B1-17 Propeller Systems SR

Student Resource
Subject B1-17:
Propeller Systems
Copyright 2008 Aviation Australia

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold, or
otherwise disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia.
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Part-66 Subject
B1-17 Propeller Systems
CONTENTS
Page
DEFINITIONS
STUDY RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
Propeller Fundamentals
17.1-1
Propeller Construction
17.2-1
Propeller Pitch Control
17.3-1
Propeller Synchronising
17.4-1
Propeller Ice Protection
17.5-1
Propeller Maintenance
17.6-1
Propeller Storage and Preservation
17.7-1
Issue B: January 2008
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DEFINITIONS
Define
To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
Specify in words or writing.
To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
To establish the identity of.
Itemise.
List
Describe
Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or process.
To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.
Explain
Make known in detail.
Offer reason for cause and effect.
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STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen Sanderson Training Products:
A&P Technician Powerplant Textbook.
Aircraft Gas Turbine Powerplants Textbook.
B1-17 Student Handout
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to familiarise you with construction, components, operation and
maintenance of aircraft propeller systems and turbo-prop and turbo-shaft engines.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 17.1
Propeller Fundamentals
Describe blade element theory.
Describe the following and explain their effect on propeller thrust:
High/low blade angle
Reverse angle
Angle of attack
Rotational speed.
Describe the following in regards to propellers:
Topic 17.2
Propeller slip
Aerodynamic force
Centrifugal force
Thrust force
Torque
Relative airflow on blade angle of attack
Vibration and resonance.
Propeller Construction
Describe construction methods and materials used in wooden, composite and metal
propellers.
Describe the following terms:
Blade station
Blade face
Blade shank
Blade back
Hub assembly.
17.2.3
Describe typical mounting requirements of flanged, tapered and splined propeller

installations.
17.2.4
Describe the operation of the following propeller types and identify their spinner
installation:
Fixed pitch
Controllable pitch
Constant speeding.
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Topic 17.3
Propeller Pitch Control

Describe methods used for propeller speed control and pitch change.
Describe the operation of components used for to control propeller feathering and
reverse pitch.
Describe State the purpose of propeller overspeed protection devices.
Topic 17.4
Propeller Synchronising
Describe the operation of components used for synchronising and synchrophasing.
Topic 17.5
Propeller Ice Protection

Describe the operation of fluid and electrical de-icing.
Topic 17.6
Propeller Maintenance
Explain the following propeller maintenance:
Static and dynamic balancing
Blade tracking.
Explain assessment of the following types of propeller blade damage:
Erosion
Corrosion
Impact damage
Delamination.
Explain repair schemes used in propeller treatment.

Explain procedures and precautions for propeller engine running
Topic 17.7
Propeller Storage and Preservation

Describe the preservation and depreservation of propeller and propeller accessories /
systems components.
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TOPIC 17.1: PROPELLER FUNDAMENTALS

Lift
Lift is the aerodynamic force caused by air flowing over an aerofoil (Figure 1.1).
The aerofoil shape of an aircraft wing or propeller is designed to increase the velocity of the
airflow over its cambered surface, thereby decreasing pressure above the aerofoil. This
combination of pressure decrease above the aerofoil and a higher pressure below the
aerofoil produces a force upward. This force is termed lift, and with propellers this forms the
basis of blade element theory with a blade element being any randomly selected area of
the blade aerofoil.
Figure 1-1. Lift

Drag
Drag is a force opposing thrust, caused by the disruption or impact of airflow over, or onto an
aerofoil, (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1-2. Drag

Thrust
Thrust is a forward acting force. It is the reaction to the mass of air being accelerated
rearwards, (Figure 1.2). Thrust is felt on the blade face, this forms the basis of momentum
theory for propellers (Newtons 3rd law of motion).
THRUST
Figure 1-3. Thrust
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Total Reaction
Total reaction of a blade is the resultant of two pairs of forces:
lift and drag
thrust and torque
By plotting the vectors for lift and drag, it is possible to derive the total reaction (Figure1.4A).
It is also possible to derive the total reaction by plotting the vectors for thrust and torque,
(Figure 1.4B).
(Figure1.4C) depicts both pairs of vectors arriving at the same total reaction.
Figure 1-4.Blade Rotational Forces

An increase in rotational speed will increase theses forces equally.
Rotational speed is restricted to a point where the blade tip speed must remain below the
speed of sound.
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EFFECTS ON PROPELLER THRUST

Blade Angle
If you stand safely to the side of a stationary aircraft and view the rotating propeller, you will
see the plane (path) that the propeller is rotating in.
The angle between the chord line, which is an imaginary line drawn through the blade and
the plane of rotation, usually measured in degrees, is termed the blade angle, as
represented in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1-5.Blade Angle

Angle of Attack
The angle between the chord line and blade path (angle of relative wind/airflow) is termed the
angle of attack (Figure 1.6).
For best results this should be 2o to 4o. It is within this angle of attack that the incoming air is
compressed (shaded area) then allowed to expand as it leaves the trailing edge of the blade
resulting in thrust.
Figure 1-6.Angle of Attack
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Pitch
Pitch is the distance moved forward by the propeller in one revolution. This can vary with
different blade angles, as illustrated in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1-7.Pitch
Blade Twist
The further away from the hub along the propeller blade, the faster that section of the blade is
travelling and if the tip reaches the speed of sound then that portion will not produce any
thrust. Therefore, if a propeller had no twist along its length when viewed from the side, then
only part of the propeller would produce any useable thrust.
To ensure all sections of the propeller blade produce equal thrust, the blade is manufactured
with a gradual twist, from hub to tip (Figure 1.8).
Maintaining this gradual twist also ensures that the correct angle of attack is maintained at 2o
to 4o along the length of the blade.
Figure 1-8.Blade Twist
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Torque Reaction
If the propeller rotates anti-clockwise, the force used to rotate the propeller is transferred to
stationary items, eg. bearing housings. Transferring the force to the stationary items will tend
to rotate the aircraft in the opposite direction (Newtons Third Law) to the rotating propeller,
ie. clockwise, as in Figure 1.9. This tendency to try and roll the aircraft is termed torque
reaction.
Figure 1-9.Torque Reaction
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PROPELLER SLIP
Slip is defined as the difference between geometric pitch and effective pitch.
Slip Geometric pitch - Effective pitch

Geometric pitch is a calculated distance that a propeller would advance forward through a
solid medium, in one revolution.
Effective pitch is the distance that a propeller actually does advance forward in one
revolution.
Figure 1.10 shows slip as the difference between geometric pitch and effective pitch.
Figure 1-10.Slip
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EFFECTS ON AIRCRAFT STABILITY

Propeller Torque
If a propeller is being driven anti-clockwise, the torque that is being developed to drive the
propeller has an effect on the aircraft structure and will tend to roll the aircraft clockwise and
vice versa.
Figure 1-11.Effects on Aircraft Stability

Propeller Slipstream
A rotating propeller will impart a rotational motion to the slip-stream in the same direction as
the propeller. This rotating of the air has an adverse effect on the aircrafts fin.
Figure 1.11 shows two airflows flowing rearwards, one dark, one light. The dark portion firstly
curls over the top of the aircraft, then under it, prior to arriving at the tail. The light portion
initially curls under the aircraft until it reaches the trailing edge of the wing. It then
commences to rotate back up hitting the right hand side of the tail. This force acting on the
tail will cause the aircraft to turn to the right.
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Propeller Gyroscopic Effect

The rotating mass of the propeller may cause a slight gyroscopic effect. A rotating body
(propeller) tends to resist any change in its plane of rotation. In straight and level flight, the
propeller will resist either a turn to the left or right. If such a change does take place, there is
a tendency for the plane of rotation (straight and level) to change in a direction at right angles
(90o) to where the force was applied. If the propeller rotates anti-clockwise, the nose will yaw
(veer) to the right.
An example of gyroscopic effect is to spin a bicycle wheel while holding the axle, and then try
to tilt the axle in one direction while it is spinning. You will note that it actually tilts at 90 to
the direction intended.
Contra Rotating Effect
The fitment of a contra-rotating propeller basically eliminates the effects of propeller torque,
propeller slipstream and propeller gyroscopic effect. The second propeller straightens the
slipstream of the first and causes a straight high speed flow of air over the fin and improves
control. Propeller torque is cancelled due to the fact that the propellers are spinning in
opposite directions, therefore cancelling out propeller torque while also neutralising the
gyroscopic effect.
Forces Acting on a Propeller
As a propeller is rotating, it is acted upon by certain forces. These forces are:
centrifugal force
centrifugal twisting moment
aerodynamic twisting moment
bending forces-
1.
thrust and drag
Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal force is a force that has a tendency to throw the rotating propeller blades away
from the propeller hub (Figure 1.12). This force can amount to many thousands of newtons.
Figure 1-12.Centrifugal Force
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Centrifugal Twisting Moment

Centrifugal Twisting Moment (commonly referred to as CTM) is a force which tends to rotate
propeller blades toward a fine blade angle. This is illustrated in Figure 1.13.
CTM is a force that propeller manufacturers utilise on variable pitch propellers. This force is
used to alter blade angle from a coarser to a finer blade angle.
Figure 1-13.Centrifugal Twisting Moment

Aerodynamic Twisting Moment
Aerodynamic Twisting Moment is a force that tries to move the propeller blades to a coarser
blade angle. As shown in Figure 1.14, the centre of pressure is forward of the rotational axis
of the blade, which is at the mid point of the chord line, this force tends to increase the blade
angle.
Some propeller designs use this force to aid in the feathering the propeller.
Figure 1-14.Aerodynamic Twisting Moment
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Bending Forces
Bending force is divided into two components:
torque bending force (caused by drag)
thrust bending force (caused by thrust)
Torque Bending Force

Torque Bending Force is a resultant force from the load that air resistance (drag) places on
the blades. It has the tendency to bend the propeller blades opposite to the direction of
rotation. Figure 1.15(a) shows an exaggeration of torque bending force.
Figure 1-15. (a) Torque
Figure 1.15(b) Thrust
Thrust Bending Force

Thrust Bending Force is a force which has the tendency to bend the blades forward as the
aircraft is pulled through the air. This bending forward of the blades is exerted by the thrust
that propels the aircraft forward as shown in Figure 1.15(b).
Force Accentuation
Both Aerodynamic and Centrifugal Twisting Moments (Torsional Stresses) are increased with
an increase in RPM, ie. if RPM is doubled, these stresses are quadrupled.
Force Coupling
The coupling of centrifugal force and thrust create severe stresses which are greater near the
hub. The blade face is exposed to tension from centrifugal force as well as tension from
bending. Therefore the propeller needs to be designed to withstand these stresses which
increase proportionally with RPM. A simple scratch or dent in the blade can have severe
repercussions.
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EFFECTS ON ANGLE OF ATTACK

To understand how a propellers performance can vary, you will need to understand vectors.
You should remember from your study of vectors that where a line is drawn to scale, it shows
a velocity or force. These lines are drawn to represent speed, ie. the longer a line is drawn,
the faster an items speed is represented.
The performance (thrust) of a fixed pitch propeller will vary with variations in either:
rotational velocity
aircraft velocity
If a propeller is designed to produce the correct angle of attack (2 to 4) at say, 1 500 RPM
and 50 MPH forward, then it will produce the required amount of thrust until either rotational
velocity or forward velocity alter (Figure 1.16).
Figure 1-16.
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Increased Rotational Velocity

If forward velocity is maintained but rotational velocity is increased to 2000 RPM, then it can
be seen that the angle of attack is extremely large and inefficient. Figure 1.17 compares this
increase in velocity to the efficient running of the propeller blade.
Figure 1.17
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Increased Forward Velocity

If forward velocity is increased, ie. in a dive, and rotational velocity maintained, then it can be
seen that the blade path has moved from being behind the chord line (a positive angle of
attack) to being in front of the chord line. This can be seen in Figure 1.18.
This gives the rotating blades a negative angle of attack, which produces no forward thrust.
Thrust is now being produced in the opposite direction and acts like a brake.
Figure 1.18
Therefore, it can be seen that changing either rotational velocity or aircraft forward velocity
will alter the blades angle of attack. Varying a propeller blades angle of attack will lower the
efficiency of that blade and therefore the propeller as a unit.
Blade Tip Speed Versus Efficiency
To allow propellers to absorb the enormous power that engines can develop, larger
propellers were made. It was found that the increase in propeller diameter did not
necessarily increase efficiency.
In fact, the larger propellers lost performance through tip vibration or flutter. This flutter or
vibration is caused by shock waves as the tip of the propeller approaches the speed of
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sound, which is approximately 1117 ft/s (or 660 knots) at sea level on a standard day of
15C.
It was therefore necessary to keep blade tip speed below the speed of sound. This meant
that the propeller tips had to be below the speed of sound and still be able to absorb the
available engine power.
This can be achieved in several ways by increasing the number of blades, or by increasing
blade shape and section.
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TOPIC 17.2: PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION

Hub Assembly
The hub assembly (Figure 2.1) provides a means of attaching the propeller to the engine and
supports the blades. The hub is divided into forward and rear barrel halves to enable fitment
of the blades onto the spider which provides bearing support for the blades.
Figure 2 1. Hub Assembly

Blade
The blade is the aerofoil part of the propeller that converts the torque of the engine into
thrust. Figure 2.2 shows a propeller blade removed from the propeller assembly.
Figure 2 2.Blade
Tip
The propeller blade tip is the portion of the blade that is the furthest from the hub assembly.
It is usually referred to as the last six inches of the blade. Figure 2.2 shows the tip section of
the blade shaded black.
Figure 2 3.Blade Tip
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Root (Blade Butt)

The round blade root, which is also known as the blade butt is part of the propeller blade
which fits into the propeller hub (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2 4.Blade Root

Blade Shank
This is the cylindrical part of the blade near the blade root (Figure 2.5), it is usually thick for
strength and contributes little or nothing to thrust.
Figure 2 5.Blade Shank
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Part-
Cuff
Propeller blade cuffs are designed to restore the round section of the blade shank to an
aerofoil shape and thereby increase airflow to the engine. Blade cuffs are usually
constructed of metal, wood or plastic and are either clamped or bonded to the blades. Figure
2.2 shows plastic cuffs bonded to the blade shanks.
Figure 2 6.Blade Cuff

