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Basic Geology
for Oil
Exploration

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Summary
GENERALITIES
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
SOURCE ROCKS
RESERVOIRS AND SEALS
HYDROCARBON TRAPS AND MIGRATION
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Earth components

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Atmosphere
Crust
Mantle
Core
Inner Core

Earth crust components

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50

46,6

45
40
35
27,72

30
25
20
15

8,13

10
5

3,63

2,83

2,59

2,09

1,41

Ca

Na

Mg

Other

0
O

Si

Al

Fe

Rock- mineral components

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SILICA AND SILICATES

Silica (SiO2)
Quartz
Silicates (SiO4 + Al, Ca, Na, K, Mg )
Feldspars
Amphiboles and pyroxenes
Micas

Rock- mineral conponents

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CARBONATES
Calcite (CaCO3)
Dolomites (Mg, Ca(CO3)2 )
EVAPORITE MINERALS
Calcium Sulphate (Anhydrite, Gypsum)
Chlorides (Halite, Sylvite)
OTHERS
Sulphides, Oxides, phosphates

Earth crust rocks

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MAGMATIC ROCKS
Formed by cooling and crystallization of magma
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Formed in surface by mechanical, chemical or
biochemical processes, then buried at moderate depth
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Formed by transformation of magmatic or
sedimentary rocks

Rock cycle

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MAGMATIC ROCKS
Cooling and
crystallization

METAMORPHIC
ROCKS

Solid
Transformation

Magma

Erosion

Fusion

SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

SEDIMENTS

Diagenesis

Rocks and hydrocarbon

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Sedimentary rocks are the only family of

rocks where hydrocarbons can occur

Lithology

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Standard reprensatation of rock facis

Sandstone
Limestone
Clay, Shale

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Summary
GENERALITIES
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
SOURCE ROCKS
RESERVOIRS AND SEALS
HYDROCARBON TRAPS AND MIGRATION
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Sedimentary Rocks

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Characteristics
GRAINS
Mineralogy, Granulometry, Sorting, Morphology
MATRIX
Binder (contemporaneous with sedimentation)
Cement (secondary binding material), Mineralogy
PORES (Void space)
Porosity (percentage of void volum), type of porosity
Effective porosity (interconnected voids)
Permeability (ability to led a fluid circulate)

Sedimentary Rocks

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Classification

CLASTIC (sandstone)
CARBONATE (limestones, dolomite)
EVAPORITES (salt)

Clastic Rocks

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Grain size

Lutites

Arenites

Rudites

Loose

Pebbles

Gravel

Granules

Sandstone

Very Coarse

Coarse

Siltstone

Medium

Mudstone

Fine

Silt

Very Fine

Clay

Consodilated

Sands

Conglomerats

Clastic Rocks formation

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Carbonates Rocks

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Limestone Dunhams Classification

J. Guillemot 1988

Carbonates Rocks formation

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Chemical precipitation or Biochemical formation

Evaporites Rocks

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Sulfate

Salt

Continental sebkha

Subaqueous Coastal

Displacive Halite
Coastal sebkha

Crystalline,
laminated,Turbidites

Chevron Halite

Evaporites Rocks formation

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Sediment diagenesis

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Progressive transformation
Consequence of burial (subsidence)
Sediments Pressure, Temperature
(loose)

Water circulation, biological factors

Sedimentary
Rocks
(Consolidated)

Ex : Sand Sandstones

Margin types

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Geological Society of America

Margin types

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M. T. Halbouty in AAPG mem. 40, 1986

Sedimentary Bassin exemple

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Paris Bassin

A. Perrodon and J. Zabeck, 1990

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Summary
GENERALITIES
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
SOURCE ROCKS
RESERVOIRS AND SEALS
HYDROCARBON TRAPS AND MIGRATION
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Source Rock - Definition

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Rock Containing a few pourcentage

of organic matter which eventually
be transformed in hydrocarbon

Kerogen types

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TYPE I :

From lacustrine algae

TYPE II : From marine zoo or phyto plancton

TYPE III : From continental plants

Source Rocks- Maturation

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Hydrogen rates
K Kerogen

Diagenesis
Ro = 0.5%

Burial to
Greater and
Hotter
Depths

Onset of Oil
Generation
Oil

Gas

Oil

Gas

Oil

Gas

K1

Catagenesis
60 to 120
2 to 4 km
depth

K2

K3
Ro = 2.0%

K4

Oil PhaseOut

Con Gas

Gas

Metagenesis
Horsfield and Rullkotter, 1994

Catagenesis / Metagenesis

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During burial, Temperatures and pressures rise.

Chemical reactions generates the liquid and gas
hydrocarbons found in the source rocks

CATAGENESIS = generation of oil = OIL WINDOW

METAGENESIS = generation of gas = GAS WINDOW

The Origin of Petroleum

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Organic-rich
Source Rock

Thermally Matured
Organic Matter

Oil

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Summary
GENERALITIES
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
SOURCE ROCKS
RESERVOIRS AND SEALS
HYDROCARBON TRAPS AND MIGRATION
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Reservoir rocks - Definition

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A rock in which oil and gas accumulates

Two main types :
- clastic rocks
- carbonate rocks

Reservoir rocks - characteristics

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Porosity : space between rock grains

in which oil accumulates
Permeability : passage-ways between
pores through which oil and gas moves
Saturation : ratio of fluid volume by
pore volume

Porosity influence

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Good Porosity = Lots of Space for Petroleum

Pores
(blue)

Cement influence

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Pore-Filling Cement Reduces Quality

Cement
(pink)

= Less Space for Petroleum

Seal rocks - Definition

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A rock through which oil and gas cannot move

effectively (Non-permeable rocks)
Most common lithologies :
Shales
Saline rocks

Possibly very compact sandstone or limestone

(with no porosity)

