for problems of protection quality water
resources in the basin, which is shown in this study, using field measurements in the basin, existing
databases, modern simulation and optimization models, with planning and developing of specific
scenarios should enable obtainig optimal strategies for management of water resources and their
protection from contamination of high-efficiency, testing and verification of the obtained solutions and
the continuous monitoring of their implementation.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This article was realized as a part of the projects TR 37003 and TR 37018 financed by the Ministry of
Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia within the framework of technological development for
the period 2011 2014.
REFERENCES
[1] Milievi D. (2011): Razvoj programskog sistema za integralnu zatitu vodnih resursa od
zagaenja, Doktorska disertacija odbranjena na Gradjevinsko-arhitektonskom fakultetu u Niu, tam.
str. 199
[2] Sugumaran R., DeGroote J. (2011): Spatial Decision Support Systems, Principles and Practices,
Taylor and Francis Group, LLC; USA, p. 469
[3] Milievi D., Milenkovi S., Nikoli V. (2002): The Informatics Support To The Water Resources
Integral Protection From Pollution, The 6th World Multiconference on Systemics, Cybernetics and
Informatics, Orlando, Proceedings, Volume I: Information Systems Development I, Florida, USA, p.
227-232.
[4] Milievi D., Milenkovi S. (2011): Primena informatikih tehnologija u integralnoj zatiti
vodnih resursa od zagaenja, Uvodni rad po pozivu, Meunarodna konferencija Otpadne vode,
komunalni vrsti otpad i opasan otpad, Udruenje za tehnoogiju vode i sanitarno inenjerstvo, 05. do
08. aprila 2011. godine, Ni, str. 16-21.
[5] Mahmouda M., Liu Y., Hartmann H., Stewart S., Wagener T., Semmens D., Stewart R., Gupta
H., Dominguez D., Dominguez F., Hulse D., Letcher R., Rashleigh B., Smith C., Streetm R.,
Ticehurst J., Twery M., Van Delden H., Waldick R., White D., Winter L. (2009): A formal framework
for scenario development in support of environmental decision-making, Environmental Modelling &
Software 24, p.p. 798808

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milutin Milju1

TREATMENT OF STONE FACADE THROUGH EXAMPLES OF

ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE BUILDINGS OF THE KOTORS OLD
TOWN
Abstract: While there is less and less space for new buildings in contemporary architecture, there is a
vast range of possibilities for intervening on existing ones. This can present a big problem. These
interventions are often performed incorrectly, mostly because today's stone usage is irregular or we
disregard the things which are part of our historical heritage. As far as application and technique of
stone usage on facades is concerned, nowadays it depends on the availability on the market, where we
have wide selection of imported stone on one hand, and the local stone with little variations present in
small quantities on the other. Therefore it happens that the wrong stone is used, primarily due to poor
understanding of the specific stone properties, but also due to the preference of stone's appearance at the
expense of its other characteristics. All of these things combined are the reason why we must know as
much as possible so as not to trivialize and draw out of context the elements of historical architecture.
Key words: stone, Kotor, buildings faade, processing techniques, architectural heritage

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1. INTRODUCTION
Besides living in the age of the free flow of large amounts of information, we are also subjected to
various influences of fashion and advertising, which suggest the right solutions for us. New materials,
especially cement and reinforced concrete, have totally changed the approach to architecture, [1], which
drew us away from our own heritage and traditional principles of high quality construction.
Lessons we can learn from our historical heritage are multiple and may be classified according to the
basic factors of each architectural creation: the form (architectural vocabulary, language, expression,
style), structure (construction and material) and function (purpose). [2]

Master of Architecture, PhD student on the Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bd of Kralj Aleksandar 73/III,
e-mail: milutin.miljus@gmail.com

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If one perceives historical heritage objects first through the materials (they were made off), he for
himself creates the idea of their cultural significance, and only then the idea of their function and form,
which suggests that the modern method of construction, as far as good quality is concerned, is not as good
as the one done on the buildings of architectural heritage. Today, only few or almost no one uses
traditional construction experience. At the time when this historical legacy was being created people
knew how to get the most out of available materials and locations using the bare minimum. We can
extract certain details from traditional construction and in that way make the interpretation of traditional
architecture easier.
Perhaps it sounds harsh, but the fact is that terms: maintenance or rehabilitation of historical building,
as well as the maintenance of valuable new buildings from the second half of the twentieth century. [3]
Architectural standards and terms concerning more recent objects are not yet precisely determined,
and deliberation concerning problems on the existing buildings of cultural significance goes so far that
they become useless. For example, if we were to determine which buildings should be torn down today,
according to the criteria such as breach of specified zoning rules and aesthetic appearance of buildings
opposed to the authenticity of architectural heritage (which according to all the principles is one of the
basic features of our cultural and national identity) the realization of the (existing) dramatic state would
be alarming.
This realization is important as a motivation for us to become familiar with the traditional architecture
and all its elements so as to be able to know how to take the right stand in the context of contemporary
living.
This paper wishes to present the stone, the methods and techniques of using the stone on the faade of
the heritage buildings of the Kotors medieval town as the basic element which forms the identity and the
environment which is distinctive for Mediterranean architecture.
2. STONE IN THE HISTORIC HERITAGE
Although there are many variations of the stone types and its the usage while making walls and
faades (in size, way of processing, method of sequence and the quantity of the used binding material),
the basic features of traditional architecture have not changed for centuries.
Various types of stone are used for different purposes depending on the mechanical properties
(hardness, wear resistance), appearance and the way of processing. The largest number of objects and
entire settlements were made of materials extracted in the nearby area, while the stone suitable for finer
processing was used for architectural decorations.
The most common way of building using stone is the masonry structure, in which the stone exterior
remains visible, used with some kind of plaster as a binder. Residential buildings are as a rule built using
cut stone work or even better using cut stone in lime mortar [4]. Wall thickness varies from 50 to 65
centimeters, which was then thought to be sufficient for thermal insulation, and had the ability to prevent
larger condensation of moisture and the outbreak of the fungi. This explains the reason for unnecessary
finishing treatment by additional material or production of insulation at the time the building was built.
[5]
Stone walls are regularly built with two faces, while the middle was filled with stone slack with larger
quantities of plaster. The two faces of the wall were not additionally linked, and the stability of the wall
depended on the regularity of stone carving and quality of mortar. Often the quality of the two faces was
different, especially in case when the front faade isnt plastered and those stone blocks were processed
more evenly, while plaster was deposited on the inner face over irregular shaped blocks. Height of the
stone was equated in each individual row, while
rows may differ when compared one to another. [6] It was often the rule that the lower rows consist of
bigger stones, and with further masonry they were divided for easier completion of oblique line of rim.
2.1. Grouting
Clip (fugue) plays an important part in the final appearance of the facility, in the way that stone stays
visible on the faade. Walls remain without mortar, clips are carefully processed with lime mortar of
similar composition as mortar which was used for building. The final clips layer is the rough surface

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with the color similar to the surrounding stone blocks or a bit darker than the surrounding stone
depending on the unit that was used.
The fugues are usually recessed into the wall face for aesthetic appearance of the wall, so as to
accentuate the masonry structure and visibility of stones syllables . On the other hand fugues were
protected and the water retention was avoided at the contact of mortar and stone which would be created
in case that fugues were removed. [7]

Frame 1 Proper release fugues (engaging in mass wall)

Source: Belamari J., Buble S., Gamulin A., Krstulovi-Opara A., Niki G., Pleji J., verko A.:
Pouke batine za gradnju u hrvatskome priobalju, ICBN, Zagreb, 2007, p. 46

2.2. Windows and doors

Architectural elements which contribute most to the overall expression are the faades openings,
because all the decoration of the facade was often posed on them , while the layout, shape and size
depended on the functional requirements of the building.
Although forms vary, especially in the way of mastering ranges (architrave, various forms of arches),
the most common is the rectangular opening, which is the simplest to make and for the carpentry which
was to be placed in the provided slot. The proportion of the windows was dictated by the production of
lintel and down beam in the same dimension as the window frame, where the window frame was placed
between the upper and lower part of the frame opening. In this way we get a hole slightly larger than the
height of its width. The processing of these four stones is much finer (carved stone was later further
processed) and in that way is their appearance emphasized on the plane of the faade.
Traditional processing of the visible surfaces frame is performed by hand using "martinela" [9]
(serrated tool for a finer finish). Martinelas traces are usually oblique to the longitudinal axis of the
frame which stems from traditional way of stonework. Processing stones edge with a width of about one
centimeter ("kandefina" or "pigal"), ensured that it did not get damaged. [10]
Today, the traditional look of frames is achieved by properly carved blocks using machines, but the
result is usually different due to the lack of knowledge about material properties. This means that the
surface must be first roughened (surfaces that later remain visible) and then, after incorporation is done,
the last step is making of hand-chisel edge.
In the following text, we will present the usage of stone on the faade, in the chronological order in
which technique appeared.
3. TECHNOLOGY OF STONE USAGE ON STONE FACADE
After the strong earthquake that occurred in Kotor in 1979, the old town was included in the UNESCO
World Heritage List.
This was the reason for extensive research conducted during the 1980 and 1981, with the aim of
studying the old town of Kotor, and the main results were presented in several studies.
The research proved that uniqueness of the old city lies in the fact that almost all faades were made
using limestone excavated from a local quarry (Loven mountain), while the stone for decorations was
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commonly transported from remote places at the seashore. [11] Because of the not-so-ideal performance
of local stone and technical possibilities at the time when the city was emerging, several buildings were
covered with plaster.
Aforementioned study has shown that, on the basis of performed stylistic and chronological analysis,
the architectural range of the old town of Kotor is eight hundred years old. Some buildings were built in
the refined technique and forms of the Romanesque twelfth century, a small number of buildings survived
from the Middle Ages, while the faades of residential buildings ranged in style from the Romanesque,
Gothic, Byzantine, Renaissance and Baroque, and there are also some modern tendencies on faades - in
plastic processing.
View of stone treatment on the buildings faades in the old town of Kotor: [12]
Carved stone: the cathedral and all the churches, palaces (Providur, Beskuca, Pima, Bizanti,
Grgurin, Drago [13]) and a number of other smaller buildings;
Roughly hewn stone: dozens of buildings of residential architecture with the medieval origins of
the later Renaissance and Baroque renovations and most of the fortification;
The sleek stone: smaller facilities with modest processing, fencing of public buildings;
Broken (crushed) stone: houses east of the main north-south street and in the area under the fort;
Stone-brick: mixed material at higher, upgraded floors of many houses and several building of
public architecture;
Processing with mortar over stone wall: the facades of houses from 19thand 20th century;
Protective mortar over stone gables: on several buildings, mostly to the south.
Based on this, we can clearly see where the stone processed with the intent to remain visible, which
indicates the importance of a particular building for the town, while the poorer processed stone used
exclusively as a building material, and because of that was covered with mortar. More recent objects have
visible stone only for details on the facade.
3.1. Sacral architecture of Kotor
From the time of communal enthusiasm of Kotor from 12th to 14th century, there are several
surviving churches: St. Luka, St. Marija Koleate, St. Ana, St. Mihajlo, St. Pavle and the Cathedral of St.
Tripun. Physical forms are made in the Romanesque and early Gothic style that made high-carving
technique (the exception is the Cathedral of St. Tripun which contains residues of previous rotunda from
the ninth century, which was done in cut stone).
The dominant element on the faade is cuboid, straight visible surfaces, edged with smooth strips
(lime mortar in very thin layer). Faade syllable was formed in horizontal rows, as a rule, unequal in
height. By application of two kinds of limestone (grey-white and reddish) multicolour decorative effects
were achieved, particularly on the cathedral and on the Church of St. Marija Koleate. Churches built
during the rule of the Venetians (Gospa od Anela, St. Klara, St. Josip) retained high stonemasons work
with larger blocks. [14]
In addition to these, there are thirteen independent churches, six fraternities from the fourteenth and
fifteenth-century and six church (monastery) from the twelfth and thirteenth century, which were
demolished in the nineteenth century, but it is known that they had been made using the limestone carving
technique with high processing, which tells us about some elements of residential buildings that were
built on the ruins of old buildings. [15]
Exception from construction techniques were sacred objects within the fortifications that were built of
cut stone. [16]
3.2. Facilities of secular architecture in the Kotor
Unlike sacral, secular architecture is more diverse as far as stone incorporation technique is concerned.
The use of mortar for the decoration of the faade starts with the Baroque in the seventeenth century and
reaches significant measure at the beginning of the nineteenth century, during the upgrade of the facilities.

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Buildings from the Middle Ages have survived in small numbers, and most of the architecture of that
time is now an integral part of the ground floor of residential buildings. These parts of buildings are
usually made using rustic building rubble and cut stone in larger quantities of mortar. [17]
Most of the buildings contain several styles, and with it also several techniques of construction.
Therefore we can not talk about the specific techniques or about stone processing techniques used on the
facades which were typical for one individual object. Bua palace is the best evidence for that, on its
facade were discovered several successive phases of construction with stylistic elements of Romanesque
Gothic and mature Gothic, then Renaissance and Baroque, and construction typical of the 19th century.
[18]
Roughly hewn stone is the material most commonly used for buildings, private homes, public
buildings and the city walls of medieval origin. In the period of reconstruction after the earthquake, which
befall Kotor in the Middle Ages roughly processed stone was applied in combination with materials from
the ruins. Lime mortar was used as a binder, and its amount depended on the level of stone processing
(better stone work - cuboid did not require a large quantity of binder).
During Austrian rule in the nineteenth century, when dozens of buildings were upgraded, new floors
were formed of composite materials, stone and brick or only stone was used . Plastering faade is often a
result of these interventions, particularly because of the need for creating of new openings and walling of
the old ones. Such facilities have had a smooth faade in brighter color, with stone window and door
frames. [19]
The described method of stone treatment is an important element of the coastal towns' heritage.
Further text will present plaster usage through the applied technique and the importance of it in
contemporary life of the heritage.
4. PLASTER IN FINISHING FACADES
The role of the mortar in the Kotors type of construction is reflected in the conservation and
restoration measures applied. [20] The use of mortar is very important to us, because it is a good
illustration of the relationship between techniques and use of stone on the faade. [21]
We note that the most commonly used type of plaster is lime mortar which was put in two to three
layers:
The first layer ("syringe") was made with a strong spraying on the surface, to be covered fully, but not
too thick (up to 5 millimeters). This and other coatings are applied to the wet surface, to prevent the
sudden drying;
Rough layer, up to 10 millimeters thick, ensured the alignment and shape of plastered surface. This
layer should be compact and homogeneous and slightly weaker than the first layer and this layer is often
to the first, but together do not exceed 10 mm;
Besides aesthetic, inal layer a role of the rough layer, or mortar as a whole. It is applied and processed
with metal trowel or metal , strong impressing and fencing in thin layer, most 5 7 mm thick. This layer is
often processed in other ways too, depending on what wanted to achieve, so that now can relief or furrow
walls and even stucco.

Frame 2 Buca Palace, example of combination of several building techniques and example of the usage of plaster
conservation purposes Source: Photo by

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Plastered faade, unlike stone, offered the possibility of using a wide range of colors and shades. In
more recent times, plaster polychromy was abandoned in our country in favor of stone monochromy.
Since the mid-twentieth century to the present day stripping of stone faade is practised, because the stone
is considered more "noble" material than plaster, and thats the reason for changing the overall impression
of the building, especially when the faade was built entirely of rough-cut stone, with unequal and wide
fugues, so the proper forms of finely cut stone windows and doors are lost in the irregular structure of
masonry.
Due to rain or humid climate the southern side of the stone house was often protected with mortar.
Subsequently was proved that the mortar was later added to buildings, which means that most of the
buildings were originally made with stone ornamentation. The study concluded that it would be good to
remove the layers of mortar in order to see the complete picture of all objects with stone faades, and that
those who are upgraded remain plastered, as a way to preserve the original idea to hide the different
treatments of the faade. [22]
5. CONCLUSIONS
While there is less and less space for new buildings in contemporary architecture, there is a vast range
of possibilities for intervening on existing ones. This can present a big problem. These interventions are
often performed incorrectly, mostly because today's stone usage is irregular or we disregard the things
which are part of our historical heritage.
As far as application and technique of stone usage on faades is concerned, nowadays it depends on
the availability on the market, where we have wide selection of imported stone on one hand, and the local
stone with little variations present in small quantities on the other. Most of the old quarry was exhausted
and closed, and the amount of many types of local stone that was once available is negligible. Therefore
it happens that the wrong stone is used, primarily due to poor understanding of the specific stone
properties, but also due to the preference of stone's appearance at the expense of its other characteristics.
Therefore the question arises: how to reconcile conservation and development of heritage (two
approaches which are apparently opposite)? Development strategies should be based on the attitude
towards the architectural heritage. All of these things combined are the reason why we must know as
much as possible so as not to trivialize and draw out of context the elements of historical architecture.
From this experience the rules of construction in coastal areas had developed, in terms material's usage,
and forming of volume, shape and design of the individual elements. [23] Every coastal area has its own
specific design enveloped in the basic forms. Because of that, it is necessary to take into account the
already-present geographical, historical, climatic and architectural-artistic realities, as well as the
traditional material usage, which brings us to necessity of making make detailed, comprehensive
scientific assessment of the historical significance of each object individually prior to the individual
reconstructive interventions. [24]
6. NOTES
[1] Vujovi S.: Ljudi i gradovi, Mediteran, Budva, 2009, p. 118
[2] Belamari J., Buble S., Gamulin A., Krstulovi-Opara A., Niki G., Pleji J., verko A.: Pouke
batine za gradnju u hrvatskome priobalju, ICBN, Zagreb, 2007, p. 16
[3] Ibid., p. 14
[4] Ibid., p. 39
[5] Ibid., p. 40
[6] Ibid., p. 41
[7] Ibid., p. 44
[8] Ibid., p. 83-84
[9] Ibid., p. 83
[10] Ibid., p. 83
[11] Miloevi M., Pasinovi M., Martinovi J., Vuenovi S., ain V., Brajkovi G., Sbutega B.,
Ribnikar S., FrancV.: tete na spomenicima kulture na zatienom podruju izazvane

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zemljotresom od 15. aprila 1979. Godine, Optinski zavod za zatitu spomenika kulture, Kotor,
1982, p. 260
[12] Vuenovi S.: Istraivanje I zatita graditeljskog naslea Kotora, Optinski zavod za zatitu
spomenika, Kotor, 1981, p. 66
[13] Gligori B., Kapetanovi A., Raji A.: Palate Boke Kotorske, EXPEDITIO centar za odrivi
razvoj, Kotor, 2010
[14] Vuenovi S.: Istraivanje I zatita graditeljskog naslea Kotora, Optinski zavod za zatitu
spomenika, Kotor, 1981, p. 51
[15] Ibid., p. 53-55
[16] Ibid., p. 37
[17] Ibid., p. 46
[18] Ibid., p. 48
[19] Ibid., p. 67
[20] Ibid., p. 87
[21] Belamari J., Buble S., Gamulin A., Krstulovi-Opara A., Niki G., Pleji J., verko A.: Pouke
batine za gradnju u hrvatskome priobalju, ICBN, Zagreb, 2007, p. 46
[22] Vuenovi S.: Istraivanje I zatita graditeljskog naslea Kotora, Optinski zavod za zatitu
spomenika, Kotor, 1981, p. 63
[23] Belamari J., Buble S., Gamulin A., Krstulovi-Opara A., Niki G., Pleji J., verko A.: Pouke
batine za gradnju u hrvatskome priobalju, ICBN, Zagreb, 2007, p. 97
[24] Ceki J.: Urbano i arhitektonsko naslee III milenijuma, Zbornik radova, Centar za planiranje
urbanog razvoja CEP, Beograd, 1999

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Ana Momilovi-Petronijevi1
Predrag Petronijevi2

SYSTEMATIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF CHIMNEY DEFECTS

AFTER MANY YEARS OF EXPLOITATION
Abstract: After a long period of exploitation, chimneys, in most cases continue to satisfy their basic
purpose, but its exterior does not meet the esthetic requirements of quality, whether it be result of bad
maintenance, damage over time or changed requirements in terms of technical characteristics of the
boiler. The data indicate that the quality of external portion of chimney stack constructed in previous
decades rarely meets today's requirements, particularly in terms of thermal insulation. Repair of
chimneys is an important part of costs maintenance of the buildings for individual and collective housing
outside the district heating plants system. Consideration of possible restoration of the chimney, including
the confirmation of the technical condition of his wall lining. The paper presents the status and
classification of the most common damage to chimneys, the proposed remediation measures and
recommendations for the future design to reduce the deterioration mechanisms.
Key words: repair, classification of damage, chimney stack

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1. INTRODUCTION
The main task of chimneys is to create underpressure required for fuel combustion in devices for
heating and to drain flue gases resulting as combustion products. As the chimney is one of the most
loaded parts of the house it must be well constructed. Chimneys are exposed to high temperatures,
moisture, acids, unburned hydrocarbons which cause deposition of tar. They are also exposed to dust and
ashes, weather conditions, mechanical damages that are consequence of cleaning, seismic effects, and
1
grad. arch. eng., Assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, A. Medvedeva 14, Ni
ana.momcilovic.petronijevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2
grad. civil eng., Assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, A. Medvedeva 14, Ni
predrag.petronijevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

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they must be safely constructed. Loadbearing part of the chimney by normal use must reach the life
expectancy of the house which is rare.After analyzing the situation in this field in our country, it can be
said that in recent years modern trends are followed and what are more often built are chimneys of
complex structure that meet all requirements regarding: resistance of the internal channel to effects of
acidic medium and high temperature, high-quality thermal insulation and static stability of the bearing
shroudof the chimney.As for maintenance, mainly due to lack of money and because of a habit of not
maintaining, relation to chimneys is extremely worrying. Individual residential buildings built in the last
few decades in relation to post-war ones are characterized by significantly lower number of active
chimneys.By comparison, in the middle of the last century most individual households were heated by
solid fuel furnaces for heating individual rooms,while in the last few years what slowly takes
precedenceis central heating with gas, pellet and briquette.It should be noted that our country remains the
leader in the use of firewood and coal compared to gas and pellet. With the loss of function chimneys
have fallen to the end of the list of investment maintenance in buildings so that many of them are in an
alarming condition, particularly in terms of stability and security in the case of earthquake.In multi-storey
buildings with central heating it is often the case that chimney channels have been destroyed, broken or
closed, despite clear legal obligations of their existence, which can be a particular problem in case of
extraordinary circumstances.
2. DETERIORATION PROCESSES OF CHIMNEYS
Problems with chimneys can be divided into two groups: physical decay of the chimney structure and
improper functioning.Deterioration processes of chimneys are caused by weather conditions, temperature
loading and chemical aggression of flue gases. Improper functioning means bad flow of flue gases,
recovery of smoke, incomplete combustion, atmospheric pollution and potential danger to health of
people in nearby buildings.Deterioration processes of chimneys analyzed in this paper relate to traditional
brick chimneys which are most common in our country and so are activities in the field of maintenance
and repair dominant.
2.1. Damage due to poor shaping and quality of incorporated material
Damage to the chimney stack is mainly caused by using bricks and mortar of inadequate quality.The
recommendation is to use solid, hard-baked bricks on the inside of the building.Facing bricks are used in
the outdoor area, above roof level due to intense moisture and frost action.The longevity of the chimney
depends on the formation of chimney caps and coupling profile.The role of the cap is to prevent moisture
and splitting of the chimney top.In mild climate areas caps are made without cover, because the amount
of water from rain and snow entering the chimney channel dries quickly due to natural flow of air, even
when the chimney is not in use.In harsher climates with more rainfall,it is required to cover the cap in
order to fully prevent the penetration of water into the chimney channel.In all cases, for the longevity of
the final part of the chimney it is necessary to make the cap with tooth at the edge, in order to prevent
rainwater drainage along the chimney stacks 0.

Picture 17 Typical shapes of chimney caps and profiles of plaster joints

Profiling of couplings of non-plastered chimneys is necessary for the efficient catchment of

rainwater.If the brick is saturated with moisture it is sensitive to frost.The choice of profile couplings,
along the aesthetic,should also be based on functional criteria.These are four most common profiles that
are in use.