Leading Edge
The leading edge of a blade (aerofoil shape) as illustrated in Figure 2.7, is the thick edge that
first meets the air as the propeller rotates.
Trailing Edge
After air has passed the leading edge, it leaves the aerofoil at the trailing edge (Figure 2.7).
The trailing edge of a propeller blade is the rear edge of the blade, the point where the blade
camber face and the blade thrust face join.
Figure 2 7. Blade Trailing Edge
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Blade Back (Blade Camber Face)

The blade back is the forward convex (outward) curved face of the propeller blades aerofoil
and joins the leading and trailing edge, as shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2 8. Blade Back

Blade Face (Blade Thrust Face)
The flat side of a propeller blade is termed the blade face or blade thrust face (Figure 2.9). It
is on this face that the thrust produced by the blade is felt.
Figure 2 9. Blade Face

Chord Line
To assist in determining propeller blade angles, all aerofoils have an imaginary straight line
drawn through them. This straight line cuts through the centre of the leading edge and centre
of the trailing edge, and is known as the chord line. Figure 2.10 illustrates the chord line on a
propeller blade.
Figure 2 10. Chord Line
Figure 2.11 summarises the terms relating to blade surface.
Figure 2 11. Blade Terms
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Blade Stations
To assist maintenance personnel to locate relevant positions on a blade, the blades have
designated distances along their length as measured from the centre of the hub, out to the tip
of each blade.
As depicted in Figure 2.12, these "blade stations" are normally measured in six inch intervals.
If you were to refer to damage in the leading edge of the propeller at the 20 blade station,
you would normally refer to it as being located between the 18 and 24 blade stations.
Figure 2 12. Blade Stations
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CONSTRUCTION
Propeller blades are usually made of one of the following:
wood
metal
1.
aluminium alloy
2.
steel
composite (non metallic fibre).
Timber
The earliest propellers fitted to aircraft were constructed of timber. These propellers were
made from a number of layers of hardwoods glued together with high quality wood glue.
Figure 2.13 shows a typical wooden propeller.
Figure 2 13. Wooden Construction

Fabric Covering
To aid in reinforcing the tip of each blade, cotton fabric is glued to the last 12 to 15 (20-28
cms). Figure 2.14 illustrates the area covered by fabric covering.
The fabric covering not only assists in reinforcement of the tip but aids in protecting the tip
from moisture and reduces the tendency for it to split or crack.
Figure 2 14. Fabric Covering

Laminating
Timber used for the manufacture of propellers is specially selected, well seasoned
hardwoods. The timber should be free from imperfections such as:
holes
loose knots
decay
The timber is layered, as in Figure 2.15, and given a preliminary shaping and finishing, then
stacked together and glued.
Figure 2 15. Timber Laminated Construction
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The propeller is then placed in a kiln where the pressure and temperature are carefully
controlled for a prescribed time. The propeller is then shaped to its final form (Figure 2.16),
using templates and protractors to ensure that it meets design specifications.
Figure 2 16. Blade Shaping

After shaping, the propeller has various protective coatings applied to it (Figure 2.17), such
as fabric covering, varnish and sheathing. These methods will be discussed later in this
topic.
Figure 2 17. Protective Coating

Varnishing
Wood, due to change in moisture content, is subject to:
swelling
shrinking
warping
A protective coating of varnish is applied to the finished propeller to prevent rapid changes of
moisture content.
Leading Edge Sheathing
During take-off and taxiing, damage from small stones and sand can occur to the leading
edge of the propeller. To protect wooden propeller blades, a metal shield is secured around
the tip and along the leading edge.
This metal shield is known as either leading edge tipping or leading edge sheathing. Small
drain holes in the tipping near the blade tip allow moisture from condensation to drain away.
Leading edge sheathing can be made from either:
terneplate
monel
brass
stainless steel.
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Figure 2.18 shows the installation of metal sheathing on a propeller blade.
Figure 2 18. Metal Sheathing

Metal
A fixed-pitch metal propeller is usually manufactured by forging a single bar of aluminium
alloy to the required shape.
These propellers incorporate a centre bore to allow fitment of various steel hubs or adaptors
providing for different types of installations. Figure 2.19 shows a typical fixed pitch aluminium
propeller.
Figure 2 19. Fixed Pitch Metal propeller

Aluminium Alloy
Initially, metal propellers start out as a single bar of aluminium alloy. These bars are then
shaped and finished to the desired aerofoil shape by machine forging, copying the shape of a
master blade (sometimes referred to as a profile) onto the bar of aluminium.
Due to the high strength and malleability of aluminium alloy, the airfoil extends to the
propeller hub. This will not increase thrust as the engine is located immediately behind this
area but does act to provide an increased flow of cooling air to the engine.
Shot Peening
This process is itself a finishing treatment and normally requires no other treatments.
Nicks, gouges and other minor blade damages can quickly lead to stress cracking. This is
predominantly evident on steel propellers due to their relatively brittle characteristic. Shot
peening of metals is designed to distribute stresses more evenly in the surface (eg. around
the blade shank) and to increase fatigue strength. Figure 2.20 shows the area of a metal
propeller which is usually shot peened.
Figure 2 20. Shot Peened Areas
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Shot (beads/balls of glass, steel, etc.) of a known size are thrown by centrifugal force or air
blasted through a nozzle at a prescribed pressure onto the required area.
The impact of the shot causes plastic deformation of the surface to a depth of a few
thousands of an inch. If the depth of work needs to be increased, all that is required is for the
velocity or size of the shot to be increased.
Various types of shot can be used; two common types are steel and glass beads.
Anodising
Anodising is used to add extra protection to alloy blades. It is an electroplating process used
to provide a hard coating which is:
corrosion resistant
waterproof
airtight
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Composite
Composite blade construction involves the use of special plastic resins. These resins are
reinforced with fibres or filaments composed of one of the following:
glass
kevlar
carbon
boron
There are two ways of constructing a composite blade.

Figure 2.21 shows how one of the materials listed above is shaped around an aluminiumalloy spar and foam.
Figure 2 21. Composite Construction

Figure 2.22 shows how a composite material shell is used to form the blade profile into which
a foam core is placed to provide resistance to distortion.
Figure 2 22. Composite Construction

Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Moulding
The FRP moulding is a variation of the composite blade. The FRP blade consists of a
laminated Kevlar shell into which is placed a foam core.
To boost the strength of the shell, Kevlar is layered not only lengthwise but also multidirectional. The leading and trailing edges of the blade are reinforced with solid
unidirectional Kevlar.
Two unidirectional Kevlar shear webs are placed between the camber and the thrust face
surfaces of the shell to provide resistance to flexing and buckling.
The polyurethane foam filling supplies additional resistance to any distortion caused by
operating stresses that the propeller encounters.
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Figure 2.23 displays the construction of a blade made from the materials described above.
Figure 2 23. FRP Moulding
Figure 2.23 Composite Material Retention

Composite materials are commonly retained on the shank primarily by external composite
windings. The secondary form of retention is the clamping action of the hub halves. Refer
Figure 2.23
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PROPELLER MOUNTING/INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS

Correct installation of the propeller onto the engine propeller shaft is critical to safety (some
props have come off in flight), and to avoid vibration.
There are basically THREE types of installations:-
flanged shaft
tapered shaft and
splined shaft.
Generally speaking, the smaller engines have either of the first two, whilst the bigger engines
usually have splined shafts.
Flanged Shaft
Flanged shaft describes a thick circular flange at the front of the engine crankshaft, with a
ring of holes, either plain (dowel pins) or threaded (Figure 2.24). The prop is attached by
bolts.
A skull cap spinner is fitted to small aircraft as an aerodynamic fairing.
Figure 2 24. Flanged Shaft

Preinstallation checks include:
Inspect the flange for distortion and surface defects. (do a run-out check on
the flange if distortion is suspected).
Ensure bolt holes/threads are in good condition.
Apply a light coat of oil or anti-seize to the flange and propeller mounting
surfaces to aid in the next removal.
Close inspection of attachment bolts use NDT dye penetrant or magnetic

particle to be sure.
Ensure retaining nuts are new and self-locking nuts.
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Installation checks include:
Offer the prop to the shaft in the correct indexing position. Usually, there is a
dowel hole or pin to ensure this.
Most splined shafts have a master spline. On a small engine without

indexing, fit the prop so that the blades are at the 4 and 10 oclock position to
facilitate hand starting.
Insert the bolts, nuts and washers lightly tighten the nuts. Tighten the nuts
progressively, in the sequence given in the maintenance manual.
Note the balance washers may be installed under the bolt head or nut.
Correctly torque the prop retention nuts, to the tension specified in the Manual.
For wooden props, a circular faceplate is installed at the front of the hub boss
to spread the compression load and thereby protect the wood from crushing.
On completion of the installation, a track test will show that blade tips are
describing the same tip path plane (see in later chapter).
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Tapered Shaft
Found mostly on older aircraft of lower horsepower, the engine crankshaft is extended, in a
tapered form, to mate with a similarly shaped prop hub. The interference fit of these two
surfaces will provide the primary transfer of power to the propeller. Ground threads at the end
of the shaft accommodate the prop retention nut. The safety holes allow for locking of the
nut. (See Figure 2.25)
The keyway is a long milled slot in the tapered shaft, and the mating key indexes the hub to
the shaft to prevent rotary motion between hub and shaft during installation. In service, the
keyway is subject to wear and small cracks especially in the sharp corners. Close
inspection is essential using either dye-penetrant or magnetic particle methods.
Figure 2 25. Safety Holes

The key to a good mating fit between hub and shaft is a full metal-to-metal contact, with the
prop retention nut fully tightened.
Before mating the parts apply a coating of Prussian blue to the crankshaft end. Carefully
mate the two and fully torque the retention nut.
Then separate the joint and inspect to see that there is at least a 70% transfer of the blue ink
to the hub.
If there is less transfer, lapping of the shaft is allowable to manufacturers specifications. The
key must be inserted into the keyway each time the hub and shaft are mated.
Taper shaft applications generally incorporate a snap ring located in the retaining nut and
attached to the hub. This item acts as puller aiding in the removal of the hub by acting to
overcome the interference fit.
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Taper Bore
On variable pitch applications to provide a bearing surface for the blades to turn on when
blade angle changes occur, a removable bushing is fitted into a forging (taper bore) at the
centre of the blade butt. This bushing also allows for fitment of a plug which is used to
initially balance each blade and is shown in Figure 2.22.
Figure 2 26. Taper Bore Forging

This forging along with the bushing, permits fitment of each blade onto the spider (Figure
2.27), which is located within the hub of the propeller.
Figure 2 27. Spider Forging
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Splined Shaft
Commonly found on the larger turboprops (Figure 2.28). The splines are evenly pitched, and
there is usually a MASTER (wider) spline which mates the shaft to the hub in only one
position. A tight, but sliding, fit is required to prevent fretting and subsequent wear. This
wear is checked with a GO NO-GO gauge, and careful inspection for small cracks especially
in sharp corners (dye penetrant or mag, particle methods).
Figure 2 28. Splined Shaft

Prop shaft splines on American engines are described by their diameter eg. SAE 20, 40, 50,
20 in ascending order eg. On the DC 2, its P&W R1820 engines drive Ham Standard 22E50
model propellers. In this code, E denotes the blade shank size, and 50 denotes the prop
shaft spline size.
Tapered cones are used, front and back, to centre the hub on to the prop shaft. The rear
cone is of bronze: the front of steel, manufactured in two matched halves with matching serial
numbers (Figure 2.29).
As with tapered shaft installations, Prussian blue is used on cone faces/hub faces to check
the degree of mating after the prop-retaining nut has been fully torqued to pull the surfaces
together.
Sometimes the data requires the cones to be fitted dry, whilst others specify a light oil
coating. When offering the prop to the engine it is good practice to first fit a protector to the
prop shaft screw threads, as it is easy to damage them whilst installing the propeller.
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Figure 2 29. Tapered Cone Installation
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PROPELLER TYPES
Tractor Propeller
Tractor propellers are those conventionally mounted in front of the engine powerplant.
Tractor propellers pull the aircraft through the air. Most aircraft are equipped with this type
of propeller. Refer to Figure 2.30 for a tractor type arrangement.
Figure 2 30. Tractor Type Propellers

Pusher Propeller
Pusher propellers are mounted on a drive shaft from the rear of the engine producing thrust
to push the aircraft forward.
Many sea planes and amphibious aircraft use pusher propellers.
Figure 2 31. Pusher Type Propeller

To reduce the chance of blades being damaged, many pusher propellers are mounted above
and behind the wings, (Figure 2.31).
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Fixed Pitch
A fixed pitch propeller is one whose blade angle can not be changed.
A fixed pitch propeller is designed for a specific purpose ie. cruise or acceleration. A
propellers performance will drop off rapidly when operated out of its designed purpose.
Figures 2.32 and 2.33 show fixed pitch propellers, being metal and wooden respectively.
Figure 2 32. Metal Fixed Pitch Propeller
Figure 2 33. Wooden Fixed Pitch Propeller

Ground Adjustable
The earliest adjustable propellers operated as fixed pitch style propellers. The pitch could
only be altered when the propeller was not turning. This was achieved by loosening the
retaining clamps or bolts securing each blade in place.
With the clamps or bolts loosened, the blades can be adjusted to their required angle with the
aid of a protractor.
After the clamps have been tightened, the pitch of the blades can not be changed in flight to
meet varying flight conditions.
Figure 2.34 shows the retaining clamps on a ground adjustable propeller.
Figure 2 34. Ground Clamp Installation

Controllable Pitch
A controllable pitch propeller allows blade angle to be changed while the propeller is rotating.
Controllable pitch propellers can vary from a two position propeller to one that can be altered
to any angle between minimum and maximum settings.
This permits the propeller blade angle (pitch) to be changed to give the best performance for
particular flight conditions.
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Constant Speed
Aircraft fitted with constant speed propellers allow a selected engine speed to be maintained.
If the engine RPM varies, the propeller blade angle is changed by a speed sensitive governor
to bring the RPM back to the selected speed. This type of system reduces pilot workload and
protects the engine from large RPM fluctuations.
Contra Rotating
Contra rotating propellers are two separate propellers mounted in line on two concentric
shafts which rotate in opposite directions.
The primary reason for fitment of contra rotating propellers is to absorb (and therefore
efficiently use) the output of high powered engines. An advantage of this type of propeller is
the cancellation of torque reaction and a reduction of the spiralling slipstream, ie. much
straighter airflow. Figure 2.35 shows how contra rotating propellers are mounted one behind
the other.
Figure 2 35. Contra Type Propeller

