Fundamentals of Architectural Acoustics

ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
Unit 1
FUNDAMENTALS
Sound waves, frequency, intensity, wave length, measure of sound, decibel scale, speech and music
frequencies, human ear characteristics - Tone structure.
Wallace Clement Sabine who is the Father of Architectural Acoustics. He Found out how to predict
reverberation time and the unit of sound absorption was named in his honor.
WHAT IS ACOUSTICS?
Science of sound including its production, transmission and effects - Allan D. Pierce.
Acoustics refers to the quality, clarity and balance of sound waves as they move through a space.
Subjective Interpretation of sound not only defines the differences between music and noise, but also
dictates the quality of communication within a space.
Acoustics is a branch of physics that study the sound, acoustics concerned with the production, control,
transmission, reception, and effects of sound.
The study of acoustics has been fundamental to many developments in the arts, science, technology,
music, biology, etc
DIVISION OF ACOUSTICS:
Aero acoustics
Architectural acoustics
Bioacoustics( use of sound wave in medical diagnostics)
Environment noise
Psychoacoustics( physiological effects of sound on people , study of how human perceive sound)
Physiological acoustics(physical effects of sound on people)
Physical acoustics
Speech communication
Structural acoustics
Transduction
Musical acoustics
FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION
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Underwater acoustics
Nonlinear acoustics
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS:
Architectural acoustics is the science of controlling sound in buildings. Embraces all aspects of
acoustical design for all types of architectural spaces, in order to optimize environments for many
functions, including business, recreation, learning, worship, communication, broadcasting and
entertainment.
The qualities that determine the ability of an enclosure to reflect sound waves in such a way as to produce
distinct hearing.
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SOUND :
Sound is vibration in an elastic medium such as air, water, most building materials and the earth.
Sound energy progresses rapidly, producing extremely small changes in atmospheric pressure and travel
great distances.
The time required for one complete cycle(a full circuit by a displaced particle) is a called the period and
the number of completed cycles per second is the frequency of vibration.
Reciprocal of frequency is the period.
Frequency is measured in cycles per second.
Unit is Hertz (Hz).
Range of hearing: 20-20,000 hz
A range of 200 to 2000 Hz is required to understand speech.
Pressure is force per unit area.
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Amplitude is maximum displacement during vibration.
Vibration of particle in air