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 Semicircular recessed joints - efficient in drainage and of pleasant aesthetic appearance

Notched joints - efficient in drainage but is not recommended in extreme mountain conditions,of
attractive look because it gives the effect of shadows,
Straight joints - the most common and most effective profile, poor aesthetics,
Rectangular recessed joints - a very attractive appearance, but is not generally recommended in
making of chimneys. If used, the joint depth must be reduced to a minimum. The maximum depth
should not exceed 6mm because it reduces the stiffnes of chimney bending by 10%.For the usual
square shape of joint reduction 12x12mm the stiffness reduction is 18%.In addition to adverse
effects on the static load of the chimney recessed joints should not be used because of excessive
wetting.
2.2. Effect of frost
Frost on the brick has a negative effect in terms of durability of the chimney. If we are making the
outer part of the classic brick chimney with certified facade brick, the effect of frost is
negligible.According to national standards, the proof of resistance to frost is obligatory only for facade
bricks.Unfortunately it is common to use the classic brick which is not resistant to frost and salt and then
the inevitable occurs: flaking, decaying, splittingand similar damage [4].Resistance of mortar to frost
largely depends on the achieved compactness of hardened mortar, i.e. of its structure, proportion of binder
and aggregates, porosity, etc. This resistance is greatly affected by workability of plaster mixture because
a negative effect of frost manifests first in places where, due to inadequate workability the necessary
homogeneity of hardened plaster is not achieved (cavities, pores, cracks) [5].Resistance to frost action is
particularly important when the mortar to be used for plastering the outer chimney surfaces is exposed to
weather conditions, wetting and freezing.On the territory of Serbia it is common to build a chimney
without finishing, that is,without facade brick masonry with pointing of mortar joints or making flat
joints. In the case of installation of a poor quality plaster (Picture 1 right) it leads to joint deterioration and
creating conditions for changingthe geometry of the chimney, which is usually manifested in the form of
a curved silhouette.

Picture 18 Manifestation of brick and plaster damage, not resistant to frost

2.3. "Leaking", poor combustion and weak thermal insulation of chimneys

Smoke consists of gases and particles that are products of combustion. Chemical composition of
smoke is extremely complex and greatly depends on the type of fuel used for combustion.On mortar
joints and lining of chimneys due to the effects of aggressive constituents of smoke,what can be observed
is the occurrence of erosion, and much more serious destructive processes.It is the action of acid water
vapour which consists of dissolved substances (such as acetic and formic acid, sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide...) [1].Temperature difference between external air and combustion gases represents the main
engine of the chimney.If the chimney is on the outside facade of the house, at very low outdoor
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temperatures the walls of the chimney are cooling down and in that way the air in it.Insufficient thermal
insulation is the global problem of most individual residential buildings constructed in the second half of
the twentieth century.And this is reflected in thermal non-insulation of the chimney.If condensate
appears, such water penetrates into structure of cement stone and comes into chemical reactions to its
ingredients, primarily Ca(OH)2 and 3CaOAl2O36H2O (C3AH6). Sulphate corrosion is a complex process
involving many products of hydration.Damage made by sulphate is manifested in the appearance of
cracks due to expansive processes in mortar, and loss of strength until the complete disintegration of
mortar (Picture 3 left).Alkaline-silicate reaction is characteristic of classical chimneys plastered on the
outside and without insulation.On the outside surface of the chimney (inside the attic) inthe unheated
space due to the presence of humidity, products of this reaction significantly increase the volume, which
causes significant stresses in plaster.This type of corrosion can be recognized by appearance of
crackingsalong the entire surface of mortar (Picture 3 right) [2], [3].Alkaline-silicate reaction on the
outside of the chimney stack was not observed, which is explained by faster condensate drying and
atmospheric effects due to the wind in relation to the attic.

Picture 19 Manifestation of sulphate corrosion (left) and alkaline-silicate reaction (right)

3. THE IMPACT OF DAMAGE TO THE GEOMETRY OF CHIMNEYS

Synchronous effects of all deterioration mechanisms lead to distortion of external appearance and
geometry of the chimney. Forms of degradation of the chimney stack can be classified into two main
groups (Picture 4).
Geometric deformations are:
chimney silhouette curve (a)
unstrungbond ofbricks, so-called "drunken chimney" (b), result from the above mentioned
deterioration mechanisms in mortar.
Material damage to chimney stack due to deterioration of bricks:
sporadically degraded brick, a consequence of the use of poor quality bricks (not resistant to frost)
(c),
collapse of the chimney head, a consequence of the lack of caps and use of bad bricks (d)
splitting of the chimney top due to thermal shock, the result of burning in the chimney during cold
days (e).

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Picture 20 Deformations of chimneys and material damage of chimneys

As stated above, products of sulphate corrosion and alkaline-silicate reaction in contact with water
significantly increase their volume.On the slow-drying side (side sheltered from the wind) favourable
conditions are created because moisture is retained longer and leaves possibility for crystallization of
salt.Fast-drying side is exposed to more intense hydration, frost action and erosion of materials, and on
that side there is a deterioration in joints.The appearance of distortion is very common with tall chimneys
and it is generally safe if the angle of curvature is small.The process should be monitored and ifintensified
it is necessary to rebuild the chimney from the placewhere the leaning begins (Picture 5).

Picture 21 Mechanism of chimney leaning .

4. CHIMNEY MAINTENANCE
Service life of a chimney does not depend only on the material properties (resistance to frost, salt, acid...)
but also on usage of fuel in the combustion process, so the trend in recent years is to use system
theoriesand reliability theories in the field of maintenance [6]. The aim of organized facility management
is to preserve some degree of reliability of functioning during the service life of a chimney, while
optimizing maintenance costs. In facilities management the question raises:
How to estimate the real state of a chimney?
Which measures to conduct in order to ensure durability and reliability?
When, what and which works should be undertaken as a part of maintenance?

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Picture 22 An example of long-standing neglect of chimneys and high fire danger

Before intervention on a chimney, a realistic assessment of the situation is necessary, and itdemands
regular monitoring and supervision.Based on this, the state of usability can mainly be estimated as
complete or limited.Necessary estimates are related to: large lateral displacement, inadequate use of
materials, a large volume of deterioration or damage, change of the building owner, the change of
energents. General recommendation is that a period between the two reviews should not be longer than
one year for chimneys that are not used, and six months for those that are in use.The lack of maintenance
of chimneys leads to accumulation of combustion products on its walls.During combustion of solid fuel
there are deposits of soot which are dangerous both to humans and environment because their
precipitation: increases the risk of fire, increases harmful gases emission and reduces the heating
effect.For the chimney to function properly,it is necessary to clean and control it regularly. Chimneys are
maintained in three ways.
Mechanical cleaning of a chimney, with a steel chimney brush on a rod (cable) which removes
deposits of soot from the chimney walls. Cleaning can be done through a door on a chimney or
from a roof. Intervals of regular maintenance procedures are determined by many factors, but the
recommendation is to perform a minimum of one cleaning per year.
Chimney incineration, necessary after mechanical cleaning because there are certain amounts of
resin on the chimney walls. The process of incineration must be constantly monitored and can be
very risky in terms of fire..
Piercing of a chimney, in the case of physical barriers in the stack that must be removed.
Congestion of a chimney occurs because of accumulation of combustion deposits, but in the
chimney can also be found pieces of building materials (bricks, tiles, plaster), (leaves and branches
blown by the wind) or nests of smaller animals (bees, hornets, birds).
5. PROPOSED REPAIR MEASURES
Defective chimneys every year cause enormous damage. It is most often material damage caused by
the collapse of the chimney and the fire, but it often comes to carbon monoxide poisoning which can
cause death.Carbon monoxide is a gas without colour, taste and smell. It results from incomplete
combustion (due to lack of oxygen) and the most common causes are defective operation of a boiler or
faulty flue installations.
Reparation of a chimney is necessary in case of malfunction of the chimney or possible endanger of
people and the environment (poisoning, fire, collapse of a chimney). Also, during the transition to a new
type of fuel (gas) a chimney must be repaired.
Reparation can be carried out for a single chimney vertical stack. The most effective and the longest
lasting solution of reparation is the mechanical milling of a light chimney opening to a larger diameter
and the intake of a pipe of stainless steel or hard-inflammable polypropylene (depending on the type of
device that is installed).The disadvantage of this method is the inability to install it in all conditions and
relatively high price. In recent years, priority is given to installation of condensing units with a higher
energent efficiency, which also means more savings, but with a long exploitation life.Also, with the lower
temperature of flue gases there are less harmful effects on the atmosphere compared to conventional
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devices. Because of these advantages, the installation of condensing units has become a legal obligation
in some European countries.

Picture 23 The principle of simple and effective chimney restoration

The need for reparation is, in most cases, partial, or is required in an unheated attic space and above the
roof. In case that damage to the chimney is not so big that it is necessary to rebuild it, the simplest form
of rehabilitation of classic brick chimneys is lining a chimney withrock wool. The process involves the
following steps:
mechanical removal of decayed mortar, joints cleaning, dusting and if necessary, replacement of
individual bricks,
impregnation of cleaned surfaces and plastering damaged parts of the existing lining with repair
mortar
production of thermal insulating layer of rock wool, over which plaster is applied in two layers,
reinforced with a glass mesh
silica-coated finish
This type of reparation can significantly improve the characteristics of conventional chimneys. With
relatively little investment the life expectancy of the chimney can significantly be prolonged.Higher
traction force of a chimney is achieved by thermal insulation because flue gases are cooled more slowly,
which eliminates condensation, moisture and leaking of a chimney.Higher temperature of flue gases
affects better uplift, better chimney drafts and more efficient work of heating devices.If the chimney is
with a bigger part of its length below the roof level (closer to the ridge) repairs can be done only in the
attic space.This greatly simplifies the process of restoration for it decreases works on the roof, keeps the
old cap and a metal flashingand we obtain satisfactory results.This can be done if the damage above the
roof is small or even nonexistent.Hydrophobic protection of a chimney stack with silicone coatings forms
a transparent protective film on the surface and it has so-calledwater drop effect.This results in high
resistance to water and salt, a good penetration deep in the brick and mortar in the joints, improving the
resistance to frost.
6. CONCLUSION
Chimney reparation is performed in cases when black spots emerge on inner walls,there are unpleasant
odours, or if we move to a new type of fuel or a new burner. If there are structural defects on a chimney
that interfere with its normal operation, then its reparation is necessary. Damage to the chimney may arise
due to its neglect, deterioration, improper use or because of external influences.Depending on the
damage, recovery may be more or less complex.Certainly, it is best to react as soon as damage arise,
while it is invisible to the user of the chimney and can be seen only by a professional chimney
inspection.Investments in maintenance of chimneys in our country are very modest whichaffects the
deteriorating condition of chimneys, reduces the service life, increases the risk of fire, endanger the
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environment, reduces the energy efficiency of boilers and furnaces.It is well known that later repairs are
more expensive, which leads to economic losses in relation to timely interventions.The existing brick
chimneys that are actively used can very easily be structurally repaired with relatively small investments,
thermally insulated and hydrophobically impregnated, which significantly improves working and
aesthetic characteristics and prolongs their service life.It is recommended that inactive chimneys should
not be closed because it prevents their natural draft which eliminates condensation and keeps the chimney
dry, which is the main prerequisite for their long life. What is positive is a trend of building chimneys of
acomplex structure, by renowned manufacturers that guarantee long exploitation life.Classical brick
masonry chimneys are slowly losing primacy in newly built buildings and are mainly used as vent
shafts.The reason for the poorer representation of masonry chimneys is the lack of skilled brickmasons
who would do the job properly and poor quality of bricks which are currently produced in local
brickyards.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is conducted at The Faculty ofCivil Engineering and Architecture of University of Ni in
the framework of the projects in the field of technological development in the period 2011-2014, and
titled "Experimental and theoretical investigation offrames and plates with semi-rigid connections from
the view ofthe second order theory and stability analysis" (TR 36016) and "Development and
improvement of methods for analyses of soil-structure interaction based on theoretical and experimental
research " (TR 36028), financially supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of
Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] 1993 EPA Report, A Summary of the Emissions Characterization and Noncancer Respiratory
Effects of Wood Smoke, EPA-453/R-93-036
[2] Grdi Z.: Tehnologija betona, Graevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet u Niu, Ni, 2011, str. od 175
do 178
[3] Stoji D, Grdi Z, Risti N.: Deterioracija matrerijala noseih konstrukcija. Zbornik radova
Graevinsko-arhitektonskog fakulteta, (25), Ni, 2010, str. od 231 do 238.
[4] EN 771- 1:2004 - Specifikation for masonry units - Part 1: Clay masonry units
[5] Muravljov M.: Graevinski materijali, Graevinski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Beograd,
1995, str. od 237 do 239
[6] Foli, R., i M. Maleev. Odravanje i sanacija konstrukcija. Graevinski materijali i
konstrukcije 48.4 (2005): 62-80.
[7] Peuli .: Konstruktivni elementi zgrada I, Tehnika knjiga, Zagreb, 1976, pp. 198-216

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Ranko Okuka1
Bojan Mati 2
Igor Dolev3

NUMERICAL MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF MASONRY

STRUCTURES USING FEM
Abstract: The paper deals with the numerical analysis of masonry brick walls as the main supporting
elements of masonry buildings. Modern software for structure analysis usually does not have a clearly
defined manner of modeling and calculation of masonry load-bearing walls. Therefore, approximate
procedures that include a number of simplifications are used for the calculation of horizontal seismic
forces and calculation of response and resistance of these elements. The aim of this paper work is to
develop a platform for the application of FEM in solving such problems. As a part of the work, the
instructions for the micro- and macromodel design of a masonry wall, its discretization and calculation
using appropriate software packages are given.

Key words: masonry structures, modeling, calculation, finite element method.

:
.
,

.
.

.
: zidane konstrukcije, modeliranje, proraun, metoda konanih elemenata
1. INTRODUCTION
In respect of modeling of masonry walls, two different model divisons can be generally made
according to whether the walls are load-bearing or infill walls for skeletal frame. Basically, when it comes
to the walls which are the infill of the skeletal system, their appearance within the construction is not
often taken into account for the reason they do not affect the transfer of gravity loads (constructed only as
an infill area after building horizontal and vertical supporting RC elements). Also, they are not taken into
account while analyzing the horizontal effect (seismic and wind). In the first case, it is reasonable to
consider that they have virtually no role in the load capacity as constructed after deformation in beam
elements. They can dilate from the beam elements so that there is no contact and vertical load transfer.
However, in the event of horizontal load action, the situation changes drastically. The infill walls are built
to have a vertical connection with RC columns, making the space between the two columns continuously

Graduate civil engineer M.Sc.Eng, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, okukaranko@yahoo.com
Graduate civil engineer - M.Sc.Eng, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, bojan.matic@yahoo.com
3
Graduate civil engineer - M.Sc.Eng, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, idzolev@uns.ac.rs
2

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filled. In this way, when there is horizontal displacement, the space between the columns is not as empty
as it is the case in the real calculation model where the existence of the infill walls is ignored, and where
the columns are connected only with RC beams thus constituting a single frame. But the actual facts that
these walls (axial strain in their own plane) take over a part of horizontal displacement as the frame infill,
in accordance with their rigidity, they consolidate the entire frame. However, precisely for the reason that
it is numerically difficult to see the effect of these elements without the use of the finite element method,
it was often neglected in the past. [1] Using the finite element method (FEM), the true definition of the
mechanical properties infill walls have, proper treatment of edge conditions on the the wall-RC elements
joint (columns and beams), as well as the definition of material nonlinearity (which in this case presents
the biggest problem after the appearance of cracks in the wall at a relatively small/low force and the
occurrence of nonlinearities in the behaviour of the wall) the real effect of these elements on the entire
structure can be calculated, and should not be neglected when it comes to static and especially dynamic
calculation of the structure. [2]
The biggest problem in the modeling of these elements occurs as a result of the relatively low force
level (relating to the total elastic capacity of RC structure). It leads to cracking and, primarily due to
exceeding the stress on the joint of the concrete elements, and later to the appearance of cracks in the wall
due to exceeding characteristic compressive strength and shear strength. In this case, when the walls
move into the phase of inelastic behaviour and nonlinear behaviour in terms of deformation increase, the
problem of their numerical treatment becomes quite complex. [3]
It is important to note that when using FEM in modeling walls, the dividing line between the solid and
the skeletal system is erased. It is the sense of the FEM application and further calculation development.
In civil engineering, division into walls within load bearing system and infill walls of the skeletal system,
has made the division into two basic systems of building construction: the massive system (the walls bear
the load) and the skeletal system (the walls are only infill). However, this division is a bit old, since in
recent times, without following the regulations that accompany this original division (and strictly
prohibits the mixing of the two construction systems), there is an increasing interest in the buildings
where the two systems are crossed, the so-called "mixed construction" and from the expert point of view,
it does not represent a major problem. [4] This problem is overcomed using FEM and the possibility of
modeling elements, what, in the authors opinion, was the main problem that led to a clear delineation of
the two types of structures. If good methods of calculation are to be found, especially if we improve
models for the calculation of material nonlinearity what presents the main problem in the calculation of
masonry structures which in comparison to RC structures are generally "softer" and less rigid, only then
the calculation problem of "mixed constructions" will be overcomed and thus the door is open for their
massive construction. The cost of these structures is an important advantage, if either massive or skeletal
system is used in the structural system depending on what is more economical (cost effective) to apply in
the construction when necessary. This is supported by the fact that today's modern massive constructions
are not purely solid (massive) system, as well as the skeletal systems are not clean, because the infill
walls are presented as structural elements that should not be ignored.
With regard to the approach complexity, and according to the degree of model simplification, the
following are the most frequently used equivalent (replacement) models of the walls framed with
reinforced concrete elements.

2. EXISTING METHODS FOR MODELING OF MASONRY WALLS

2.1. Modeling of frames without infill effect
This is the simplest, easiest and, for sure, the most inaccurate system according to which the effect of
masonry infill walls on the behaviour of the frame is completely neglected. Masonry infill is seen as a line
loading, and a frame is dimensioned to accept the load regardless of the existence of masonry infill walls.
This method of modeling framed structures with masonry infill is the most common in contemporary
practice, but it is the result of insufficient know-how and the treatment of modeling infill walls.

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2.2. Linear-line models with replacement diagonals

According to the simplest model, the masonry infill is modeled by a rod element as a replacement
pressed diagonal connecting opposite tips of the frame, and in the case of cyclic loading, the model
consists of two pressed diagonals. Geometric and mechanical characteristics of the diagonals are
determined by simplified procedures and unlimited linear behaviour is anticipated. That actually makes
this method unreliable in the field of nonlinear behaviour. Certainly, the biggest problem with this method
is to determine the exact geometric characteristics of the replacement diagonal. One way is to determine
the dimensions of the replacement diagonal from the state of equal horizontal displacement of
discontinuous surface model (or test sample - a prototype) and equivalent model with replacement
diagonals. According to some authors (Sigmund [1]), it is recommended that in models with pressed
diagonals, you need to take care of the assumed power on the diagonal, which must not exceed loadcarrying capacity of masonry infill, in order to avoid unrealistically large load capacity of the construction
as a whole.
Models with more replacement diagonals with appropriate characteristics in one direction are applied
to overcome the problem of unrealistically high stiffness and large bearing capacity (Figure 1).
Comparing the results of the rod models with those of discrete plane models show that in models with
more replacement diagonals horizontal stiffness of the frame is a bit smaller and more realistic than the
model with one replacement diagonal (depending upon the adopted distance between diagonals).

Figure 1. The linear model with multiple linear replacement diagonals. [2]

However, calculation results in the model with one replacement diagonal show that this model, despite
its simplicity, provides a qualitive assessment of the horizontal stiffness of the frame with masonry infill
and the distribution of longitudinal forces in the structure caused by horizontal lateral loading. For this
reason, it is generally accepted in the literature that the model with one replacement diagonal (two
diagonals for cyclic loading) can be successfully applied for the calculation and assessment studies of
frame system and masonry infill.
Position of the replacing diagonal elements is an important parameter. It is proposed that the two outer
diagonals are attached to columns at half the value of h1 given in a formula. Thickness of the diagonal
rods corresponds to the thickness of the masonry infill, and joints with the frame elements are adopted at
the rod ends. It is important to emphasize that the model with three replacement diagonal rods is more
suitable than the model with a diagonal because it can better represent the local shearing fracture in beams
and columns in the area where there is a contact between the masonry infill and RC elements of the frame
loaded with horizontal forces. In addition to the above, accurate effects on beams and columns are
obtained using models with three diagonals.
Various authors have proposed different values of geometric characteristics of the replacement
diagonal.
According to Ani and a group of authors [3], width of a pressed diagonal is adopted as a quarter
height infill:

(1)
Where:
h- height of the masonry infill,
a width of the replacement diagonal
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2.3. Nonlinear models

Figure 2. Nonlinear models with diagonal (left) or horizontal model of infill (right)

Unlike the linear models where the wall entity is replaced with a rod model, in nonlinear replacement
models, the behaviour of infills is modeled with nonlinear laws and when calculating, the model is
introduced in the form of relevant nonlinear elements (Eng. nonlinear spring) that can define various
characteristics of "force-displacement"; these nonlinear elements can be oriented horizontally or
diagonally in accordance with the way of calculating the appropriate parameters (Fig. 2)
Results of an experimental research of behaviour of the masonry infilled frame, which was conducted
by Mander and his associates [4] in 1994, are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Experimental values of envelope bearing capacity of masonry infills according to Mander [7]

Figure 3 illustrates the experimental values of the bearing capacity envelope that show the value of the
displacement in field of the elastic and nonlinear structures. For nonlinear envelope models, bearing
capacity of the infill is defined by corresponding bearing capacity to the horizontal lateral loads and the
corresponding displacements for each load level bearing capacity at yield, maximum shear capacity and
the final residual shear strength and the corresponding Uy, Um and Up displacement. The parameter is
the ratio of horizontal stiffness of the infill after the bearing capacity failure to initial stiffness.
Described nonlinear characteristics are modeled using dimensionless "spring" elements whose
behaviour is possible to define by an arbitrary nonlinear function or through so-called nonlinear hinges or
nonlinear supports. Such simplified nonlinear models, with usually acceptable increase in the duration of
the calculation, significantly increase the accuracy of estimates of response in comparison to simple linear
models with the replacement pressed diagonal since bearing capacity failure under pressure is not the only
way of bearing capacity failure of the structure. In the numerical models, following an example for the
parameter calculation in bearing capacity envelope of masonry infill, the largest horizontal bearing
capacity can be determined according to two most common ways of bearing capacity loss:
loss of bearing capacity due t shear
loss of bearing capacity due to exceeding voltage pressure in replacement diagonal
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As a competent value to define the maximum horizontal bearing capacity, lower of the two values
should be adopted. In most events, tensile rupture is not a general way of bearing capacity failure and is
more related to structure usability as the larger lateral forces can be taken over by other capacity
mechanisms. For this reason, the structure behaviour is not relevant for determining the maximum or
horizontal bearing capacity.
The largest horizontal shear force that the masonry infill can take over is given by the following
equation:

(2)
Where, N is vertical force in the masonry infill. Force N can be calculated as the vertical component of
the axial force D in replacement diagonal. Bearing capacity of infill on the sliding shear was reached at
thus the previous expression can be written as:

(3)
Bearing capacity of the replacement diagonal in the masonry infill when under pressure can be
determined from the expression:

(4)
Where a makes the actual infill thickness and is calculated according to the formula:
(
[

(5)

(6)

Analysing the diagram of both cases, we can notice that the models in the phase of flexible work have
showed almost the same behaviour to the occurrence of nonlinearity, when there is a sudden decrease in
model stiffness described by the horizontal spring in relation to the model represented by a diagonal
spring.
2.4. Continuous linear-elastic surface models

Figure 4. Continuous surface model

In this modeling approach, masonry infill is modeled using surface elements rigidly attached to the
frame elements - boundary conditions are not specifically modeled, which means that a connection with
frame rods is continuous and all nodes of the frame and a wall have a joint displacement. Sigmund Z and
Sigmund Z and V [1] propose two continuous models:
first for limiting state of usability where the elasticity modulus of the wall has been reduced to 1/3
the initial value.
second model for the limiting state of bearing capacity where the proposed reduction of elastic
modulus is at 1/60 the initial value.
In both models, the thickness of the surface element (wall) is equal to the thickness of the masonry
infill, and the conditions of the contour are not modeled separately - frame and the wall are continuously
connected.
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2.5. Discontinuous surface models

Similar to continuous models, here masonry infill is modeled with surface elements (with orthotropic
or isotropic properties), but in the model, but there are separate facilities for each of the components of
the structure (the frame and infill), and specific elements that are able to simulate the real situation in the
model and to define their contact are introduced - when under tension, disunity of elements in contact
occurres, while contact stresses are calculated under pressure. These models can also be formed by
introducing the boundary conditions at the contact of infill and the frame, and should be defined as to
accept only a certain amount of the pressure, not to transfer tensile and rotation or to transfer them to
certain measures.