Counter Rotating
Counter rotating propellers should not be confused with contra rotating applications. The
term counter rotating refers to a twin engine application where the propellers on each engine
turn in opposite directions of rotation to counteract torque reaction and gyroscopic effects.
Feathering
A feathered propeller is of the controllable pitch propeller type. On multi engine aircraft,
feathering capabilities must be utilised to prevent destruction of a failed engine (failure to
prevent this damage could result in loss of aircraft and or life).
These propellers have a mechanism to change the blade angle to such a position that
propeller rotation stops, ie. the blade chord (at a set distance from the hub) is parallel to the
direction of flight. The thick edge of the propeller faces in the same direction that the aircraft
is flying, preventing the propeller from windmilling. Feathering the propeller also reduces
drag on a failed or shut down engine.
Shutting down an engine and feathering the propeller is a method used on many multiengined aircraft to conserve fuel on long flight duration. Figure 2.36 shows a comparison of
propeller blade angles.
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Figure 2 36. Propeller Blade Angle Comparisons

Reversing
Reversing permits an aircraft to reduce:
landing runs
brake wear
tyre wear.
Reversing also assists in ground handling by allowing the aircraft to be taxied backwards.
When reverse has been selected in the cockpit, the propeller blades rotate from a positive
angle that will maintain flight (airflow rearward - forward thrust) to a negative angle where
thrust is now being produced rearwards (airflow forward - rearward/negative thrust).
Reverse can also be used to slow the aircraft down upon landing and therefore shorten the
landing roll. Figure 2.37 shows a comparison between negative/reverse angle to
positive/forward angle.
Figure 2 37. Negative and Positive Angle Comparisons
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PROPELLER EFFECTS ON OPERATION

Propeller Selection
Some factors to be considered when selecting a propeller are:
Engine power - the propeller needs to be able to absorb the available engine
torque.
Engine type - the method of propeller attachment to the engine, i.e.

pusher/tractor type, splined/tapered propeller shaft, reciprocating/gas turbine
etc.
Aircraft design - clearances between the ground, fuselage, tailplane and

engine nacelle all need to be considered as well as the effect of the airflow
over the wings, tailplane and control surfaces etc.
Aircraft performance - aircraft operating altitude, cruising speed, landing, takeoff roll etc.
These factors as well as others such as cost and availability need to be considered when
selecting a suitable propeller for specific applications.
Engine Power Requirements/ Performance Factors
The propeller must be able to absorb the power given to it by the engine, otherwise the
propeller will race (speed up) and both propeller and engine will become inefficient.
The following four factors need to be considered when a propeller is to be chosen for an
engine with known power output:
propeller diameter
number of blades (on the propeller)
propeller blade shape and section
propeller mass (solidity).
Propeller Diameter- as mentioned earlier, as power increased so did propeller diameter. The
diameter of propellers had to be limited due to the tips reaching the speed of sound. This
limitation was overcome by using either contra rotating propellers or increasing the number of
blades fitted to the propeller. Fitting of contra rotating propellers to an engine is in effect
putting two propellers on to the one engine, thereby allowing the diameter of the propeller to
be reduced.
Number of Blades- to reduce the overall size of a propeller one method used is to increase
the number of blades fitted to a propeller. This allows engine power to be absorbed without
increasing the propeller diameter.
Of the four factors, increasing the number of blades is the most efficient method of absorbing
increasing engine power as in Figure 2.38.
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Figure 2 38. Number of Blade Configurations

Blade Shape and Section- another method used to absorb power from an engine is to alter
the shape or camber of the propeller blade; this effectively increases the thrust of a propeller.
However, if camber is increased to produce extra lift, then drag is also increased. To achieve
a balance, a compromise must be made in relation to the propellers shape and size.
Figure 2 39. Blade Shape

Adding to the increased drag is the extra weight that each propeller blade would incur. Any
advantage in lift would therefore be lost by the penalty of the increase in drag and added
weight of each blade. Figure 2.39 illustrates a blade with an increase in camber showing the
proportional increase in size and therefore an increase in weight.
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Prop Solidity- the solidity of a propeller is the ratio between the part of the propeller disc
which when viewed from the front, is solid (blades, dome, etc.) and that part which is air.
For example, in Figure 2.40 the propeller area may be 10% of the total area of the disc,
therefore its solidity is 1:10.
This ratio is measured by adding up all the blade chord lengths at a certain blade station (say
three-quarters of the tip radius) and dividing this sum by the circumference of that radius.
The greater the solidity, the greater the power that can be absorbed.
Figure 2 40. Propeller Solidity

To increase a propellers solidity:
increase the number of blades (taking into consideration propeller diameter)
increase the blades chord length (width)
fitment of contra rotating propellers.
This will increase the props solidity and therefore thrust.
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TOPIC 17.3: PROPELLER PITCH CONTROL

Pitch Changing Mechanisms
There are many various types of aircraft operating in different flying conditions; no one
propeller will suit all aircraft and conditions. Therefore, different pitch changing
mechanisms/systems were developed to vary the propeller blade pitch to suit a particular
aircraft and operating condition. Four of these systems are:
aerodynamic
aerodynamic & hydraulic
hydromatic
mechanical
electrical.
Aerodynamic
Aerodynamic propellers are normally referred to as "Automatic" pitch changing props. They
are occasionally seen on some light aircraft.
A good example is the "Aeromatic" propeller which uses the natural forces acting on the
blades to change blade angle, assisted by counterweights attached to the blade shanks.
The blade pivot axis does not always lie along the same line as the blade axis centreline.
During operation, these lines lead and lag each other.
The design of the Aeromatic propeller acts as follows:
The throttle is opened and RPM increases.
Although a courser pitch is required the RPM rise increases CTM and the
blades experience a higher angle of attack (Figure 3.1a).
The centre of pressure point on the blade moves to a point further tending
towards a finer pitch.
The counterweights are trying to coarsen the pitch - but at this point are
overwhelmed by the other forces.
As the aircraft accelerates a decrease in blade angle of attack results and the
blade centre of lift reverses direction, thus tending to increase pitch (Figure
3.1b).
The rise in airspeed tends to drive the prop up to higher RPM and the blade
counterweights can now compensate by forcing the blades to a higher angle.
This increased power absorption loads will allow the engine to drop the rpm to
the original selected value.
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Figure 3 1.a
Figure 3 1.b
The Aeromatic has no cockpit control but is still rated as a constant speed, variable pitch
propeller. It does not possess a feathering capability.
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Aerodynamic and Hydraulic Combination

Two Position Propeller
This is the most basic design which is not dependant upon an engine driven governor. The
propeller can be positioned in a fine or coarse position from the cockpit by a lever that
controls engine oil pressure to the hub.
Engine oil pressure overrides the counterweights and results in a full fine pitch. This
pressure is dumped back to the engine crankcase on coarse selection and the
counterweights move the blades to a full coarse pitch.
This system utilises:
CTM to fine
centrifugal force (on the counterweights) to coarse
engine oil pressure to fine.
Figure 3.2 illustrates these forces acting on the two position propeller and their directions.
PROPELLER BLADE
CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE
CTM
ENGINE
OIL
PRESSURE
GOVERNOR
OIL
PRESSURE
CYLINDER
ASSEMBLY
PISTON
COUNTERWEIGHT
Figure 3 2.
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Constant Speed (Bracket Type)

Governor Oil Pressure
Oil from the governor pump forces the cylinder out (towards a fine blade angle) against the
centrifugal force acting on the counterweights on a rotating propeller.
This keeps the blade angle constant, or can even move the blades to a fine angle if so
desired by the pilot.
Fine Blade Angle
A combination of governor oil pressure acting to move the cylinder out, and CTM tending to
move the blades to a fine angle, overcome the centrifugal force acting on the counterweights,
thereby altering the blade angle to a finer pitch (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3 3.Finer Pitch Angle

Coarse Blade Angle
A special port within the governor is opened, allowing oil to flow out of the cylinder. The
counterweights are physically attached to each blade and the moveable cylinder. With the oil
pressure dissipating from within the cylinder, centrifugal force acting on the counterweights is
used to overcome CTM and move the cylinder rearwards. The blades, being attached to the
counterweights will alter to a coarser pitch (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3 4.Coarser Pitch Angle

All these operations, oil in/out, are controlled by a governor which in turn controls the position
of the counterweights. The governor is attached to, and driven by the engine.
This Hamilton Standard counter weight design does not support a feathering capability.
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McCauley Constant Speed- this design uses governor oil pressure to decrease blade angle.
The opposing forces are counterweights and a booster spring located in the hub to increase
pitch. The movement of the internal piston is transmitted through phenolic links to the blade
butt.
Hartzell Constant Speed- Hartzell propellers utilise two major designs. The Steel Hub
which employs an exposed pitch changing mechanism and the Compact which contains the
mechanism within the hub.
The Steel models have a central spider hub, which allows the hollow shank blades to be
spigotted over the spider arms, and retained by steel two piece clamps.
The pitch changing mechanism consists of a centrally mounted piston connected to the blade
clamps by steel link rods. Steels in some applications will utilise counterweights.
Steels with counterweights utilise:
counterweights to increase blade angle
governor oil pressure to decrease blade angle.
Steels without counterweights utilise:
governor oil pressure to increase blade angle
CTM to decrease blade angle.
Compacts always use CTM to decrease blade angle and governor oil pressure to increase
blade angle. If counterweights are employed they will act to assist governor oil pressure.
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Hydromatic/ Hydraulic
The pitch-changing mechanism of hydraulic (hydromatic) propellers uses a mechanicalhydraulic system. A governor senses the engine speed and controls hydraulic flow to and
from either side of a dome piston located at the front of the propeller (Figure 3.5). (Hydraulic
flow can be a combination of engine and governor oil pressure or just governor oil pressure to
increase and decrease blade angles depending on propeller type). These hydraulic forces
acting on the internal piston are transformed into mechanical forces.
The mechanical forces rotate the blades to required angles to maintain engine RPM by fore
and aft movement of the piston, which has been converted to rotary motion by cam tracks
and followers in the dome. A bevel gear at the base of the rotating cam engages with the
blade, and therefore alters the blade angle. Altering blade angle allows engine RPM to
change by altering the load on the propeller and so the required engine speed maintained.
Figure 3 5.Pitch Change

Mechanical
An example of a mechanical controllable pitch design is the "Beech Roby" for light aircraft
which need only a small pitch range. This prop is controllable from the cockpit, allowing the
pilot to set the best blade angle for varying conditions of flight.
There is a small crank handle on the instrument panel. When rotated, a connecting flexible
cable rotates a pinion drive gear. This meshes with a large driven gear which is located
around the crankshaft and is mounted on the engine crankcase/nose section.
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Rotary motion of the driven gear is translated into axial pitch changing via helical slots in the
driven gear flange. Lug pins in the actuator flange slide in the slots.
The two arms of the actuator extend forward into the prop hub and connect to an actuating
pin in each blade base (Figure 3.6). Thus, axial movement of the actuator causes the blade
angle to change.
There is a cockpit gauge which displays the blade angle.
It is not a constant speeding prop.
There is no RPM governor.
One variation is to use an electric motor to drive the pinion gear. A pair of microswitches is
used to stop the motor at the high and low blade angle positions. This operation is described
under the Electric system following.
Figure 3 6.
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Electric
The electric pitch changing mechanism enables light aircraft, as little as 25 horsepower, to be
fitted with controllable pitch propellers. This system is used because it is less expensive and
complex than a constant speed system.
The control for an electric motor is managed by the pilot via a three position toggle switch
with the settings of:
increase RPM
decrease RPM
off.
The electric motor is mounted near the rear of the propeller onto a fixed sleeve. This motor
drives a large outer toothed ring gear. As this ring gear is rotated by the electric motor, the
ring gear has internal spiral slots that engage lugs on the pitch-control bearing. This causes
the bearing to move forwards and backwards as the ring gear rotates. The inner race of the
bearing has two arms that extend forward into the hub.
These arms connect to an actuator pin on the blade butt and rotate the blades to either a high
or low blade angle. This in turn alters engine RPM to either a lower or higher RPM selection.
Figure 3.6 gives a diagrammatic explanation of the above procedures.
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PROPELLER AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

NEGATIVE TORQUE SENSING (NTS)
Purpose
Torque is the twisting force imparted to a shaft. In a propeller installation, when the engine is
driving the propeller, the torque is considered to be positive. Negative torque is a condition
that will occur if the engine is not developing enough power and the windmilling of the
propeller drives the engine.
Figure 3 7.Negative Torque System Schematic