Compressions are the regions of high pressure and density where the particles are crowded and are represented by
the upper portion of the curve called crest.
Rarefactions are the regions of low pressure and density where the particles are spread out and are represented by
the lower portion of the curve called trough.
A loud sound is produced when the speaker produces a large vibration. The large vibration produces large waves
of compressed air. Soft sounds are produced by a small vibration.
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A high frequency sound is produced when the speaker vibrates rapidly. This produces a closely spaced series of
air pressure waves. Low frequency sounds are produced when the speaker vibrates slowly.
PURE TONES:
Sound composed of only one frequency is called pure tone.
A pure tone is vibration produced at a single frequency.
Tuning fork produces almost pure tone by vibrating adjacent air molecules.
Symphonic music consist of numerous tones at different frequencies and pressure.
Eg . A tone is composed of fundamental frequency with multiples of the fundamental called harmonics.
To find the period corresponding to a frequency of vibration, use the following formula:
Tp =1 / f
Where,
Tp = period (s / cycle)
f
= frequency ( cycles / s or Hz).
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COMPLEX SOUNDS:
The variation of pressure caused by speech, music or noise .
Complex sound consist of Variety of sound pressure vary with time.
The threshold of hearing for humans is one millionth of normal atmospheric pressure.
FREQUENCY OF SOUND:
Frequency is the rate of repetition of periodic event.
Sound in air consist of a series of compressions and rarefactions due to air particles set in into motion by
vibrating source.
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Reciprocal of frequency is the period.
Frequency is measured in cycles per second.
Unit is Hertz (Hz).
Pitch:
Pitch is the subjective response of human hearing to frequency.
Low frequencies are considered boomy and high frequencies screechy or hissy.
Bands:
For measurement, analysis and specification of sound, the frequency range is divided into sections called
bands.
Octave bands are standard frequency designations (defined in ANSI (American national standard
institute) (standard S1.6) that divided the frequency spectrum into regions that are octave wide,
designated by geometric mid frequencies that rare doublings or halving of 1000 Hz(eg. 250,500,1000 or
2000 Hz).
In the measurement of sound fields, use of such bands permits the determination of the noise spectrum as
a function of frequency rather than as a single number such as dBA or dBC.
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One standard division is into 10 octave bands identified by the center frequencies31.5,63,125,250,500,1000,2000,4000,8000 and 16000, represents a frequency ratio of 2:1 (piano
keyboard).
Sound level meters can measure energy within octave bands by using electronic filters to eliminate the
energy in the frequency regions outside the band of interest.
The sound level covering the entire frequency range of octave bands is referred to as the overall level.
WAVE LENGTH:
Wave length is the distance a sound wave travels during one cycle of vibration or the distance of
repeating sections of pure tone sound wave.
As sound passes through air, the to and fro motion of the particles alternatively pushes together and
draws apart adjacent air particles, forming regions of rarefaction and compression.
Eg- wire spring(slinky toy) when shaken at one end the wave moves along the slinky, but the particles
only move back and forth about their normal positions.
Wavelength of sound in air is given by = 1130 / f
Where
= wavelength (ft)
f = frequency (Hz)
Eg- tuning fork
The wavelength in air from to and fro motion of a vibrating tuning fork. The movement of the prongs
alternately compresses and rarefies air particles. This cyclic motion causes a chain reaction between air
particles so that the waves propagate away from the tuning fork. Remember sound travels, but the elastic
medium only vibrates.
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VELOCITY OF SOUND:
Sound travels at a velocity that depends primarily on the elasticity and density of the medium. In air, at
normal temperature and atmospheric pressure, the velocity of sound is approximately 1130 feet per
second or 800 mi/h.
Sound may travel at a very fast 16,000ft/s along steel pipes and duct walls. It is therefore important to
block or isolate paths where sound energy can travel through building materials , (called structure borne
sound) to sensitive areas great distances away where it may be regenerated as airborne sound.
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Medium
Speed
m/s
f/s
Air
344
1130
Water
1410
4625
Wood
3300
10825
Brick
3600
11800
Concrete
3700
12100
Steel
4900
16000
Glass
5000
16400
Aluminum
5800
19000
FREQUENCY RANGES OF AUDIBLE SOUND:
Hearing ranges for both young and older persons.
A healthy young person is capable of hearing sound energy from about 20 to 20000 Hz.
Hearing sensitivity , especially the upper frequency limit, diminishes with increasing age even without
adverse effects from diseases and noise- a condition called presbycusis.
Long term and repeated exposures to intense sounds and noises of everyday living can cause permanent
hearing damage called sociocusis and short term exposure can cause temporary loss. Hearing losses
caused by mumps, drugs, accidents are called nosocusis.
Frequency ranges for human speech is divided into consonants and vowels.
Piano music, stereo sounds and acoustical laboratory tests used to determine absorption and isolation
properties of building materials.
Human speech contains energy from about 125 to 8000 hz.
Women's vocal cords are generally thinner and shorter than men's , so the wavelength produced are
smaller and the frequency of vibration for speech is normally higher.
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SENSITIVITY OF HEARING:
Decibel is the unit used to express the sound pressure or intensity level of sound energy.
The frequency range for conversational speech, which occurs in the region where the ear is most
sensitive.
The region where symphonic music occurs is indicated on the graph by large shaded area extending at
mid- frequencies from below 25 dB to over 100 dB(called dynamic range).
The dynamic range for individual instruments can vary from 30 dB (wood winds) to 50 dB (strings).
The lowest level of musical sound energy that can be detected by the audience largely depend on the back
ground noise in the music hall and the upper level depends on the acoustical characteristics of the hall.
Rock music, purposefully amplified to be at the threshold of feeling(tingling in the ear) is considered to
be a significant cause of sociousis.
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INVERSE SQUARE LAW:
Sound waves from a point source outdoors with no obstructions called free field conditioned are virtually
spherical and expand outward from the source .
A point source has physical dimensions of size that are far less than the distance an observer is away form
the source.
Power is a basic quantity of energy flow.
10W of acoustical energy at a loud speaker can produce an extremely loud sound. Peak power for musical
instruments can range from 0.05 W for a clarinet to 25 W for a bass drum.
The intensity from a point source outdoors at a distance d away is the sound power of the source divided
by the total spherical area 4 d2 of the sound wave at the distance of interest. This relationship can be
expressed as :
I = W / 4 d2
Where I = sound intensity (W/ m 2 )
W = sound power (W)
d = distance from sound source (m).
The inverse square law for sound is
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l1 / l2 = (d1/ d2) 2
Where l = sound intensity (W/m 2 )
d= distance from sound source (ft or m)
DECIBEL SCALES FOR SOUND INTENSITY, SOUND PRESSURE AND SOUND POWER:
SOUND INTENSITY:
A plane progressive sound wave traveling in a medium (say along a tube) contains energy and rate of
transfer of energy per unit cross-sectional area is defined as Sound Intensity
SOUND POWER LEVEL (PWL or Lw):
The total sound power of a source expressed in decibels, independent of location with respect to the
source, mathematically defined as 10 multiplied by logarithm of the ratio of total power radiated in all
directions to a standard reference power.
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL(SPL or Lp) :
The decibel level measured at a particular location in space, mathematically described as 20 multiplied by
the logarithm of the ratio of the measured acoustic pressure to the pressure associated with the human
threshold of hearing. In free space, SPL decreases with increasing distance from a sound source.
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Sound intensity level
Sound pressure level
Sound power level
Symbol
Li
Lp
Lw
Express as
10 log( l / lo )
20 log p / po
10 log W / Wo
Units
Li measured in dB
Lp measured in dB
Lw measured in dB
I measured in W /m2
P measured in N /m2 or
pascal, pa
W measured in watt
Reference value
Io = 10 -12 W /m2
Po = 2 x10-5N/m2
Wo= 10-12 W(1pW)
At reference value
Li =0 dB
Lp = 0 dB
Lw = 0 dB
Pain threshold value
I = 10 W/m2
P = 63 N/m2
At pain threshold value
Li = 130 dB
Lp = 130 dB
DECIBELS:
Decibel is defined as a measure of the strength of a sound field on a logarithmic scale. It may be used to
designate the magnitude of the sound level at a point in a sound field or the total sound power level of a
sound source. It is mathematically as 10 multiplied by the logarithm of the quantity being measured
divided by a reference value of the same quantity, where the quantity is related to the power of the source.
Ernst weber and gustav fechner dicovered that nearly all human sensations are proportional to the
logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus.
In acoustics , the bel unit named in honour of Alexander Graham bell, was first used to relate the intensity
of sound to an intensity level corresponding to the human hearing sensation.
Sound intensity level in bels = the logarithm of the intensity ratio l / l o.
Where lo = minimum sound intensity audible to the average human ear at 1000 Hz.
Decibels formula
Where Li = sound intensity level (dB)
Li = 10 log (l / lo)
I = sound intensity ( W / m2)
Io = reference sound intensity, 10-12(W / m2).
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The human hearing range from the threshold of audibility at 10 dB to the threshold of pain at 130 dB
represents tremendous intensity ratio of 10 trillion ( 10,000,000,000,000) to 1.
It is difficulty to measure sound intensity directly. However , sound intensity is proportional to the square
of sound pressure, which can more easily be measured by sound level meters. In air under normal
atmospheric conditions, sound intensity level and sound pressure level are nearly identical..
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HUMAN EAR CHARACTREICTICS:
The ear can detect sounds over a wide range of loudness and frequency. In addition, it has the ability to
detect individual sounds( eg familiar voice) from within a complex background of loud, unwanted sounds
( in a noisy crowded room called party hall). However , perception of speech can be nearly impossible at
noise levels above 80 dBA.
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Sound energy which travels the ear canal, first impinges on the ear drum membrane causing it to vibrate.
Eardrum vibrations are then transmitted across the middle ear by the lever action of three bones , called
hammer, anvil and stirrup due to their shapes. The motion of ear drum over a large area is there by
converted into a more forceful motion over a smaller area of the stirrup which contacts the oval window
of the snail shaped cochlea. The middle ear cavity contains at atmospheric pressure due to the Eustachian
tube which connects the throat ( this why it helps to swallow or yawn when experiencing sudden pressure
changes such as rapid airplane descents).
Vibrations of the stirrup are transmitted through fluid in the cochlea to hair cells where they are converted
into electrical impulses. The cochlea contains thousands of hair sensor cells which respond to the pitch
and loudness of a sound. Sensory hair cells found in the cochlea can be damaged by loud or very high
pitched sounds. Your ear also has three semi-circular canals which detect movement and control your
balance.
These impulses are transmitted by the auditory nerve fibers lending to the brain where they are interpreted
as sound.
Long term and repeated exposure loud sounds can cause permanent damage to the inner ear commonly
called nerve deafness. When it is necessary to shout to be heard by normal hearing persons less than 3 ft
away, the noise may be hazardous to ears. In this situation, wear hearing protection devices such as ear
plugs(which fit snugly into ear canal) earmuffs (which fit over and around the ear) or both when noise
levels exceed about 100 dBA.
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TONE STRUCTURE:
LOUDNESS PERCEPTION
Curves on the graph called equal loudness contours shows condition of sound level and frequency .
The number of curves is the loudness level called phon.
Sounds which produce an equal sensation of loudness will have the same phon value.
An increase in sound level at low frequencies is usually perceived as being much louder than an
equivalent increase at high frequencies.
High frequency sounds >2000 Hz are generally more annoying than middle or low frequency sounds
became human hearing is less sensitive to low frequency sounds.
Any noise which is abrupt, intermittent or fluctuates widely can be extremely annoying. It also is hard to
disregard sound that contains information such as speech or music.
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CHANGES IN SOUND LEVEL:
Sound intensity is not perceived directly by ear, rather it is transferred by the complex hearing mechanism
to the brain where acoustical sensations can be interpreted as loudness. This makes hearing perception
highly individualized.
Sensitivity to noise also depends on frequency content, time of occurrence, duration of sound, and
psychological factors such as emotions and expectations.
Change in in sound level (dB)
Change in apparent loudness
Imperceptible(except for tones)
Just barely perceptible
Clearly noticeable
10
About twice(or half) as loud
20
About 4 times (or one fourth) as loud
NR =L1 L2 and NR = 10 log( l1 /l2 )
Where NR = difference in sound levels between two conditions (dB)
l1 = sound intensity under one condition (W/ m2).
l2= sound intensity under another condition (W/ m2 )
By substitution of the inverse square law expression into the above formula
NR = 10 log (d1/d2)2
And therefore in terms distance ratio d2/d1
NR= 20 log (d2/d1) for point source out doors, where ds are the distances.
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SOUND LEVEL METER
Sound level meters contain microphones which transform sound pressure variations in air into corresponding
electric signals. The signals are then multiplied internally and measured by electronic filters, which reject all
signals outside the selected frequency band or by electronic weighting networks, with the results in decibels
displayed on a digital readout or range indicator.
Sound meters that interpret human hearing use an A weighted scale