Figure 5. Discontinual surface model

In these models, we can clearly notice a formed diagonally pressed area with the maximum stresses at
the edges of that area. Also, we can realize a separation of frame and masonry infill at the places of
tensile stresses at the contact surface, which more realistically reflect the actual behaviour of the structure.
This model best describes the behaviour of masonry structures. But there is a problem as the definition of
connection nonlinearity is extremely complex, and most software programs do not support this feature.
Moreover, the definition of the wall-RC element connection is not sufficient for accurate modeling of the
construction behaviour because we do not take nonlinearity of masonry material behaviour, where one
should take into account the decrease in stiffness after cracking.
3. CALCULATION OF WALLS AS SURFACE ELEMENTS USING FEM
Masonry structures usually have more complex behaviour and require advanced engineering
calculations and numerical models than ordinary concrete structures. Although, there are many numerical
models for static and dynamic calculation of masonry structures, there is still no generally accepted
numerical model that would be sufficiently reliable and easy for practical application.
3.1. Model of wall behaviour
In order to simulate the walls more adequately, it is useful to note once again that at the macro level, it
has different physical and mechanical properties, anisotropic and inhomogeneous. Wall elements
generally have different strength and stiffness in the vertical and horizontal directions. Mortar often has
quite different characteristics than the masonry elements, as already mentioned in the chapter on
mechanical and physical properties.
Horizontal joints are often not evenly and completely filled in with mortar, while the vertical joints are
usually only partially filled in with mortar or even "empty"in less important construction. Besides the
quality of the mortar in the joint, the quality of the connection (adhesion) between the mortar and the wall
element is important. Performance quality is not equal to the entire wall surface. Therefore, the quality of
the wall including its all components, their connections and different materials, is not uniform.
In the static and dynamic calculations of masonry constructions, two global numerical models of the
wall are applied: macro-model and micro-model.

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Macro-model of the wall is the model where the complex structure, quality and construction of the
wall using different materials at the macro (global) level approximate representative equivalent:
(replacement) materials, having such physical and mechanical properties to better describe the ultimate
bearing capacity, safety, damage and deformation of a real compound wall. This approach provides more
finite elements (coarse discretization) and reduces the number of unknowns in the system, respectively
speeds up the calculation of the structure.
Micro-model of the wall is the model where the spatial discretization of the wall is performed at the
level of the wall element and mortar (joint), and in even more accurate calculations, the joint between the
mortar and a wall element is simulated by tactile elements. It is possible to use various micro-models of
the wall, different accuracy, complexity and duration of the calculation. Compared to macro-model,
micro-models of the wall provide more accurate results and give a precise location of failure and damage
in the wall using longer and more complex calculations. As the real properties of mortar and the joints
between mortar and masonry blocks are usually unknown on the entire surface structures, especially
because of the real spatial size of the problem and the time-consuming duration calculation, micro-models
of the walls are rarely applied. They are mainly used for smaller spatial problems and the verification of
static and dynamic experimental test on the walls.

Figure 6. Mckro-model of the wall the wall with generated network of finite elements (left) and an
enlarged segment of the wall with generated network of finite elements (right).

4. CONCLUSION
The presented numerical models can provide an accurate nonlinear static and dynamic calculation of
different types of in-plane masonry structures (unreinforced, reinforced, bounded, infilled frames,
complex). Solved examples illustrate certain features of the model. Further checks of the above models
and developed software model program are required.
Particular advantage in the development of further models is given by development of nonlinear
models where we need to introduce nonlinear material properties and connection failure and change of
system rigidity after exceeding the allowable stress and the occurrence of the first cracks. This model
needs to be developed in a combined analytical, numerical and experimental procedure that should have a
cause-and-effect relation. In fact, the results obtained by experimental research are necessary to be
supported or proved by numerical methods. Problems of modeling masonry structures in the domain of
inelastic nonlinear behaviour is particularly complex because of the following facts:
bearing failure of the wall when under pressure,
formation of cracks in the wall due to tensile,
the mechanism of opening and closing of cracks in the wall under cyclic load,
bearing failure due to exceeding the shear strength,
anisotropic properties of the wall strength and stiffness in horizontal and vertical direction;
stiffness of the wall exposed to tensile and stiffness of a cracked wall,

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 failure of concrete that borders wall, opening of cracks in tensile concrete, the mechanism of
opening and closing of cracks in concrete under dynamic loading, stretching and shear stiffness of
cracked concrete,
effect of deformation rate on the properties of wall, reinforced concrete and soil under dynamic
load,
soil-failure under the foundation,
wall-soil interactions under dynamic loads,
construction method, the order of the wall construction and cerclage (frames) and similar
All these aspects should be analyzed in detail in order to develop an appropriate numerical model
for nonlinear analysis of masonry structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper is a part of the investigation within the research project TR 36043
"Development and application of a comprehensive approach to the design of new and safety assesment of
existing structures for seismic risk reduction in Serbia", supported by the Ministry for Science and
Technology, Republic of Serbia. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1].

Sigmund, Z. ; Sigmund, V. : A possibility of simple modeling of frame with infill,

International Scientific Symposium Modeling of Structures, chapter 43, pp. 639-652.

[2]. Trogrli B.: Materijal za predavanja: Zidane Konstrukcije, Split, 2009.

[3]. Anii, D.; Fajfar, P.; Petrovi, B.; Szavits-Nossan, A.;Tomaevi, M.: Zemljotresno

inenjerstvo visokogradnja, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1990.

[4]. Mander, J.B.; Aycardi, L.E.; Kim, D.K.: Physical and Analytical Modeling of Brick Infilled Steel

Frames, Proceedings of NCEER Workshop on Seismic Response of Masonry Infills, Technical

Report NCEER-94-0004, San Francisco, 1994.

Kovaevi D.: MKE Modeliranje u analizi konstrukcija, monografija, 336 str,

Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 2006.
[6]. Kaushik, H.B.; Rai, D.C.; Jain, S.K: A rational approach to analytical modeling of
masonry infills in reinforced concrete frame buildings, The 14th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Beijing, China, October 2008.
[5].

[7]. FEMA 273: Guidelines for the Seismic RehRCilitation of Buildings, Federal Emergency

Management Agency, Applied Technology Council, Washington DC, USA, 1997.

[8]. FEMA 306: Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings , Basic

Procedures Manual, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Applied Technology Council

(ATC-43 Project), Washington DC, USA, 1998.
[9]. Hughes, T.J.R.; Pister, K.S.; Taylor, R.L.: Implicit-explicit finite elements in nonlinear transient
analysis, comp. meth. Apl. Mech. Engng., Vol 17/18 1979., 159-182

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Predrag Petronijevi1
arko Petrovi2
Milovan Stanojev3

INFLUENCE OF VERTICAL DISCONTINUITY REINFORCED

CONCRETE WALL ON THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
PREFABRICATED REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE
Abstract: Improper horizontal continuation of reinforced concrete walls with primary structural system
of precast skeletal structures, ie. lack of continuity of the vertical reinforcement in reinforced concrete
walls is a remarkable error that happens to designers. Implications on seismic stability of buildings are
catastrophic, caused by the total lack of knowledge and misunderstanding of the problem by designers.
The paper briefly presents the part of implemented numerical studies of buildings in which this anomaly
was observed during construction. Results indicate a significant difference in the relative displacements
of storeys and characteristic frequency of buildings. Conclusions confirm the crucial influence of
discontinuity of reinforced concrete walls on redistribution of the seismic influence in the prefabricated
frame systems, which are stiffened with reinforced concrete walls.
Key words: Prefabricated reinforced concrete structure, frame prefabricated structures, reinforced
concrete walls

UTICAJ VERTIKALNOG DISKONTINUITETA AB ZIDOVA NA

DINAMIKE KARAKTERISTIKE MONTANIH
ARMIRANOBETONSKIH OBJEKATA
Rezime: Nepravilno horizontalno sprezanje armiranobetonskih platna i osnovnog konstruktivnog sistema
kod montanih skeletnih konstrukcija tj. nepostojanje vertikalnog kontinuiteta armature u
armiranobetonskim platnima je neverovatana greka koja se podkrada projektantima. Posledice po
seizmiku stabilnost objekta su katastrofalne a uzrokovane su totalnim nepoznavanjem i nerazumevanjem
problema od strane projektanata. U radu je ukratko dat prikaz dela sprovedenih numerikih istraivanja
objekata na kojima je primeena ova anomalija u izvoenju. Iz dobijenih rezultata uoena je znaajna
razlika u pomerljivosti i veliini sopstvenih frekvencija objekata. Izvedeni zakljuci potvruju presudan
uticaj diskontinuiteta armiranobetonskih zidova na preraspodelu seizmikih uticaja u montanim
okvirnim sistemima ukruenim platnima
: Montane armiranobetonske konstrukcije, okvirne montane konstrukcije, AB zidovi
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper analyzes the phenomena of irregularity of constructions and abrupt interruptions of
stiffness of bracing walls on prefabricated reinforced concrete frame structures. The fault that was
observed on a capital facility, on the grandstand of the newly built city stadium Cair is seemingly

Graduate engineer of civil engineering, Assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Ni, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14, Ni, Serbia, predrag.petronijevic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2
Mr, Assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Ni, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, Ni, Serbia,
zarko@gaf.ni.ac.rs
3
Ph.D. student, Projektinenjering, Cara Duana 90-92, Ni, Serbia, milovanstanojev@gmail.com

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harmless but has far-reaching consequences. Behaviour of precast reinforced concrete structures during
an earthquake depends on the characteristics of prefabricated elements and the quality of their joints and
connections. The behavior of prefabricated structures are in many ways different from the behavior of
monolithic ones because of semi-rigid connections, although it is common for them to be treated as
monolithic in the calculations. The conventional calculation of some linear and planar prefabricated
reinforced concrete structures has been done so far by the second order theory, but without the inclusion
of material nonlinearity in the connections and supports. In recent years, in particular, great attention is
paid to optimal design of real structures, ie. that the calculation takes into account the elasticity of the
nodal connections, ie. real connection stiffness in joints and supports. This tendency is not to an adequate
extent followed by with technical regulations which would regulate this problem. In the literature 0, there
are demands in terms of stiffness and bearing capacity in all directions. The proof of structures safety to
transverse, longitudinal and torsional forces and moments is obliged. High horizontal stiffness of ceilings
and application of solid connections between the slabs and walls, slabs and slabs, as well as the lateral
beams that increase the rigidity of the system is required. It is also required that beams and columns
connections are constructed to prevent progressive collapse which requires continuity of beams over the
supports 0,0,0. When dimensioning prefabricated reinforced concrete structures is the best to ensure
seismic stability of prefabricated skeletal structure by reinforced concrete cores and walls, as this
combination is the most cost-efficient in dimensioning the prefabricated linear elements. Reinforced
concrete walls are used in all cases where it is possible for functional reasons and the interior layout
object. Sway of construction is greatly reduced and bending moments in beams and joints. Moving the
constructions is greatly reduced and thus also the bending moments in beams and joints. The result of
that is that the dimensions of the foundation pockets and prefabricated beam connections with columns
are more rational.
2. DEFINING THE PROBLEM
One of the most efficient measures, in order to have a reliable behavior of the structure during
earthquakes, is to provide the regularity of the structure, both of the horizontal and vertical layouts. Small
details can alter the assumed behavior of the structure. The paper analyzes the problem of vertical
discontinuity of reinforced concrete bearing walls of prefabricated structures. Inadequate or lacking
vertical continuation (connecting) of reinforced concrete bearing walls is a rare error made when
constructing prefabricated high-rise structures. It occurs in the cases when the RC bearing walls are
designed in only a part of a span, which is not recommended as it complicates prefabrication of elements.
Such elements require concreting and leaving of anchors on the upper and lower sides, which is
impossible if the beam is cast in vertical position. If the beam is cast in the horizontal position, leaving the
anchors is possible, but it is necessary to perforate the formwork, which excludes usage of metal
formwork only wooden formwork is possible.

Figure 56 - An example of the lack of continuity of vertical wall reinforcement

It is recommended to design the bearing walls across the entire span and not partially, and to cast the
prefabricated beams at the level of floor slabs in place, or to completely omit them. This facilitates
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unobstructed continuation of vertical reinforcement of the RC bearing wall. Failing to meet this condition
results in reduction of seismic resistance of the structure and additionally loads the columns at the level of
floor slabs, where the shear force increases considerably in respect to the design force, and the bending
moment increases sever hundred times 0. This is particularly prominent when there is a bearing wall only
on one side of the column.
The structure of the city athletic stadium air constructed in the period of 2011 and 2012 is a typical
example of prefabricated skeletal structure with this anomaly. The problem occurs in all of the three
newly constructed stands, except, due to the symmetrical design of the bearing wall on both sides of the
column, the behavior of the structure is better. Due to the alternative action of the possible earthquake,
both bearing walls will be activated to pressure, while the central column will receive the tension, under
condition that the gap is small. In theory, if there is no gap between the bearing wall and the beam, there
bending stiffness is eight times lower. In practice, should there be a vertical discontinuity, the RC bearing
walls are cast with a gap of several mm to a couple of centimeters, which directly affects the distribution
of forces and behavior of the structure. When the gaps are large, the sway of the structure is increased,
and thus the stresses received by the columns, and the central column, in particular. The central column
has a reduced flexibility due to the lateral connections with the bearing walls of the second floor, and the
cross section in the column at the level above the short elements of the first ceiling is under the shear and
bending stress which are significantly higher than in the case of continuity of a RC wall. Displacements
of the prefabricated systems with stiffened walls are very small. Increase of the sway of the structure (in
this case in average 4 to 5 times) has no significant effect except on the masonry infill of the frames
which is very sensitive to relative displacements of the ceilings. The beam of the frame which is integral
with the bearing walls is treated in the conventional design as if fixed in the beam. Due to the gap on the
lower edge of the beam and the free vertical deformation, the beam behaves as a simple beam. In some
cases, the beam is additionally stressed by the load from the bearing wall of the next floor. In case of a
potential seismic action, the sequence of formation of plastic joints is unfavorable, i.e. the failure
mechanism is easily realized, and the plastic joints in columns occur relatively early.
3. MODELING OF DISCONTINUITY
Linear finite elements were used for the analysis of the frame model in the seismic action conditions.
Non-linear effects are included by implementing geometrical and material non-linearity through the P-
effect and displacement effect according to the II order theory, while the material non-linearity is
introduced applying plastic joint for the normal force and moment at the ends of the members. The curves
for all the plastic joints are defined according to FEMA356 0,0 , Figure 4. A classical mathematical
model for analysis of seismic action on the multi-storey frame at seismic action is adopted with the
assumption that there is a total fixation in the support nodes. The frame structure is modeled applying
linear structural elements, bearing walls for stiffening by surface structural elements, and since only
mutual pressure action is allowed, gap contact elements are used in the analysis for the mutual
connections of the bearing walls and frame beams 0.

Figure 57 Behavior of the structure at the first period, gap element and gap element in combination with Kelvin-Voigt element

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The purpose of the gap element (Figure: 2) was to transfer only the pressure force only when the
aperture is closed.
The Force-deformation dependency is given:
k [(v -v ) open] , za vi -v j <open , f k d c d ,
fG G i j
L L
L L
, za vi -v j >open
0

Where kG is the rigidity of the element, ui and uj is node vertical displacement and open is the
separation joint width. Dissipation of energy during collision can be taken into consideration by
introducing damping. The model can be improved combining the gap element with viscous damper and
elastic spring (Kelvin-Voigt element) figure: 6. Force-deformation dependency is expressed through the
linear rigidity of the spring kL, damping coefficient cL and dL is deformation in the direction of the
element. The rigidity and damping of contact element is proposed by Jankoski (2005), where the element
originally was used to simulate the collision of buildings. The rigidity kG must be a hundred times higher
than rigidity kL in order to render the gap element absolutely rigid after closing 0.
4. ANALYSIS OF IMPACT OF DISCONTINUITY ON THE OSCILLATION PERIOD
The analysis treated a two-storey, two-bay frame with the absolute fixation of beams. The
asymmetrical arrangement of walls on one side only was adopted because in that case the effect is the
most prominent. Dependence of variation of own periods of oscillation is in the function of the of the
structural rigidity (cross section of beams and columns, and concrete class), value of masses concentrated
at the level of ceilings, degree of yielding of prefabricated connections, span, height of individual floors
and value of the gap between the bearing wall and the beam. The standardized dimensions of
prefabricated columns and beams which are most frequently having rectangular and T cross sections, of
various relations of webs and flanges provide a potential to different pats to formation of structural failure
mechanism. The gap size is the critical variable on whose size depends the result divergence and shape of
Pushover curve. The results are presented in relative values of oscillation periods as an indicator of the
change of dynamic characteristics. The highest departure in the value of the first oscillation tone in case
of the frame with the bearing wall with the relative length of to of the span for increase of periods is
up to 60% Figure 3. For the designed frame structure, only the first tone of oscillation is provided as
dominant carrier of seismic energy for low structures. For the boundary case, when the bearing wall is
designed along the full length of the span, the difference in the first tone is negligibly small, but the
failure mechanism is specific. Due to a relatively small height and great length, the bearing wall is
dominant to shear. The small moment in the bearing wall is transferred through the discontinuity through
the connections of normal forces in the columns.

Figure 58 - Changing the first period of oscillation, depending on the relative lengths of reinforced concrete wall

In figure 4 there are diagrams of dependence of force displacement for three basic cases. The first is
when the bearing wall is continuous along its height, with no interruptions. The second curve is for the
case when the force acts in the direction of closing the gap and the third, the most unfavorable, is when

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the force increases the gap the between the bearing wall and the beam. The diagrams present the sequence
of occurrence of plastic joints in the structural failure mechanism.

Figure 59 - Pushover curve for two-story frame model with plastic joints (left), Dependency of forces (Moment)
deformation (rotation) in plastic hinges (right) 0

The shape and dependence of Pushover curve are very sensitive to variation of entry parameters, and
for a more serious of the problem, it is necessary to perform a comprehensive parametric analysis. From
the shape of the curves it can be concluded that during action of seismic forces, the multiple times higher
displacements occur, than the designed one. Alternating collision of the upper and lower part of the
bearing wall will probably result in crushing of the wall edge and the occurrence of plastic joints where
the beams are fixed in the wall. The second and the third occurrence of plastic joints is on the central and
lateral columns, which definitely realizes the structural failure mechanism, at much lower lateral forces
than the designed ones.
5. CONCLUSION
As it has been presented, the errors in shaping the details of prefabricated reinforced concrete
structures can have far-reaching and catastrophic consequences on the seismic stability of structures. The
goal of contemporary regulations and standards for design of the structures in seismic areas is provision
of sufficient capacity of energy consumption without significant reduction of local and overall bearing
capacity of horizontal and vertical loads and without damage which would limit the serviceability of the
structure. Even if all the requirements of aseismic construction are observed during design and calculating
the structure, and the connection details are inadequately constructed, it can have far-reaching
consequences for their elements and structure as a whole.
Improper horizontal continuation of reinforced concrete walls with primary structural system of
precast skeletal structures, ie. lack of continuity of the vertical reinforcement in reinforced concrete walls
is almost incredible error that happens to designers. Implications are catastrophic, caused by the total lack
of knowledge and misunderstanding of the problem by designers. The structures constructed in this way,
compared to the calculation model, have a significant increase of displacement due to horizontal actions
and entirely different distribution of influences. Increase of cross section forces in the column standing
next to the bearing wall can amount several hundred times, and the failure of the column at the secondstorey level is unavoidable. It can be generally said that in all linear elements, the impacts will increase
several times in comparison to those for which the structure was designed. The structure cannot receive
such impacts by any means, and failure during serious seismic actions is definite. The conducted research
in this paper is an introduction to further research of non-linear response of multi-storey frames applying
non-linear static analysis. The further research should be directed to research of parametric analysis of
every factor influencing structural behavior in case of emergence of vertical discontinuity of reinforced
concrete walls.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is conducted at The Faculty ofCivil Engineering and Architecture of University of Ni in
the framework of the projects in the field of technological development in the period 2011-2014, and
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titled "Experimental and theoretical investigation offrames and plates with semi-rigid connections from
the view ofthe second order theory and stability analysis" (TR 36016) and "Development and
improvement of methods for analyses of soil-structure interaction based on theoretical and experimental
research " (TR 36028), financially supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of
Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1] Gospodinov G., Vassilev T., Petkov Z.: Numerical Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Joints,
Final Report of COST C1 PECO contract ERBCIPECT, 1995, . 53-59
[2] Hass, A. M.: Precast Concrete: Design And Applications, Applied Sciece Publishers, london,
1983
[3] Jankowski, R. Non-linear viskoelastic modeling of earthquake-induced structural pounding,
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 2005, Vol.34, 595-611.
[4] Vassilev, T. V., Gospodinov, G. and Petkov, Z. B., Numerical Modelling of Hysteretic
Behaviour of RC Joints, as ref 4, 53-59.
[5] FIP Commission on Prefabrication. Working Party on Design Recommendations for MultiStorey Precast Concrete Structures.,London : Tomas Telford, 1986.
[6] Building construction under seismic conditions in the Balkan region. Vol. 2. design and
construction of prefabriacted reinforced concrete buildig systems. Vienna: United NDE, 1985
[7] FEMA356 Prestandard and commentary for the seismic rehabilitation of buildinga, Federal
Emergency Menagment Agency, 2000, Washington D.C. str:80
[8] SAP2000 Analysis reference Manual, SCI Berkeley, 2002, California, str:402
[9] ATC (1996). Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings, Report ATC-40,
Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, U.S.A. (also Report SSC 96-01, Seismic Safety
Commission, State of California, Sacramento, U.S.A.).

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milan Proti1
Dragan Miti2

EMISSIONS FROM RETROFITTED MULTIFUEL BOILER AFTER FUEL

SWITCH FROM OIL TO WOOD PELLETS
Abstract: Gaseous emissions from multi-fuel 120 kW boiler, after replacement of oil burner with pellet
burner and consequent fuel switch were measured in real life conditions. Emissions as well as efficiency
were measured at nominal load after the boiler operation stabilization. The measurement of gaseous
emissions comprised carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur
oxides (SOx). Yielded experimental results were compared to emission limits set in EN 303-5. Retrofitted
installation met emission requirements set in EN 303-5.
ey words: pellet burner, emission measurement, EN - 305

: 120 kW,
.
.
(CO2),
(CO), (NOx) (SOx) .
EN 303-5.
EN 303-5.
: , , EN - 305
1. INTRODUCTION
Densification technologies (i.e. briquetting and pelleting) gain the popularity in recent years as an
efficient way of converting wood waste to high quality solid biofuel. Direct use of wood/forest as well as
agricultural waste is often associated with problems arising mainly from uneven inherent characteristics
of that kind of biofuel (e.g. heating value, moisture content, ash content). Densification technology
provides solution for those problems. From one hand side, producers of pellets and briquettes can
guarantee quality of produced solid biofuel and from the other, customers know what they are buying.
These conditions were and are essential for further pellets and briquettes market development. Additional
impetus, for further market development, were recently announced EN standards for solid biofuels (CEN
Technical Committee 335), which provide precise instructions for biofuel classification, testing and
ranking [1]. All of these actions, with the main aim to regulate the market and to attract more market
actors, significantly contributed to present pellets popularity.
However, as with any commodity, price has dominant role in acceptance which is on the other end the
result of supply and demand. In that respect, pellets price need to be competitive with price of fossil fuels.
This can be achieved in two distinctive ways. In EU countries, energy taxation shames on national level

1
2

mr Milan Proti, assistant, University of Nis, Faculty of Occupational Safety, milan.protic@znrfak.ni.ac.rs

PhD Dragan Miti, full professor, University of Nis, Faculty of Occupational Safety

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exist and most of them favour wider usage of renewable fuels. On the other side in developing countries,
pellet producers cant count on this kind of support and are in most of the cases directed towards export to
EU market if they produce premium pellets or to local market if they produce low quality pellets.
Beside this economic moment, positive environmental effect results from the fact that pellets are
produced from biomass. This means that pellets can be regarded as almost carbon neutral and that could
significantly contribute to greenhouse gases mitigation. Effects are even greater for the cases where fossil
fuels were replaced with pellets.
Already mentioned pellet market development goes along with development of market for pellet
burning equipment. This pertains to different configurations of burners and boilers. Accordingly,
emission tests for these appliances were the objective of numerous papers in literature [2-5]. Most of
these studies were performed under standard laboratory conditions for new boilers and burners. In real
life conditions, measured emissions can deviate considerably. As to the authors knowledge, none of the
papers in open literature treated the emission from refurbished installations (after the fuel switch) and
custom made pellet burner in the real life conditions, as is the case in this paper. This kind of installation
has considerable potential, because of great economic benefit for end users and environmental positive
effect for wider community, and emission tests from one of these installations was the objective of this
study.
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
2.1. Experiment set up
120 kW boiler, providing heating to local public building, was used for experiment. It had been in
operation for 5 years prior to this refurbishment. Existing oil burner was replaced with horizontal feed,
custom made, wood pellet burner. Replacement was made altogether with boiler front door so adequate
sealing was preserved. Retrofitted installation is shown on Figure 1.