Components
The components of the NTS system are the:
fixed ring gear
planetary gears
ring gear coupling
helical spline coupling
NTS spline ring
NTS plunger
NTS bracket.
Although the propeller would govern on speed, a high level of drag would be present. To
minimise drag, a device in the reduction gearbox senses negative torque and extends a
plunger which, through a mechanical linkage, actuates the feather valve. The feathering
system overrides all other functions and immediately rotates the blades towards increase
pitch. As the blade angle increases, the negative torque decreases.
When the negative torque signal is removed, the position of the feather valve is returned to
normal; increase pitch action ceases and blade angle returns toward normal. If the condition
causing negative torque is not rectified, the negative torque system will cause the propeller to
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operate in a windmilling condition again, and the action will be repeated, cycling about a
blade angle which develops a relatively low level of negative torque.
The resultant drag is far less than that which would attend Onspeed governing in the
windmilling condition. Minimum drag can be attained only by feathering the propeller. The
ability to feather is not affected by the existence of negative torque signals.
Figure 3 8.
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Operation
When the engine is driving the propeller (positive torque) the torque is felt on the fixed ring
gear (which can turn a small amount). This then turns the ring gear and helical spline
coupling which is attached to it.
The helical splines cause the helical spline coupling to move rearwards and the 14 springs
will prevent the plunger from actuating the NTS bracket (Figure 3.7).
When the torque is negative, the torque felt on the fixed ring gear is in the opposite direction.
The helical spline coupling will now be turned in the opposite direction and the helical spline
coupling will be forced forwards against the 14 springs.
Figure 3 9.Negative Torque Signal System
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The plunger will then be forced forward and will actuate the NTS bracket which will move the
feather valve and increase the blade angle of the propeller. As the blade angle increases, the
load on the propeller also increases and will slow the propeller and remove the negative
torque situation.
The torque has now returned to normal and the system will now return to normal operation. If
the negative torque situation is still present, the whole process will be repeated, and will
continue to be repeated while ever negative torque is present.
Figure 3 10.NTS Actuator
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Manual Feathering
Manual feathering refers to a system initiated from the cockpit.
Whether it be a system which electrically engages the feather pump as in the hydromatic
propeller system or employing a lift rod method to override the speeder spring and flyweights
in the smaller McCauley system, as long as an input is required the system will be referred to
as manual.
Auto Feather
Purpose
Some multi-engine aircraft use an automatic feathering system to feather propellers
automatically if the engine should fail. This system is usually turned off in normal cruising
flight, and selected on for both takeoff and landing.
Components
In the cockpit there is a guarded 'automatic feathering' master switch, when this switch is
selected to the 'on' position a light indicates that the system is armed.
The throttle will have a microswitch at approximately 75% of full throttle movement
(depending on the aircraft). When the throttle is below this setting the switch is open and the
auto feather system will not operate.
The system also contains a torque pressure switch, which is used to sense the torque output
from the engine. When the torque drops below a specified level the switch will close and arm
the system.
Most circuits incorporate a time delay unit to prevent auto feathering if there is only a
momentary interruption in engine power. The power loss must then exceed one to two
seconds for the system to auto feather (this delay may vary with aircraft types).
When the auto-feather system is actuated, a red light in the cockpit is used to indicate to the
pilot which propeller has feathered. The pilot can also operate the feather system in the
normal manner.
The system also uses a blocking relay to prevent more than one engine being feathered at a
time by the auto-feather system.
A test switch can be used to bypass parts of the circuit so that the system operation can be
checked on the ground without developing high power.
Operation
Prior to takeoff and landing, the system is armed by turning on the system master switch. As
power is advanced for takeoff or for a missed landing approach, the throttle switch closes and
the torque pressure switch is armed, but the torque pressure switch contacts are open.
When a loss of engine power occurs, the torque pressure switch closes and, after a set
interval of time, the time delay unit completes the circuit, energising the feather control.
The blocking relay is also actuated to prevent other engines from auto feathering.
Refer to Figure 3.11 for a basic automatic feather system.
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Figure 3 11.Basic Automatic Feather System Schematic
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PROPELLER BRAKING
Purpose
The propeller brake (Figure 3.12) is designed to prevent the propeller from windmilling when
it is feathered in flight thus creating excessive drag and to decrease the run down time after
ground shut down.
Figure 3 12.Propeller Brake Assembly Installation

Components
The propeller brake assembly, which consists of the following components, is installed in the
reduction gearbox assembly (Figure 3.13):
1.
inner cone
2.
outer cone
3.
outer member
4.
starter shaft
5.
helical splines
6.
apply springs.
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Figure 3 13.Propeller Brake Assembly Components

Operation
The propeller brake has three positions. These are:
applied-brake applied
released- no braking action, and
locked- propeller has turned against DOR
"Applied" - When engine RPM drops below approximately 21%, the oil pressure in the
reduction gearbox that holds the inner and outer cones apart drops below the applied spring
pressure. The apply springs then brings the inner and outer cones together which causes a
braking action.
"Released" - During start, the brake has to move from the "applied" to the "released" position.
This movement takes place when the starter input shaft is turned by the starter. The helical
splines machined onto the shaft will cause the inner and outer cones to separate against the
springs. When the oil pressure rises to a high enough pressure (approximately 21% engine
RPM), the inner and outer cones will be held apart and the brake is released.
"Locked" - When the propeller is turned against the direction of rotation, the helical splines
causes the inner and outer cones (which are in the applied position) to move forward causing
them to lock together. The springs will be over centred and will tend to hold the cones in the
locked position. The propeller will not be able to be turned in either direction until the brake is
released.
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SAFETY COUPLING
Purpose
The safety coupling (Figure 3.14) is designed to decouple the reduction gearbox from the
power section should the NTS system fail to limit negative torque.
Figure 3 14.Safety Coupling Assembly Installation

Components
The safety coupling consists of the following components as detailed Figure 3.15:
inner member
intermediate member
outer member
set of belleville springs.
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Figure 3 15.Safety Coupling Assembly Components

The pinion input gear is splined to the inner member which is splined to the intermediate
member by helical splines which are held engaged by the belleville springs.
The intermediate member is then splined to the outer member with straight splines. The outer
member is attached to the torque shaft with bolts.
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Operation
If the NTS system should fail to limit negative torque, the helical splines will act against the
belleville springs. Once the negative torque reaches a predetermined negative torque value
the helical spline action will overcome the belleville springs and disengage, decoupling the
reduction gearbox from the engine.
When the engine is shut down, the springs will try to re-engage the helical teeth between the
inner and outer members. This re-engagement may cause damage and overheating of the
coupling.
The safety coupling operation is shown in Figure 3.16.
Figure 3 16.Safety Coupling Operation
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UNFEATHERING ACCUMULATORS
Some propellers have a special feature that is used to increase the speed of unfeathering. In
normal operation the accumulator stores governor oil pressure. When the propeller is
feathered the accumulator valve is closed and the oil pressure is trapped in the accumulator.
The system is shown in Figure 3.17.
When the propeller control is placed in the normal position the stored pressure in the
accumulator is applied to the propeller to rotate the blades to a low pitch angle.
Note: When the propeller is in feather the engine is stopped and governor oil pressure is
unavailable. The pressure stored in the accumulator is used in place of the pressure that
would be normally supplied by the governor.
Figure 3 17.Unfeathering Accumulator System
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TORQUEMETER
The torque developed within the power section is transmitted to the reduction gearbox via the
torquemeter inner shaft.
The torque transmitted to the reduction gearbox is accurately measured by the torquemeter
assembly. It may be measured in inch pounds or shaft horsepower.
At torquemeter assembly installation is detailed in Figure 3.18.
TIE STRUT
AIR INLET
HOUSING
TORQUEMETER
HOUSING
TORQUEMETER
ASSEMBLY
REDUCTION
GEAR ASSEMBLY
Figure 3 18.Torquemeter Assembly Installation

Components
The typical electro-mechanical torquemeter assembly consists of the following major
components as detailed in Figure 3.17:
torquemeter inner shaft
torquemeter outer shaft
torque pickup assembly
torquemeter housing
phase detector
indicator.
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Operation
The torquemeter measures the angular deflection (twist) between the torque shaft and the
reference shaft (Figure 3.19).
The torque shaft and reference shaft are locked together and splined to the power section. At
the reduction gearbox end, each shaft has a toothed wheel known as an exciter wheel.
CAL A
CAL B
Stock No
Part No
Serial No
Phase
Detector
TOR
J2
CAL A
CAL SW
S1
Torquemeter
Housing
Torquemeter Pickup
Indicator
Torquemeter Inner Shaft

(Torque Shaft)
Torquemeter Outer Shaft
(Reference Shaft)
Figure 3 19.
Only the torque shaft is bolted to the reduction gearbox leaving the reference shaft to "free
wheel". When torque is applied to the torque shaft it will twist in relation to the reference
shaft.
This will cause the teeth on the torque shaft exciter wheel to lag behind the teeth on the
reference shaft exciter wheel. The total deflection between exciter wheel teeth at full power
would be only minute.
This lag is measured by the torquemeter pickup and sent to the phase detector. The phase
detector converts the signal to a voltage.
The voltage is then transmitted to the cockpit indicator. The greater the torque, the greater
will be the deflection between exciter wheel teeth, the greater the voltage that is transmitted
to the indicator.
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THRUST SENSITIVE SYSTEM

The thrust sensitive system is designed to remove the drag caused by a windmilling propeller
by monitoring engine thrust output.
If a power decline is sensed the system will operate to move the propeller to a coarse blade
angle or the feather position and allow for a more slipstreamed condition.
One system utilises a plunger switch running on the prop shaft thrust bearing within the
reduction gearbox. A spring loaded assembly between the propeller thrust and axial
bearings allows for movement of the shaft after positive thrust is achieved.
Any drop in thrust below the predetermined positive thrust value operates the plunger switch
and brings the auto feather circuit on line.
Another less common system samples pitot (dynamic) pressure behind the propeller.
A drop below a predetermined pressure will send a signal to the propeller control system to
auto feather or full coarse depending on the capability of the system.
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GOVERNORS
Purpose
The purpose of the governor on a constant speed propeller is to maintain constant engine
speed. It will maintain a set engine RPM with changes in throttle position and aircraft speed.
Single Acting Governors
The propeller governor is an RPM sensing device that controls oil flow to the piston of the
propeller. The main parts (Figure 3.20) of the single acting governor are:
governor oil pump
speeder spring
pilot valve
flyweights
rack and pinion.
Governor Oil Pump

The governors rotating flyweights are driven via a drive shaft that is connected to the engine
drive train and is driven at a speed proportional to the engine RPM. Driven from this same
shaft is the governor pump (Figure 3.20).
The governor oil pump takes engine oil pressure and boosts it to the pressure needed to
operate the propeller, and is then known as governor oil pressure. Excess pressure from the
pump is returned to the inlet side of the pump by a pressure relief valve.
Pilot Valve
The governor boosted oil is directed through passages in the governor to a pilot valve which
sits in the centre of the hollow drive shaft (Figure 3.20).
The pilot valve moves up and down in the hollow driveshaft under the influence of the rotating
flyweights. The up and down movement directs oil through ports in the driveshaft to or from
the propeller, to alter the blade angle.
The position of the pilot valve is determined by the action of the governor flyweights and
speeder spring. The rotating flyweights tilt outward under centrifugal force when RPM
increases and inward under speeder spring pressure when RPM decreases.
This movement of the flyweights adjusts the pilot valve to direct oil flow to alter blade angle,
thereby maintaining the selected RPM.
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Figure 3 20.Single Acting Governor
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Operation
The action of the flyweights tilting (in-out) to raise and lower the pilot valve, is opposed by a
simple coil spring called the speeder spring, that is located above the flyweights (3.20). The
tension of the spring can be altered by the pilot through a rack and pinion assembly (Figure
3.20).
When the pilot requires a higher RPM, the pitch control lever in the cockpit is moved to
compress the speeder spring. This increased speeder spring compression tilts the flyweights
inward and forces the pilot valve down.
Pushing the pilot valve down permits governor oil pressure to flow out of the inboard side of
the piston, allowing engine oil pressure and CTM to combine to move the blades to a finer
angle.
Decreasing the blade angle allows the engine RPM to increase, until the centrifugal force on
the flyweights equals the force of the speeder spring, stabilising the pilot valve to a neutral
position.
If the pilot alters tension onto the speeder spring, then the engines response will be to
increase or decrease RPM.
Only when flyweight force is equal to speeder spring tension will the pilot valve return to its
neutral position (ON SPEED).
Some governors incorporate a balance spring above the rack, this spring sets the governor to
cruise RPM if the control cable were to break.
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On Speed
ON SPEED is when the engine RPM is at the required setting as set on the propeller control
by the pilot. Note the flyweights in the neutral position as in Figure 3.21.
Figure 3 21.On Speed

Over Speed
OVER SPEED is when the engine RPM is above the required setting as set on the propeller
control by the pilot. Note the flyweights in the outward position as in Figure 3.22.
SPEEDER
SPRING
DRIVE
GEAR
SHAFT
PILOT
VALVE
Figure 3 22.Over Speed
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Under Speed
UNDER SPEED is when the engine RPM is below the required setting as set on the
propeller control by the pilot. Note the flyweights in the inward position as in Figure 3.23.
SPEEDER
SPRING
DRIVE
GEAR
SHAFT
PILOT
VALVE
Figure 3 23.Under Speed

Pitch stops
The purpose of propeller pitch stops is to limit blade angle movement to a known
specification; these limits are set by the manufacturer. The pitch stops operate by providing a
mechanical means of limiting blade travel to a known blade angle.
Counterweight Propeller
To enable maintenance personnel to check and adjust propeller blade angles, all adjustable
propellers have provision to permit high and low blade angle limit changes to be made. On
the counterweight propeller, stop nuts set the travel of the propeller cylinder and thereby
control the coarse and fine blade angles.
An adjustment mechanism for use in a counterweight propeller is illustrated in Figure 3.24.
Figure 3 24.Adjustment Mechanics

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Hydraulic Propellers
Pitch stops are used to limit fine (low), coarse, or if the design feature is fitted, feather blade
angles.
Low-Pitch Stop-Lever Assembly
The low-pitch stop-lever assembly, which is fitted to reversing propellers, provides the means
for maintaining a set minimum blade angle for flight.
Access through the dome plug permits the assembly to be screwed into the propeller dome
(Figure 3.25).
Figure 3 25.Low Pitch Stop

The assembly incorporates wedges which, when engaged, lock the stop levers in the
outward position (Figure 3.26), preventing the propeller piston from decreasing below a set
angle.
The set angle is the minimum positive blade angle that is capable of maintaining flight.
Figure 3 26.Stop Lever Position

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Feather/Coarse Pitch Stop

On feathering propellers the coarse pitch stop is replaced by the feather pitch stop.
The feather stops on a hydromatic propeller usually consists of an (indexed) stop ring fitted to
the rotating cam at the base of the dome, and two feather stops fixed to the base of the dome
assemble. When the propeller blades reach the feather angle, the feather stop ring contacts
the feather stops thus preventing further blade angle increase.
Figure 3.27(A) shows the feather stop ring at the base of the dome approaching the feather
stops. Figure 3.27(B) shows the feather stop ring on the base of the dome at the feather
position.
Figure 3 27.Feather Pitchstop

Pitch Stop Settings
If a propeller has its blade angle set too low (fine) at a workshop, then that engine will overrev or overspeed and, if the engine over-revs too much, it may cause damage to that engine.
If a propeller's blade angle is set too high (coarse), then it may not produce enough thrust to
maintain/attain the required speed.
If the feather angle is incorrect then the propeller may windmill (continue to rotate) when its
engine has been shut down. A windmilling propeller, if left unchecked, can cause extra
damage to the shut down engine.
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DOUBLE ACTING GOVERNOR