dB becomes dBA(low frequency sound energy)
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ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
Unit 2
SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORPTION
Outdoor noise levels, indoor noise levels, sonometer, determinate of density of a given material, resonance,
reverberation, reverberation time, echo, absorption coefficient, measurements, choice of absorption material.
SOUND TRANSMISSION:
When an acoustic traveling in one medium encounters a boundary of second medium

o
Reflected waves and
Transmitted waves are generated.
SOUND OUT DOORS:
With a simple non directive source, the sound intensity will fall off as the distance from the source is
increased.
This observed- decay of sound level with distance in a free field acoustical environment follows the
inverse square law.
For typical sources outdoors the decay is 3dB 6dB per doubling of distance from the source.
There are further losses or gains due to atmospheric effects, wind, temperature, ground foliage etc.
Sound decay: as the radius of the sphere over which the sound has spread has doubled, this results in a
spherical area 4 times greater and the sound level is reduced by 10 log 4 or 6dB.
SOUND INDOORS:
The sound intensity will decay with distance only very near the source.
The reflected sound from the floor, walls, ceiling begin to overwhelm the direct sound from the sound
component that continues to be emitted from the source.
Within the reflected or reverberant sound field , the sound level remains generally constant throughout the
room.
If the room surfaces are hard little loss of sound + high reflected sound level.
If porous materials- rugs, draperies, acoustic tiles are used appreciable losses each time the reflected
sound waves encounter the room surfaces.
Sound decay: if completely efficient sound absorbing materials are placed on all boundary surfaces of a
room, outdoors conditions would be approximated where only direct sound remains.
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Sound absorbing materials lower the sound level in the reverberant acoustic field dominated by reflected
sound.
TYPICAL NOISE LEVEL DATA:
Source
63
125
Electric shaver 59
58
49
Window AC
64
64
TV AT 100
49
62
Birds
Car horn at 150
250
62
65
64
500
60
56
67
1000
64
53
70
92
95
2000
60
48
68
50
90
4000
59
44
63
52
80
8000
37
39
54
60
NOISE REDUCTION OUTDOORS AND WITHIN ENCLOSURES:

1. FREE FIELD CONDITIONS
Free field conditions occur when sound waves are free from influence of reflective surfaces eg open areas
outdoors, anechoic rooms( have sound absorbing wedges >= 2 ft deep on all six enclosing surfaces to
stimulate the free field.
Sound energy from point sources(siren etc) spreads spherically and drops off 6 dB for each doubling of
distance from the source.
Sound energy from Line source spreads cylindrically and drops off only 3 dB for each doubling of
distance.
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2. REVERBERANT FIELD
Indoors, sound energy drops off under free field conditions only near the source usually < 5 ft small
room.
Because room surface reflects sound there will be little noise reduction with distance away from the
source called reverberant field.
The more absorption in a room the less built up of sound energy in the reverberant field.
SONOMETER :
Sonometer activity can be used to calculate the speed of sound
Speed of Sound
The relationship that is used to calculate the speed of sound is:
Speed = frequency X wavelength.
Frequency is the number of vibrations or back and forth motions per one agreed upon unit of time. The
agreed upon unit of time is one second.
Wavelength is the actual physical distance that a wave travels while it is going through one total vibration.
Lets consider frequency vary generically and rename it events per time unit.
This would be;
events
time unit
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Lets consider wavelength very generically and rename it actual distance traveled per one event.
This would be;
Wavelength = actual distance traveled

one event
to multiply the two quantities:

events X
time
actual distance traveled

one event
distance
(speed)
time
DIFFUSION:
Diffusion (X = )- diffusion is the scattering or random distribution of a sound wave from a surface.
It occurs when the surface depths of hard surfaced materials are comparable to the wave lengths of the
sound.
Diffusion does not break up or absorb sound.
The direction of incident sound wave is changed as it strikes a sound diffusing material.
Diffusion is an extremely important characteristics of rooms used for musical performances.
When satisfactory diffusion has been achieved listeners will have the sensation of sound coming from all
directions at equal levels.
Diffusion is an extremely important characteristics of rooms used for musical performances.
When satisfactory diffusion has been achieved listeners will have the sensation of sound coming from all
directions at equal levels.
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DIFFRACTION: The Sound Squeezes Through (X < )
Sound waves are not always reflected or absorbed. When an obstacle is the same size as the wavelength
or less, the sound can bend around obstacles or flow through small openings, and continue onward. This
is called diffraction. This action is more likely for deeper sounds (of low frequency, and this with longer
waveforms).
For example , a truck located behind a building can be heard because the sound waves bend around the
corners.
In auditoriums because impinging sound waves will readily diffract around panels that are smaller than
their wavelength, suspended panels must be carefully designed to be large enough to effectively reflect
the desired wavelengths of sound.
A single frequency can be emphasized called diffraction grating effect.( small panels with equal width (x)
and equal spacing)
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REFLECTION (X > )
Reflection is the return of a sound wave from a surface. If the surface dimension is x is larger than about 2
to 4 times the wavelength of the impinging sound wave, the angle of incidence < i will equal the angle
of reflection < r .
1000 Hz corresponds to a wavelenth of 1.1 ft, therefore a surface dimension (L&W) of about 4 = 4x1.1
= 4 ft will reflect sound energy wavelengths of 1000.
Pattern of reflected sound
Concave reflector
Concave sound reflecting surfaces such as barrel vaulted ceilings in churches and curved rear walls in
auditoriums can focus sound, causing hot spots and echoes in the audience seating area. Because concave
surfaces focus sound, they also are poor distributors of sound energy and therefore should be avoided
where sound reflecting surfaces are desired. Eg near stage, lectern, or other source locations in rooms.
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Flat reflector
Flat , hard surfaced building elements, if large enough and oriented properly, can effectively distribute
reflected sound. The reflector shown below is tilted slightly to project sound energy toward the rear of an
auditorium.
Convex reflector
Convex, hard surfaced building elements, if large enough can be most effective as sound distributing
forms. The reflected sound energy from convex surfaces diverges, enhancing diffusion, which is highly
desirable for music listening. In addition, reflected sound from convex surfaces is ,more evenly
distributed across a wide range of frequencies.
SOUND ABSORPTION:
Absorption means the conversion of sound energy into heat energy by penetration into porous materials
or reaction with flexible panels.
When sound impinges on the boundary surfaces of a room , part is absorbed and transmitted and part is
reflected back into the room. Sound levels in a room can be reduced by effective use of sound absorbing
treatment such as fibrous ceiling boards, curtains and carpets etc.
The term used to define a materials sound absorption characteristics is its coefficient of absorption().
= la / li
Where la = sound power intensity absorbed by the material, W / m .
li = intensity impinging on the material, W / m.
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= absorption coefficient, sabins.
The larger the absorption coefficient , the more effective a sound absorber the material is.
Thus, the absorption coefficient of 1.0 indicates 100% absorption and zero reflection of the impinging
sound energy.
Open space(absence of material) transmits (absorbs) all the impinging energy and therefore considered
as perfect absorbing material.
Thus, is defined as the ratio between absorption of a given material and that of a open window of the
same area.
= 1.0
The total absorption A of a given quantity of material is proportional to its area and its absorption
coefficient ie
A= S
Where A = total absorption, sabins.
S = surface area, Sq Ft or Sq M
= coefficient of absorption.
1 sabin (m) is the sound absorption equivalent of an open window 1 m in area.
All rooms are constructed of several materials each having a different absorption coefficient. In addition,
most rooms contain furnishings, which have their own individual coefficients of absorption. Thus, to
determine the total absorption of a room it is necessary to sum the component absorptions ie.,
S11+ S22+ S33 + .. + Snn