Figure 1 New retrofitted installation comprising multi- fuel boiler and pellet burner

Boiler firebox as well as flue gas canals were cleaned thoroughly before the measuring equipment
was mounted. Schematic layout of test equipment is shown on Figure 2. Measurements were made during
the regular boiler operation at nominal load conditions, two hours after the burner start up.
Gaseous emissions comprising carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx)
and sulphur oxides (SOx) were continually measured using the TESTO 325 XL flue gas analyser. TESTO
gas analyser uses electrochemical cells for flue gas characterization and measurement. Instrument has
auto calibrating option which is performed every time the instrument is turned on. Two Pt 1000 sensors
(with 0.5% measurement accuracy) were used for measuring ambient and flue gas temperatures.

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Temperature sensors were connected to multichannel data acquisition system dataTaker DT80. At the end
of experiment, date from local memory of dataTaker were uploaded to computer for further analyse.

Emission measurement
(CO2, CO, NOx,SOx)

TESTO
325 XL

FLUE GAS
CHANNEL
Flue gas temperature

dataTaker
DT80
Ambient air
temperature

PELLETS
FEED

BOILER

BURNER

Figure 2 Experimental set up (schematic layout)

2.2. Pellets
Wood pellets samples, used for this study, were obtained through regular distribution channels in
Serbian pellet market. Pellets were tested according to the SRPS EN 14961-1:2010. Moisture content
were obtained according to the SRPS EN 14774-1:2011, mechanical durability according to SRPS EN
15210-1:2011, bulk density according to SRPS EN 15103:2011, fines content according to the SRPS EN
15149-1:2011, ash content according to the SRPS EN 14775:2011, calorific value according to the SRPS
EN 14918:2011. Content of C, H, and N was determined according to the SRPS CEN/TS 15104:2009 and
content of S according to the SRPS CEN/TS 15289:2009. Results of analysis are given in Table 1.
ble 9- Characteristics of the used pellets
Diameter
(mm)

Humidity
(wt%)

8.4

Mechanical
durability
(%wt)
96.54

Bulk
density

Ash
(%wt)

Lower
calorific
value
(MJ/kg)

C
(wt%)

H
(wt%)

O
(wt%)

N
(wt%)

S
(wt%)

(kg/m3)

Fine
contents
(%wt)

685.34

0.87

0.67

18.654

50.49

5.93

43.50

0.08

<0.01

2.3. Efficiency measurement

Efficiency measurement was performed using the Sigerts equation [6]. According to this equation
efficiency (with acceptable accuracy) can be calculated as:
100 FGL
where FGL stands for flue gas loses (%). FGL can be calculated as:

FGL F Tfg Ta / CO2

where F is fuel specific factor (0.68 for wood pellets), Tfg temperature of flue gases (0C), Ta ambient
temperature and CO2 the concentration of carbon dioxide in flue gases (%).

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. CO emission
Temperature in combustion chamber, level of mixing between fuel and air/oxygen and residence time
of fuel in burner/boiler are the three dominant factors with highest influence on the level of CO emission.
Generally speaking, CO is always the result of incomplete combustion of fuel.
CO emission from retrofitted installation is shown on Figure 3.

Figure 3 CO emissions from retrofitted installation and permissible values from EN 303-5and values set in Austria and
Germany national standards

Emission is compared with allowable emissions according to EN 303-5 and with some stringent
conditions which are prescribed in Germany and Austria [7]. Additionally, in some EU countries (i.e.
Austria, Germany and Sweden) quality labels exist which set even higher standards on level of emission.
As can be seen from Figure3, CO emissions from retrofitted installation are considerably lower than it is
prescribed by EN norm.
3.2. NOx emission
There are three possible ways of NOx formation [8-9]:
Thermal NOx arise at elevated temperatures (above 13000C) from atmospheric nitrogen;
Prompt NOx formed at the flame front and
Fuel NOx originating from nitrogen in fuel.
Measured NOx emissions are shown on Figure 4.

Figure 4 NOx emissions from retrofitted installation and permissible values from EN 303-5and values set in Austria national
standard

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Interesting thing is that besides the fact that NOx pose risk to human health, no limits are specified in
EN 303-5, for pellet burning devices. Hence, measured values were compared to values set in Austrian
framework conditions. Emissions are considerably lower than it is defined in Austrian national standard.
This can be explained by the fact that temperatures in combustion chambers for low and medium sized
boilers and burners rarely exceeds temperature of 13000C, which is the lower bound for creation of
thermal NOx (as explained earlier). NOx in flue gases in this case is formed from fuel nitrogen, and since
its content is very low (see Table 1), content of NOx is consequently minute.
3.3. Efficiency
Efficiency of retrofitted installation is shown on Figure 5.

Figure 5 Efficiency of retrofitted installation and lower bound set in EN 303-5

According to EN 303-5, lower bound for boiler efficiency, with capacity between 10 kW and 200 kW
and with automatic feeding, should be calculated according to following formula [7]:
68.3 7.7 log PN
where PN stands for nominal power of appliance.
As can be seen from Figure 5, measured efficiency of 89,54 % is lower than in the case of new and
compact installation, but is still above the lower bound set in EN 303-5.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Obtained results indicate that emissions from retrofitted installation, with nominal power of 120 kW,
completely comply with requirements set in EN 303-5. Surprisingly, results exceeded expectation
especially taking into account that study was undertaken on used (5 years old) boiler and that
measurements were made in exploitation i.e. in daily life operational conditions.
It is important to emphasize that this study was conducted at nominal load and higher emissions are to
be expected in reduced load conditions. This will be the objective of the next study. Additionally, it
would be of high interest to examine dust emissions from this, retrofitted, installation as well as emissions
of aromatic hydrocarbons, especially the ones that pose the risk on human health.
REFERENCES
[1] https://www.cen.eu/cen/Sectors/TechnicalCommitteesWorkshops/CENTechnicalCommittees/Pag
es/Standards.aspx?param=19930&title=Solid%20biofuels (retrieved July, 2012)
[2] Dias J., Costa M., Azevedo JLT. Test of a small domestic boiler using different pellets, Biomass
and Bioenergy, 27(6), 2004, 531-539
[3] Eskilsson D., Ronnback M., Samuelsson J., Tullin C. Optimisation of efficiency and emissions in
pellet burners, Biomass and Bioenergy, 27(6), 2004, 541-546.

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[4] Wiinikka H., Gebart R. Experimental investigations of the influence from different operating
conditions on the particle emissions from a small-scale pellets combustor. Biomass and
Bioenergy, 27(6), 2004; 645-652.
[5] Sippula O., Hokkinen J., Puustinen H., Pirila PY., Jokiniemi J. Comparison of particle emissions
from small heavy fuel oil and wood-fired boilers, Atmospheric Environment, 43, 2009, 48554864.
[6] Rosa, L., Tosato,R. Experimental evaluation of seasonal efficiency of condensing boilers. Energy
and Buildings, 14 (3), 1990, 237241
[7] Obernberger, I., Thek G., The pellet handbook: the production and thermal utilization of biomass
pellets. EarthScan, London, 2010.
[8] Werther J., Saenger M., Hartge EU., Ogada T., Siagi Z., Combustion of agricultural residues,
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 26, 2007, 1-27.
[9] Habi MA., Elshafei M., Dajani M., Influence of combustion parameters on NOx production in an
industrial boiler, Computers & Fluids, 37, 2008, 12-23.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Nenad Risti1
Zoran Grdi2
Gordana Toplii-uri3

PHYSICAL-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE MADE WITH

THE ADDITION OF GRANULATED RECYCLED RUBBER
Abstract: Concrete is a composite material and its physical and mechanical properties are highly
dependent on the characteristics of the constituent materials of which it is made. Adding special additives
to concrete tends to improve some of its properties. This paper presents the results of testing the physicomechanical properties of concrete made with the addition of recycled rubber. Four batches of concrete
were produced: a batch of benchmark samples with no rubber added, a batch with the 10% addition of
recycled rubber (in respect to the total volume), a batch of samples with the 20% addition of recycled
rubber and a batch of samples with the 30% addition of recycled rubber. The results showed that the
strength of concrete decreases with increasing share of recycled rubber, while the concrete with 10%
recycled rubber plug showed the best hydro-abrasive resistance.
Key words: recycled rubber, concrete, physico-mechanical properties, hydro-abrasive resistance

: -
.
.
-
. ,
10% ,
20% 30% .
,
10% .
: , , - ,

1
MScCe, assistant, Nenad Risti, University of Nis, The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Aleksandra
Medvedeva 14 street, 18000, Nis, Serbia,nenad.ristic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2
Full Prof. Zoran Grdi, University of Nis, The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14
street, 18000, Nis, Serbia, zoran.grdic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
3
Ass.Prof. Gordana Toplii-uri, University of Nis, The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, A. Medvedeva 14
street, 18000, Nis, Serbia, gordana.toplicic.curcic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

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1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development is one of the strategic goals of contemporary economical development. In
essence, the concept of sustainable development is based on the effort to harmonize economic
development and usage of natural resources and preserve the healthy environment [7]. An important
factor in natural conservation is reduction of waste dumps, that is, an effort to reuse the waste material.
The primary goal of recycling is protection and conservation of available primary resources, the
unrenewable ones, from their further exhaustion.
Waste tires are a specific type of waste generated by all vehicles. Worn off tires are often disposed of
in the large piles in the environment. The environment is exposed to long term impacts on its appearance
and to the uncontrolled fire risks. Waste tires can be easily collected, processed and recycled. Tires can be
an important alternative material in production of certain rubber products, and in generation of power
[17].
Large numbers of waste materials or industrial by-products, respectively have been in use in recent
concrete technology for many years past. They can be use as mineral admixtures or as filler aggregates,
which replace natural stone aggregate partially or on the whole. Waste car tires have become a worldwide environmental problem. Recycling processes make shredded, chipped, granulated, or crumb rubber
which has been evaluated for possible replacement of a part of the aggregate in concrete. The concrete
prepared with crumb rubber has shown better resistance to cracking, noise reduction, low heat
conductivity and flexibility during thermal expansion and contraction due to its ductile behavior. This has
been reportedly useful for different applications [1,3,4,8,18].
Resistance of concrete to abrasive action, apart from the composition of the concrete mixture, also
depends on the external conditions to which concrete is exposed. The research by various authors
demonstrated that the concretes produced with various mineral admixtures (silica powder, fly ash, blast
furnace slag, milled basalt), addition of still fibers, addition of polypropylene fibers or with aluminate
cements, high strength concretes, rolled concretes and addition of recycled granulated rubber [19,20] have
to a lesser or larger extent a better abrasive resistance in comparison to the benchmark concrete produced
without any admixtures, with the common Portland cement. This paper presented research of abrasive
resistance of the concrete with the admixture of recycled granulated rubber.
2. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The benchmark concrete was produced with the Portland cement CEM I 42.5 R. For preparation of
concrete, the aggregate obtained by mixing three fractions 0/4, 4/8 and 8/16 mm from the river aggregate
of the Southern Morava River was used. The recycled rubber used was a fraction 1-4 mm by the Tigar
Pirot manufacturer. Particle density and bulk density of rubber aggregate in the loose state were
determined according to SRPS B.B8.031:1982 [9] and SRPS B.B8.030:1982 [10] and amounted to 1150
kg/m3 and 480 kg/m3, respectively. Also used was water reducer SIKA 3070.
Four mixtures for testing fresh and hardened concrete properties were made. The benchmark mixture
was made by the river aggregate, cement, water and water reducer, marked with E. Three mixtures are
made, substituting river aggregate for recycled rubber granulate. The aggregate substitution was
performed by volume. The mixture marked G10 was made with 10% of rubber substitute, G20 with 20%
of rubber substitute and G30 with 30% of rubber substitute instead of the river aggregate. The mixtures
were made with the same water /cement ratio c = 0.42 and with approximately same consistency of
concrete (slump 9-11 cm) which was achieved using Sika 3070 plasticizer. The compositions of the
concrete mixtures are given in the table 1.
ble 10- Composition of concrete mixtures used in the experiment

Series of
specimens
E
G10
G20
G30

0/4 mm
% kg/m3
45
810
45
638
45
465
45
290

%
25
25
25
25

Aggregate
4/8 mm
kg/m3
450
456
450
456

%
30
30
30
30

8/16 mm
kg/m3
540
547
540
547
-439-

Rubber
1/4 mm
kg/m3
64
126
189

Cement

Water

kg/m3
400
405
400
405

kg/m3
168
170
168
168

Sika
3070
kg
3,20
3,65
4,00
4,40

The consistency was measured on the fresh concrete by the slump test according to SRPS ISO
4109:1997 [11] and the bulk density according to SRPS ISO 6276:1997 [12]. The compressive strength
and bulk density of hardened concrete were tested on the cubes with 150 mm sides according to SRPS
ISO 4012:2000 [13], and the flexural strength on the prisms with dimensions 100 x 100 x 400 mm
according to SRPS ISO 4013:2000 [14]. The tests of determining the rebound number using rebound
hammer according to SRPS U.M1.041:1998 [15] and the ultrasonic pulse velocity according to SRPS
U.M1.042:1998 [16] were performed on the cubes having 150 mm sides.
The scheme of the equipment for concrete abrasive resistance testing is displayed in the figure 1 [2].
Similar equipment was used by the researchers in Taiwan for testing of abrasive resistance of concrete
[5,6].

Figure 1 - Scheme of equipment for testing abrasion of concrete

The equipment consists of a tin basin, with dimensions 2,0 x 2,0 m at the base and 1,5 m of height,
whose front side is covered with a panel of transparent Plexiglas for visual observation during the tests.
For the test, the basin is filled up to one third of its height with the mixture of water and sand, with
granulation from 0.6 mm to 1.2 mm, in the mass ratio of 10:1. The sand used as the abrasive for wearing
concrete was silica sand. Four electrical motors turn the vanes making a homogenous mixture of water
and sand, while the centrifugal pump which via an intake sucks in the mixture and then ejects it under
pressure though a nozzle on the test concrete slab with the dimensions 200 x 200 x 50 mm. The concrete
slab is fitted onto the rig which can rotate around the horizontal axis and in this manner change the
incidence angle of the jet and the examined specimen.
The test specimen, i.e. concrete slab, is first dried to the constant mass at 1055 C which is then
measured (m1). The specimen is then saturated by water via the gradual immersion method and exposed
to the action of the water/sand mixture jet for the period of 120 minutes. The water temperature during the
test was 30 C. Eventually, the specimen is again dried up to the constant mass and then the mass of
abraded (m2) is measured. The accuracy of the specimen mass measurement is 0,1 g. The water/sand
mixture jet acts on the surface of concrete test slab at the angle of 45 via the rectangular jet nozzle with
dimensions of 10 x 200 mm. The nozzle jet velocity is 20 m/s, which is equivalent to the pressure of 2,4
bars, that is, 0,24 MPa. The difference of masses m is the mass of the material abraded under the action
of the abrasive suspended in water.
The abrasion erosion rate ER,m by mass is calculated as:

E R ,m

m m1 m2
[g/min],

t
t

(1)

where:
m1 and m2 - are the masses of the specimen dried up to the constant mass before and after the
action of the mixture of water and the abrasive.
t - time of action of the mixture on the test sample (t=120 min).

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However, as the samples of hardened concrete have different densities depending on the
percentage of granulated rubber used to substitute river aggregate, it is more suitable to use loss of sample
volume due to the abrasive action for comparison, which is calculated by the following form

hard,conc

[cm3],

(2)

that is, the degree of abrasive action by volume

m1 m2
V hard,conc
[cm3/min],
ER ,V

t
t
where:

(3)

hard,conc - density of hardened concrete, dried to the constant mass in g/cm3.

3. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The tests results of fresh and hardened concrete are presented in the tables 2, 3, 4 and figures 1, 2 and
3.
Table 2 - Characteristics of concrete in fresh state

Series of
specimen

Density
[kg/m3]

2375

G10

2285

G20

2155

G30

2060

Slump
class
S3 (11,0
cm)
S3 (10,0
cm)
S2 (9,0
cm)
S3 (10 cm)

Air
content
[%]
3,1
3,5
5,2
7,2

Table 3. Characteristics of concrete in hardened state

Series of
Age of
specimen specimens

G10

G20

G30

2 days
7 days
28 days
2 days
7 days
28 days
2 days
7 days
28 days
2 days
7 days
28 days

Density
[kg/m3]
2370
2372
2370
2264
2271
2260
2136
2140
2145
2055
2060
2057
-441-

Compressive Flexural
strength
strength
[MPa]
[MPa]
31,45
4,05
52,23
5,85
62,89
6,48
23,45
3,62
33,11
4,92
40,22
5,18
14,45
2,92
19,78
3,87
25,22
4,25
9,34
1,75
15,11
2,58
18,56
2,90

Table 4 - Loss of specimen mass and volume and the abrasion erosion rate

Series of
specimen

Mass
loss
m [g]

ER,m
[g/min]

E
G10
G20
G30

41,4
36,5
45,6
57,7

0,3450
0,3042
0,3800
0,4808

Density of
hardened concrete
dried to the
constant mass
[g/cm3]
2,340
2,135
2,025
1,945

Volume loss
V [cm3]

ER,V
[cm3/min]

17,69
17,10
22,52
29,67

0.1474
0,1425
0,1877
0,2473

Figure 60 - Compressive strength in the function of concrete age

Figure 2 - Flexural strength in the function of concrete age

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Figure 3 - Ultrasonic pulse velocity in m/s (left) and rebound number obtained by using rebound hammer (right)

5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Based on the test results presented in the previous chapter, it can be concluded that substitution of
river aggregate for the recycled rubber granulate in concrete brings about significant changes of its
performances in fresh and hardened state. It can be observed in fresh concretes that with the increase of
content of recycled rubber, the density decreases, in the range 90 do 315 kg/m3. Also, with the increase of
the content of rubber aggregate, the content of entrained air in concrete also increases, and it was
necessary to add plasticizer in order to maintain the consistency in the range 9-11 cm.
The observed decrease of density of hardened concrete with the increase of rubber granulate
content, on the same order of magnitude as in the fresh concrete was logical. Compressive and flexural
strengths decrease to a great extent as the quantity of rubber granulate increases, at various age of
concrete samples, figures 1 and 2. The compressive strength decrease of 28 days old samples made with
10% of recycled rubber in comparison to the benchmark concrete is 36%, while in those samples made
with 20% and 30% of recycled rubber, the decrease of compressive strength is 60% and 70%. The tensile
strength decrease tested by bending of 28 days old samples made with 10%, 20% and 30% of recycled
rubber in comparison to the benchmark concrete is 20%, 34% and 55% respectively.
As for the tests of ultrasonic wave propagation through the concrete, on the basis of obtained
results it could be observed that wave velocity in concrete decreases with the increase amount of recycled
rubber granulate in concrete, figure 3 left. Therefore, reduction of wave velocity through concrete
comprising 10% of rubber aggregate in comparison to the benchmark concrete is 5,37%, while for
concretes comprising 20% and 30% of rubber aggregate this reduction is 13,94% i.e. 21,28%. This
demonstrates that rubber granules in concrete are weak spots in its structure, and in this way they do not
contribute to increase of mechanical characteristics of concrete, as it was directly demonstrated by the
compressive strength and tensile strength testing results.
Surface hardness test by the rebounding hammer testes exhibited similar results as the previously
mentioned tests, figure 3 right. The value of rebound is reduced with the increase of the content of rubber
aggregate in concrete, whereby it must be taken into account that rubber in the hardened concrete, to a
certain extent dampens the blows of the hammer, and reduces its rebound.
As for the abrasion strength of concrete, the analysis of the values of degree of abrasion strength by
volume, showed that the concrete with 10% of substituted river aggregate for recycled rubber granulate is
slightly better in comparison to the benchmark concrete, even though its compressive and tensile bending
strengths are lower than the benchmark concrete. With the increase of the rubber granulate content, the
degree of abrasion strength of concrete by volume increases, that is, concrete strength to abrasion action
is reduced. The presence of optimum quantity of rubber granulates in concrete mixture provides
additional elasticity to concrete dampening the impacts of the abrasive matter in the water and in this way
reduce wearing off of the concrete surface. However, with the increase of the rubber material quantity,
the concrete composite loses its compactness, because the rubber granulate is the weak spot in concrete.
Its presence reduces adhesion between the cement stone and coarse aggregate and prevents the coarse
aggregate from participating in concrete bearing capacity, resulting in the concrete failure in cement
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stone. The worn off surface of the benchmark concrete is partially smooth due to the regular wear of
concrete particles, while in case of recycled rubber samples, this surface is considerably rougher, due to
tearing off of the river aggregate grains and rubber granulate from concrete. The surface appearance of
the concrete tested to abrasion is presented in figure 4.

Figure 4 - Appearance of the concrete samples surfaces after abrasion strength tests: a) benchmark concrete, b) concrete with
10% , c) 20%, d) 30% of recycled rubber granulate

In figure 5 is displayed the crack surface exposed when concrete samples with various contents of
recycled rubber aggregate are tested to bending until failure.

Figure 5 - Concrete samples crack surface at bending a) benchmark concrete, b) concrete with 10% , c) 20% and d) 30% of
rubber granulate

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper is a part of the investigation within the research project TR 36017
"Utilization of by-products and recycled waste materials in concrete composites in the scope of
sustainable construction development in Serbia: investigation and environmental assessment of possible
applications", supported by the Ministry for Science and Technology, Republic of Serbia. This support is
gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

Eldin, N.N., Senouci, A.B. Rubber-Tire Particles as Concrete aggregate, Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, Vol.5, 1993, pp. 478-496. (1993).
Grdic Z., Curcic G.T., Ristic N., Despotovic I.: Abrasion resistance of concrete micro-reinforced
with polypropylene fibers, Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 305312
Jevti D., Zaki D., Savi A. Investigation of cement based composites made with recycled
rubber aggregate, Chemical Industry , 2012 OnLine-First (00):10-10
Lee, H.S., Lee, H., Moon, J.S., Jung, H.W. Development of Tire Added Latex Concrete. ACI
Materials Journal, Vol.95, 1998, no.4, pp. 356364. (1998).
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[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]

[19]
[20]

Lui Y.W. Improving the abrasion resistance of hydraulic-concrete containing surface crack by
adding silica fume, Construction and Building Materials 21 (2007) 972-977
Lui YW, Yen T, Hsu TH. Abrasion erosion of concrete by water-borne sand. Cement and
Concrete Research 2006;36:181420.
Parris T. M., Kates R. W. Characterizing and Measuring Sustainable Development, Annual
Reviews of Environment and Resources 28 (2003): 55986.
Siddique R., Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, Scrap Tires, Chapter 4, Springer; 1st.
ed., 2007, pp. 121-145.
SRPS B.B8.031:1982 Crushed aggregate - Determination of particle density and water
absorption
SRPS B.B8.030:1982 Mineral aggregate - Determination of unit weight
SRPS ISO 4109:1997 Fresh concrete - Determination of the consistency - Slump test
SRPS ISO 6276:1997 Concrete, compacted fresh - Determination of density
SRPS ISO 4012:2000 Concrete - Determination of compressive strength of test specimens
SRPS ISO 4013:2000 Concrete - Determination of flexural strength of test specimens
SRPS U.M1.041:1998 Concrete, hardned - Determination of rebound number using rebound
hammer
SRPS U.M1.042:1998 Concrete, hardened - Determination of ultrasonic pulse velocity
Stanojevic D., Rajkovic M., Tokovic D. Management of used tyres, accomplishments in the
world, and situation in Serbia, Chemical Industry 65 (6) 727738 (2011)
uteri J., Zajc A., Ercegovi R. Achievement of special properties of concrete with waste
materials, International Conference Waste Management, Environmental Geotechnology and
Global Sustainable Development (ICWMEGGSD'07 - GzO'07) Ljubljana, Slovenia, August 28.
- 30., 2007
uteri J. Abrazijsko odporni betoni, 11. slovenski kolokvij o betonih Gradnja z betoni
visokih zmogljivosti, Zbornik gradiv in referatov, Ljubljana, 31. 5. 2004, p. 41-48
Toutanji, H.A. The Use of Rubber Tire Particles in Concrete to Replace Mineral Aggregates.
Cement & Concrete Composites, Vol.16, 1996, pp.135-139. (1996).

