B2-13f Electrical Student Resources

Student Resource
Subject B2-13f
Electrical
Copyright 2008 Aviation Australia

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold, or
otherwise disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia.
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Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
CONTENTS
Topic
Definitions
ii
Study Resources
iii
Introduction
Electrical Power (ATA 24)
13.5
Equipment and Furnishings (ATA 25)
13.6
Lights (ATA 33)
13.9
Fire Protection (ATA-26)
13.12
Ice and Rain Protection (ATA-30)
13.14
Issue B January 2008
Revision 1
B2-13f - i
Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
DEFINITIONS
Define
To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
Specify in words or writing.
To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
To establish the identity of.
List
Itemise.
Describe
Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or

process.
To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.
Explain
Make known in detail.
Offer reason for cause and effect.
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Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
STUDY RESOURCES
JEPPESEN Sanderson Training Products:
A&P Technical General Textbook - 2000
A&P Technical Airframe Textbook - 2001
A&P Technical Powerplant Textbook 1997
AC 43.13-1B Aircraft Inspection and Repair 1998
Aircraft Instruments & Integrated Systems EHJ Pallett 2000
Aircraft Maintenance Text 3 Practical Science Part 2 Basic Electricity 1989
Aircraft Maintenance Text 4 Basic functional Devices and Systems 1989
National Training Materials for the Aerospace Industry Module NAA02 (NAC)
US Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series September 1998
Student Handout Subject B1-11f
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Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
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Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to allow you to gain knowledge of basic aircraft electrical
systems.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 13.5
Electrical Power
Explain the operation of an aircraft battery system and describe battery installation
procedures
Identify components of DC power generation systems and explain system operation.
Identify components of AC power generation systems and explain system operation.
Identify components of emergency power generation systems and explain system
operation.
Identify components of voltage regulation systems and explain system operation.
Identify components of power distribution systems and explain system operation.
Identify inverters, transformers and rectifiers and explain their operation.
Identify circuit protection methods and explain their operation.
Identify components of external/ground power systems and explain system operation.
Describe safety precautions associated with electrical power.
Topic 13.6
Equipment and Furnishing
Identify Electronic Emergency Equipment and describe their requirements and

operation
Identify and describe the operation of Cabin Entertainment Equipment
Topic 13.9
Lights
Identify the following aircraft lights, state their purpose and explain their operation:
External o
Navigation
o
Anti-collision
o
Landing
o
Taxiing
o
Ice
Internal o
Cabin
o
Cockpit
o
Cargo
Emergency
Describe safety precautions to be observed when performing maintenance on strobe
lights.
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Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
Topic 13.12.1 Fire Protection (ATA 26)

Identify components of the following systems and explain system operation:
Fire detection
Smoke detection
Fire protection warning
Fire extinguishing
Explain the testing of aircraft fire protection systems.
Illustrate safety precautions to be observed when performing maintenance on
fire protection systems.
Topic 13.12.2 Portable Fire Extinguishers

Identify the various types of portable fire extinguishers and explain their
application for different onboard classes of fire.
Topic 11.12
Ice and Rain Protection

Explain types of ice formation.
Identify ice detection components and explain their operation.
Identify components of the following anti-icing systems and explain system
operation:
Electrical;
Hot air; and
Chemical.
Identify components of the following de-icing systems and explain system
operation:
Electrical;
Hot Air; and
Chemical.
Explain the operation of rain repellent and rain removal systems.
List methods used for probe and drain heating and explain their operation.
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TOPIC 13.5: ELECTRICAL POWER (ATA-24)