Or
A = A 1 +A 2 +A 3 ..+ A n
Where S = total absorption in the room, Sabin
S1S2 etc = surface area of each material sq ft of sq m
1 2 etc = absorption coefficient of each material.
A 1 A 2 etc = total absorption of each material in ft or m
MEASURING ABSORPTION: SOUND ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT

All materials have some sound absorbing properties
Incident sound energy which is not absorbed must be reflected, transmitted or dissipated.
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A material's sound absorbing properties can be described as a sound absorption coefficient in a particular
frequency range.
The fraction of the energy absorbed (at a specific frequency) during each reflection is represented by the
sound absorption coefficient of the reflecting/absorbing surface. In the building industry, this is a
meaningful and widely accepted quantitative measuring of sound absorption, and applies to all surfaces -whether they be of reflective or absorptive materials.
The coefficient can be viewed as a percentage of sound being absorbed, where 1.00 is complete
absorption (100%) and 0.01 is minimal (1%).
The effectiveness of a sound absorbing material can be expressed by its absorption coefficient ().
The coefficient describes the fraction of the incident sound energy that material absorbs.
Theortically it can vary from 0 ( no sound energy absorbed) to 1.0 (perfect absorption with all incident
sound energy absorbed).
a = S
Where
a= total absorption in the room, sabins
S =surface area sq ft
= sound absorption coefficeint at given frequency(decimal percent)
Absorption Coefficients of building material varies between 0.01 to 0.99(1.0).
Reflective Surfaces
Hard, massive, non-porous surfaces, such as plaster, masonry, glass and concrete, absorb generally less
than 5% of the energy of striking sound waves and reflect the rest. Such materials have heaver
absorption coefficients of 0.05 or less. With low coefficients (usually <0.20) are sound reflecting.
Absorptive Surfaces:
Porous materials such as acoustical tile, carpets, draperies and furniture are primarily absorptive. They
permit the penetration of sound waves and are capable of absorbing most of the sound energy. These
materials may have absorption coefficients approaching 1.00 (one sabin per sq. ft.). Materials with
medium to high sound absorption coefficients (usually >0.50) are referred to as sound absorbing
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SOUND ABSORBING TREATMENT:

Direct sound energy is heard from equipment. Reflected sound energy from ceiling, floor, and walls.
By adding sound absorbing materials less sound is heard because reflected sound is reduced in that part of
room.
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SOUND ABSORBING MATERIAL:

There are three basic categories of sound absorbers:
Porous materials commonly formed of matted or spun fibers.
Vibrating (Resonant or Panel (membrane) )absorbers having an impervious surface
mounted over an airspace.
Volume Resonators /Helmholtz created by holes or slots connected to an enclosed
volume of trapped air.
The absorptivity of each type of sound absorber is dramatically influenced by the mounting method
employed.
1. Porous Absorbers
Soft, porous materials are very good sound absorbers. The basic acoustical characteristic of these
materials is a cellular network of interlocking pores. Within these pores, incident sound energy is
converted into heat.
Examples of these include acoustical boards, diffusers, soft plasters, mineral wool, and
acoustical blankets, among others.
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Thin porous material convert sound energy into heat by friction
Thick porous material

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Characteristics:
Their sound absorption is more efficient at high, rather than low frequencies. However, their acoustical
efficiency improves in the low frequency range with increased thickness and with distance to their solid
backing
Categories of Commercial Materials:
1. PRE-FABRICATED ACOUSTICAL UNITS
Various types of perforated, fissured, or textured materials constitute typical units in this group
Commonly used materials include:
A.
B.
C.
D.
1.Acoustical Boards
Acoustic Hangers
Geoacoustic Tiles
Diffusers
A. Acoustical Boards
These can be installed in several ways: Cemented to a solid backing/ Nailed or screwed to wood
framing/ Laid in a ceiling suspension system
Advantages:
Trade catalogs contain detailed
Easy installation and maintenance
Flexible absorption
Disadvantages:
Difficult to conceal joints between units
Soft structure subject to damage
Paint redecoration harmful to absorption
B. ACOUSTIC HANGERS
Acoustic Hangers or baffles- a system of fiber-board panels that are wrapped with insulation
and are hung freely using wire or rope.
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C. GEOCOUSTIC TILES and PANELS

Geocoustic Tiles- special prefabricated units for random application on walls and ceilings.
D. DIFFUSERS
Diffusers- absorptive material that have, irregular surfaces, or angled or curved fronts, so when mounted on a
wall or the ceiling they stop parallel wall interference and prevent standing waves.
2.PLASTERS and SPRAYED-ON MATERIALS
Acoustical Plasters and Sprayed-on Materials: Absorbent paint applied in a semiplastic consistency. There are
two types:
Type I: composed of a cementitious material such as gypsum, cement, or lime
Type II: Fibrous materials combined with a binder agent, sprayed on with an air gun or blower
Advantages
May be used for irregular surfaces