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Enis Sadovi1
Radomir Foli2
Dragan Luki3

EFFECTS OF CORROSION ON THE INTERACTION OF CONCRETE

TUNNEL LINING AND THE ROCK MASS
Abstract: Tunnelling is an existing and progressively evolving construction technology primarily due to
continuous development of calculation and construction methods. This construction industry is one of the
fields of human activity where views and approaches are constantly changing. In order for tunnelling to
reach its full potential, it must be subjected to extensive research. Such an approach is inevitable for
developing appropriate selecting methods. Using various methods for calculating underground pressures
and stresses in the concrete shoring, the required amount of reinforcement in the concrete cross-section
can be determined based on limit states. Furthermore, what should be specifically taken into account is
the durability which is significantly affected by degradation effects. Tunnel linings are in direct contact
with the soil, i.e. the rock mass, and therefore exposed to harmful substances such as chlorides,
carbonates, etc. they cause corrosion of reinforcement. As a measure of basic protection against
corrosion it is proposed that the protective layer of concrete should be of sufficient thickness to prevent
the harmful agents from progressing through the concrete. This paper is focused on the aspect of
durability of tunnel structures and the impact of corrosion on the stress state of reinforcement.
Keywords: tunnel, concrete lining, ground mass of rock, durability, stress, deformation, corrosion

UTICAJ KOROZIJE NA SADEJSTVO BETONSKE OBLOGE TUNELA I

STENSKE MASE
Rezime: Tunelogradnja je postojea i progresivno evoluirajua graevinska tehnologija pre svega
zahvaljujui permanentnom razvoju metoda prorauna i graenja. Ova grana graevinarstva je jedna od
oblasti ljudskog delovanja kod koje se pogledi i pristupi neprekidno menjaju. Da bi i u praksi dostigla
pun potencijal, tunelogradnja mora biti predmet intenzivnih istraivanja. Takav pristup je neminovan u
cilju razvoja metoda i izbora materijala. Razliitim metodama prorauna podzemnih pritisaka i napona u
betonskoj podgradi moe se dimenzionisati potrebna koliina armature u betonskom preseku prema
graninim stanjima. Pored toga, treba posebno voditi rauna o trajnosti konstrukcije na koju bitno utiu
degradacijski uticaji. Tunelske obloge su u direktnom kontaktu sa tlom tj. stenskom masom pa su s toga
izloene delovanju tetnih jedinjenja kao to su hloridi, karbonati i sl. koja izazivaju koroziju armature.
Kao osnovna zatita od korozije predlae se dovoljna debljina zatitnog sloja betona koja bi spreila
progresiju tetnih agenasa kroz beton. U radu je prikazan kratak osvrt na aspekt trajnosti tunelskih
konstrukcija i primer delovanja korozije na naponsko stanje u armaturi.
Kljune rei: tunel, betonska obloga, stenska masa, trajnost, naponi, deformacije, korozija

PhD student at University of Ni, Formel doo, 36300 Novi Pazar, e-mail: enis_sadovic@yahoo.com, tel: +38120316256
Dr Professor Emeritus University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi Sad, D. Obradovia Square 6, 21000
Novi Sad, e-mal: folic@uns.ac.rs, tel: +38121 459 798
3
Dr Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering in Subotica, University of Novi Sad, Kozaraka 2a, 24000 Subotica, e-mal:
lukic@gf.uns.ac.rs, tel: +38124 554 300
2

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1. INTRODUCTION
Tunnelling is an existing and progressively evolving construction technology. In order to reach its full
potential in practice, the field of tunnelling needs to make room to young researchers wishing to
participate in the development of science and the environment. Using such an approach, methods and
materials used in practice would inevitably advance.
The most frequently used material for constructing tunnel shoring is reinforced concrete (RC).
Specifically important in the process of designing underground structures is effective construction
technology by which the design process is virtually directed 0. The first step in shoring design consists of
selecting the appropriate type of shoring, which is based on the following criteria 0:
Functional requirements;
Geology and hydrology;
Stability;
Cost-effectiveness;
Given the fact that the terminology used in this paper is referred to tunnel construction, what follows
here is the brief explanation of the basic terminology. Shoring refers to the use of reactive force to the
surface of excavation, and involves the use of props such as wood, shotcrete, steel mesh and steel
elements, concrete and prefabricated concrete elements. Reinforcement broadly refers to improving the
properties of the rock mass using various techniques (e.g. anchoring) and it can be used in various forms
(traditional reinforcement, prestressed steel ...). There are two types of shoring in practice: temporary and
permanent shoring. Temporary shoring refers to shoring or reinforcement aimed to ensure favourable
working conditions during the blasting. In the distant past this type of shoring was made of wood. If the
excavation is required to be open during the entire process of construction, a permanent shoring needs to
be installed after removing the temporary one.
In contemporary construction practice, excavation shorings can be primary and secondary. Primary
shoring is installed immediately upon the excavation to ensure conditions for further excavation and
initiate the mobilization and conservation of the rock mass strength by controlling the displacements of
the excavation contour. This type of shoring may be formed completely and provided with a permanent
form. Any further supplement to the primary shoring makes a secondary shoring. Note that shorings can
also be divided into active and passive one.
Underground structures (tunnels) are exposed to the impact of underground (earth and water)
pressures of the rock mass. These pressures can vary depending on the depth where the tunnel is installed.
During the tunnel construction, the stress state of the rock mass undergoes several stages. Namely, the
undisturbed rock mass structure (primary stress state) is significantly disrupted by technical interventions.
The next state occurs upon the excavation and the tunnel profile shoring whereby a new stress image is
formed around the shoring that is known in the literature as a secondary stress state. The "newly created"
conditions of equilibrium are determined either experimentally or theoretically using the theories of
elasticity and plasticity.
The type of concrete lining selected (sprayed concrete, precast elements ...) depends on several factors.
First of all, the selection of lining materials is mainly influenced by the type of rock mass. Furthermore,
the function of the tunnel is important, i.e. its required profile, as well as the available technology of
excavation and placing the concrete. The shoring can be monolithic or prefabricated type, depending on
site conditions and the available construction technologies.
In majority of cases, the amount of reinforcement in the concrete section is dimensioned based on the
capacity and serviceability limit states. When calculating tunnel constructions the durability of the
structure should be taken into account. This applies to all RC structures, specifically to tunnel shorings
which are in direct contact with the ground. Along with the water, compounds such as carbonates,
chlorides, etc. are also penetrating through the concrete and reach the reinforcement. Corrosion on the
surface of reinforcement occurs as a result of chemical process unfolding in concrete. As a measure of
basic protection against this adverse impact it is proposed that the protective layer of concrete should be
of sufficient thickness to prevent the harmful agents from progressing through the concrete 0. The
prevention of corrosion can be influenced both when making the recipe for concrete, during the design,
and especially during the construction.
The issue of concrete lining-rock mass interaction is present in the literature and it is closely related to
the calculation methods used for tunnel structures. A detailed review of calculations for several types of
-447-

concrete tunnel structures is given by Popovi 0, while this issue and the results of calculations for
prefabricated concrete linings are presented by Tadi 0. Nowadays, the stress-strain dimensions are
software and computer-determined, facilitating thereby the process of analysis and modelling the ground
and lining using the finite element (FEM) method, as it is the case in the papers presented by Boltengagen
0, Kramer et al 0, and Chakeri 0. The detailed analysis and classification of numerical methods used in
rock mechanics in general and in calculating underground structures is given by L. Jing 0.
The purpose of this paper is to describe theoretically and numerically the adverse impact of corrosion
on the interaction between the concrete lining and rock mass of different properties. A numerical example
of tunnel was considered with vaulted RC profile of vertical abutments for which stresses on the contact
surface were determined analytically and using the PanelPro 3.3 numerical software. This impact was
illustrated on the example of stress in the reinforcement and its decrease during the service life. The
impact was implemented through the reduction of reinforcement cross section.
2. STRESS-STRAIN STATE
The design of tunnel structures consists of selecting the profile dimensions and shape, routing,
selecting the static system, and calculating the structure with the due attention on the stability of the
structure. The profile shape depends on the structural system, the engineering-geological and geotechnical
properties of the rock mass, as well as on the construction dynamics and technology. Principles of the
profile shape adoption are given in detail by Popovi 0.
The most important material for ensuring the tunnel stability is the rock mass, which accepts the
majority of the excavation-induced stress state disturbance by distributing the stress around the aperture.
The shoring and lining contribute to the stress distribution by preventing the rock mass from spreading.
The tunnel lining installed in the aperture of rock mass which reached the state of stability accepts only its
own weight and it is exposed to stresses induced by it. In contrast, lining in the soft rock accepts all
residual deformations that began to occur before the shoring. The actual stresses and strains in the lining
depend on the elastic modulus of the rock mass and the properties of the lining material. According to the
0, the higher the resistance of lining, the higher the load to which the rock mass is exposed to.
The analytical representation of the stress-strain field in the ground that surrounds the tunnel is
possible only in specific simplified cases, which are approached more scientifically than practically.
However, analytical solutions offer the following advantages 0:
Based on exact solutions they provide insight into the basic mechanisms of the observed problem
(displacements, strains and stresses);
Provide insight into the importance of the parameters involved;
Can serve as benchmark values for controlling the numerical solutions.
Solutions in this problem are mainly based on Hooke's law. The ground in these analyses is described
as linearly elastic, isotropic and as a semi-finite space limited by the ground plane. The tunnel is idealized
with a hollow tube of circular cross-section. The stress state in the rock mass can be twofold: before
starting the excavation and building the structure it is dominated by the so-called primary stress state,
which is followed by the secondary stress state which occurs at the beginning of the excavation.
The stress state in the rock mass is of the utmost importance for the construction of tunnels. Therefore,
a large number of papers are devoted to this problem, with solution being constantly evolving and
improving. The fundamental principles of stress state are based on the above mentioned Hooke's law, the
generalized Hooke's law and the solution for the equations of the equilibrium of the continuum mechanics
placed in a cylindrical coordinate system. This is the way of obtaining differential equations the solutions
of which are component stresses. The detailed procedure is given by Kolymbas 0 and it will not be
discussed here. What are important are the solutions that are used in the analytical procedure one of the
primary solutions is given by Kirsch 0, 0.

-448-

a2

a4
a2
1 1 2 1 1 3 4 4 2 cos 2
r
r

pv
2

a2

pv
a4
1 1 2 1 1 3 4 cos 2
2
r

pv
2

a4
a2
1 1 3 4 2 2 sin 2
r
r

(1)

where:
pv sm H vertical ground pressure,

sm volume weight of the rock mass,

H overlay height,
a radius of the circular aperture,
central angle,
ratio of the vertical and horizontal pressure,
Kirsch's solution applies only for plane stress state, i.e. for a plate the free sides of which are not
receiving any stress (Figure 1). For the elastic medium exposed to hydrostatic pressure (Figure 2) the
following relations apply:

Figure 1: The setting for Kirsch's theory

r pv 1

pv 1

Figure 2: Hydrostatic pressures

a2
a2

sm
1 2
r2
r
a2
a2

1 2
sm
r2
r

(2)
Using the theory of elasticity for determining the secondary stresses is justified only in solid, noncracked, homogeneous and isotropic rock masses. For the aforementioned material-related assumptions
patterns are provided in the Engineering Manual 0 for calculating the cutting forces in the lining; thus, the
maximum / minimum momentum is equal to:
v 1 Ko r 2

M
4

3 2 r
Er R3
3 1 r 1 c Ec I

(3)

The maximum / minimum value of the normal force (force of the ring):

-449-

v 1 Ko r
v 1 Ko r

2 1 2 r
Er r
4 r Er r 3
2 1 Ko
2
3 1 2 r 1 c Ec A
3 4 r 12 1 c Ec I Er r 3

(4)
Further theoretical considerations and experimental investigations have led to the development of
theory of elastic-plasticity, according to which three zones occur after the excavations in the rock mass:
stress-free zone, strong-pressure zone and undisturbed zone. This theory satisfies the requirements of
engineering practice for all types of rock masses. It is based on the assumption that the strain which is
proportional becomes infinite when the stress difference r-t=o reaches its limit value 0. The same
literature provides the analysis of stresses around the tunnel in the elastic-plastic environment. Here, only
Kastner's solution is presented, which applies if the following contour conditions are set: r=a; =c; r=0:
rg

c r

1 a

where:

r
1 ; rg c 1
1 a

(5)

1 sin
2c cos
; c
1 sin
1 sin

(6)

In the previous example, shorings with constant stiffness were considered. In practice, the stiffness of
shoring and reinforcement elements is non-linear. Figure 4 shows some of the possible effects. Often
there is an initial non-linearity existing due to the weak link between the rock and the shoring, i.e. the
lining.

Figure 5: Dependence of the displacement on pressure to

which the lining is exposed to (according to 0)

Figure 4: Nonlinear response curves of the shoring for

various types of shorings:

The strain state is directly caused by the stress state. Therefore, if using the analytical approach, it is
necessary to know the stress state to determine the strains. Brady 0 proposed an approach for determining
the radial displacements of tunnel lining where the final form of solution is obtained based on the
following differential equation:
The final form of the solution is as follows:

p p1 f 1 re 1 f
u

r
G 1 f 2
r

(7)

This equation is used for plotting the diagram of the radial displacements i and the lining pressure pi
(Figure 5). Differences in displacements at the vault, abutment or floor of the tunnel lining can be
attributed to the different pressures acting upon the other sides of the tunnel.
A detailed strain state analysis of tunnel structures is presented by 0. In this paper, the author analyzes
the issues of strain throughout all stages of tunnelling.
Based on the patterns of calculating the impacts in the shoring (M, T, N, and ), also the resistance
(stress) in the reinforcement mesh can be calculated:

-450-

pm

2 As d 0.385
,
a sin cos

d =0.385 d

(8)

where:
As cross sectional area of the 1 m wide reinforcement mesh,
d permissible stress in the reinforcement steel,
a excavation radius,
The equivalent reinforcement pressure can be calculated in a similar manner:
Ea
Eb ,

a sin cos
f a b

pea

45-
2

(9)

These equations are used for describing the reinforcement capacity reduction in case when only the
reinforcement is exposed to corrosion.
3. DEGRADATION EFFECTS
Corrosion affects the mechanical properties of structures made of reinforced concrete (RC) and
prestressed concrete (PRC). The phenomenon of corrosion leads to reduction in cross-section and
corresponding decrease in performance (deterioration) in both the non-prestressed (bars) and prestressed
(wires or cables) steel. These phenomena are accompanied by the decline of bonding properties of steel
and concrete and occurrence of cracking in the surrounding concrete which must be taken into account
when analyzing the prestressed concrete elements / structures. The reason for this is that the stress image
in the cross section of RC and PRC beams can significantly be modified by degradation effects.
According to Sarja and Vesikari 0, the following harmful factors may have long-term impact on the
bearing capacity of concrete structures in general:
corrosion due to chloride penetration,
corrosion due to carbonation,
mechanical abrasion,
the impact of de-icing salt,
freezing.
The prevailing structural effects of degradation processes in concrete and reinforcement are reflected
by the following:
loss of bearing capacity of the structural elements due to the local and uniform reduction in crosssection of steel bars,
loss of bearing capacity due to the reduction and loss of bonding capacity between the concrete
and reinforcement,
loss of ductility of the elements due to the unequal distribution of cross-section along the rod
length and the stress concentration resulting from abrupt changes in geometry.
Depending on the cause of corrosion, as well as the rate and level of its development, corrosion can be
local or global. A well known fact is that corrosion significantly affects the durability of structures, i.e.
the need for their smooth operation and preservation of the required bearing capacity and other properties
during the calculated (target) service life 0. This problem has been discussed in a more elaborate manner
by Foli and Zenunovi 0. According to EN 1990:2002 0, service life in years is determined based on the
importance of the structure; for example, it is 120 years for large tunnels, 100 years for bridges, 25-50
years for industrial plants, and 50 years for residential buildings.
A specific engineered concrete structure can be long-resistant against the effects of freezing, while
non-resistant against fire, chemical agents, and other impacts. This means that no concrete structure is
universally long-resistant against all possible adverse impacts 0. Therefore, when designing these
structures, it is necessary to be specifically focused on the issue of their durability, providing them with
adequate service life (SL). In their paper 0, Foli and Zenunovi provided a detailed explanation of design
based on the service-life concept; they divided it into nine steps representing the stages through which the
structure is to reach its projected SL. Some papers have appeared in the last few years where controlling
the limit state of corrosion is proposed within the framework of durability calculation as an essential
component of the structures service life.

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For the qualitative analysis of degradation the RILEM uses the Table of Degradation Factors
(mechanical, biological and chemical) and processes created thereby. The Table can be used by design
engineers in selecting degradation factors. In the United States (FEMA), it is used for risk analysis, with
the failure mode named and effects analyzed. However, it is considered only in the case of a relatively
high risk. In this sense, risk is the product of probability of its occurrence and extent of degradationinduced damage. Corrosion is manifested in peeling the protective concrete layer and reduced level of
reinforcement bonding, as well as in reduction of reinforcement cross section and increased stress levels
which can lead to rupture of bars.
Since durability refers to bearing capacity and serviceability, which can again be related to reliability,
the issue of corrosion falls in the field of analyzing and designing "reliable or durable" structures. This
problem will not be discussed here in details. Reliability of tunnel structures is analyzed in more details
and theoretically elaborated by P. Schiessel 0 with a numerical example of tunnel with concrete lining.
Generally, the issue of durability of RC structures is addressed by the RILLEM Association, with their
reports on this issue being detailed and elaborate.
Hagelia 0 provided the strategies of the ITA working group for conducting further studies in form of
four major aspects of durability:
Complete information on the effects of exposure (chemical and mechanical loads);
All necessary information about shotecrete and concrete in general in order to enable the
identification of parameters of resistance against harmful agents;
Duration of exposure and if possible the division of the exposure process to stages;
Calculation of basic and expected service lives as compared with specifications and process
completion;
The schematic representation of the set of parameters affecting the concrete lining of tunnel
excavation is shown in Figure 8, while the details of chemical aggression unfolding on the lining in
Figure 9. The entire process is facilitated by water and its particles. Problem of deterioration of RC tunnel
linings is detailed explained in paper 0.

Figure 8: Basic aspects of environmental impacts on the

sprayed concrete lining (according to 0)

Figure 9: Anatomy of chemical aggression within the sprayed lining

(according to 0)

Mathematical formulation of corrosion effect through the corrosion rate has been provided in several
papers 0, 0. They describe the mechanisms of both chlorination and carbonation along with numerical
examples and proposed values of corrosion degree. The reduction of bearing capacity is varied according
to the degree of reduction in the cross-sectional area of reinforcement due to corrosion, which may be of
global or local nature:
p

N kc t
As
100% 1 s
100%

Ap
2 Ap

(10)

With the adoption of such a weakened section of steel, its surface is (according to 0) equal to:
As t

N s d0 2d t

(11)

where :
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Ns number of steel bars,

d(t) depth of corrosion penetration,
do diameter of the non-corroded reinforcement,
kc degree of corrosion.
Table 1 contains the geometric and mechanical properties of concrete and reinforcement of the
concrete shoring, which were used in the following analysis. Parameters that are listed in the table, but
not explained, are taken from 0.

Figure 10: Layout of the tunnel cross section

Table 1 Input parameters of the numerical analysis

Mechanical properties
Ec
3150MPa
Es
2x104MPa
d
50MPa

45
s
1.15

Geometrical properties
a
4.75m
b
1.0m
h
0.35m
Ns
20
do
0.008m

kc

Impact of corrosion
4.6x10-6
3.3

The properties of steel were adopted based on their standardized values for the Q503 reinforcement
mesh, assuming that the concrete lining is reinforced on its both sides. The concrete was of class C25/30.

Figure 11: Reduction of bearing capacity due to the reduction in the reinforcement cross-section

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The change in bearing capacity of the reinforcement in the concrete cross-section for the varying
parameters of reduction in reinforcement cross-section (p) and the structure's service life is obtained
based on Equations 8, 10 and 11. The graphical representation is provided in diagrams in Figures 11 and
12. The tendency of dependence curve, which in both cases is almost a straight line, is the evidence of the
adverse impact of reinforcement corrosion, which is determined as the permanent carbonation coefficient
(kc). The structure's service life is multiplied by the safety factor for durability, which is here adopted as
= 3.3 (according to 0). This form of curves is determined by the percentage decline curve p, i.e. by the
decrease of the cross-sectional area of reinforcement bars. In the case of large strains and stress corrosion
the curve can be much steeper, noting that this form of corrosion rarely occurs in tunnels.

Figure 12: Reduction of bearing capacity during the service life

4. CONCLUSIONS
The interaction between the concrete linings (sprayed concrete, RC monolithic lining, precast
segments ...) is a current issue in tunnelling. It is based on the stress-strain state at the tunnel lining-rock
mass contact surface. The actual stresses and strains in the lining depend on the modulus of elasticity of
the rock mass, lining material properties and strength of the reinforcement.
The analytical presentation of stress and strain fields in the ground surrounding the tunnel is possible
only in specific simplified cases, which are approached more scientifically than practically. For practical
purpose, the simplest approach is certainly the elastic theory based on which Kirsch provided a solution
for component stresses. For the secondary state of stress and stress zone which are formed around the
excavation Kastner provided an acceptable solution that is presented in this paper. Hence, some sprayed
materials should potentially be more vulnerable to external aggressive waters than cast concrete 0.
In tunnel designing the attention should be specifically focused on durability of structures which
depends on the adverse environmental impacts, primarily the effects of agents from groundwater. These
can significantly affect the stability (i.e. bearing capacity) of lining by degrading the reinforcement and
the properties of concrete. By using a mathematical model of corrosion and equations that define the
stress state in concrete and reinforcement it is possible to provide a graphical presentation of the
corrosion-induced reduction in bearing capacity of the RC lining. One way of introducing this negative
impact is the reduction in cross-sectional area of steel bars for the specific percentage of corrosion. The
further research in the field of structure durability certainly should be focused on the corrosion of
concrete and advancing the mathematical models of corrosion for tunnel structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper is a part of the investigation within the research project TR 36017
supported by the Ministry for Science and Education, Republic of Serbia. This support is gratefully
acknowledged.