Aircraft Battery Systems
All aircraft, almost without exception, use a negative-ground, single wire system. This means
that the negative terminal of the battery is connected directly to the metallic portion of the
aircraft structure, which places the structure at a negative potential. This allows electrical
components to be connected to the structure for a return path to the battery to complete a
closed circuit. This is commonly referred to as grounding.
Benefits for grounding in this manner include the reduced chance of developing radio
frequency interference (RFI) by having fewer wires that can emit RFI energy, and also
reduced weight. The electrical components need only a single wire from the positive voltage
source, and a negative connection to the aircraft structure.
The exception to this design occurs when the aircraft is built using composite materials in
place of metallic structures. As most composite materials are non-conductive, a two-wire
electrical system must be used.
The illustrated circuit shows a typical battery circuit for a light aircraft. The positive terminal of
the battery connects to the battery solenoid, which is a normally-open heavy-duty switch.
Some manufacturers refer to a solenoid as a contactor, but both terms are used to describe
components that essentially perform the same task; to remotely control a large current source
with a small conductor and switch.
When the master switch is closed, it completes a ground path to energise the battery
solenoid coil. Once the coil is energised, the main power connection is closed in the solenoid
to complete the circuit from the battery to the electrical distribution bus.
Freewheeling Diode
A freewheeling diode is installed across the coil of the solenoid to eliminate spikes when the
master switch is opened and the magnetic field from the coil collapses. Without a
freewheeling diode, the voltage spikes could cause damage to sensitive electronic
components. The freewheeling diode allows the induced emf (from a collapsing coil) to feed
back into itself rather than back into the distribution system.
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Battery Temperature Monitor System

Many aircraft that use Ni-cad batteries have a battery temperature monitor system. Typically,
this system provides a continuous temperature indication of the battery or batteries. They
may also warn of high temperature conditions. A high temperature indication enables action
to be taken to isolate the battery and prevent possible damage arising from excessive battery
temperature.
Illustrated is a typical battery temperature monitor system. There are two independent
temperature sensors (thermistors) in each battery. Each thermistor is mounted on an intercell
connector link of the battery. One sensor provides the temperature input to the temperature
indication circuit, and the other (overheat temperature sensor) to the overheat warning circuit
in the monitor.
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Typical Battery System
Typically, a battery may be used for starting an aircraft. Once the generator is on line, the
generator will supply power to applicable systems. It will also charge the battery. Refer to
aircraft maintenance manual regarding battery operation on ground etc.
In most aircraft battery installations, the battery will be connected hot to its relevant battery
bus. It will only be connected to other DC buses when the battery is turned on. The battery
switch will control the battery contactor. Normally, the battery is switched on when the aircraft
is operating thus allowing the battery to charge. Most aircraft isolate the battery if external DC
power is applied to the aircraft. This stops the build-up of hydrogen which is released from
batteries during charging Hydrogen is highly explosive.
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Ventilation requirements
Lead acid batteries when fully charged, give off large quantities of hydrogen and oxygen.
Adequate ventilation is therefore required to safely remove these fumes and dump them
outside the aircraft. The aircrafts slipstream can be used to create a positive airflow
ventilation system for the battery compartment or sealed case, by creating a pick up and
outflow pipe through the aircrafts skin. Pressurised aircraft can also use the internal
pressurised air, which is passed through a non-return valve and finally dumped overboard.
System A utilises a sump jar with a neutralising agent in it, so that the fumes pass over the
felt pad, neutralising any acid or alkaline fumes before they exit the aircraft. This prevents
damage occurring to aircraft skin.
System B is a typical light aircraft system - does not incorporate sump jar.
System C is a pressurised aircraft system which passes pressurisation system air through a
non-return valve and into the battery case or compartment. It may or may not utilise a sump
jar.
Ni-Cad batteries in general do not produce large quantities of gas, therefore they do not
usually require ventilation. To assist in maintaining more even temperatures in the battery
case or compartment, some form of ventilation is usually included. If the battery is of the
sealed case type the ventilation system will be connected to the case to maintain some
airflow through the case.
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Battery connection
Light Aircraft batteries have bolt on connections similar to auto batteries. Smear lugs with
petroleum jelly (Vaseline) before connection to inhibit corrosion.
Larger fully enclosed batteries, where external connections cannot protrude though the case
safely, will usually have a quick release type connector, as shown, fitted to the case. This
type of connector requires some form of positive locking device to ensure that the connector
does not unscrew during flight. If there is no inbuilt locking device, the connectors should be
lockwired closed with 26 AWG copper wire (safety lockwire).
With all of these quick release type connections, it is important that the terminals be
lubricated with white petroleum jelly to prevent any corrosion forming on the contacts which
could affect serviceability or worse still, make the battery very difficult to remove. Remember,
once a battery is fitted to an aircraft, it may stay there for many months before it is touched
again, so if corrosion forms on the contacts you may not see it until it is too late.
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Battery Installation
All aircraft batteries need to be securely mounted in the aircraft. Whether it has its own
isolated compartment, or shares space with other equipment, it must be firmly bolted into a
mounting cradle.
Large metal batteries will have lugs built into the cover through which the hold down bolts can
pass. Plastic cased batteries will generally have a metal clamp over the top. Whether wing
nuts, hexagonal nuts or quick release clamps are used for securing purposes, all should be
lockwired for security purposes.
Battery Installation Procedures