Aesthetic and decorative qualities
Disadvantages
Difficult application
Difficult maintenance
3.ACOUSTIC BLANKETS
Acoustic Blankets- Also referred to as Isolation Blankets. Materials manufactured from rock wool, glass
fibers, wood fibers, hair felt, etc.
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4.ACOUSTIC FOAM BOARDS

Acoustic Foam Boards- High density blankets with covering; also act as diffusers
2. PANEL ABSORBERS:
Panel Absorbers- Also referred to as Membrane Absorbers. Impervious material installed in a solid backing but
separated from it by an air space.
Vibrating panels convert sound energy into vibrational energy which is dissipated by internal
damping and vibration.
3.CAVITY/ VOLUME RESONATORS/ HELMHOLTZ MATERIAL
Cavity Resonators- Also referred to as Helmholtz Resonators. Materials that consist of an enclosed body of
air, confined within rigid walls and connected by a narrow opening to the surroundings space.
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Volume resonators reduce sound energy by friction at opening and by interreflections within
cavity.
Classifications
1.Individual Cavity Resonators
2.Perforated Panel Absorbers
3.Slit Resonators
1.INDIVIDUAL CAVITY RESONATORS
Individual Cavity Resonators- Standard concrete blocks, using regular concrete mixture, but with slotted
cavities
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2.PERFORATED PANEL ABSORBERS

Perforated Panel Absorbers- Perforated panels spaced away from a solid backing
3.SLIT RESONATORS
Slit Resonators- Isolation blankets (or alternative) covered with slits, the whole system forming a resonator
SPACE ABSORBERS:
Space Absorbers- Sound absorbing objects which are suspended from the ceiling, used when regular boundary
enclosures of an auditorium do not provide a suitable or adequate area for conventional acoustical treatment.
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VARIABLE ABSORBERS:
Variable Absorbers- Sliding, hinged, movable, and rotatable panels constructed to expose either absorptive or
reflective surfaces.
REVERBERATION:
Reverberation- The prolongation of sound as a result of successive reflections in an enclosed space

after the source of sound is turned off is called reverberation.
The sound in an enclosed space which results from repeated reflections at the boundaries is called
reverberation.
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Reverberation is a basic acoustic property of a room. It can enrich speech and music in all areas -- or it can slur
speech and generate higher noise levels throughout a room, depending upon the room volume, timing, and
absorption.
REVERBERATION TIME:
It is defined as the time required for the steady sound pressure level in an enclosed space to decay by
60dB measured from the moment the sound source is switched off.
Sound does not die away the instant it is produced but will continue to be heard for some time because of
the reflections of wall, ceilings, floors and other surfaces.
It will mix the later direct sound and is know as reverberant sound.
The ideal RT is suggested by using empirical sound
r=4 for speech
r=5 for orchestra
r=6 for choir
The RT of a room can be given by the sabine equation
T = 0.163 V/A metric
T = 0.05 V/A feet
Where T = RT in secs( time required for sound to decay 60dB after the source has stopped.
V= volume of the room in cubic ft
A = combined absorption of all finishes and furnishings given in sabins in sq ft.
RT is halved with every doubling of the absorption.
Typology
Speech
Small offices
Classrooms/lecture rooms
Work rooms
Music
Rehearsal rooms
Chamber music
Orchestral/Choral/
Average church music
Large organ/liturgical choir
Reverberation time in seconds

0.50 to 0.75
0.75 to 1.00
1.00 to 2.00
0.80 to 1.00
1.00 to 1.50
1.50 to 2.00
2.00 to 2.25
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OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIME:
The preferred ranges or reverberation time at mid frequency ie 500 to 1000 Hz for a variety of activities
are shown in the graph.
The range based on the experience of normal hearing listeners in completed spaces are extended by
dashed sections at the ends of the bars to indicate the extreme limits of acceptability.
the satisfactory listening conditions can be achieved in auditorium which have different reverberation
times within preferred range, provided other important acoustical needs are fulfilled.
In general large rooms should be nearer the upper end of the reverberation time ranges than small rooms
of the same type.
RESONANCE:
The situation in which the amplitude of forced vibration of a system reaches a maximum at a certain
forcing frequency( resonance frequency)
Resonance: the air within a tube is vibrating at a certain frequency that matches the vibration of the reed,
lips, etc.
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Closed pipe resonator: instrument/device where one end is closed.
Open pipe resonator: instrument/device where both ends are open.
How does Resonance Occur?
Vibrations produce a sound wave.
Wave lengths travel down the tube
Wave is reflected back up the tube to create a standing pressure wave that reinforces each other.
ROOM RESONANCE:
An enclosed space with sound reflective interior surfaces undesirably accentuates certain frequencies,
called the normal modes of vibration of the room. Rooms have large number of normal modes, depending
on their shapes and dimensions. The deleterious effect of the normal modes is particularly noticeable at
the lower frequencies, where these modes are unequally distributed. This is known as resonance, which is
unwanted for good acoustics.
ATTENUATION:
A term used to indicate the reduction of noise or vibration by whatever method or whatever reason and
the amount usually in dB by which it is reduced.
SOUND ATTENUATION
1. AIR BORNE ATTENUATION:
Consider a pair of adjacent rooms.
A. source room
B. receiving room
The transmission from the source room to the receiver room has to be reduced or prevented. The degree
to which this is possible depends on the attenuation offered by the wall, floor or ceiling between room. It
also depends on the flanking paths that may allow sound to by pass the principal barrier.
Attenuation is expressed in decibels.
Attenuation is described more precisely by 2 terms:

1. the sound level difference between two rooms that one measures or expericences- noise reduction-NR
2. the sound level difference due to the principal barrier known as transmission loss TL. A partition or
barrier must hence be complete in all respects with no holes or cracks.
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TL and NR are frequency dependent.
2.ACOUSTICAL SHIELDING:
Provided by incomplete barriers- partial height partitions used in open office spaces. Performance
depends on the barrier size and not on the TL. The barrier must extend beyond the line of sight between
the source and the receiver. The sound must not reflect over or around the barrier. Barrier attenuation
seldom exceeds 20dB. It hence unnecessary to build a partial height barrier of high TL materials.
3.IMPACT ATTENUATION:
Generated by direct physical contact with a surface whose side is exposed to an adjoining room. Example
footballs. Attenuation is achieved by avoiding hard surfaces or use of resilient materials.
4. VIBRATION ISOLATION:
Pertains to mechanical equipment. No piece of rotating, reciprocating, vibrating equipment is perfectly

balanced. The imbalance causes it and the supporting structure to vibrate. Attenuation is achieved through
use of vibrators- spring and elastomeric mounts or hangers, flexible sleeves and connections-that allow
the equipment to float free of the structure. The natural frequency of the vibration isolated equipment
must be lower than the driving frequency.
5.DUCT ATTENUATION:
Noises from fans, due to turbulence of air stream propagates along ducts and enters rooms through air
supply ducts and return grilles. Attenuation is achieved by internally lining the ducts with an absorptive
material or use of silencers. Large HVAC systems require 30m or more of lined duct between the fan and
the room.
ECHO:
A sound reflection whose magnitude and time delay is such that it is perceived as a separate,
distinguishable repetition of the direct sound.
They are long delayed discrete sound reflections of sufficient intensity to be clearly heard above the
general reverberation in a room.
The formation of echoes normally happens when the time lag between the two voices is about 1/17th of a
second and the reflecting surfaces are situated at a distance greater than 15 m. This defect usually occurs
when the shape of reflected surface is covered with smooth character. Echoes cause disturbance and
unpleasant hearing. These can be avoided by planning the shape and size of the room based on simple law
of reflection, which state that the direction of travel of reflected sound should make the same angle with
the wall as that of the incident sound.
ECHO CONTROL PRINCIPLES

Potential echo producing surfaces
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Should be treated with efficient sound absorbing material or shaped.
Revised ceiling profile
The front portion of the ceiling is lowered to reduce the delayed reflections from overhead and reoriented
to provide useful reflections toward the rear of the auditorium.
Sound absorbing wall treatments:
Deep treatments can be provided by either thick or thin sound absorbing materials installed with an
airspace behind the solid surface.
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FLUTTER ECHO which can be heard as a rattle or clicking from a hand clap, may be present in small rooms or
narrow spaces with parallel walls.
It also can be effectively controlled by sound absorbing materials.
It can be controlled by reshaping to avoid parallel surfaces providing deep sound absorbing treatment or
breaking up smooth surfaces with splayed or scalloped elements.
Flutter echo in small rooms can be most noticeable at specific locations of noise source and listener.
Pitched roof flutter echo- can occur in rooms with non parallel walls.
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CREEP ECHO in which sound reflections concentrate near and along smooth concave surfaces.
SOUND ABSORBERS:
1. Acostical foam: cellular material usually made of polyurthena. Formas are manufactured either with open
cells or with closed cells. Open cell foams are excellent absorbers depending on the thichness. The NRC
ranges from 0.25 for 6mm froam to0 .90 for 50mm or thicker foams. Used fro padding for upholstered
theatre seats to stabilize reverberation regardless of occupancy. Closed cell foams also absorb sound but
lesser. Used as application on ringing surfaces such as metal plates to provide damping.
2. Acoustical plaster: used to create a jointless surfcae to absorb sound. NRC of .060 not a very reliable
material to use.
3. Acoustical tile: made up of mineral fibre/cellulose fibre or fiber glass. Used as a ceiling tile. Usually
suspended from the ceiling in a metal grid. Can also be glued or attached to surfaces. Not used on walls as
it is prone to damage. Absorptivity ranges from NRC 0.50 to NRC 0.95 fro fiberglass inlay panels.
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Suspended tile provides more low frequency absorption than glued on tile. Membrane faced tiles provide
less high frequency absorption than those whose faces are porous. The thicker the tile the better the
absorption. Acoustic tile also attenuate sound. They are made up of mineral fiber and backed by a sealed
coating or foil. The 2 room STC ratings range from 30 -45. Used fro a suspended ceiling along a
standardized plenum and trough the ceiling of the adjoining room. Used where plenum is continuous and
where partitions stop against or just above the ceiling.
4. Carpet: a soft floor finish made of synthetic materials such as nylon or natural materials such as wool. It is
either glued directly to the floor or installed overran underlayment of hair felt or foam rubber. It is the
only floor finish which absorbs sound. Absorptivity depends on the thickness of the pile and the porous or
fibrous underlayment.ARC 0.20 to 0.55 the absorption is good for higher frequencies.
5. Cellulose fiber: it is basic material for acoustical tile, wood wool, fibrous spray etc.
6. Curtains and fabrics: absorb sound if heavy and it their air flow resistance is sufficiently high impeding
airflow through materials. Light curtain- NRC 0.20 and heavy flow resistant fabric NRC 0.70 fabrics
attached directly to hard surfaces do not absorb sound. If stretched over fiberglass they make acoustically
excellent finish.
7. Duct lining: made of fiberglass in thickness of 50mm the lining is mechanically fastened to the interior
surfaces of sheet metal ventilation ducts. In high velocity ducts it may be faced with perforated metal to
prevent erosion. Duct lining absorbs sound and thus attenuates noise as it propagates along ducts.
8. Fiberglass: available as batts, blankets and boards. Excellent sound absorber. The manufacturing process
ensures consistent porosity at a very fine scale. Used in stud walls and ducts, industrial noise control .
compressed blocks or sheets of fiberglass use for resilient supports or hangers or as joint fillers where
rigid ties have to be avoided. Absorptivity depends on the thickness , density, diameter of fibers.
9. Fibrous blankets and batts: made of fiberglass or mineral fiber. High NRC 0.90 if used between 2 faces of
a partition- it improves attenuation. The batt or blanket should never completely fill the cavity.
10. Fibrous board: rigid or semi rigid boards-made of fiberglass are excellent fiberglass. Available with a
wide range of facings for use on wall or ceiling panels. NRC 0.75 fro 25mm to NRC 0.90 fro 50mm
lesser porous or thinner boards are less absorptive.
11. Fibrous plank: rigid material made of coarse fibers such as wood fibers embedded in a cementitious mix.
Used for roof decking. The performance depends on thickness and ranges from NRC 0.40 for 25mm
plank NRC 0.65 for 75mm plank.
12. Fibrous spray: used for fire proofing reasons. Made of cellulose or mineral fibers. Depends on the
thickness and application technique. A well applied coat of 25mm NRC of 0.60.
13. Loose insulation: similar to fibrous batts and blankets except it can be blown or dumped in place.
Improves attenuation through a partition.
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14. Laminated glass: sandwich of 2 or more sheets of glass with visco elastic interlayers that provide damping
as the sandwich is flexed. Offer better attenuation than an equal thickness of monolithic glass. A 13mm
plate glass- low STC of 30 while 13mm laminated glass-STC of 40.
15. Lead sheet: used to close off the plenum. Offer excellent attenuation per unit thickness as it .
16. Metal pans: perforated metal pans backed by fibrous batts are used as an alternative to acoustical tiles.
The size and spacing of the perforations affect performance.NRC 0.50 to 0.95. it the batts are encased in
plastic, high frequency absorptivity is impaired.
17. Sealant: non hardening compounds used to seal joints and cracks. Used where services penetrate
partitions.
SUGGESTED SOUND ABSORBING TREATMENT FOR ROOMS:
TYPE OF SPACE
NRC
CEILING TREATMENT
WALL TREATMENT
Bedrooms, sleeping
quarters
0.45 to 0.65
Full
None
Private office, labs,