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Summary
GENERALITIES
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
SOURCE ROCKS
RESERVOIRS AND SEALS
HYDROCARBON TRAPS AND MIGRATION
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Secondary Migration

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hydrocarbons move through a permeable rocks

toward the earthsurface
= SECONDARY MIGRATION

Migration and trapping

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Migrating hydrocarbons may encounter an

impermeable layer before reaching earthsurface
= TRAPPING (Accumulation)

Traps

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Structure visible at the surface

1
1

3
3

Structural Traps
1
2
3
4

Seepage

Anticlinal
Horst
Flank if salt or shale dome
Trap against fault

++++
++++

5
7

Stratigraphic Traps
5
6
7
8

Sedimentary pinch-out
Erosional pinch-out
Lens (sand or sandstone)
Reef

Crystalline basement of substratum of the sedimentary sequence

Hydrocarbon Trap examples

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Anticline
Fault

Salt Dome

Pinchout

Unconformity

American Petroleum Institute, 1986

Synthesis

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Gas
Cap
Oil

Entrapment
Accumulation

Water

Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock

Migration
120 F

Generation

Source
Source
Rock
Rock

350 F
2480

Prudhoe Bay Oil Field (1968)

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South

Anticlinal/Unconformity
Combination
AnticlinalTrap
Trap

AnticlinalTrap

Brooks
Range

Beaufort
Sea

North

Sea Level
10,000

Seal

Reservoir

unconformity

20,000
Barrow
Arch
30,000

120F

Kitchen

Largest NorthAmerican field

More than 8 billion barrels recoverable
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1990

East Texas Oil Field (1930)

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UnconformityTrap
West

East

Sea Level

Reservoir

1,000
2,000
3,000

Seal
Seal

unconformity

120F

Largest lower-48 field

M
ore than 5 billion barrels recoverable

Kitchen

American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1990

In Situ Phases

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Conclusion

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CONDITION FOR HC ACCUMULATION

Presence of a source rock which must be mature
Presence of reservoir rocks
Presence of seals
Presence of traps

Adequate timing between trap formation and

Hydrocarbons generation and formation

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Summary
GENERALITIES
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
SOURCE ROCKS
RESERVOIRS AND SEALS
HYDROCARBON TRAPS AND MIGRATION
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Petroleum system - description

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(+ organic matter)

Reservoir
Seal

Maturation

Trap

Source Rock

(burial)

Generating
Sub-system

Trapping
Sub-system
Migration

Petroleum system - timing

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Temperature
T0
Diagenesis
Depth (z)

Catagenesis
Metagenesis

1 - Primary Migration
2 - Secondary Migration
3 - Dismigration

Immature
Zone
Oil Zone
Wet Gas Zone
Dry Gas
Zone
T = T0 + g.z

Deer-Boar Petroleum System

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Critical Moment

250 Ma
Raven

Owens

Pod of
Active
Source
Rock

Re
se
r vo
ir R

oc
k

Teapot

Marginal

Big Oil
Just

Hardy

Lucky

David

Immature Source
Rock

Zero Edge of
Reservoir
Rock
Magoon and Dow, 1994

Petroleum System at Critical Moment

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Critical Moment = Time of Expulsion/Migration

250 Ma

Trap

STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

t
en
em
s
Ba

Essential
elements of
POD OF ACTIVE petroleum
system
SOURCE ROCK
Petroleum accumulation
Top of oil window

Trap

Trap

Overburden
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Underburden

Sedimentary
basin-fill

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Bottom of oil window

Location for burial history chart

Magoon and Dow, 1994

Present-Day Petroleum System

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GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Present-Day

Trap

Trap

Trap

STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

nt
e
m
se
a
B
Petroleum accumulation
Top of oil window
Bottom of oil window

Overburden
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Underburden

Magoon and Dow, 1994

Burial History Chart

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Paleozoic
D

100

Mesozoic
P

TR

Cen.
K

Rock
Unit

Thick
Fm

Generation

Overburden

200

Reservoir
Seal

300

Depth (Km)
Source

400

Lithology

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2
Placer Fm
George Sh
Top oil window

Boar Ss

Top gas window

Deer Sh
Elk Fm

Critical Moment

3
Magoon and Dow, 1994

Time of Expulsion and Migration. (Trap must already exist)

Deer
-Boar Petroleum System
Deer-Boar

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Inventory of Accumulations
Field
Name
Big oil
Raven
Owens
Just
Hardy
Lucky
Marginal
Teapot

Reservoir
Date
rock
discovered
1954
1956
1959
1966
1989
1990
1990
1992

Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss

API
Gravity
( oAPI)
32
31
33
34
29
15
18
21

Cumulative oil Remaining

reserves
production
(x10 6 bbl)
(x10 6 bbl)
310
120
110
160
85
5
12
9

90
12
19
36
89
70
65
34
Magoon and Dow, 1994

Petroleum System Events Chart

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North Slope, Alaska

400

300

200

Paleozoic

Geologic
Time-Scale

100

Mesozoic

D M P P TR

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Cenozoic

P N

Petroleum
System
Events

Source Rock
Reservoir Rock
Seal Rock
Overburden
Trap Formation
Generation, Migration,
and Accumulation

1. Western North Slope

2. East-central North Slope

Preservation
Critical Moment
Bird, 1994

Petroleum System

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1) Early Generation

Spill Point

Migration from
Kitchen

2) Late Generation

Spill Point

Reservoir Rock
(Sandstone)

Seal Rock
(Mudstone)

Gas beginning to
displace oil

Displaced oil
accumulates
Gas displaces all
oil