The double-acting governor used with the reversing propeller, is similar in basic design to the
single acting governor, ie. pump, speeder spring and pilot valve.
The governor can also have an electrically driven head which regulates for constant speed
operations with multi-engine aircraft.
The double-acting governor differs in operation from the single acting as it controls governor
oil flow to both sides of the piston (Figure 3.28).
Speeder
Spring
Governor
Flyweights
Pilot Valve
Oil Drain
Back to
Pump
Direction of Prop
Rotation
Relief
Valve
Oil from
Reeservoir
Oil Pump
Piston
Cam
Prop Shaft
Onspeed
Direction of Prop
Rotation
Direction of Prop
Rotation
Underspeed
Overspeed
Figure 3 28.Double Acting Governor Conditions
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GOVERNOR/PROPELLER OPERATING CONDITIONS

The introduction of the variable pitch propeller meant that the propeller blade angle could be
selected to suit the flying conditions and thus maintain efficient operation. The basic modes
of operation of a constant speed variable pitch propeller are described below.
On Speed
ON SPEED is when the engine RPM is at the required setting as set on the propeller control
by the pilot feathering.
Over Speed
OVER SPEED is when the engine RPM is above the required setting as set on the propeller
control by the pilot.
Under Speed
UNDER SPEED is when the engine RPM is below the required setting as set on the
propeller control by the pilot.
Feathering
FEATHERING is the process of moving the propeller blades until they are approximately
parallel to the direction of flight to stop the engine from windmilling after the engine is shut
down in flight.
Unfeathering
UNFEATHERING is the process of decreasing the propeller blade angle from the feather to
an angle where the propeller will start windmilling and assists the starter to restart the engine.
Reversing
REVERSING is where the blade angle is altered to a negative value during operation so the
propeller will produce negative thrust, acting as a brake and thereby reducing aircraft landing
roll.
Alpha Mode
ALPHA MODE controls the propeller governor during airborne operation by selection of a
condition lever to maintain correct prop pitch through full fine to full coarse.
Beta Mode
BETA MODE controls the propeller governor during ground operation by selection of a
condition lever to maintain selected prop pitch through full fine to full reverse.
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HYDROMATIC PROPELLER
The basic hydromatic propeller is a feathering, non-reversing propeller. The hydromatic
dome is separated into two chambers. The outboard chamber receives engine oil pressure
constantly and assisted by CTM will act to move the blades to a fine pitch. The inboard
chamber receives governor oil pressure at 200200 psi and will act to overcome engine oil
pressure and CTM to move the blades to a coarser pitch.
On speed
If engine RPM moves away from the required setting, the governor will alter blade angle to
bring the RPM back to the required setting. When the engine RPM is at the required setting
then it is said to be ON SPEED.
With the flyweights straight up and down (vertical) and the pilot valve in a neutral position,
then the engine is also said to be ON SPEED (Figure 3.29).
Fluid is held in a hydraulic lock due to the neutral pilot valve position.
GOVERNOR
PITCH
LINE
Return
Engine Oil
Figure 3 29.
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Overspeed
If the engine is operating above the RPM for which the governor is set, it is
OVER SPEEDING; the blades will be at a lower angle than that required for constant-speed
operation.
During the over speed condition the governors flyweights can be seen to move outward
against the force of the speeder spring, raising the pilot valve (Figure 3.30). This opens the
propeller-governor port, allowing governor oil from the booster pump to flow through internal
lines to the inboard side of the piston, moving the blades to a coarser angle until an ON
SPEED condition is restored.
GOVERNOR
PITCH
LINE
Nil
Return
Engine Oil
Figure 3 30.
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Under Speed
UNDER SPEEDING results when the blades have moved to a higher blade angle than that
required for an ON SPEED condition. When the engine speed drops below the RPM for
which the governor is set, the decrease in centrifugal force exerted on the flyweights allows
the speeder spring to force the pilot valve down (Figure 3.31).
This opens the propeller-governor port, allowing governor oil pressure to drain away from the
inboard side of the piston. Engine oil pressure on the outboard side of the piston and CTM,
push the piston inward and take the blades to a finer angle.
GOVERNOR
PITCH
LINE
Return
Engine Oil
Figure 3 31.
As RPM increases, the centrifugal force from the flyweights lifts the pilot valve until the force
of the speeder spring and the centrifugal force of the flyweights are in equilibrium. The
engine returns to the required speed and is again in an ON SPEED condition.
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Feather
To initiate the feather facility of the basic hydromatic propeller it is only necessary to depress
the Feather button.
Refer to Figure 3.32 for feather circuit operation. The PSI figures used within this text is for
description only.
When the feather button is pressed, a holding relay forms a circuit and holds the button in.
With the button held in, an electrical circuit is activated and energises the feathering pump
motor.
Figure 3 32.
The feathering pump supplies high pressure oil to the system, which is felt at the high
pressure transfer valve in the governor. As the high pressure transfer valve is lifted its seat, it
isolates the governor from the system so that it takes no other part in proceedings.
High pressure oil then passes through the distributor valve into the inboard side of the piston
and drives the blades to a high angle. As the blade angle increases, the piston will travel
until the dog leg in the rotating cams is reached.
Pressure from the feathering pump then must build to approximately 200 PSI to force the
piston past the dog leg and on into feather.
When the piston has attained full travel, the pressure builds up to approximately 225 PSI,
where the pressure cut-out switch opens, breaking the holding circuit for the feather button
which pops out.
With the blades in the feather position, the circuit to the feather pump motor is open, stopping
the pump from supplying high pressure oil.
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Unfeather
To unfeather the propeller, the pilot must depress the feather button and hold it in. If it is not
held in, pressure from the feathering pump will quickly rise to 225 psi and de-energise the
circuit via the pressure cut-out switch.
With the feathering button held in, pressure from the feathering pump is still felt on the
inboard side of the piston. As the piston is already at full travel, the piston does not move
and the pressure rises rapidly to 250 psi.
At 250 psi, the spring pack in the distributor valve assemble (DVA) is overcome, and the
distributor valve is pushed away to open ports to reverse the direction of oil flow into the
dome (Figure 3.33). High pressure oil is then ported to the outboard side of the piston and
the piston is forced rearwards, bringing the blades to a finer angle.
Figure 3 33.
Once the blades have moved from the feather position, the pilot must pull the feather button
out. This is to avoid the blades being motored back into feather, because as the pressure
drops from 250 PSI the DVA valve will assume its normal position.
As the pressure drops from under the high pressure transfer valve, the valve is relieved and
resumes its seat. The engine and propeller are then again in the controlling mode and are
self governing in the normal manner.
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INTEGRAL OIL CONTROL HYDROMATIC PROPELLER

Integral oil control (IOC) propellers are an advanced version of the basic hydromatic propeller
and are both feathering and reversing.
The IOC propeller is a fully self contained unit with all necessary oil, pumps and valves to
control both engine RPM and propeller blade angles.
The IOC propellers piston operates opposite to the basic hydromatic propeller in that it
moves inboard to increase pitch and outboard to decrease pitch.
On Speed
If engine RPM strays from the required setting, the governor senses this movement (via
flyweight-speeder spring assembly), and directs governor oil flow to the required side of the
piston.
For OVER SPEED, the piston would be moved inboard and vice versa for UNDER SPEED,
until the required angle is reached to bring the engine RPM back to ON SPEED. The oil on
the other side of the piston is allowed to drain through a drain line to the oil reservoir.
Figure 3.34 shows the oil flow to the dome for over speed (A) and under speed (B).
Figure 3 34.On Speed Condition
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Overspeed
While governor oil passes through the increase line, oil pressure from the inboard side is
allowed to drain away. With the governor oil pressure acting onto the outboard side, and
reducing oil pressure on the inboard side of the piston, the piston will move inboard to a
coarser angle (Figure 3.35).
This places a load onto the engine, slowing the RPM down. This decrease in engine RPM
decreases the rotating speed (and therefore centrifugal force) of the governor flyweights. As
a result, the flyweights move inward by the force of the speeder spring.
The pilot valve is lowered, closing the governor metering port. With this port closed, the
propeller piston is hydraulically locked permitting an ON SPEED condition to exist.
Figure 3 35.Overspeed Condition

Underspeed
While governor oil passes through the decrease pitch line, oil pressure from the outboard
side is allowed to drain away. With governor oil pressure now being directed onto the
inboard side, and reducing oil pressure on the outboard side of the piston, the piston will
move outboard to a finer angle (Figure 3.36). This reduces the load on the engine, permitting
RPM to increase. The increase in engine RPM increases the rotating speed (and therefore
the centrifugal force) on the governor flyweights. As a result, the flyweights move outward,
lifting the pilot valve and closing the governor metering port. With this port closed, the
propeller piston is hydraulically locked permitting an ON SPEED condition to exist.
Figure 3 36.Under Speed Condition
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Feather
Feathering a propeller stops it from rotating, thereby reducing drag. The leading edge of the
blades are turned so they face into the direction of flight, making the blade angle
approximately 90o.
At this angle, air pressure on both sides of the blade are similar and therefore stopping the
propeller from rotating.
For a graphical explanation of the following feather operation refer to Figure 3.37.
Feathering is initiated by the pilot pushing in the Feather button located in the cockpit (the
Feather button, being part of the feather circuit, remains in).
This energises the feathering circuits, allowing the feather pump to deliver high pressure oil
to the positioning chamber, moving it into what the governor senses as an over speed
condition.
With the pilot valve positioned into the over speed position, oil from the feather pump is then
directed to the outboard side of the propeller piston. This pressure forces the piston
rearward, driving the blades to a coarser angle.
When the blades reach the feathered angle, the feather pump continues to supply oil
pressure until a pre-set pressure is attained.
At this pre-set pressure, a pressure cut-out switch opens, cutting power to the feather pump,
and popping the feather button out, thereby completing the feathering cycle.
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Figure 3 37.Feathered Condition
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Unfeather
If the pilot has feathered a propeller to conserve fuel, but later decides to restart the engine,
the unfeathering procedure must be as simple as the feathering procedure.
For a graphical explanation of the following unfeather operation refer to Figure 3.37.
To unfeather a propeller, the pilot must pull the propellers Feather button OUT. This
energises an electric relay, earthed through a propeller blade switch. This relay completes
the circuit to the feather pump and energises the selector valve solenoid.
The feather pump then delivers high pressure oil to the positioning chamber positioning it into
what the governor senses as an under speed condition.
With the pilot valve positioned in the under speed condition, oil from the feather pump is then
directed to the inboard side of the propeller piston.
This pressure forces the piston outboard, rotating the blades out of feather, towards a finer
angle. As soon as the piston has moved outward a short distance, the blades will have
sufficient angle to start rotating.
When this occurs, the feather button is released and the propeller governor will assume
control of the propeller.
If the feather button is not released, the propeller blade switch will break the earth to the
feather pump, and terminate the operation at approximately 5 - 7 before the low pitch stop
is reached.
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Figure 3 38.Unfeathered Condition
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Reversing
Normally the low-pitch angle of the propeller is limited by the low pitch stop-levers. However,
when the pilot selects reverse, an internal servo-piston is moved, releasing the pitch stoplevers, allowing them to collapse. With these levers collapsed and out of the way, the
propeller piston can now move over them, going to the reverse angle (Figure 3.38).
Figure 3.38
When the solenoid valve is selected during reverse (and therefore the selector valve), high
pressure oil from the feather pump is directed to the top of the positioning chamber, setting
the pilot valve in an under speed condition.
In Figure 3.39 the blocking valve is closed to prevent the governor relief valve from relieving,
so that the governor pump will assist the feather pump in reversing the propeller.
The oil is then directed to the inboard side of the propeller piston, taking the blade to the
reverse blade angle. Reverse is terminated by the stop ring (on the base of the dome)
contacting the stop lug, causing the oil pressure to increase until the pressure cut-out switch
opens, ceasing feather pump operation.
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Figure 3 39.
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Unreversing
To unreverse the propeller, all the pilot is required to do is to move the throttle forward to the
idle position.( Refer to Figure 3.40)
This activates the feathering pump (auxiliary pump) through the pressure cut-out switch and
the propeller blade switch.
The feathering pump has its oil flow directed to the positioning chamber, setting the pilot
valve in an over speed condition.
Oil pressure is then directed to the outboard side of the piston, forcing it inwards. As the
piston moves past the low pitch stop levers, they re-engage.
At a few degrees above the low pitch stop angle, the unreversing operation is terminated by a
cam on one blade shank (which actuates a micro switch), cutting power to the feather pump.
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Figure 3 40. Unreversing Condition
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Alpha & Beta Modes

This propeller control system is utilised in turboprop applications and is divided into two types
of control:
ground (beta) range
Flight (alpha) range.
Figures provided relate to the Allison T-52 Electra turboprop system.