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REFERENCES
[1] Bikineev M. G., Sergeev V. K.: Characteristics of designing underground structures,
Hydrotechnical Construction, Vol. 32, No. I, 1998, pp. 18-24.
[2] Boltengagen, I. L.: Modeling of initial stresses and weakening surfaces by finite-element method,
Journal of Mining Science, Vol. 35, No. 2, 1999, pp. 150-159.
[3] Brady B.H.G., Brown E.T.: Rock Mechanics for underground mining, Springer, Dordrecht, The
Netherlands, 2002, p 614
[4] CEN/EN 1990:2002 Evrokod 0: Osnove prorauna konstrukcija, GF Univerzitet u Beogradu,
Beograd, 2006.
[5] Chakeri H., Hasanpour R., Hindistan M., Unver B.: Analysis of interaction between tunnels in
soft ground by 3D numerical modeling, Bull Eng Geol Environ, 70, 2011, pp. 439448
[6] Engineering manual - EM 1110-2-2901: Engineering and Design - Tunnels and shafts in rock,
Department of the Army U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, 1997, pp. 236.
[7] Faires D., Burden D.: Numerical Methods, third ed., Brooks Cole, England, 2002.
[8] Foli R., Zenunovi D.: Durability design of concrete structures Part 2: Modelling and
structural assessment, Facta Universitas, Seres: Architecture and Civil Engineering, Volume 8,
N 1, 2010, pp. 45-46.
[9] Hagelia P.: Deterioration Mechanisms and Durability of Sprayed Concrete for Rock Support in
Tunnels, PhD thesis on Technische Universiteit Delft, 2011, P 320
[10] Jing L., Hudson J.A.: Numerical methods in rock mechanics, International Journal of Rock
Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39, 2002, pp. 409427
[11] Kramer G.J.E., Eng P.: Moore I.D., Finite element modelling of tunnels in swelling rock,
Proceedings of K. Y. Lo Symposium, The University of Western Ontario, 2005, pp. 1-37.
[12] Kolymbas D.: Tunnelling and Tunnel Mechanics - A Rational Approach to Tunnelling,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2008, pp. 431.
[13] Lunardi P.: Design and construction of tunnels - Analysis of controlled deformation in rocks
and soils, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2008, pp. 576
[14] Neville A.: Consideration of durability of concrete structures: Past, Present and Future,
Materials and structures, Volume 34, 2001, pp. 114-118.
[15] Nrnberger U.: Corrosion induced failure mechanisms of prestressing steels, Materials and
Corrosion 53, 2002, pp. 591-601.
[16] Popovi B.: Tuneli, IRO Graevinska knjiga, Beograd. 1987, p. 426.
[17]
Sadovi, E., Foli, R.: Analiza uticaja korozije elika na nosivost prednapregnutog
betonskog nosaa", Graevinski materijali i konstrukcije, Vol. 54, no. 1, 2011, pp. 41-61
[18] Sarja A., Vesikari E.: Durability Design of Concrete Structures, RILEM report 14, E & FN
Spon, An Imprint of Chapman & Hall, London, 1996, pp.165.
[19] Schiessl P.: New approach to service life design of concrete structure, ASIAN JOURNAL OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING (BUILDING AND HOUSING) Vol. 6, No. 5, 2005, pp. 393-407.
[20] Siemens, T., Polder, R., De Vries, H.,: Design of concrete structers for durability, Example:
Chloride penetration in the lining of a bored tunnel, HERON, Vol. 43, No 4, 1998, pp. 227-244
[21] Tadi, Lj.: Analiza uticaja broja i poloaja zglobnih veza na veliinu napona i deformacija u
montanoj oblozi saobraajnih tunela, Zbornik radova Graevinskog fakulteta Subotica, N 17,
2008, 2008, pp. 43-50.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milo elija1
Duan Kovaevi2

FE MODEL OF FLEXIBILE PAVEMENT WITH HOT RECYCLING

Summary: Paper is a brief review of the research focused on formulation of an "optimal" numerical
model for the flexible pavement made by the material obtained from "hot recycling" of the existing/used
asphalt concrete. The purpose of the optimal model is adaptation to the conditions of everyday
engineering practice and guarantee of the accuracy of the analysis and calculations of the influences.
For numerical modeling the finite element model (FEM) and the model with 3D finite elements were
applied. The software EverStress FE 1.0, developed in Main University, was used. Alternatively it is
possible to apply ANSYS or ABAQUS FEM software and corresponding non-linear models.
Key words: 3D finite element, EverStress 1.0, hot recycling, flexible asphalt concrete pavement

MKE MODEL FLEKSIBILNE KOLOVOZNE KONSTRUKCIJE SA

VRUOM RECIKLAOM
Rezime: Dat je saet prikaz istraivanja usmerenih na formulisanje "optimalnog" numerikog modela za
fleksibilnu kolovoznu konstrukciju izvedenu od materijala dobijenog tzv. "vruom reciklaom"
postojeeg/korienog asfalt-betona. Smisao optimalnog modela je prilagoenost uslovima svakodnevne
inenjerske prakse i obezbeenje tanosti analize i prorauna uticaja.
Za numeriko modeliranje je primenjena metoda konanih elemenata (MKE) i model sa 3D konanim
elementima (KE). Korien je MKE softver EverStress 1.0, razvijen na Univerzitetu u Mejnu. Alternativno
je mogua primena MKE softvera ANSYS ili ABAQUS, kao i odgovarajuih nelinearnih modela, to je
predvieno sledeom fazom istraivanja
Kljune rei: 3D konani elementi, EverStress 1.0, vrua reciklaa, fleksibilna kolovozna konstrukcija
1. INTRODUCTION
The flexible pavement consists of four layers, including a subgrade. The first layer is a flexible
pavement surface made of a wearing asphalt concrete course and a (bituminized) roadbase. The flexible
pavement surface is obtained by hot recycling and this research is based on it. The second layer is made
of crushed stone with fraction 0/31.5, and the third layer is made of crushed stone with larger fraction
0/63. Each layer takes over the load and transmits it to the subgrade. The objective of this study is to find
out if it will cause the material fatigue in the layers. We used a heavy duty vehicle, very frequent on that
section of the road. The model is carried out with the software EverStress 1.0 which gives us the model
results with 3D FE element. Akram Al-Khateeb, Saoud, Fawaz Al-Msouti [1] used a comparative analysis
of 2D and 3D FE and concluded that 3D FE are more precise than 2D. Their model used the ABAQUS
software. Liao [2] presented the model using the ABAQUS software with 3D FE. Chein, Hunag and
Chang [3] used the ABAQUS software with 3D FE.

1
MSc., Assistant, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, Novi Sad,
Republic of Serbia, sele@uns.ac.rs
2
Ph.D., Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, Novi
Sad, Republic of Serbia, dusan@uns.ac.rs

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2. HOT RECYCLING
The modern technological procedure of thermal regeneration requires a set of machines (train) for a
treatment of the pavament surface which is carried out in a limited time, with reestablishing of the traffic
immediately after the works. The expected output may reach 10000m2 a day. Hot asphalt recycling
requires procedures and technologies for execution of the projected solutions of thermic recycling
(thermoregeneration-recycling) of the asphalt layers of the existing pavements, on the spot, using modern
technological procedures-consisting of heating, decohesion (desintegration, crushing), mixing and reusing
the existing-original or corrected original asphalt mix with planned addition, with or without construction
of a new asphalt layer [4].
The modern technological procedure of thermic recycling implies the use of specially constructed
plant which is capable to carry out all the operations, in one take, according to the solutions given in the
main project, including the solutions for adding a new, corrective asphalt mix or a new, additional layer.
Therefore, to carry out these works, only a specially constructed set of machines -a remixer- can be used,
which includes a heater, a milling machine, a mixer and a finisher. Previously compacted asphalt layer is
finally compressed by rollers, as it is carried out in the conventional way of constiuction.
During the execution of work the physical and mechanical properties and the composition of asphalt
mix samples taken from hot, just spread, asphalt mix are checked at each 600t of the produced asphalt
mass or as a minimum one sample a day. The quality of the incorporated layer is determined by extracting
kerns in the same place where the sample of the hot asphalt mix has been taken, at least at 6000m2 of
constructed layer.In this way the density, thickness, cavities, compactness and adhesion to the base are
examined[4].
3. 3D FE ANALYSIS
To model a stress notation of the spacial systems 3D solid FE are used as the most complex and ensure
the most precise approximation. Applying these FE we get models with high degree of freedom, therefore their application is limited to analysis of specific construction systems [5].
The software EverStress version 1.0, developed in Main University, has been used for modeling. The
software is equipped with the qualitative tools for creating 3D FE models. The first step in creating a
model of the flexible pavement is to determine its dimensions and to define the number of layers. Each
layer has a specific modulus of elasticity (E), Poisson`s ratio () and layer thickness (d). All the values are
presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Pavement structure with characteristic data

Layers
Asphalt concrete
Bituminized
roadbase
Crushed stone
roadbase 0/31.5
(base)
Crushed stone
roadbase 0/63
(subbase)
Clay subgrade

Flexible road
surface
Crushed stone
roadbase 0/31.5
(base)
Crushed stone
roadbase 0/63
(subbase)
Clay subgrade

Layer thickness
(cm)

Modulus of
elasticity (Mpa)

Poisson`s ratio

12

2750

0,35

15

480

0,35

26

400

0,35

10

50

0,45

EverStress FE is equipped to allow the user to specify a wide range of realistic loads that may be
applied to a flexible pavement through a vehicle`s tire. It is also possible to create a custom nonuniform
load file (to simulate loads that can not be generated within the graphical user interface of EverStress FE).
The first step in selecting a load is to choose the type of tire contact which can be rectangular or circular.
After selecting the type of tire cintact, the user must define the rest of the load parameters. The wheel type
can be selected as single or dual. The axle type can be selected as single or tandem [6].
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4. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

After defining the parameters the above mentioned, the research results are obtained. EverStress
provides normal strains (
), shear strains (
) and displacements (
). The
normal and shear strains are non-dimensional values while the displacements are given in mm. The
following charts present the characteristic cross-sections of the normal strains, shear strains and
displacements.

Figure 1 Normal and shear strains of the flexibile pavement

The normal strains

have considerable deviations compared with other strains
. The shear
strains are constant along the whole depth of the pavement, except in the upper layers where devations
may be noticed ( ).

Figure 2 Displacements of the flexibile pavement

The displacement Uz declines along the depth of the pavement, so the major impacts are noticeable in
the upper layers.

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Figure 3 Normal strain

The loaded surface of the pavement subsides while the other side raises. Under the pneumatics there
are considerable strains in the test section 3D FE.

Figure 4 Normal strain

The loaded surface of the pavement subsides while the lateral side raises. Under the pneumatics the
strains are major in the test section of 3D FE.

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Figure 5 Normal strain

The normal strains

small values.

are critical in the subgrade, while in the other layers the normal strains have

Figure 6 Shear strain

The shear strains appear in the place where the pneumatics loaded the surface and beside the strains
we can notice raising of the flexible surface.

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Figure 7 Shear strain

The shear strains

are substantially manifested under the flexible pavement surface, in the crushed
stone layer with fractions 0/31.5.

Figure 8 Shear strain

Major strains appear directly under the pneumatics,and in the other layers the strains are insignificant
compared with the loaded zone.

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Figure 9 Displacement Ux

The displacement Ux is manifested in the asphalt layer loaded by pneumatics as a dynamic loading.

Figure 10 Displacement Uy

The displacement Uy is manifested in the crushed stone aggregate with fraction (0/31.5) under the
flexible pavement surface, because it receives considerable pneumatic load.
5. CONCLUSIONS
After the research was carried out, we have got the results in the form of a model and graphics which
ensure an insight in all their changes and deviations. The conclusions of the study are following:
Ther are substantial deviations in the normal strains, shear strains and displacements. The cause of
these changes in all three cases is the traffic loading,
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 The mesh view of the model provides a better view of the loaded pavement than the unloaded,
The loads are changeable and in some cases more manifested in the subgrade than in the upper
layers where the impact of the fatigue and the damages to the pavement is more visible.
The direction of further research:
To improve the subbase and base to avoid strains and displacements of the subgrade,
To increase the modulus of elasticily of the asphalt concrete,
To increase the stiffness between the layers..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper is a part of the investigation within the research project TR 36017
"Utilization of by-products and recycled waste materials in concrete composites in the scope of
sustainable construction development in Serbia: investigation and environmental assessment of possible
applications", supported by the Ministry for Science and Technology, Republic of Serbia. This support is
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Akram Al-Khateeb, L., Saoud, A., Fawaz Al-Msouti, M., Rutting Prediction of Flexibile
Pavements Using Element Modeling, Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, Volume 5., No. 2,
2011., 173-190.
[2] Liao, Y., Viscoelasitc FE modeling of asphalt pavements and its application to U.S. 30
perpetual pavement, doctor dissertation, Ohio University, Athens, 2007.
[3] Chen, J. S., Huang, C.,C., Chang, Y.,J., Mehanical Responses and Modeling of Rutting in
Flexible Pavements, Proceedings of the Eastren Asia Society for Transportation Studies,
Volume 7., 2009., 1-16.
[4] Radojkovi, Z., Tehnia uputstva za primenu tehnologije toplog i hladnog recikliranja
kolovoza, povrinskih obrada i mikroasfalta, Republic direction of road, Belgrade, 2002., 37-72.
[5] Kovaevi, D., MKE Modeliranje u analizi konstrukcija, Graevinska knjiga, Belgrade, 2006.,
36-48.
[6] EverStressFE : Software for the 3D Finite Element Analysis of Flexible Asphalt Concrete
Pavements (take july, 2012) http://www.civil.umaine.edu/everstressfe/

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Sinia Sremac1
Bojan Mati2
Predrag Ranitovi3

APPLICATION OF COMBINED TRANSPORT IN ORDER TO IMPROVE

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT IN SERBIA
Abstract: Conducted researches and the best European experience have shown that introducing the
optimal technologies of combined transport, the specific energy consumption in the transportation system
can be reduced by 5.8 %. In this paper, power consumption of road and rail freight transport in Serbia is
determined. Specific energy consumption per unit of freight transport work in road and rail transport is
very unfavorable as a result of a number of factors that point to the inefficient use of energy. Starting
from the fact that the energy efficiency of transport in Serbia is much lower than in developed countries
and that there are significant opportunities to increase, the aim of this study is to apply the combined
transport in order to improve energy efficiency in transport. Combined transport in Serbia is about 0.5 %
of overall transport and in the European Union from 6 % to 9 %. Optimal combination and integration of
certain transport can cause significant savings in energy consumption and reduce CO2 emissions.
ey words: energy efficiency, combined transport, carbon dioxide emissions.

PRIMENA KOMBINOVANOG TRANSPORTA U FUNKCIJI

POBOLJANJA ENERGETSKE EFIKASNOSTI TRANSPORTA U SRBIJI
Rezime: Obavljena istraivanja i najbolja evropska iskustva su pokazala da se specifina potronja
energije u transportnom sistemu, uvoenjem optimalnih tehnologija kombinovanog transporta, moe
smanjiti za 5.8 %. U radu je utvrena potronja energije teretnog drumskog i eleznikog transporta u
Srbiji. Specifina potronja energije po jedinici transportnog rada teretnog drumskog i eleznikog
transporta je veoma nepovoljna, to je posledica niza faktora koji ukazuju na neracionalno korienje
energije. Polazei od toga da je energetska efikasnost saobraaja u Srbiji znatno nia nego u razvijenim
zemljama i da postoje znaajne mogunosti da se povea, cilj ovog istraivanja je primena kombinovanog
transporta u funkciji poboljanja energetske efikasnosti transporta. Kombinovani transport u Srbiji
uestvuje u ukupnom transportu sa oko 0.5 %, a u zemljama Evropske Unije od 6 do 9 %. Optimalnom
kombinacijom i integracijom pojedinih vidova transporta mogu se ostvariti znaajne utede u potronji
energije i smanjenju emisije CO2.
Kljune rei: energetska efikasnost, kombinovani transport, emisija ugljen dioksida

1
MSc, Assistant, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, University of Novi Sad, Serbia,
sremacs@uns.ac.rs
2
MSc, Assistant, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovia 6, University of Novi Sad, Serbia,
bojanm@uns.ac.rs
3
MSc, Military Academy, Generala Pavla Juriia turma 33, University of Defence, Belgrade, Serbia, zip3@neobee.net

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1. INTRODUCTION
Transport affects the environment by creating a series of undesirable and harmful effects; global
warming being one of the main problems the modern society is facing. Numerous studies show that the
traffic significantly contributes to the environmental pollution, primarily caused by combustion of fossil
fuels. In the European Union (EU), appropriate measures in the transport sector are being implemented,
significantly contributing towards enhancing the environmental protection effects.
Conducted researches and the best European experience have shown that introducing the projected
optimal technologies of combined transport, the specific energy consumption in the transportation system
can be reduced by 5.8 % [9]. This data gets more important if we take into account that the reduction of
the specific energy consumption, as a rule, means a reduction of contamination.

Figure 61 The energy consumption by types of transport

The systematic study of energy efficiency of transport in Serbia is done in order to obtain a realistic
assessment of the level of energy efficiency of the transport sector. The traffic participates with 26-30 %
of the total energy consumption. Analyzing the energy consumption by types of transport, we note in
Figure 1 that road transport contributes with 86 %, air transport with 9 %, railway transport with 4 % and
water transport with 1 % [5].
2. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF ROAD AND RAIL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN SERBIA
All the indicators of road and rail freight transport are related to the public transport, as individual
transport is not recorded by the competent institutions.
Energy efficiency of the road freight transport in Serbia is shown in Figure 2. Specific energy
consumption per unit of work has a downward trend, which means that energy efficiency increased in the
observed period. The average specific consumption in freight road transport is 27 g/ntk.

Figure 2 - Energy efficiency of the road freight transport 0

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The specific energy consumption per unit of work in the railway transport has a trend of reduction in
the electric traction, while the diesel traction increases. The increase of energy efficiency of the electric
traction has influenced the greater degree of utilization of freight cars for cargo transport.
Figure 3 shows that the electrical traction energy is more efficient than the diesel traction, and that the
specific consumption per unit of transport work is more than twice smaller. One of the basic problems of
energy efficiency of the railway transport is that only 32 % of the total railway network in Serbia is
electrified. Therefore, one of the priority measures would be to increase the number of the electrified
railways.

Figure 3 - Energy efficiency of the railway freight transport 0

Energy efficiency of road and railway transport in Serbia is very unfavourable, as the result of several
factors that indicate the irrational use of energy.
The main causes of low energy efficiency of road transport are outdated road network, lack of
bypasses, outdated technology of traffic management, traffic congestions, unfavorable age structure of
motor vehicles, inadequate utilization the capacity of vehicles, etc.
The causes of low energy efficiency of rail transport are outdated infrastructure, low capacity of
railway lines, old rolling stock and small utilization of capacity.
Given the current state of the transportation system in Serbia, it is necessary that the state carries out a
more aggressive policy of the combined transport technology implementation, in order to reduce
overall energy consumption.
To increase energy efficiency in transport, it is necessary to perform the integration of some forms of
transport, diversion of commodity flows to the energy efficient forms of transport such as rail or water.
Application of combined transport requires development and production of new means of transport, use
of alternative fuels, introduction of information technology in managing and monitoring transport
vehicles and etc. 0
3. THE USE OF COMBINED TRANSPORT IN SERBIA
The development strategy of railway, road, waterway, air and intermodal transport of Serbia from
2008 to 2015, determines the state in these types of transport, establishes the concept of infrastructure and
transport development, long-term and fixed-term goals of the transport system development and the
action plan for their realization are defined, regarding the need for sustainable development of transport
of Serbia. Guidelines for that kind of development are set at the level of the whole system and they are
based on the principles of safety, intermodality, modern technology application, complementary use of all
forms of traffic and rational use of disposal capacities and resources in the state, and of use to all citizens
of Serbia. 0
The strategy is goal directed and based on the vision for the year of 2015, which considers social
development, Serbia orientation towards EU membership, sustainable development of the transport
system and stable institutions.
In order to improve energy efficiency in transportation, it is necessary to carry out the integration of
individual modes of transport (road-rail-water), diversion of cargo flows on energy efficient forms of
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transportation such as rail or water in relation to the road transport, development and production of new
means of transport, the use of alternative fuels, the introduction of information technology in the
management and monitoring of transport vehicles, etc.
Combined transport as a way of transporting goods successfully connects all transport sectors and
existing transport technologies in the transport corridors. Main advantages of combined transport can be
seen in the increase of reliability and safety, increase of speed and efficiency, reduce of noise and
environmental pollution, reduce of energy consumption, flexibility, integrated logistics and reduce in
transportation costs.
Until 2005 the combined transport made about 0.5 % of the overall transport in Serbia and in the EU it
participates from 6 % to 9 % [4]. Taking into account the size of the countries in the region and the
potential for this kind of transportation, the cooperation of neighboring countries is necessary, both
strategically, based on regional and bilateral initiatives for combined transport, and operationally through
the combined transport operator.
Starting from the fact that the energy efficiency of transport in Serbia is much lower than in developed
countries and that there are significant opportunities to increase it, the aim of this study is the application
of combined transport in order to improve transport energy efficiency.
In the previous section it was shown that the energy efficiency of rail transport is several times higher
in comparison to the road transport. Rail traffic is able to use electricity as a fuel and thereby make a huge
transport work. Electrical energy is the cleanest fuel and there is no necessary to store it, also it can be
obtained from renewable natural resources. It least from all other sources of energy threatens the natural
environment, which provides to railway undoubted advantages over all other forms of transport,
especially road transport.
Since the rail transport has some competitive advantages in relation to the road, railway freight
transport system in Serbia must be designed to be fully competitive to the road and other modes of
transport. In addition, certain state institutions regulations and possible subsidies that are provided by the
Railway Act can influence the reduction of road freight transport.
Aside from the fact that during the nineties combined transport was disrupted, there is partially built
infrastructure for handling containers. For existing terminals there are significant limitations caused by
the current locations, outdated equipment and investments available for development. The terminal
network was defined several times, but the plans have not been realized yet.
The study results indicate a negative state of combined transport characterized by: [1]
low intensity and unconsolidated cargo flows on major transport routes, which prevents
establishment of regular block trains
trade flows are mutually inconsistent or unsynchronized with distinct domination of imported
goods flows, wherefore the containers are often returned empty,
there is no clear transport policy and state strategy that would be directed towards the development
of combined transport,
the organizational structure of the transport system is complex and the role of individual
participants in combined transport is not defined,
there is not an adequate financial incentive and support for the development and application of
combined transport (purchase of special vehicles, reloading machines, interchangeable transport
vessels and containers),
road transport to/from the terminal is not exempt from paying tariffs in the road combined transport
chain, etc.
Forming the optimal capacity of the terminals for combined transport in Serbia has special
significance for the rational development of the transport system and the economy as a whole. Terminal
capacity should be developed gradually, according to the market demands. It is necessary to ensure that
the terminals, except for handling containers, be capable of handling other units of combined transport
(eg. exchangeable transport vessels and semi-trailers), as well as complete land vehicles.