hospitals, libraries
0.65 to 0.75
Full
none
Lobbies, corridors,
gyms,
0.65 to 0.75
Full
yes
College, class rooms
0.65 to 0.75
Partial
yes
Kitchens, cafeterias,
restaurant
>0.75
Full
Usually none required
Computer equipment
room, machinery space
>0.75
Full
Auditoriums, theatres,
audio visual rooms
>0.75
Full
yes
Checklist for effective absorption of sound:
Never use absorbing materials on a surface needed for sound reflections.
Place sound absorbing materials on a surface that produces echoes or has sound focusing.
Cover- ceilings for noise reduction within rooms, floors with carpets, walls with draperies and heavily
upholstered furniture.
In a long narrow or very high rooms- use wall absorption sparsely.
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In low ceiling rooms use wall absorption.
Mounting materials is a critical factor.
Amount of treatment is determined by the absorbing materials in the room plus the size of the room.
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Fundamentals of Architectural Acoustics

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Fundamentals of Architectural Acoustics

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ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

Bioacoustics( use of sound wave in medical diagnostics)

Physiological acoustics(physical effects of sound on people)

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

Reciprocal of frequency is the period.

Frequency is measured in cycles per second.

Unit is Hertz (Hz).

Range of hearing: 20-20,000 hz

A range of 200 to 2000 Hz is required to understand speech.

Pressure is force per unit area.

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

Amplitude is maximum displacement during vibration.

Vibration of particle in air

Sound composed of only one frequency is called pure tone.

A pure tone is vibration produced at a single frequency.

Symphonic music consist of numerous tones at different frequencies and pressure.

= frequency ( cycles / s or Hz).

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

The variation of pressure caused by speech, music or noise .

Complex sound consist of Variety of sound pressure vary with time.

Frequency is the rate of repetition of periodic event.

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

Reciprocal of frequency is the period.

Frequency is measured in cycles per second.

Unit is Hertz (Hz).

Pitch is the subjective response of human hearing to frequency.

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

Wavelength of sound in air is given by = 1130 / f

Eg- tuning fork

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

FREQUENCY RANGES OF AUDIBLE SOUND:

Hearing ranges for both young and older persons.

Human speech contains energy from about 125 to 8000 hz.

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

INVERSE SQUARE LAW:

Power is a basic quantity of energy flow.

Where I = sound intensity (W/ m 2 )

W = sound power (W)

d = distance from sound source (m).

The inverse square law for sound is

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

Where l = sound intensity (W/m 2 )

d= distance from sound source (ft or m)

SOUND POWER LEVEL (PWL or Lw):

SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL(SPL or Lp) :

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

Sound intensity level

Sound pressure level

Sound power level

Wo= 10-12 W(1pW)

Pain threshold value

At pain threshold value

Sound intensity level in bels = the logarithm of the intensity ratio l / l o.

Where Li = sound intensity level (dB)

I = sound intensity ( W / m2)

Io = reference sound intensity, 10-12(W / m2).

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION

HUMAN EAR CHARACTREICTICS:

FUNDAMENTALS / SOUND TRANSMISSION AND ABSORBTION