Ground Range (Beta range)
The ground range (also known as the beta range) is measured as 0 (reverse) to 24 (flight
idle) throttle movement on the co-ordinator protractor.
The co-ordinator or condition lever is an engine mounted component that co-ordinates
throttle movement between the valve housing and the fuel control unit.
Movement of the throttle in this range manually sets fuel flow and corresponding blade angle
changes. In this range constant speed governing is locked out.
When the engine is started, the power lever is set at ground idle position and the condition
lever is in the start position.
The condition lever is used to set the desired RPM through the underspeed governor during
ground operations, and the power lever is used to vary blade angle (via the prop pitch
control) to provide forward or rearward thrust.
With an increase in blade angle (power lever advanced) the engine will begin to slow down,
but the underspeed governor (set by the condition lever) will increase fuel flow to maintain
RPM.
The same will be so during a power lever retard as the blade pitch decreases the underspeed
governor will compensate for an attempted RPM increase.
Flight Range (Alpha range)
The flight range (also known as the alpha range) is 24 (flight idle) to 90 (take off) throttle
movement on the co-ordinator.
The start of the flight range is known as flight idle. When the throttle is moved in this range,
fuel flow and blade angle changes are scheduled automatically. RPM, and corresponding
blade angle changes, are controlled by the governor in the valve housing.
When the throttle is in this range the governor maintains engine RPM at a constant 100%.
In the alpha mode of operation (ie: cruise) the condition lever is moved to a high RPM setting
(95-100%) and the power lever is moved to the flight idle position. This fully opens the
underspeed governor and effectively removes it from the system.
RPM control is now accomplished through the prop governor. When the power lever
reaches the flight idle position the propeller pitch control also becomes inactive and thus no
longer functions to adjust blade angle.
The power lever now becomes responsible for fuel flow through the fuel control unit.
At a fixed power setting in the alpha mode, the prop governor is adjusted by the condition
lever to set system RPM. At a fixed condition lever setting the power lever adjusts the fuel
control unit to meter the amount of fuel delivered to the engine.
If the power lever is advanced the fuel flow will increase and the prop governor will increase
blade angle to compensate for an RPM increase.
The same will be so during a power retard. A reduction in fuel flow and thus RPM will be
compensated for by a decrease in blade angle.
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Feathering/Unfeathering Hartzell/McCauley Props

Both of these systems utilise centrifugal twisting moment and governor oil pressure (approx
290 psi) to achieve a finer blade angle.
They can be classed as automatic feathering systems as an engine shut down will remove
governor pressure and activate prop operation to the feather position.
The pilot may select feather at the throttle lever which will dump governor pressure and
prevent the governor from maintaining RPM.
For ground operation the prop is prevented from feathering on shut down by low RPM stops
which engage around 900 RPM.
Unfeathering is normally accomplished utilising an unfeathering accumulator or by simply
engaging the starter and initiating rotation with the throttle replaced to the idle position.
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TOPIC 17.4 SYNCHRONISING / SYNCHROPHASING

SYNCHRONISING
To reduce noise and vibration caused by the propellers, a system to control all of the
propellers speed is fitted. This system is termed propeller synchronising. It is normally used
for all flight operations except for take off and landing.
Figure 4.1 shows a synchronising system which consists of:
a special propeller governor on one engine

(master engine)
a slave governor on the other engine/s
a synchroniser control box
an actuator
an ON/OFF switch located in the cockpit.
Figure 4 1.Synchronising System

The propeller governors are equipped with magnetic pickups that count the propeller
revolutions, which send a signal to the synchroniser control box.
The synchroniser compares the signal from the master to the signal from the slave engine(s)
propeller governor pickups.
If the master and slave signals are different, the synchroniser control box sends a signal to
the slave propeller governor to alter tension on the governors speeder spring, via an
electrically driven actuator.
Altering the tension on the slave speeder spring allows a change of propeller blade angle to
correct the slave engine/s speed to that of the master engine.
The synchronising system has some built in safeguards:
If the synchroniser system should fail at any time, control can be removed
from the system either by individual switches or by a master switch.
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The system is also designed to prevent the slave engine/s RPM following the
master engine if the master engine changes speed by more than a pre-set
RPM or percentage.
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SYNCHROPHASING
Synchrophasing is a refinement of synchronisation, it sets the blades of the slave engines a
number of degrees in rotation behind the master engine to further reduce the noise and
vibration created by the engines and propellers.
Figure 4 2.Optimum Blade Phase Angle Relationship

During synchrophasing as Figure 4.2 shows, the slave propellers will be 180 plus a
correction or trim angle difference in relation to the master propeller.
This correction will reduce the noise and vibration.
Components
A typical synchronising and synchrophasing system consists of the following major
components. These are: (shown Figure 4.3)
propeller alternator (or pulse generator)
rotary actuator
solenoid valve
electronic synchroniser module
electronic synchrophasing module
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Figure 4 3.The Complete Alison Propeller-Control System

Operation
The synchronising function requires the governing RPM of the slave propellers to be reset to
the same governing RPM of the master propeller. To do this the master and slave propellers'
alternators send a signal, indicating their RPM, to the synchroniser module.
This module compares the slave propellers RPM with the master propeller RPM and relays
this information to the rotary actuator. The rotary actuator then actuates the necessary
mechanical controls to adjust the slave propellers' governing RPM to match that of the
master propeller.
When the RPM of the slave propeller is the same as the master propeller, the propellers are
synchronised.
In the synchrophasing function, the slave and master propeller alternators/pulse generators
send phase angle information to the synchroniser module. This module sends the
phase-error information to the slave synchrophaser module, which converts this phase-error
information to a signal that is sent to the solenoid valve.
The solenoid valve then trims the flow from the hydraulic governor and resets the propeller to
provide the optimum phase angle relationship between the master and slave propellers
(Figure 4.4).
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Speed Bias
Motor
Synchrophaser
Tachometer
Generator
Mechanical
Governing
Power Lever
Normal Governing
Synchrophasing
Figure 4 4.Phase Angle Relationship

There are two electrical governing systems which are used to control propeller operation.
These are:
the electronic propeller governor
the synchrophaser.
Although the mechanical governor can maintain 100% in normal operation, it has to wait for
an 'off speed' condition to occur before initiating any action to correct the situation. Because
of this time lag, it usually results in the propeller 'hunting' (RPM fluctuations). To prevent this,
a speed bias motor is attached to the propeller governor speeder spring, this motor receives
signals from the engine tacho-generator which is acutely sensitive to RPM changes.
The bias motor can alter the governor spring tension minutely with very slight changes in
RPM thus greatly improving speed stability over the entire range of inflight operation. This
means that the governor will respond much faster to changes in RPM than it would in
mechanical governing.
In the cockpit, each propeller has a propeller governor control switch which can be selected
to either:
normal (electronic) governing
mechanical governing.
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The speed bias motor is also linked to the synchrophasing system. To establish the
synchrophasing mode of the propeller, normal governing and the synchrophaser master
switch must be turned 'on'. The synchrophaser assembly controls the propeller speed and
relative phase angle by controlling the speed bias servo assembly. A pulse generator fitted to
each propeller gives off a signal each revolution to the synchrophaser. The synchrophaser
then signals the speed bias motors to adjust the governor to maintain the correct phase angle
thereby reducing noise and vibration.
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TOPIC 17.5 PROPELLER ICE PROTECTION

ICEX
A primitive form of anti icing is to apply a paste called ICEX to the propeller blades before
flight. This compound acts to prevent ice from attaching itself to the blades through the
general lubricicity of the product. This product must be continually reapplied each couple of
flights to maintain its effect.
So the design of propeller ice elimination and prevention systems is to prevent or remove ice
formation on propeller blades which would lead to airfoil inefficiency and eventually a
propeller out of balance condition.
Two types of system used are:
anti-icing
de-icing
ANTI-ICING
Anti-icing refers to any system which prevents the formation of ice on a propeller. The most
commonly used system employs a fluid which mixes with the moisture on the prop blades
and allows the mixture to flow off the blades before an ice formation can build up. This
system is ineffective once ice has formed so it is normally selected if any form of icing
condition is suspected.
The fluid utilised must readily combines with water and must have a freezing point well below
that of water. The most commonly used fluid is isopropyl alcohol because of its low cost and
high availability. A disadvantage of isopropyl alcohol is the fact that it is flammable.
The basic system consists of a:
fluid tank
fluid pump
slinger ring.
Upon selection the pump is energised and supplies fluid to a ring located at the rear of the
prop hub which dispenses the fluid via small delivery pipes wrapped around the blade leading
edges. The fluid mixes with any moisture present and is then dispersed by centrifugal force.
The operation of this system is restricted by the capacity of the fluid tank. The fluid anti-ice
system is shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Fluid Anti-Icing System

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DE-ICING
De-icing refers to a system where ice actually forms on the propeller blade and a system is
put in place to remove it. De-icing systems use electrical heating elements embedded in a
rubber sheath on the blades. The applied heat begins to break down ice formation and
centrifugal force removes it. The rubber sheath is called a boot and normally one or two will
be located on each blade (Figure 5.2).
This system requires a timer arrangement to repeat the application and also allow a period
for ice to build up. The timer will normally cycle the operation through each prop in multi
engine applications to prevent an over drawing of current.
The electrical current is transferred from the electrical system through a brush block mounted
on the engine nose case immediately behind the propeller. It contains carbon brushes which
rub continuously on a conductive slip ring spinning with the prop. The major advantage of
this system is that the aircraft altitude and range is not restricted.
Figure 5.2 Electrical De-Icing System
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TOPIC 17.6 PROPELLER MAINTENANCE

Propeller Servicing Safety
Before starting any servicing on the aircraft ensure the magnetos are switched
off.
Avoid standing in the arc of any propeller, and never in the arc of a propeller of
a hot engine.
Avoid turning the propeller of a hot engine.
Avoid turning any engine by propeller unless absolutely necessary.
Be aware of the mesmerising effect of rotating propellers.
Before turning the propeller ensure the magnetos are off (earthed).
Component Removal and Installation
The magneto loom must be connected during engine removal and installation
until the propeller is removed.
Should the propeller and engine be removed as a unit, the magneto distributor
blocks must be removed before the loom is disconnected.
If the magneto cannot be normally earthed, an earth lead should be fitted

across the primary circuit or points.
Propeller Removal & Installation

There are three types of crankshafts used on aircraft engines:
the flanged crankshaft
the tapered crankshaft and
the splined crankshaft
The general installation procedures for all three types are discussed in the following
paragraphs. For specific instructions, you should refer to the aircraft and engine maintenance
manuals.
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Flanged Shaft
Flanged propeller shafts are used on most horizontally opposed reciprocating engines and
some turboprop engines. The front of the crankshaft is formed into a flange, four to eight
inches across, perpendicular to the crankshaft centreline. Mounting bolt holes and dowel pin
holes are machined into the flange. Some flanges have threaded inserts pressed into the bolt
holes (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6 1.
Before installing a propeller on a flanged shaft, inspect the flange for corrosion, nicks, burrs,
and other surface defects. In addition, the bolt holes and threaded inserts should be clean
and in good condition.
Light corrosion can typically be removed with very fine sandpaper; however, if a bent flange
is suspected, a run out inspection should be performed.
If corrosion is to be removed, clean the flange after sanding and check for smoothness. Once
this is done, apply a light coat of engine oil or antiseize compound to the flange for corrosion
prevention and ease of future propeller removal.
Fixed Pitch Flanged Propellers
Before installing a fixed-pitch propeller on a flanged shaft, inspect the mounting surface of the
propeller to verify that it is clean and smooth. The attaching bolts should be in good condition
and inspected for cracks with either a dye penetrant or magnetic particle inspection process.
Washers and nuts should also be inspected, and new fibre lock nuts used if they are required
in the installation.
Most flanges that use dowel pins allow the propeller to mount on the shaft in only one
position. If there is no dowel, install the propeller in the position specified by the aircraft or
engine maintenance manual. This is important because propeller position is critical for
maximum engine life in some installations.
If no position is specified on a four cylinder horizontally opposed engine, the propeller should
be installed with the blades at the 10 o'clock and 4 o'clock positions when the engine is
stopped. This reduces vibration in many instances and puts the propeller in the best position
for hand propping.
After attaching the bolts, washers, and nuts, tighten all of the bolts finger-tight. Then, use an
approved torque wrench to tighten the bolts to a specified value in the recommended
sequence. A typical torque value is 25 foot-pounds or higher for metal propellers and
approximately 25 foot-pounds for wood propellers. In addition, a typical tightening sequence
requires you to torque the bolts in a crossing pattern.
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If a full spinner is used, a rear bulkhead is slipped on the flange before the propeller is
installed.
After mounting the propeller, a front bulkhead is placed on the front of the hub boss before
the bolts are inserted.
After the bolts are tightened and made safe, the spinner is installed with machine screws.
The machine screws are inserted through the spinner into nut plates on the bulkheads as
shown in Figure 6.6. If the spinner is indexed, line up the index marks during installation to
avoid vibration.
Figure 6 2.
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Constant-Speed Propellers
Most Hartzell and McCauley propellers are designed to mount on flanged crankshafts.
However, before you mount these constant-speed propellers on the crankshaft, you should
lubricate the 0-ring in the rear of the hub with a light coat of engine oil.
Figure 6 3.
Once this is done, you can carefully mount the propeller on the flange. When doing this, pay
particular attention to the 0-ring to keep it from being damaged. A dry 0-ring can tear and
become pinched during installation unless lubricated.
Figure 6.3 shows the location of the O ring on installation.
When installing a constant-speed propeller that can be feathered, if the blades are left in a
feathered position, they should be rotated to their low pitch angle. For safety reasons, it is
best to use a blade paddle on each blade.
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Turboprop Propellers
When installing a constant-speed, reversing propeller, use the same basic procedures that
are used for other flanged shaft propellers. One difference, however, is the addition of the
Beta tube.
The Beta tube is installed through the propeller piston after the propeller is installed, and is
bolted to the forward part of the piston.
Tapered Shaft
Tapered crankshafts are found on older engines that produce low horsepower. This type of
crankshaft requires a hub to adapt the propeller to the shaft. To prevent the propeller from
rotating on the shaft, a large keyway is cut into the crankshaft taper and the propeller so that
a key can hold the propeller in place (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6 4.Tapered Shaft Keyway