Before installing any battery in an aircraft, ensure the battery is the correct type. Refer to
aircraft maintenance manual. Before installing, check that its mounting tray, box or
compartment and the surrounding area are clean and free of corrosion or contamination.
The only servicing permitted on lead acid batteries fitted to an aircraft, is the check and
adjustment of electrolyte levels and cleaning of terminals. If any electrolyte is spilt, always
neutralise it, before washing it away. Lead acid batteries require a solution of water and bicarbonate of soda, and Ni-Cad batteries require a boric acid solution or vinegar as a
neutralising agent. Check that the vent and drain lines are in good condition and not blocked.
Check the neutralising jar is serviceable.
Battery servicing
Most aircraft have the negative terminal of the battery connected to the aircraft structure.
When installing a battery, always connect the positive lead first. This way, if contact is
inadvertently made between the battery and the aircraft with a wrench, it will not cause a
spark.
When removing a battery, always disconnect the negative lead first. If high or difficult lifting is
involved dont try to be a hero and do it all yourself. Get help or use some mechanical lifting
device. Slide belt buckle around to the side if there is a possibility of contacting and shorting
the terminals with it. Directly after removing a battery from an aircraft, fit insulator plug/cap
into terminal connector.
Remember: safe work practices must be applied to at all times.
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Generators General
Following on from earlier subjects, it is already known that electromagnetic generators, be
they AC or DC, AC is always induced in the output windings. With alternators or AC
generators, the generated current is passed to the output terminals as AC. With DC
generators, the generated current is rectified to DC either mechanically by a commutator and
brushes, or electrically by diodes as in DC alternators.
DC Alternators
DC alternators produce relatively small amounts of current and, therefore, are typically found
on light aircraft. Some DC alternators found on light aircraft are very similar to the alternators
found on motor vehicles.
DC alternators do the same thing as DC generators; They produce AC that is then converted
to DC before it enters an aircraft electrical system. The difference, however, is that in an
alternator the magnetic poles rotate and induce voltage into a fixed, or stationary, winding.
Furthermore, the AC produced is rectified by diodes instead of a commutator.
All alternators are constructed in basically the same way. The primary components of an
alternator include:
The rotor.
The stator.
The rectifier.
The brush assembly.
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Rotors
An alternator rotor consists of a wire coil wound on an iron spool between 2 heavy iron
segments with interlacing fingers. Some rotors have 4 fingers while others have as many as
7. Each finger forms one pole of the rotating magnetic field. The 2 coil leads pass through 1
segment and each lead attaches to an insulated slip ring.
The slip rings, segments, and coil spool are all pressed onto a hardened steel rotor shaft
which is either splined or has a key slot. In an assembled alternator, this shaft is driven by an
engine accessory pad or fitted with a pulley and driven by a belt. 2 carbon brushes ride on
the slip rings to bring a varying current into the rotating field.
Diode Rectifier Bridge