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3.1. Saving energy and reducing CO2 emissions

The effects of combined transport application are multifaceted and they are reflected through:
reduction of energy consumption, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (primarily CO2), noise
reduction, reduction of fuel consumption, reduction of total transportation time, increase in the quality of
transport and logistics services, reduction in the number of motor vehicles, and reduction of congestion
and loads of road networks, increasing traffic safety, etc. [3].
Specific energy consumption per unit of transportation work, depending on the applied type of
transport is shown in Table 1.
Table 11- Specific energy consumption per unit of transport work, depending on the applied type of transport 0

track 7.5 t

Specific
consumption
(Wh/tkm)
860

track 16 t

530

Type of transport

tractor trailer with saddle 38 t

300-325

railway electric traction

90-110

railway diesel traction

69-103

river traffic
upstream

95-125

downstream

38-50

canal ride

65-78

container transport
river road upstream

210-250

river road downstream

87-130

railway road

210-250

hucke-pack

240-260

hucke-pack moving trailers

260-280

Specific energy consumption per unit of transportation work is highest for road transport and with
value of 860 Wh/tkm for 7.5 ton trucks, or 530 Wh/tkm for 16 ton trucks. In railway electric traction
transport, the power consumption ranges from 90 to 110 Wh/tkm, while the consumption of diesel
traction has the value from 69 to 103 Wh/tkm. The river transport consumption ranges from 210 to 250
Wh/tkm upstream, ie. from 87 to 130 Wh/tkm downstream. Applying the container transport is achieved
specific energy from 87 to 250 Wh/tkm depending on the combination of transport modes. Consumption
of energy by Huck-pack technology ranges from 240 to 280 Wh/tkm.
Analyzing the energy consumption in the application of combined direct and road transport on the
same route, it was found that, in comparison to the application of the direct road transport, a significant
reduction in energy consumption is achieved - in unaccompanied combined transport by about 29 %, and
in application of followed combined transport by about 10 % 0.
Transport, especially road traffic, as the largest emitter of CO2, is a major problem. The road transport
participation in the environmental pollution is significant, primarily due to the fuel combustion
byproducts. Significant emissions, CO2 in particular, are generated by burning fossil fuels, whereby
hazardous materials-in quantities greater than can be naturally degraded-are emitted into the atmosphere,
with harmful environmental effects. Special attention should be pay on the environmental aspects of
combined transport. In fact, this technology of transport should contribute significantly reduction of the
harmful effects of transport on the environment.
Serbia, as well as many other countries, is trying to find an appropriate way to reduce GHG
(greenhouse gas), which is estimated to be worth as much as 13.63 million tons of CO2 in 2003, that is on
average - 1.81 t/capita. This parameter gives Serbia an important place on the world pollution map with
the constant growth of CO2 emissions. [7]

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In recent years, various studies have been done on energy consumption and CO2 emissions by road
and rail traffic. The results of these studies clearly indicate a significant savings in CO 2 emissions using
rail or combined road-rail transport in comparison to road transport only.
4. CONCLUSION
Energy efficiency of road and rail transport in Serbia is very unfavorable as a result of a number of
factors that point to the inefficient use of energy. The main causes of low energy efficiency of transport
sector are outdated infrastructure, traffic management, outdated technology, traffic congestion,
unfavorable age structure of the vehicles, the small capacity of the lines, low vehicle capacity utilization,
etc.
Combined transport in Serbia, as a transport of the major public interest, environmentally friendlier,
economically feasible and safe, requires state support. The role of the state in the development of
combined transport is very important in order to facilitate, by stimulus measures, the development of this
type of transport that requires an extremely high initial investment.
Given the current state of the transport system in Serbia, the role of government in designing a
national strategy for the development of combined transport is extremely important. The prerequisites for
the implementation and development of combined transport in Serbia are adopting the concept of the
development of combined transport, identification and tracking of goods flows, construction of terminals
for combined transport, improving tariff system, identifying bottlenecks in the transport infrastructure,
adopting appropriate measures towards reducing delays at border crossings, and shorter transit time
through Serbia.
The research has shown that the application of modern technologies of combined transport in Serbia is
insignificant and primarily related to the transportation of containers in intercontinental traffic. The
presence of other technologies if combined transport (hucke-pack, Ro-Ro, etc), in total trade flows is
negligible, mainly due to lack of appropriate infrastructure elements of the transport system (terminal
handling and combined transport units).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is a contribution to the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of Serbia
funded by project TR 36012.
REFERENCES
[1] Aleksi D., Tepi J., Sremac S., Stani M.: Reducing CO2 Emmision with Multimodal Transport
Technologie A on Serbian Part of Corridor X, Mechanics, Transport, Communications,
Academic journal, Issue 3, pp. I. 113-122, Todor Kableshkov University of Transport, Sofia,
Bulgaria, ISSN 1312-3823, 2011.
[2] Pilot Actions for Combined Transport (PACT): CO2 Reduction through Combined Transport,
UIRR, Summary Report, July, 2003.
[3] Puzovi, L., Gaji, V., Uloga kombinovanog transporta u ouvanju ivotne sredine i poveanju
energetske efikasnosti saobraaja, 13. Simpozijum termiara, Mainski fakultet Ni, Sokobanja,
2007.
[4] Razvoj i primena optimalnih tehnologija kombinovanog transporta u funkciji poboljanja
energetske efikasnosti saobraaja kao logistika podrka poveanju konkurentnosti nae privrede,
Ministarstvo nauke Republike Srbije, br. pr. 293002, ruk. projekta: Vladeta Gaji. 2006-2009.
[5] Sremac S., Bai S., Tanackov I.: Energy efficiency of road and rail freight transport in Serbia,
The Junior Scientist Conference, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, pp. 367-368, ISBN
978-3-200-01797-9, 2010.
[6] Sremac S., Bai S., Tepi J., Mati B.: Management of road and rail freight transport with the
view of energy efficiency in Serbia, International Scientific Conference on Information,
Communication and Energy Systems and Tehnologies ICEST 2010, Ohrid, Vol. 1, pp. 477-480,
ISBN 978-9989-786-57-0, 2010.

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[7] Sremac S., Tepi J., Tanackov I., Stoji G.: Smanjenje emisije ugljendioksida u transportu robe
primenom intermodalne tehnologije A, I Nauno-struni skup Politehnika 2011, Beogradska
politehnika, ISBN: 978-86-7498-047-7, str. 321-325, Beograd, 2011.
[8] Strategija razvoja eleznikog, drumskog, vodnog, vazdunog i intermodalnog transporta u
Republici Srbiji od 2008. do 2015. godine, Slubeni glasnik RS, Broj 55/2005, 71/2005 ispravka i 101/2007.
[9] The development and application of optimal controlling system for monitoring energy efficiency
in transport, Republican program of Energy efficiency, The project number 293005, Ministry of
Science and Technology Republic of Serbia, 2006-2008.
[10] Tress, R., Das gueterverkehrszentrum als infrastrukturelle Schnittstelle des Gueterverkehrs,
Verkehrs-Verlag J. Fischer, Dsseldorf, 1984.

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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Milovan Stanojev1

HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE - HSC

Summary: High-strength concrete (HSC) can be obtained using special procedures during the
manufacturing process and ways of placing fresh concrete. The cylindrical concrete specimens which after
28 days have a compressive strength of at least 60 MPa can be considered a high-strength concrete
(FIP/CEB 1990).
Many concrete mixtures containing mineral additives such as fly ash, ground slag, natural pozzolana, silica
fume and natural pozzolanic materials, in combination with chemical additives lead to increase the strength
of concrete, accelerating early strength, improved workability and durability. HCS are usually prepared
with water-cement ratio of 0.22-0.40 using matching chemical additives (plasticizers and hiperplasticizers).
This paper presents the differences between normal-strength and high-strength concrete, including the
behavior at failure and different britleness. An overview of empirical and semiempirical formulas is also
attached, that defines the relationship between the water-cement ratio and concrete compressive strength.
The analysis for test results of HSC samples is attached as well.
Key words: high-strength concrete (HSC), compressive strength, water-cement ratio, additives

BETONI VISOKIH VRSTOA

Rezime: Betoni visokih vrstoa su betoni koji se dobijaju primenom posebnih postupaka tokom procesa
proizvodnje i naina ugraivanja svee betonske mase. Cilindrini betonski uzorci koji nakon 28 dana imaju
vrstou pri pritisku od najmanje 60 MPa mogu se smatrati betonima visokih vrstoa (FIP/CEB,1990).
Mnoge betonske meavine sadre mineralne dodatke kao to su letei pepeo, mlevena granulovana zgura,
prirodni pucolani, silikatna praina, metakaolin i prirodni pucolanski materijali, koji u kombinaciji sa
hemijskim dodacima doprinose poveanju krajnje vrstoe betona, poveanju ranih vrstoa, poboljanoj
ugradljivosti i trajnosti. Betoni visokih vrstoa se obino spravljaju sa vodocementnim faktorom od 0,22 do
0,40 primenom odgovarajuih hemijskih dodataka tipa plastifikatora i hiperplastifikatora.
U radu su navedene razlike izmeu betona normalnih i visokih vrstoa, ukljuujui ponaanje pri lomu i
drugaiju krtost. Dat je pregled empirijskih i poluempirijskih formula koje definiu zavisnost izmeu
vodocementnog faktora i vrstoe betona pri pritisku. Navedena je i analiza rezultata ispitivanja betonskih
uzoraka visokih vrstoa.
Kljune rei: betoni visokih vrstoa, vrstoa na pritisak, vodocementni faktor, dodaci
1. INTRODUCTION
High Strength Concrete (HSC) is obtained using special procedures during the manufacturing process and
methods of incorporating fresh concrete.
This concrete is characterized by its compressive strength measured at a certain time. However, the
definition of high-strength concrete is not static in terms of numerical values. In 1920. all concrete with a
compressive strength over 21 MPa were considered high strength concrete [1]. In the fifties the boundary has
moved to 30 MPa [4], while during the 1970s, all the concrete with a compressive strength greater than or
equal to 40MPa were classified as high-strength concrete [6]. The American Concrete Institute (American

PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Ni, A. Medvedeva 14, Ni, Serbia,
milovanstanojev@gmail.com

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Concrete Institute - ACI) in 1984. adopted the report [4] in which the lower limit of high strength concrete
after 28 days was determined by 41 MPa, with clarification that the strength is not influenced by any drastic
changes occured in terms of material properties and manufacturing technology than conventional concrete.
According to the review of the status of the development of high strength concrete issued by the FIP / CIB
1990th the cylindrical concrete specimens that after 28 days have a compressive strength of at least 60 MPa
can be considered a high-strength concrete [4], whereas today, thanks to the vigorous development of the
theory and technology of concrete based on cement as the binder, concrete can be routinely obtained with
compressive strength pressure exceeding the limit of 100 MPa [8].Today the most used HSC are:
1. If necessary to achieve the lowest possible weight of designed construction,
2. If you need to poor concrete as soon as possible, to put the element in function,
3. If architectural considerations require tall buildings with slender columns, reducing their cross
section dimensions and increasing the useful space,
4. The construction of large span bridges supersturture and the increased durability of the slab,
5. In order to meet the special properties of concrete: durability, elasticity modulus and strength.
More and more attention is needed if the designing recipe is with limitations in terms of shrinkage and
creep of concrete and the modulus of elasticity. If you want to achieve less shrinkage and less creep of
concrete with a high modulus of elasticity, you should use large quantities of aggregates and less cement
paste in concrete mixture. With increasing strength of concrete it should be aggregate with smaller maximum
grain, which will partially reduce shrinkage and creep of concrete. Increasing the volume of cement paste
will help increase the strength of concrete, which is determined on test bodies.
2. MICROSTRUCTURE OF HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
The use of fine pozzolana materials in high strength concrete leads to a reduction in the size crystalised
compounds, especially calcium hydroxide. The result is a reduction in the thickness of the transitional zone
of the concrete. Thickening of this zone leads to more effective load transfer between the cement stone and
aggregate, which contributes to increasing the overall strength of concrete. In extremely hard concrete,
aggregates are very weak link in a dense matrix of hardened concrete.
2.1. Cement
High strength concrete (HSC) can be prepared with most cements based on Portland cement clinker,
which are available on the market [2]. In addition to preparing concrete mix of cement, widely usage have
mineral supplements which are also chemically active, and therefore recommends the choice of pure
Portland cement CEM I 42,5 R-class or better 52.5 R, according to the classification of the SRPS B.C1.011:
2001 or EN 197-1:2000. High selit C3A content is not favorable in terms of maintaining the desired
consistency of concrete with high strength at low water-cement ratio.

Figure 1: The microstructure of concrete [6]

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For high strength concrete uniformity is a very important feature, so that the selected cement must be of
uniform quality [2]. Variation in the composition of cement should not exceed 4% for alit C3S, 0.5% for the
loss of annealing, 0.2% for the content of sulfate and 375 cm2/g for the fineness of grind the stares.
Experience shows that cements with low C3A (3CaO Al2O3 or selit II) can be used in making concrete
with increased rheological properties [6]. In our conditions for the production of concrete with compressive
strength over 60 MPa is necessary to use cement class 52.5, extremely class 42.5 R, whereby preference
should be given to pure portland cement [8]. The quantity of cement for making high strength concrete
should be in the range from 415 to 650 kg/m.
2.2. Water-cement ratio (W/C)
The most important variable in the size of the achievement of high strength concrete is the water-cement
ratio [4]. High strength concrete produced by conventional mixing technologies of materials are usually
prepared with water-cement ratio of 0.22 to 0.40, while their strength after 28 days have values from 60 to
130 MPa, using aggregates of normal gravity ([4], FIP/CEB, 1990). Such low water-cement ratios are
obtained by applying chemicals to reduce the amount of water in fresh concrete mass (superplasticizers) [6].
According to the Aitcins conclusions [9], when the cement paste with water-cement ratio of 0.36
hydrates in the presence of an external water source, or when it reaches full hydration, hydrated cement paste
becomes (theoretically) non-porous solid composed of cement stone and cement aqueous gel. Below this
limit is nearly impossible to reach the hydration of cement particles in the mixture.
Experience however shows that the concrete strength increases with decrease of water-cement ratio below
the critical value of 0.36 [9]. This phenomenon Aitcin and Bentz explains with denser grain distribution of
cement in the cement paste at lower water-cement ratio. As the particles are closer, stronger relationships are
formed by hydration. The quality of water to make concrete mix is no different from the quality of
conventional concrete, it is enough to use drinking water ([4], ACI 363R, 1992).
2.3. Aggregate
Aggregate has a lot of influence on the strength of HSC. The properties of aggregate are decisive for the
strength of concrete and its modulus of elasticity [4]. In ordinary concrete, aggregate has a higher strength
and stiffness then the cement stone and concrete failure usually occurs at the cement stone in the transition
zone between aggregates and cement stone. Reduced water-cement ratio increases compressive strength of
cement stone and concrete. Low water-cement ratio used in these concrete causes denser matrix and
transition zone, and the aggregate may become weak link in the chain of load transfer through the concrete.
Therefore special attention is needed in determining the aggregate in HSC.
Its recommended to use crushed stone with a diameter of 10 to 20 mm, which is not too pointed or
elongated. Stronger connections are made between the smaller aggregate grains than the larger ones, but it
should be avoided to use fine sands that have a high degree of absorption.
2.3.1 Coarse aggregate
Many studies have shown that HSC can be obtained using crushed aggregate instead of river aggregates
[4]. The reason is the higher degree of mechanical connections between the grains of crushed aggregate in
relation to the rounded river aggregate. Ideal coarse aggregate should be clean, checkered, angular, with
100% crushed grain and with a minimum of flat and elongated grains. Higher strengths are achieved using
smaller aggregate, because the tips of stress around the grain rarely appear on them, caused by a difference
of elastic modulus of cement stone and aggregates.
Between different crushed aggregates - quartzite (compressive strength fp =250~400 MPa), quartz
(fp=200~300 MPa), basaltic rock (fp =100~300 MPa), plump lime (fp=100~200 MPa), granite (fp=150~200
MPa) and crushed gravel [4], [8], basaltic rock is usually recommended in the production of the highest
strength concrete, although the limestone is widely used in high strength concrete as well.
2.3.2 Fine aggregate
Small (fine) aggregate grains with rounded and smooth texture requires less water in the cement paste [4],
therefore, applied to HSC. These concrete usually contains large share of fine cementous particles, so further
profiling of fine aggregate is often irrelevant.
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An important factor in determining amount of fine aggregates is aggregate fineness (fineness modulus)
[7]. Fineness of aggregates is an empirical form in which the sum of percent share of aggregate fractions are
specific series (150, 300, 600 , 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm, 9.5 mm, 19.0 mm, 38.1 mm and more,
keeping the 2:1 ratio) divided by 100. However, it is sometimes beneficial to increase the fineness modulus
of aggregates, since a lower fine aggregate fineness modules lead to a sticky consistency of fresh concrete
(concrete is difficult to compress) and requires additional water during application. It is therefore advisable
to use sand with fineness modulus around 3.0 for HSC ([4], ACI 363R, 1992).
2.4. Mineral supplements
Mineral supplements that are commonly used in high strength concrete are pozzolana such as fly ash and
silica fume [4].
Fly ash used in HSC is divided into two classes [4]. Class F fly ash is normally produced after burning
anthracite or bituminous coal, so it has pozzolanic properties, but not cementous properties (pozzolana
materials in combination with calcium hydroxide obtained cementous properties). Class C fly ash is normally
produced after combustion of lignite or subbituminous coal, so with pozzolana properties it has certain
autogenous cementous properties. The addition of fly ash improves the workability of fresh concrete, due to
the effect of ''lubrication of rounded aggregate [4].
Silica fume (microsilica or silica fume) is a byproduct of the melting process in the production of silicon
metal and ferosilicon alloys [4]. Its main feature is the high content of amorphous sand (SiO2) between 85
and 98% particles of medium size from 0.1 to 0.2 microns (which is about 100 times finer than cement
particles), and spherical shape of grains. Because of its extreme fineness and high silica content, silica fume
is a highly effective pozzolanic material. Pozzolanic reaction with the limestone during cement hydration is
forming a stable calcium silicate compound or CSH gel [4], which most subsequently contributes to the
strength of concrete. The normal content of silica fume is about 5 to 15% compared to the amount of cement
([4]). Silicate dust is 7 to 10 times more expensive than portland cement, and since it usually replaces 10 to
15% of cement, the cost of binding material is doubled [2]. The recommended amount of mineral admixtures
(replacement of cement) in HSC are given in Table 1.
All these properties of silica fume defines it as one of the best mineral binder in HSC.
ble 12- Recommended amounts of mineral compounds in high strength concrete [2]

Type of mineral supplement

Fly ash Class F

% additive (cement replacement)

15 25

Remark
loss of annealing 3%

Fly ash Class C

Ground granulated slag
Natural pozzolana
Silicate fume

20 35
25 65
15 40
5 15

loss of annealing 3%
more superplasticizers

2.5. Chemical supplements

HSC would be difficult to produce without the use of chemical additives. The usual practice is to use a
plasticizer or superplasticizer with a retarder, which reduces the required amount of water in the mixture. To
obtain high-strength concrete, without additives, concrete mixture with very stiff consistency are used, with
the Abrams cone of subsidence of 1 to 2 cm [8]. By using plasticizers and superplasticizers such mixtures
obtaine the necessary plasticity, so that for them, depending on the amount of additives, can be obtained
settlement order cone 6 to 10 cm (plastic consistency). Mainly the additives from the category of high
performance water reducer HRWR - type F [2] according to ASTM C 494 (High-Range Water Reducesers)
are used in HSC. Superplasticizers provide adequate workability at lower water-cement ratio for concrete,
which leads to higher strength concrete. Their amount in the concrete mixture rarely exceeds 2% of the total
weight of cement and mineral supplements [2]. They increase the strength by reducing the water needed at a
constant subsidence of fresh concrete and the dispersion of cement particles, thus providing better hydration
[4]. The main considerations when using the superplasticizer mix are cohesiveness and speed of settlement
of fresh concrete.

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3. PROPERTIES OF HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

3.1. The difference between normal concrete and HSC
For normal strength concrete, microcracks are formed when the pressure stresses reaches 40% of full
strength. Once you find the compressive stress in the range between 80 and 90% microcracks are connected
[6]. According to research Iravani and MacGregor, linearity of a stress-strain diagram of HSC occurs until
the stress limits of pressure are between 65 and 70, 75 and 80 and above 85% of the ultimate concrete
strength of 65, 95 and 105 MPa. Broken surface of the normal strength concrete sample is rough. Fracture
takes place along the transition zone between aggregate and cement stone [6]. A small number of particle
aggregates are broken. On the other hand, the broken surface of a sample of HSC is smooth and extends
continuously through the cement stone and aggregate.
3.2. Mechanical properties of HSC
Theoretical considerations and experimental analysis shows that the mechanical properties strongly
depends on the achieved porosity of cement stone and achieved water-cement ratio [8]. In the literature, we
found a large number of empirical and semiempirical formulas that define the relationship between the
water-cement ratio and concrete compressive strength. Most of these formulas are related to the strength of
corresponding concrete cube samples of 20 cm at the age of 28 days [3]. The most famous formulas, which
are calculated on the strength of concrete pressure, are:
formula Beljaev ([3], pp. 99):

f k ,28

f pc

(1)

k 1,5

where f pc is compressive strength of the used cement (cement class), k is a parameter that depends on the
type of aggregates (for river aggregate k=4 , for a crushed k=3,5).
formula Ferre (from 1898 [1], [3] pp . 99):

f k , 28

(2)
sc 2
)
sv
where sc is the specific mass of the used cement, sv is the specific mass of water, k is a parameter that
depends on the applied cement and has the following values:
for cement class 25 k =180 MPa, for cement class 35 k =250 MPa, for cement class 45 k =320
MPa and for cement class 55 k =390 MPa.
1 0,5
formula Bolomej ([3], pp. 99):
(3)
f k , 28 A f pc

where f pc is compressive strength of the used cement (cement class), A is a coefficient whose value ranges
(1

from 0.55 to 0.65 (lower values should be used in concrete of lower strength, respectively in aggregates
composed of inferior grain size composition).
3.3. The strength of concrete
The basic rules for the practical design of concrete mixtures are as follows [4]:
Reduced water-cement ratio and extensive use of plasticizers,
The use of cements with potential for high strength and the use of fly ash, a primarily silica fume.
If the recipe consideres use of silica fume [8], with or without plasticizers or superplasticizers, using the
autoclavable curing at optimal temperature of 175 C at a pressure of 8 bar, thanks to the initiation and
intensification of certain chemical reactions during the hydration of cement, concrete with compressive
strength around 250 MPa can be obtained [8]. As a concrete example to illustrate HSC, here is one particular
concrete with f k ,28 74 MPa, which mixture had the following characteristics [8]:

cement content PC 35S 42,5R

water-cement ratio (with supeplasticizers)
density of fresh concrete
superplasticizer content (relative to the weight of cement)
subsidence of the cone by Abrams

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420 kg/m3
0,34
2510 kg/m3
1,25 %
5,5 cm

The subject is concrete made of crushed limestone with relatively low mechanical properties, and cement
with relatively low-class K-42,5. It can be concluded that the obtained strength f k ,28 agrees very well with
the computational value of the formula Ferre.
If, however, for making cement using the same concrete class K-52,5, and an aggregate of better
mechanical properties, based on a formula Ferre follows that, under all other conditions unchanged, in that
particular case concrete strength f k ,28 90~100 MPa could be gained [8].
3.4. Modulus of elasticity of high strength concrete
It is needed to pay much attention if the well-known equation for determining the modulus of elasticity
for ordinary concrete is applied on HSC [6]. Extrapolation beyond the prescribed limits often leads to
erroneous results. In normal concrete gravity and with compressive strength fc within 21 fc 80MPa ,
modulus of elasticity Ec can be determined from the equation (4):
Ec 3320 f c 6690MPa
(4)
Tomosawa and Noguchi [6] have formed a comparative diagram of dependence of elastic modulus Ec of
concrete strength fc shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2: Diagram of dependence of elastic modulus and concrete strength

3.5. Brittle behavior of HSC

High strength concrete shows many properties which are quite different from ordinary concrete, although
they use similar materials [5]. One of the obvious characteristics is the brittleness of HSC. There are many
methods to determine the degree of brittleness of concrete samples. In one of them relationship between the
limit pressure and limit tension force is required. Figure 3 emphasizes the linear stress-axial strain on pressed
concrete sample - the larger the linear part - sample is more brittle. Another way of determining
embrittlement involves identifying the critical crack opening of the sample - the larger the crack, the sample
is less brittle.
The process of fracture of concrete specimens subjected to axial pressure can be divided into three parts:
the random appearance of microcracks, their steady expansion and the characteristic vertical fracture of the
crack [5]. It can show the typical curves of stress-axial joints (Figure 3) along with the volume dilatation at
different load levels.
In Figure 3, the stress pressure is indicated by , the longitudinal strain with L , transverse strain with
T and volume expansion with V V / V L 2 T ( L 0, T 0 ). After reaching the limit of elasticity of
concrete specimen at point E with e , stress curve law on changes the path so that this nonlinear
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behavior can be attributed to the stable development of microcracks. During this process, internal cracks can
deepen connection between aggregates and cement stone to achieve the level of stress un (approximately
90% of concrete strength on the pressure), which corresponds to point F in the diagram in Figure 3 on the
curve - V . This point is very important because after reaching the stress at point F volume strain V
begins to increase (expand) instead of decreasing (more expensive). From this point expansion is beginning
to localize, which began with the expansion of cracks in the system in unstable manner. Higher elastic limit
e / 1 can be considered as an indicator of the strong transitional zone aggregate-cement stone. Its value is
usually taken as an index of brittleness.