When installing a wood propeller on a tapered shaft, the propeller boss is installed over the
adapter hub and a faceplate is placed between the boss and mounting bolts.
This faceplate distributes the compression load of the bolts over the entire surface of the
boss. If a new fixed-pitch wood propeller is installed, inspect the mounting bolts for tightness
after the first flight and again after the first 25 flight hours.
Before installing the propeller on the crankshaft, the shaft must be carefully inspected for
corrosion, thread condition, cracks, and wear in the keyway area.
If cracks are allowed to develop in the keyway, they can spread rapidly and eventually cause
crankshaft failure.
It is good practice to inspect the keyway with dye penetrant at every 100-hour or annual
inspection. Any minor surface defects found during the pre-installation inspection should be
dressed or polished out in accordance with the engine manufacturer's maintenance manual.
In addition, the propeller hub components and mounting hardware should be inspected for
wear, cracks, and corrosion. Defective components must be replaced or repaired as
necessary.
Before permanently installing the propeller, a trial fit of the hub on the crankshaft should be
done using a liquid transfer ink such as Prussian Blue.
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Prussian Blue is a dark blue ink, or dye, which has the consistency of a light grease. This dye
visibly reveals the amount of contact between two mating surfaces. To do a trial fit, begin by
applying a thin, even coat of dye on the tapered section of the crankshaft.
Place the key in the keyway and install the hub on the crankshaft and torque the retaining
nut.
In practice, the hub, snap ring, and retaining nut are never disassembled. If, however, they
were disassembled for inspection or repair, place the retaining nut against the hub and install
the puller snap ring.
Figure 6 5.
Once assembled, the retaining nut may be torqued. Figure 6.5 shows the snap ring puller and
retaining nut assembly.
The hub should then be removed from the crankshaft and inspected for the amount of ink
transferred from the tapered shaft to the propeller. The ink transfer must indicate a minimum
contact area of 70%. If insufficient contact is found, the crankshaft and hub should be
inspected for the cause.
he mating surfaces can be lapped with a polishing compound until a minimum of 70% contact
area is achieved. After this is done, thoroughly clean the hub and crankshaft to remove all
traces of Prussian Blue and polishing compound.
Once the minimum contact area is achieved, apply a very light coat of oil or antiseize
compound to the crankshaft. Make sure that the key is installed properly, then place the hub
assembly and propeller on the shaft.
Be sure that the threads on the shaft and nut are clean and dry, then verify that the puller
snap ring is in place before torquing the nut to the proper value.
Failure to tighten the retaining nut to the proper torque results in play between the propeller,
front cone and rear cone. Any space between the cones and the propeller produces galling
and wear on their surfaces. Safety the retaining nut to complete the installation.
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Splined shaft
Splined crankshafts are found on most radial engines, some horizontally opposed, and some
inline engines. The splined shaft has grooves and splines of equal dimensions and a double
width master spline to ensure that a hub will fit on the shaft in only one position as shown in
Figure 6.6.
Figure 6 6.Splined Shaft Installation

Before installing a propeller on a splined shaft, inspect the crankshaft for cracks, surface
defects, and corrosion. If any defects exist, repair them in accordance with the engine
manufacturer's instructions.
Crankshaft and hub splines are inspected for wear with a go/no-go gauge which is 0.002
larger than the maximum space allowed between the splines. The splines are serviceable if
the gauge cannot be inserted between the splines for more than 20% of the spline length. If
the gauge goes in more than 20% of the way, the hub or the crankshaft is unairworthy and
must be replaced.
To help ensure that the propeller hub is centered on the crankshaft, a front and rear cone are
installed on each side of the propeller hub. The rear cone is typically made of bronze and is
split to allow flexibility during installation and to ensure a tight fit. The front cone, on the other
hand, is made in two pieces as a matched set. The two halves are marked with a serial
number to identify them as matched sets shown in Figure 6.7
Figure 6 7.Split Cones (Match Sets)
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In addition to the front and rear cones, a large retaining nut is used to tighten and hold the
propeller in place.
The retaining nut threads onto the end of the splined shaft and presses against the front cone
to sandwich the propeller tightly between the front and rear cones.
Like the tapered shaft, a trial installation of the propeller should be completed to ensure a
proper fit. To do the trial installation:
apply a thin coat of Prussian Blue to the rear cone
slip the rear cone and bronze spacer onto the crankshaft pushing them all the
way back on the shaft
with the rear cone in place, align the hub on the master spline and push the
hub back against the rear cone
coat the front cone halves with Prussian Blue and place them around the lip of
the retaining nut
install the nut in the hub and tighten it to the proper torque
After the retaining nut is torqued, immediately remove the retaining nut and front cone and
note the amount of Prussian Blue transferred to the hub. A minimum of 70% contact is
required. Remove the hub from the crankshaft and note the transfer of dye from the rear
cone. As with the front cone, a minimum of 70% contact is required. If contact is insufficient,
lap the hub to the cones using special lapping tools and fixtures.
If no dye is transferred from the rear cone during the transfer check, a condition known as
rear cone bottoming may exist.
This occurs when the apex, or point, of the rear cone contacts the land on the rear seat of the
hub before the hub becomes seated on the rear cone (Figure 6.8).
Figure 6 8.Rear Cone Bottoming

To correct rear cone bottoming, remove up to 1/12 inch from the apex of the cone with
sandpaper on a surface plate.
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Front cone bottoming occurs when the apex of the front cone bottoms on the crankshaft
splines, before it has a chance to seat on the hub. Front cone bottoming is indicated by either
the hub being loose on the shaft after the retaining nut has been torqued, or when there is no
transfer of Prussian Blue to the front hub seat. Correct front cone bottoming by using a
spacer of no more than 1/8 thickness behind the rear cone. This moves the hub forward,
enabling the hub to properly seat on the front cone (Figure 6.9).
Figure 6 9.Front Cone Bottoming

Once a proper fit between the hub and splined shaft is ensured, reinstall the rear cone and
permanently mount the propeller on the shaft.
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PROPELLER BLADE ANGLE

The propeller blade must be checked after propeller maintenance. The propeller blade angle
and the correct propeller blade station must be determined by referring to the applicable
propeller or aircraft maintenance manual. Propeller blade angles can be adjusted on the
aircraft or on a propeller bench as shown in Figure 6.10.
Figure 6 10.
The following procedure applies to light aircraft. Other types of aircraft will have specific
propeller tracking procedures set out in the aircraft/engine/propeller maintenance manuals
and those instructions must be followed.
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A typical blade angle check/adjustment is:

1.
Mark the relative position of the propeller hub and the individual propeller blades.
These marks will allow you to watch the initial movement of the blades and will help
as you move all of the blades toward their new blade angle. Graphite pencils can
cause corrosion so must not be used. Acceptable marking devices include:
red lead pencil
white lead pencil
grease pencil
2.
Place the propeller in a horizontal position, and if it is on an engine, loosen the

propeller retaining nut.
3.
Loosen the hub bolts or clamps, to free the blades to turn in the hub.
4.
Use a propeller blade paddle to turn the blades to the desired angle.
5.
Check the new blade angles with a propeller protractor.
6.
Tighten the propeller blade bolts or clamps and the propeller retaining nut. The blade
angle may change during the tightening process. If the blade angle does change:
7.
Measure the angular change.
Loosen the propeller blade bolts or clamps and the propeller retaining nut.
Reset the blade allowing for the change that occurred during the tightening
process.
Re-tighten the blades and propeller.
Re-measure the blade angles.
When the blade angle is correct:
Torque the propeller fittings.
Check the track of the propeller.
Safety the propeller.
Remove all reference marks.
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Universal Protractor
The universal protractor is a vernier protractor used in measuring the blade angle of installed
propellers.
Figure 6 11.
Figure 6.11 shows the universal protractor utilised for installed propeller blade angle
measurement.
The blade angle is normally measured at the 75% propeller blade station.
Before any measurement can be carried out the protractor must be zeroed to account for the
standing angle of the engine crankshaft centre line.
This is carried out by:
placing the bottom edge of the protractor upon the top of the pitch changing
mechanism, or any surface parallel to the engine crankshaft centre line
swinging out the corner spirit level and monitoring to ensure the protractor is
perpendicular
adjusting inner disc until centre spirit level aligns
adjusting outer ring until the zero is aligned with the inner disc zero index.
To check the blade angle:
the true measuring edge is placed upon the blade back at the blade reference
station
ensure the protractor is perpendicular by referencing the corner spirit level
rotate the inner disc until the centre spirit level aligns
take reading referring to the vernier scale
repeat procedure at all blade reference stations.
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Propeller Track
The track of a propeller is defined as the path or paths that the tips of the blades follow as
they rotate with the aircraft stationary. Incorrect track of the blades may cause abnormal
vibration that may result in engine and airframe damage.
The following procedure applies to light aircraft. Other types of aircraft will have specific
propeller tracking procedures set out in the aircraft/engine/propeller maintenance manuals
and those instructions must be followed. Figure 6.12 shows a typical propeller tracking
arrangement for light aircraft.
The limits of propeller tracks for light aircraft fitted with propellers smaller than six feet
diameter are:
metal propellers; no more than 1/12 out of track.
wooden propellers; no more than 1/8 out of track.
Checking the Track

A typical propeller tracking procedure is:
Chock the aircraft securely so that no movement is possible.
Place a fixed reference within 1/4 of the propeller arc.
Rotate the propeller until one blade is pointing down and mark the tip path.
Repeat for the remaining propeller blades.
The maximum difference in track for all of the blades should not exceed the
limits for the installation.
Figure 6 12. A Typical Propeller Tracking Arrangement
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Corrective Action
Corrective action for a track that is out of limits is:
1.
2.
Check that the following components are within allowable dimensional

tolerances:
propeller
propeller hub
crankshaft.
In accordance with the maintenance manual, shim the propeller to correct the
tracking. Figure 6.13 shows the fitment of shims. The correct positioning of the shims
are:
metal and wooden propellers are shimmed by placing the shims behind the
trailing blade.
wooden propellers required an additional shim on the forward face of the leading
blade to ensure even torque and minimum distortion during installation.
Figure 6 13.Shim Fitment for Corrective Action
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Propeller Balancing
Propellers are balanced to keep vibration low. Propeller vibrations fed back into the engine
or airframe are detrimental as they contribute hugely to fatigue failures and pilot/passenger
discomfort. Small props normally require only mass (static) balancing, but larger complex
props, like those on turbine engines, also require dynamic balancing.
With an assembled propeller, two methods of final balance can be achieved:
static
dynamic
Small props normally require only mass (static) balancing, but larger complex props, like
those on turbine engines, also require dynamic balancing.
Static Balancing
During a static balance the propeller is suspended in a knife-edge stand. This stand has two
hardened steel edges mounted to allow the free rotation of an assembled propeller between
them. The knife-edge test stand must be located in a room or area that is free from any air
motion, and removed from any source of heavy vibration.
With the propeller placed onto the knife edge stand, and statically balanced, it will remain at
any position in which it is placed. A two bladed propeller can first be checked with the blades
in a vertical position and then horizontal position as in Figure 6.14.
Figure 6 14.Types of Static Balancing

Note
To ensure one blade is not heavier than the others, the vertical position check needs to be
rechecked. This is carried out by rotating the propeller so that the blade which was checked
in the downward position is now placed in the upward position.
To check the balance of a three bladed propeller assembly, each blade in turn is placed in a
downward vertical position as Figure 6.15 illustrates.
Figure 6 15.Positioning for Balance Checks

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During propeller static balance checks, all blades must be at the same blade angle. To have
a propeller properly balanced, the completed assembly will have no tendency to rotate in any
of the positions described.
If an assembly does have a tendency to rotate, that unbalance can be removed by one of two
methods:
removal of weight at acceptable locations
addition of permanent fixed weights at designated locations
Extra weight can be added by packing lead wool into holes drilled in the ends of the blades,
or packing lead into hollow barrel bolts and recapping them as in Figure 6.16.
Figure 6 16. Adding Weight for Balance

Static Balance Review
1.
Clean the prop and set all blades to the same blade angle. Painting should be
completed.
2.
Insert the balanced bushing into the prop hub and slide the shafted mandrel through
the bushing.
3.
Gently place the mandrel on the pair of knife-edges of the balance stand; these are
adjusted to be perfectly horizontal.
4.
If the balance is acceptable, the prop will have no tendency to rotate, no matter what
position it is placed in.
5.
If the prop rotates when hands are removed, it is not balanced correctly. Blobs of
plasticene may be applied to the light blade hub shoulder(s) until good balance is
achieved. These weights are recorded against their blade number, and matchweight-balancing washers are installed in those positions. Some prop data allow
modest grinding to lighten a heavy spot. Others have balance screws or hollow hub
barrel bolts to accommodate lead wool sealed with welch plugs.
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Dynamic Balancing
Dynamic balance of a propeller is concerned not just with the balance of a propeller, but also
the even distribution of mass throughout the rotating assembly.
Even though a propeller may be statically balanced in the vertical and horizontal plane, a
blade may have greater weight closer to the centre or towards the tip.
When the propeller is rotating, each weight produces its own centrifugal force in opposition to
each other, causing unbalanced forces in the blade that has the greater weight.
If the imbalances are bad enough, severe damage to the engine and aircraft structure can
occur. To correct dynamic unbalance, weight can either be:
added
removed
re-positioned
Dynamic balancing is carried out by locating the propeller hub and blade assembly onto an
approved test stand.
The propeller assembly is then run up to normal operating RPM and is checked for balance
using electronic balancing equipment.
For some propellers, only the manufacturer is permitted to perform the balancing operations.
Dynamic balancing adjusts total balance to very fine limits and leaves little unbalance during
operations.
Although the mass balance is near-perfect, various fluctuating dynamic forces can upset the
balance and produce vibrations.
These forces include such things as
variations in the airflow through the prop disc
reactions from the flow onto the engine nose section and cowlings
blade flexing, and torsional vibrations from the engine
Sensitive test equipment is applied to the running engine and uses electronic transducers to
sense the degree and location of unbalancing forces.
This information is then translated into adding or subtracting weight, at the locations indicated
by the test equipment, on the propeller itself. Flight-test to get the balance as perfect as
possible.
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GOVERNOR MAINTENANCE
Governor Removal
Referring to the example Woodward governor at Figure 6.17:
Remove engine cowlings and baffles for access.
Remove rod end from governor control arm by removing attaching nut,
bushing and bolt.
If fitted with unfeathering accumulator, release accumulator pressure prior to

removal.
Remove governor and mounting gasket by removing the four nuts, internal
tooth lockwashers, plain washers and baffle support tab(s).
Figure 6 17. Woodward Governor

Governor Installation
Referring to the example Woodward governor at Figure 6.17:
1.
Place the mounting gasket over the mount studs ensuring the raised surface
of the gasket screen is facing outwards.
2.
Align the splines of the governor shaft with the engine drive and slide governor
into position.
3.
Secure into position with the four mounting nuts and washers ensuring baffle
tabs are in place
4.
Rig the propeller operation control
5.
Replace baffles and cowlings
6.
fan unfeathering accumulator is utilised, recharge accumulator
7.
Perform operational check out.
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Operational Checkout
To ensure correct governor rigging, carry out the following operations referring to Figure 6.17.
1.
Bring engine to normal operating temperature.
2.
Set engine to take off power at high RPM setting.
3.
Ensure CHT, fuel flow and MAP are within limits.
4.
Observe takeoff RPM for day temperature is met.
5.
If RPM requires adjustment release lock nut (2) and adjust screw (7). Clockwise to
decrease, anti-clockwise to increase RPM. One turn of adjusting screw (7) provides a
25 RPM variation. Ensure locknut is re-tightened.
6.
Carry out operational check ensuring parameters are within limits.
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Governor Rigging
To carry out governor rigging follow this operation, referring to Figure 6.17.
1.
Disconnect the propeller control rod end at the governor arm.
2.
Place the propeller pitch lever on the control pedestal in the full increase position.
3.
Retard the propeller control lever and lock with friction brake.
4.
Place the governor arm in the full increase RPM position, ie: against the stop.
5.
Loosen rod end locknut and adjust rod end by rotating in or out until end can be fitted
to governor arm with zero binding.
6.
Fit rod end to governor arm and lock rod end locknut.
7.
Ensure governor rod can move freely through full range of travel.
8.
Release friction and place cockpit propeller control lever in the full decrease position.
9.
Ensure the travel stop at the governor is met and of cushion exists at the lever
quadrant.
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GOVERNOR TROUBLESHOOTING
In ascertaining incorrect governor operation, check by installing a known serviceable item.
If the fault still persists with serviceable governor, check the following:
1.
Oil lines or passages from the governor to the propeller. This can be done by using
low air pressure, checking for movement of the propeller and/or excessive air leaks
within the engine.
No movement and no air leaks suggests a blockage in the line.