Figure 3: Relations for concrete axially pressed (left) and profile of Poissons relationship (right)

For heterogeneous materials, Poisson's ratio cr is relationship between the transverse and longitudinal
strain, and is not constant during the crack propagation. Specific Poisson ratio of the elastic limit and the
beginning of unstable crack propagation is presented with e and un . Poisson ratio of the crack marks
difference between e and un (smaller values of cr means brittle material):
cr un e
(5)
4. RESULTS ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE SAMPLES TESTS
M. A. Rashid and M. A. Mansur [4] investigated the strength of concrete samples from 60 to 130 MPa in
the laboratory. The following recommendations in Table 2, which is prescribed by ACI (1993) and the
proposal Aitcin and Mehta (1990) selected eight concrete mixtures for testing. We used Type I cement,
locally available sand fineness modules 2.8, crushed granite with maximum 10 mm grain and drinking water.
We used silica fume, superplasticizer DARACEM-100. Coarse aggregate is washed with water 24 hours
before mixing. For each mixture a few samples (cylinders) were separated in steel molds that are compacted
on vibrating table. Cylinders were removed the next day and the samples were maintained even 21 days,
after which they were kept in the testing room without moisture.
ble 2- Trial quantities of materials for making high strength concrete [4]

Table 3 presents comparative results showing the strength of concrete embedded in the world famous
high-rise buildings, in which it was necessary to determine the concrete mix to achieve HSC.
HSC has to fulfill the terms of workability and strength development, which are much stricter than
conventional concrete [4]. Therefore, the production of HSC may or may not necessitate the use of special
materials, although it certainly requires the use of the highest quality materials with the optimum ratio of
their dosage. The main trick lies in the reduction of capillary pores in the matrix and increasing the power
relationship between the cement matrix and aggregates. This can be achieved using low W/C ratios and
application of ultra fine particles (particles much smaller than cement, such as silica fume).
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ble 3- Amount of materials for making different mixtures of high strength concrete

5. CONCLUSIONS
High strength concrete (HSC) is obtained by applying special procedures during the manufacturing
process and ways of incorporating fresh concrete. According to the review of the status of the development
of HSC issued by the FIP/CEB in 1990th the cylindrical concrete specimens that after 28 days have a
compressive strength of at least 60 MPa can be considered a high-strength concretes.
High strength can be achieved by reducing porosity and inhomogeneity of concrete and reducing hydrated
microcracks in cement paste and along the transition zone. The quantity of cement for making HSC should
be in the range from 415 to 650 kg/m. The aggregate should be strong and durable. Ideal coarse aggregate
should be clean, cubical, angular, with 100% crushed grain and with a minimum of flat and elongated grains,
combined with fine sand, with a fineness modulus about 3.0. HSC produced by conventional mixing
technologies of materials are usually prepared with W/C ratio of 0.22 to 0.40, while their strength after 28
days is from 60 to 130 MPa, using aggregates of normal gravity. Such low water-cement factors are obtained
by applying chemicals to reduce the amount of water in fresh concrete mass (superplasticizers).
HSC shows many properties which are quite different from ordinary concrete, one of which is
embrittlement of HSC. Higher elastic limit e / 1 can be considered as indicator of strong transitional zone
aggregate-cement stone. Its value is usually taken as an index of brittleness and serves to classify the
material to brittleness. Smaller values of cr means lower microcracks expansion and brittle material.
Today, HSC have a specific application in terms of building and construction, although the trend is
spreading to conventional buildings.
REFERENCES
[1] Grdi, Z: Tehnologija betona, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Ni, 2011.
[2] Grdi, Z., Toplii-uri, G.,Risti, N.: Primena betona visokih vrstoa za izradu betonskih
adheziono prednapregnutih eleznikih pragova, Zbornik, Faculty of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, No 24, 2009.
[3] Muravljov, M: Osnovi teorije i tehnologije betona, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 2008.
[4] Rashid, M. A., Mansur, M. A.: Considerations in producing HSC, Journal of Civil Engineering,
2008.
[5] Zhao, Y., Li, Z., Xu, S.: Brittle behaviour of HSC, Int. Conference of Fracture, Turin, Italy, 2005.
[6] http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~paulmont/241/HSC.pdf, taken on 11.3.2012.
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fineness_modulus, taken on 18.3.2012.
[8]http://www.grf.bg.ac.rs/mm/files/learnmat/852%20BETONI%20VISOKIH%20%C3%84%C2%8CV
RSTO%C3%84%C2%86A.pdf, taken on 4.3.2012.
[9]http://www.watancon.com/documentation/technical/Aitcin_-_Performancebased%20specifications%20for%20HPC.pdf, taken on 11.3.2012.
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IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR STUDENTS OF

DOCTORAL STUDIES IN THE FIELDS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Tiana Tatomirovi1
Miroslava Radeka2

INFLUENCE OF METAKAOLIN ON IMPROVING THE PROPERTIES

OF CONCRETE
Abstract: In the last 20-30 years, the possibilities of the application of new materials have been
extensively explored in order to improve the properties of cement, mortar and concrete as well as to
reduce energy consumption and gas emissions and increase the durability of concrete and decrease the
prices of final products. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) are used as a replacement of
Portland cement (PC) clinker or partial replacement of cement in concrete mixes. Beside using SCM,
such as fly ash, granulated blast furnace slag and silica fume, in recent years the use of metakaolin has
been more prevalent. The use of the high reactivity metakaolin (HRM) contributes to the increase of the
compressive strength and flexural strength, the reduction of permeability and efflorescence, the increase
of concrete/mortar resistance to chemical aggression, the prevention of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and
the reduction of shrinkage. Its use also provides better external appearance, colour and finishability.
Keywords: Metakaolin, High reactivity metakaolin, Pozzolanic properties, Efflorescence, High
performance concrete, High strength concrete, Concrete durability.

: 20-30
,
, ,
. ()

. ,
, .

, / ,
/ (),
, , /.
: , , , ,
, , .
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most widely used building material in the world. However, it is responsible for a high
level of emission of carbon dioxide (CO2). Cement, which makes up to 15% of the concrete mixture, is
responsible for 5-6% of the total man-made CO2, so there is a release of 9 kilograms of CO2 for every 10
kilograms of cement produced [1]. Greatest threats, from the environmental point of view, are the
1
M. Sc. Civ. Eng, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Dept. of Civil Engineering, 6 Dositeja Obradovica
Square, 21000 Novi Sad, e-mail: tiana.tatomirovic@gmail.com
2
Assoc. Prof, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Dept. of Civil Engineering, 6 Dositeja Obradovica
Square, 21000 Novi Sad, -mail: mirka@uns.ac.rs

-479-

exploitation of raw materials and CO2 emissions during cement production. In order to reduce the demand
for cement and improve the mechanical properties of concrete, pozzolanic admixtures or supplementary
cementitious materials (SCM) are used. Nowadays, the possibilities of application of new materials are
extensively explored in order to improve the properties of cement, mortar and concrete as well as to
reduce energy consumption and gas emissions and decrease the prices of final products. In the last 20-30
years, construction industry has made significant progress in the use of supplementary cementitious
materials (SCM) as replacement of Portland cement (PC) clinker or a partial replacement of cement in
concrete mixes, especially using SCM, such as fly ash, granulated blast furnace slag and silica fume (SF)
[2], leading to the reduction in temperature rise and improvements in durability and strength
enhancement.
In recent years, the use of metakaolin, obtained from the calcination of kaolin clay, has been more
prevalent. Special attention is paid to the high reactivity metakaolin (HRM), manufactured pozzolanic
mineral admixture, which significantly enhances many performance characteristics of cement-based
mortars, concretes and related products.
This paper provides an overview of the research results presented in literature, which has been focused
on testing the compressive strength and performance of concrete containing different amounts of
metakaolin (replacing 5, 10 or 15% of cement (by mass)) as well as on the comparison of obtained results
with the ones that used silica fume or fly ash.
2. METAKAOLIN (MK) DEFINITION AND PRODUCTION
Metakaolin, generally called calcined clay, is a reactive aluminosilicate pozzolan produced by
heating kaolinite at a specific temperature regime. [3]
Kaolinite mineral, hydrated aluminosilicate, Al2Si2O5(OH)4, is one of the main constituents of kaolin
clay. In the production process of metakaolin (MK) from kaolin clays, dehydroxylation of raw materials
(transformation of kaolinite to amorphous phase) occurs:
Al2 O3 2SiO 2 2H 2 O Al 2 O3 2SiO 2 2H2 O

(1)

In order to obtain MK, which can be used as a supplementary cementitious material, it is necessary to
achieve an almost complete dehydroxylation of kaolinite without overheating. Thermal process under the
temperature required for dehydroxylation (600C) leads to the formation of less reactive materials
containing residual kaolinite. At temperatures above 850C, the process of recrystallization of metakaolin
into quartz and mullite (inert materials) starts, which leads to the decrease of reactivity. [2]
3. HIGH REACTIVITY METAKAOLIN (HRM) DEFINITION AND PRODUCTION
HRM (Al2Si2O7) is an amorphous product of the dehydration of kaolinite, which is characterized by a
high pozzolanic activity with the average chemical composition of 5055% SiO2 and 4045% Al2O3. [2]
Kaolinite is usually calcined in rotary kilns. The calcination temperature producing the active state is
usually in the range 600800C. It affects the pozzolanic reactivity of the final product. The pozzolanic
activity in the case of HRM is the result of the formation amorphous alumina, while in the case of fly ash
is the presence of glass phase. The optimum calcination temperature which gives highest pozzolanic
activitity and maximum strength at 3, 7 and 28 days is 700C [3, 4].
It is manufactured under controlled conditions to provide a consistent product in terms of particle size
distribution, surface area, colour and chemical composition. Unlike silica fume, fly ash, and blast furnace
slag, HRM is not an industrial by-product. It is white in colour, (Figure 1) which is critical to architectural
applications. [3]
HRM significantly enhances many performance characteristics of cement-based mortars, concretes
and related products. It reacts aggressively with calcium hydroxide, a by-product of cement hydration, to
form compounds with cementitious value. [4]
HRM has an average particle size of about 1.5 m in diameter, which is between silica fume (0.1 to
0.12 m) and Portland cement (15 to 20 m). [3]

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Figure 1 Kaolin before (left) and after (right) calcination [3]

HRM is usually added to concrete at rates of 5% to 15% by weight of cement, as a replacement. It has
been proven that the compressive and flexural strength development of HRM mixes is significantly
greater than that of a non-pozzolanic control mixture and similar to that of silica-fume mixtures. [3, 4]
4. POZZOLANIC PROPERTIES OF HRM AND SIGNIFICANCE OF HRM AS BINDER
Pozzolanic materials consist of silica or aluminium silicate-based material which in itself possesses
little or no cementitious properties, but when finely granulated and in the presence of moisture/water (H)
at a normal temperature, it chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2, (CH), which results in the
formation of compounds with the properties of cement. CH is by-product of Portland cement hydration
(Equation 2). The reaction between HRM and calcium hydroxide is called pozzolanic reaction (Equation
3). [5]
Portlandcement H C - S - H CH

(2)

HRM CH H C - S - H by-products of crystallization

(3)

Portland cement, if fully hydrated (Equation 2), produces calcium hydroxide of about 28% of its own
weight, although in practice, in fully mature concrete, this figure would not normally exceed 20%. The
calcium hydroxide reacts with the added pozzolan resulting in an additional formation of calcium silicate
hydrates (CSH) [3]. The released amount of CH during portland cement hydration (Equation 2) dictates
the optimal amount of required pozzolan for the reaction.
CSH constitute between 50-60% of the volume of hydrated cement and represent the most important
phase, which influences the properties of the cement matrix. The ratio Ca/Si in the CSH phase varies from
1.5 to 2.0, while the chemically bound water varies even more significantly [6]. Because the CSH formed
during the reaction of metakaolin with CH and water, has a lower Ca/Si ratio than ordinary CSH, it is
believed they are able to better bind alkali ions from the pore solutions which result in the reduction of
concrete's susceptibility to alkali-silica reaction.
Crystals of calcium hydroxide (CH) constitute 20-25% of solid phase in the cured cement matrix.
Unlike the CSH phase, CH phase is defined stoichiometric compound Ca(OH)2. It tends to form large
crystals with hexagonal prism morphology. The CH phase is affected by temperature, moisture and
available space in the structure. CH liberated from PC hydration does not make a significant contribution
to the strength due to the small specific surface area [6], and can be harmful to concrete durability. Beside
CSH gel, metakaolin forms additional crystalline by-products like calcium aluminate hydrates and
aluminosilicate hydrates (Equation 3). Forming the crystalline products depends principally on the
metakaolinite/calcium hydroxide ratio and the reaction temperature. In addition to this, if carbonate is
freely available, aluminium carbonate may also be produced. [3]
The above mentioned reactions become important within interfacial zone (ITZ) placed between the
aggregate surface and the binder paste. The nature of the ITZ is determined by the properties of
aggregates, cement paste and the way they interact with each other during mixing, placing and curing of
concrete. The thickness of the transit zone is 40-75 m. Products of the hydration inside the cement paste
which are far away from the transit zone grow in all directions. In the ITZ they can grow only in the
direction from the cement paste to aggregate grain, so that empty space is filled in an insufficiently
effective manner in the case of conventionally made concretes [6]. The increased porosity in ITZ
influence the durability of concrete. In the case when metakaolin is present the density of ITZ is greater
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due to increased amount of CSH and better packing ability of metakaolin particles ( 1.5 m in diameter)
in comparison with cement grains (15-20 m). Therefore, the metakaolin particles fill the empty space
efficiently enough in the transition zone, thus improving the performance of concrete.
5. GENERAL USE OF HIGH REACTIVITY METAKAOLIN
High reactivity metakaolin (HRM) can been used in [4]:
High performance, high strength and lightweight concrete;
Precast concrete for industrial and civil structures;
Fibercement and ferrocement products, glass fiber reinforced concrete;
Mortars, stuccos, repair material, pool plasters;
Manufactured repetitive concrete products.
HRM is used for [4]:
Increased compressive and flexural strengths;
Reduced permeability and efflorescence;
Increased resistance to chemical attack and prevention of alkalisilica reaction (ASR);
Reduced shrinkage;
Improved finishability, colour and appearance.
6. HRM COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT
Properties of paste, mortar and concrete produced using metakaolin as a partial replacement of
Portland cement were widely studied by a number of researchers in the past. Both normal and high
strength concrete were analysed. The authors indentify several parameters that influence the positive
contribution of metakaolin to the strength development. Due to the particle diameter value (an order of
magnitude smaller than cement grains and an order of magnitude larger than silica fume particles)
metakaolin particles are convinient for the filler effect especially in ITZ and as nucleation sites for
products of hydration. The rates of pozzolanic reactions and CH consumption in metakaolin systems have
been shown to be higher than in silica fume system, indicating a higher initial reactivity. Therefore the
reaction with CH occurs early and rapidly contributing to reduced initial and final set times as well as the
acceleration in strength development within the first 24 hours and pozzolanic reaction which has its
maximim effect within the first 7-14 days. [7]
The influence of HRM on the strength of mortar and concrete strongly depends on its properties. In the
case when HRM (PowerPozz) was used the following results were obtained. HRM was used in varying
concentrations (5, 10, 15 mass %) and compared to the same concentrations of silica fume (SF) and to a
plain cement control. The mortars were produced with a water/binder ratio of 0.40. The results show that
mineral admixtures (HRM and SF) show progressive increases in strength with increasing percentages of
replacement, up to the 15% level. With HRM at 5% replacement, the strength increase is 10% over
control. At 10% and 15% replacements, HRM contributed to 22% and 28% gains respectively as
compared to the control mix. The results indicate that increasing loading rates of HRM contribute to
higher strengths. [4]
These results also indicate that HRM is the most efficient within the range of 10 2%. When
comparing the HRM mixes to those produced with silica fume, HRM mortars were generally stronger at 3
days, approximately the same at 7 days and slightly lower at 28 days. These results show that HRM is
comparable to silica fume in terms of compressive strength development but does so with a much lower
water demand. Therefore, the HRM mortars required a significantly lower (half) dosage of
superplasticizer to maintain flow and a stable water/cementitious ratio. [4]
6.1. High strength/performance concrete based on HRM
The construction industry has taken considerable strides forward over the last two or three decades
with regard to many materials, in particular high strength concrete (HSC) and generally high
performance concrete (HPC).
ACI TAC Subcommittee on HPC defines HPC as: Concrete which meets special performance and
uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely by using only conventional materials
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and normal mixing, placing, and curing practices. The requirements may involve enhancements of
characteristics such as placement and compaction without segregation, long-term mechanical properties,
early-age strength, toughness, volume stability, or service life in severe environments. [4]
The definition of HSC fits within the overall scope of HPC, with strength representing a parameter of
performance. The exact point at which normal strength concrete ends and high strength begins is
debatable and varies from one global region to another. There is some agreement that concrete with
design compressive strengths at 28 days over 50 MPa, is regarded as high strength concrete.
It has become commonplace to associate HPC with durability. Although concrete that is designed to
have a high durability performance may also exhibit a high strength performance, it is not always safe to
assume that the reverse is necessarily true that all high strength concrete will be necessarily durable
concrete. [4]
Test Program, conducted by researchers at the University of British Columbia, in Vancouver, Canada,
included some compressive strength testing of HPC. These test mixes were formulated with cementitious
materials contents of 461 kg/m3, w/c ratio of 0.35 and achieved strengths in excess of 70 MPa.
The performance of concrete with HRM (PowerPozz) is compared with that of a commercial silica
fume (SF) product, and with that of a plain cement control concrete. The mix proportions are reported in
Table 1. [4, 8]
Table 1 Mix proportions [4, 8]

Mix

Mix
description

w/b
ratio

Water
[kg/m3]

Cement
[kg/m3]

C
S
M

Control
10% SF
10% HRM
5% SF +
5% HRM

0.35
0.35
0.35

161.35
161.35
161.35

461.0
414.9
414.9

46.10

0.35

161.35

414.9

23.05

SM

SF
[kg/m3]

HRM
[kg/m3]

Sand
[kg/m3]

Aggrerate
(10mm)
[kg/m3]

46.10

691.5
691.5
691.5

1037.3
1037.3
1037.3

HRWR
[ml/100
kg]
350.0
350.0
350.0

23.05

691.5

1037.3

350.0

Although HRM has a smaller surface area than does silica fume, and it is generally accepted that, with
pozzolans, finer is more reactive, the HRM appears to be more reactive, not less, than silica fume on a
pound for pound basis as measured by concrete (or mortar) compressive strengths. Seven and twentyeight day compressive strengths are reported in Table 2. [4, 8]
The results show that the concrete of the highest strength is M, followed by SM and S. With HRM
(PowerPozz) at 10% replacement, the strength increase is 15.9 (15.6) % over control.
Table 2 Compressive strengths [4, 8]

Mix

Mix description

C
S
M
SM

Control (100% cement)

10% SF
10% HRM
5% SF + 5% HRM

Compressive strength
[MPa] at 7 days (% over
control)
51.6
53.8 (+ 4.2%)
59.8 (+ 15.9%)
55.4 (+ 7.4%)

Compressive strength
[MPa] at 28 days (%
over control)
64.0
68.4 (+ 6.9%)
74.0 (+ 15.6%)
71.3 (+ 11.4%)

It is important to point out that a period of 28 days may not be sufficient for the development of the
full marginal potential strengths for the silica fume or HRM concretes.
7. HRM INFLUENCE ON WORKABILITY
It is generally accepted that due to higher specific surface area in comparison to Portland cement,
HRM requires more water for the same level of flow properties of concrete. Some authors 9
documented that HRM evidently increases water demand but at the lower w/b ratios (w/b= 0.35) it was
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difficult to quantify its influence on overall flow properties of HRM concretes. In the case when the
mixes were produced (in accordance with ASTM C-311) with a range of different metakaolins, including
HRM (PowerPozz), and SF, without superplasticizers (water/binder ratios of mixes with metakaolin
and SF vary to achieve a flow similar to the control mix w/c= 0.483), the PowerPozz mix showed a
much lower water demand (w/b= 0.504) than those produced with silica fume (w/b= 0.559). The 28-day
compressive strength of the mortar containing 7.5% HRM (PowerPozz) with no superplasticizers, was
9.6% higher in compressive strength than other metakaolin samples, and was 13.6% higher than the silica
fume and control mortars. [4]
8. HRM EFFECTS ON DURABILITY PROPERTIES
The capability of metakaolin to improve durability properties of concrete if used as partial replacement
of Portlan cement is a well known fact. This is mostly influenced by pore refinement. Specifically, pore
structure parameters such as total porosity, pore size distribution, avarage pore size are the main
influencing parameters, employed to evaluate permeability, frost resistance, carbonation resistance and
physical strength of concrete. Pore refinment modifies water transport properties and diffusion rates of
harmful ions. 10
8.1. Alkalisilica reaction (ASR)
ASR can be explained as the situation where cement alkalis react with certain forms of silica in the
aggregate component of a concrete, forming an alkali-silica gel at the aggregates surface. This formation,
often referred to as reaction rim has a very strong affinity for water, and thus has a tendency to swell.
These expanding compounds can cause internal pressures sufficiently strong to cause cracking of the the
paste matrix, which can then result in a compromised concrete with an open door to an increasing rate of
deterioration. For the alkali silica reaction to occur and produce a potentially expansive gel, Ca(OH)2 (byproduct of PC hydration), reactive silica (in aggregates), water, and soluble metal alkali ions (in the pore
solution) need to be present. The worldwide costs of ASR degradation are extremely high [4, 11].
When a pure form of metakaolin is employed as a pozzolanic mineral admixture at 1020 % weight of
cement, the calcium hydroxide level can be reduced sufficiently to render any gels that are formed as nonexpansive. The test results published in literature [11] indicate that in the paste containing 20% HRM the
reduction in the concentration of OH ion (concentration of OH ion is related to concentrations of
Na++K+) is sufficient to stop alkali-silicate reaction.
In the case when PowerPozz HRM was used [12] at even 10% of HRM concentration, the
expansion was dramatically reduced, while at 20% the expansion was virtually eliminated, Figure 2.

Figure 2 Accelerated Mortar Bar Test, CSA A23.2-25A [12]

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8.2. Efflorescence
The phenomenon, commonly known as efflorescence, occurs when calcium hydroxide (free lime), a
soluble reaction by-product of the hydration process of PC, is carried to the surface of cement-based
products by migrating water. Exposed to the atmosphere, calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to
form calcium carbonate deposits which remain apparent as unsightly, whitish stains. Too often,
efflorescence shows up to severely dampen the aesthetic appeal of otherwise successful masonry and
composite projects. [4]
By the point in time at which they occur in relation to the curing process, two forms of efflorescence
can be identified:
Primary efflorescence (occurs during the curing process);
Secondary efflorescence (occurs in cured concrete and composites, which are in contact with
moisture or are subjected to cycles of re-wetting and drying).
Use of HRM as a pozzolanic mineral admixture causes:
Elimination calcium hydroxide (free lime) from the system through a rapid pozzolanic reaction
(metakaolin, at 20%, virtually eliminated Ca(OH)2 from the system at 14 days);
Increasing the density and reducing the porosity and permeability of the paste system;
Reducing the cement content with pozzolan substitution 5-15 % (the dilution effect). [4]
8.3. Reinforcing steel corrosion
Ingressing water that contains soluble chloride ions can result in steel depassivation. In a depassivied
state, in the presence of water and oxygen, steel will corrode rapidly. The corrosion of steel is
accompanied by expansive pressures, which lead to cracking. The cracked matrix is then severely
compromised. An escalating and irreversible process of deterioration follows. [4]
The development of low permeability concrete, with a heightened resistance to chloride ion ingress
holds the key to corrosion protection. High reactivity metakaolin will substantially increase a concretes
resistance to chloride ingress by contributing to:
Reduced overall permeability (to water, salt solutions, vapor, gases);
Reduced chloride ion permeability;
Reduction in size, and stabilization in chemistry of paste/steel interfacial zone;
Reduce chloride content in pore water;
Mitigated cracking caused by shrinkage and ASR;
Maintenance of pore solution pH (>12.5). [4]
9. CONCLUSION
The use of the HRM as replacement of cement in mortars and concrete contributes to the increase of
the compressive strength and flexural strength, reduction of permeability and efflorescence of
concrete/mortar, increase of concrete/mortar resistance to chemical aggression, prevention of alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) and reduction of shrinkage. Its use also provides a better external appearance, colour and
finishability. It should be noted that the main advantage of using metakaolin is especially its impact on
the durability of concrete (to prevent repair or reconstruction), and the reduction of maintenance costs.
It is recommended to use the HRM to replace the PC in the amounts of 5-15% of the total mass of
cement. Tests have shown that the most effective substitute is the one of 8% (or 10 2%) for an optimum
pozzolanic reaction with calcium hydroxide, which will lead to maximum strength. In order to prevent
efflorescence or ASR, and also to increase the durability of concrete/mortar, it is recommended to use
HRM to replace PC in the amount of 15% (relative to the total mass of cement) or 20% (in the case when
the durability is a more important property than strength).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is a part of TR 36017 project and it was financially supported by the Ministry of Science
and Technological Development, Republic of Serbia.

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