2.
Oil supply line to the governor. This can be checked by rotating the propeller with
governor removed and looking for oil pumping from supply line.
No oil could suggest a simple blockage or deeper problems within the engine (eg. sludge
build up).
3.
Control linkages from the cabin to governor. A broken cable to the governor will
cause the propeller to go to cruise RPM if a balance spring is fitted.
If no balance spring is fitted in the governor, the propeller will go to maximum high pitch angle
or feather on a feathering propeller.
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Troubleshooting Chart (Table 6.1)

The following chart identifies problems related to governors fitted to constant speed and
feathering type propellers.
Fault
Engine fails to reach take-off RPM
(under speeding)
Probable Cause
3.
Propeller pitch control lever not set to full

increase.
4.
Propeller pitch control linkage incorrectly

adjusted.
5.
Governor max. RPM adjustment incorrectly set.
6.
Governor speeder spring tension adjustment

incorrect.
7.
Governor speeder spring broken.
8.
Propeller pitch control linkage disconnected or

broken.
9.
Propeller low pitch stops incorrectly set.
10.
Engine low on power.
Engine RPM exceeds max. take-off 1.

RPM (over speed)
2.
Sluggish or erratic propeller

operation
Governor max. RPM adjustment incorrectly set.

Governor speeder spring tension incorrectly set.
3.
Propeller low pitch stop incorrectly set.
1.
Propeller pitch control linkages incorrectly

secured.
2.
Governor head incorrectly secured.
3.
Governor pilot valve sticking.
4.
Governor flyweights sticking.
5.
Propeller pitch control oil ports blocked.
Table 6.1
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DAMAGE ASSESSMENT AND REPAIR CRITERIA

Introduction
As you would already know, when an aircraft is in flight the tip of its propeller blade is
spinning just below the speed of sound. You would also be aware of the effect on the blade
and hence the propeller and ultimately the whole aircraft if the smooth edge of the blade
becomes chipped. In addition to this performance problem, if such damage is not repaired
immediately the propeller may fail.
This topic will provide you with a detailed knowledge and understanding of the theoretical
fundamentals of propeller damage and repair criteria in the following learning outcome:
With the use of provided data and having regard to limits and repair criteria,
describe propeller blade damage and determine the applicable treatment/repair
schemes for metal, wooden and composite propeller blades.
The theoretical aspects and knowledge obtained in this core subject will provide you with an
insight into aircraft propeller damage and repair which will be invaluable in the development
of your maintenance skills for repairing damaged propeller blades.
This skill will allow you to be able to differentiate between major and minor damage and what
damage can and cannot be repaired on the following types of propeller blades: wooden,
aluminium, steel and composite.
You will pick up the required knowledge to be able to repair damaged blades by working
through the explanations provided in this topic and, importantly, by completing the set
assignment at the end of the topic.
Damage and Repair Criteria
During operation a propeller acts as both a thruster and a gyroscope. The two largest forces
produced as a result of this are centrifugal and thrust. In line with these forces the normal
repair criteria is to restore the propeller to its original shape and strength. The most critical
area on a propeller is the blade shank.
Damage to a propeller is to be identified as either:
major
minor
and repaired by the approved method at the approved facility. To ensure that local stresses
dont cause cracks to develop, which may result in the failure of the propeller, the repairs
must be carried out immediately. It is therefore necessary to inspect propellers at regular
intervals for damage so that repairs can be carried out as required.
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Major Damage
Major damage is any damage that will cause an obvious change in weight, balance,
performance or strength of the propeller.
Anything that could affect the airworthiness of the propeller is also considered as major
damage.
Major damage can be classified as any damage that will affect the airworthiness of the
propeller if the repairs are not carried out correctly.
These include:
shortening of blades
machining or repairing of steel hubs
re-taping of wooden propellers
replacement of tip fabric on wooden blades
replacement of laminations in fixed pitch wooden propellers
repairs to deep dents, scars, nicks, cuts, etc of aluminium blades
straightening of aluminium blades
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Minor Damage
All damage that is not classified as major damage is minor damage.
Minor damage can be classified as any damage that will require minor repairs. These
include:
Repair to dents, cuts, scratches, nicks, scars and leading edge pitting on
aluminium blades as long as the material removed to effect the repair does not
affect the strength, weight, balance, or performance of the propeller.
Repair of dents, cuts, scratches, nicks and small cracks parallel to the grain of
wooden blades.
Re-finishing of wooden propellers.
Once the type of damage and its location has been assessed, refer to the applicable
maintenance/repair manual to ensure that a repair can be carried out and at which facility.
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WOODEN PROPELLERS
Wooden propellers can be subject to many defects, these include:
separation of laminations
dents or bruises on the surface
scars across the blade surface
broken sections
warping
oversize/worn centre bore and bolt holes
The repair methods vary for each defect depending on its location and the extent of the
damage. The following provides common repairs procedures for these defects.
Separated Laminations
Separated laminations are not repairable unless it is the outer layers of a fixed pitch propeller
and then the repair can only be carried out by an approved repair facility.
Dents, Bruises and Scars
While flexing the blade, inspect the defects with a magnifying glass to expose any cracks. An
approved repair facility may repair some cracks by an inlay. (An inlay involves removing the
defect as well as some of the unaffected area and replacing it with another piece of wood of
the same type.)
Small Cracks and Cuts
Small cracks/cuts that are parallel to the grain may be repaired by filling with resin glue.
Once the glue has dried its sanded smooth and revarnished.
Broken Sections
Depending on the location and the extent of the break, the broken sections may be able to be
repaired by the repair facility.
Tip Fabric
Check for cracks or bubbles in the material, wrinkles or chipping of the paint that may occur
when the tip is flexed or twisted.
Any surface damage to the fabric can be repaired by applying several coats of lacquer to fill
the defect until it blends with the fabric surface, as long as the damage is or less in area
and there is no indication of the wood breaking down. Damage larger than are to be
referred to the repair facility.
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Leading Edge Sheathing

Look for loose screws, rivets, slipping or looseness, cracks in the solder joints and metal
cracks and damage especially along the edge.
Figure 6 18.
Solder joint cracks near the tip can indicate deterioration of the wood. While inspecting the
area, flex the tip and if no defects are found, the joint may be resoldered. The area is then to
be monitored for any evidence of recurrence. Figure 7.1 shows typical defects to the leading
edge sheathing of a wooden prop.
Varnish
Any signs of the varnish beginning to chip or peel, the area is to be sanded lightly to feather
out the affected area and then revarnished.
Unrepairable
The following defects are considered unrepairable:
split blade
deep cracks and cuts across the grain
separated laminations
unused screw or rivet holes
obvious warpage
an appreciable piece of wood missing
damage to the metal sleeve of a controllable pitch propeller
oversize crankshaft bore and/or cracks between bolt holes and crankshaft
bore
excessive elongation of bolt holes of fixed pitch propellers and internal

lamination cracks.
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Some points to remember are:
Minor surface dents/scars are repaired by filling with a mixture of fine sawdust
from the parent wood and glue.
Deep gouges across the wood grain are reason for rejection.
Hub bolt holes worn beyond dimensions may be repaired by drilling to

oversize and fitting inserts to restore to original size only by the approved
facility.
Blade tipping and leading edge sheathing are attached with countersunk wood
screws in thicker sections and copper rivets in thinner areas.
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ALUMINIUM PROPELLERS
Leading/Trailing Edge
Most of the defects in the leading and trailing edge of an aluminium propeller blade will be
nicks, dents, cracks, pitting and corrosion.
These defects can be simply removed with a round and/or half round file to remove sharp
angle/edges until the repair blends smoothly with the contour of the blade as shown in Figure
7.6. The approximate maximum size of the defect after repair is deep and 1- in length.
Blade Face/Back
Damage to the blade face/back can be blended out with a spoon shaped riffle file to smooth
out the damage into a dish shape as depicted in Figure 6..19. The approximate maximum
size of the defect after repair is 1/12 deep, wide and 1 in length.
Figure 6 19. Blended Repairs

After all repairs have been carried out they are to be finished off by sanding in a back and
forth motion parallel to the length of the blade. The surface is then treated with the
appropriate protective coating, ie. Alodine or paint.
Blade Shank
As the forces acting on the propeller blade are concentrated on the shank, any damage to
this area is to be referred to the overhaul facility for repair or to be discarded.
Hub
The inside of the centre bore and surface which mounts onto the crankshaft are to be
inspected for damage and corrosion. The bolt holes are checked for damage, dimensions
and security. Light corrosion can be removed by sanding, the surface is then treated to
prevent recurrence. Damage, dimensional wear or heavy corrosion to the propeller hub
needs to be referred to the repair facility.
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Bent Blades
To determine if a bent blade is repairable, the degree of bend and the blade station where the
bend is located needs to be determined.
To do this, first find the centre of the bend and determine the blade station by measuring from
the centre of the hub to the bend. Then mark the blade one inch either side of the bend
centre and using a protractor as shown in Figure 6.20, measure the bend making sure that
the protractor is tangent to the 1 marks.
Figure 6 20. Measuring a Bent Blade using a Protractor

Using these figures refer to an approved chart for the propeller to determine if the bend is
repairable. Any bend that is above the line is unrepairable (6.21). Straightening is usually
carried out at an approved facility.
After the repairs have been carried out, the surface finish should be restored using the
approved method.
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Figure 6 21. Example of a Scale used for Classifying Bent Blades

Some points to remember are:
Aluminium alloy propellers
The most critical areas are the shank and thrust face.
Blade impact damage is best repaired using round, half round and needle
files.
Damage repair should be finished with fine abrasive paper rubbed spanwise.
Use a suitable protractor in assessing blade bend.
Substantial metal removal near the blade tip will require prop re-balancing.
Steel Propellers
Nicks and gouges are more critical as steel is more brittle than aluminium.
Holes near the blade tip provide moisture vents from the blade cavity.
NDT may be carried out using mag particle or eddy current.
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Composite Propellers
The only repairs that can be undertaken on composite blades outside of the
manufacturer/overhaul facility are repairs to minors defects. These type of defects include:
nicks
dents
scratches
gouges
depressions
chordwise cracks in the leading edge cap
lifting of the leading edge cap.
NOTE:
In assessing if a defect is indeed minor, reference is to be made to the manufacturers repair
manual. Any defect that falls outside the laid down limits is classified as major and is to be
repaired by the approved repair facility.
Repair of minor composite defects is usually carried out as follows:
clean the damaged area
remove paint from area
sand the area
fill the damaged area with chopped fibreglass and epoxy
sand the repair to conform with blade contour after the epoxy has hardened
prime the repair with approved primer and paint with polyurethane paint.
Some points to remember:
An erosion shield is normally adhesively bonded to the leading edge.
Internal separation of layers of composite is called delamination. This is

determined by utilising a sonic tap test.
Debonding is separation of anciliary materials joined in a previous operation.
A lightening strike appears as a brown stain on the blade.
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TOPIC 17.7 PROPELLER STORAGE AND PRESERVATION

Wooden Propellers
Ensure propeller is protected with an even coat of varnish if repaired prior to

storage. A good coat of varnish will preserve the aerodynamic shape and
prevent the ingress of moisture.
Avoid moisture and large variations in temperature. Should be stored in cool,

dark, dry and well ventilated area
Do not wrap wooden props in plastic or other sealing material; the lack of
ventilation will promote wood decay.
Wooden propellers need to be stored flat so moisture does not accumulate in

the lower blade/s.
To prevent damage, use wooden racks or boxes for propeller storage or the
manufactures approved storage container.
Use desiccant bags or some other from of moisture prevention
Check balance after storage
Metal Propellers
Ensure propeller is protected by the manufactures approved corrosion

preventive material. Nicks and other damage may allow moisture to penetrate
the base material unless protected.
Do not wash with high pressure blast. Moisture can be forced past orings into
the internal components, where corrosion can form unchecked.
Repair any damage to paint coatings prior to storage.
Blades may be wiped with a cloth damped with oil or waxed with automotive
type wax to prevent corrosion.
Blades may also be wrapped in protective material
Store flat on wooden supports, in wooden boxes or in approved manufactures

container.
Use desiccant bags or some other from of moisture prevention.
Metal propellers need NOT be checked for balance after storage.
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Propeller Pitch Control

Propeller Ice Protection

Propeller Storage and Preservation

Issue B: January 2008

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Issue B: January 2008

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Issue B: January 2008

A&P Technician Powerplant Textbook.

Aircraft Gas Turbine Powerplants Textbook.

B1-17 Student Handout

Issue B: January 2008

High/low blade angle

Describe the following in regards to propellers:

Relative airflow on blade angle of attack

Vibration and resonance.

Describe typical mounting requirements of flanged, tapered and splined propeller

Issue B: January 2008

Propeller Pitch Control

Propeller Ice Protection

Static and dynamic balancing

Explain assessment of the following types of propeller blade damage:

Explain repair schemes used in propeller treatment.

Propeller Storage and Preservation

Issue B: January 2008