The Diode Rectifier Bridge is responsible for the conversion or rectification of AC voltage to
DC voltage. Typically, six or eight diodes are used to rectify the AC stator voltage to DC
voltage. Half of these diodes are use on the positive side and the other half are on the
negative side. Diodes are used as one-way electrical check valves. Passing current in only
one direction, never in reverse. Diodes are mounted in a heat sink to dissipate the heat
generated by the diodes. Diodes redirect the AC voltage into DC voltage so the battery
receives the correct polarity
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Stator
As the rotor turns, load current is induced into stationary stator coils. The coils making up the
stator are wound in slots around the inside periphery of the stator frame, which is made of
thin laminations of soft iron. Most alternators are 3 phase alternators. This means that the
stator has 3 separate coils that are 120 apart. To do this, one end of each coil is brought
together to form a common junction of a Y-connection.
With the stator wound in a 3-phase configuration, the output current peaks in each set of
windings every 120 of rotation. However, after the output is rectified, the DC output becomes
much smoother. Because an alternator has several field poles and a large number of stator
windings, most alternators produce their rated output at a relatively low rpm. This differs from
a DC generator which must rotate at a fairly high speed to produce its rated output.
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Wye Wound Stator

Wye wound stators have three windings with a common neutral junction. They can be
identified because they have 4 stator lead ends. Wye wound stators are used in alternators
that require high voltage output at low alternator speeds. Two windings are in series at any
one time during charge output.
Delta Wound Stator

Delta wound stators can be identified because they have only three stator lead ends. Delta
stators allow for higher current flow being delivered at low RPM. The windings are in parallel
rather than series as like the Wye design.
Brush Assembly
Two stationary carbon brushes ride on two rotating slip rings. Bushes are either soldered or
bolted. Two slip rings are located on one end of the rotor assembly. Each end of the rotor
field winding is attached to a slip ring. Thereby, allowing current to flow through the field
winding.
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Generator Voltage Regulation

Efficient operation of electrical equipment in an aircraft depends on a voltage supply that
varies with a system's load requirements. Among the factors which determine the voltage
output of a generator, the strength of the field current is the only one that is conveniently
controlled. One way to control the field current is to install a rheostat in the field coil circuit.
When the rheostat is set to increase the resistance in the field circuit, less current flows
through the field coils and the strength of the magnetic field decreases. Consequently, less
voltage is induced into the armature and generator output decreases.
When the resistance in the field circuit is decreased with the rheostat, more current flows
through the field coils, and the magnetic field becomes stronger. This allows more voltage to
be induced into the armature which produces a greater output voltage.
One thing to keep in mind is that, the weaker the magnetic field is, the easier it is to turn the
armature. On the other hand, if the strength of the magnetic field is increased, more force is
required to turn the armature. This means that, when the load on a generator increases,
additional field current must be supplied to increase the voltage output as well as overcome
the additional force required to turn the armature
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Vibrating-type Voltage Regulator

This basic rheostat principle is further developed by the addition of a solenoid which
electrically connects or removes the field rheostat from the circuit as the voltage varies. This
type of setup is found in a vibrating-type voltage regulator.
When the output voltage rises above a specified critical value, the downward pull of the
solenoid's coil exceeds the spring tension and contact B opens. This reinserts the field
rheostat in the field circuit. The additional resistance reduces the field current and lowers
output voltage. When the output voltage falls below a certain value, contact B closes,
shorting the field rheostat and the terminal voltage starts to rise. Thus, an average voltage is
maintained with or without load changes. The dashpot P provides smoother operation by
acting as a dampener to prevent hunting, and capacitor C across contact B helps eliminate
sparking.
With a vibrating-type voltage regulator, contact B opens and closes several times per second
to maintain the correct generator output. Based on this, if the solenoid should malfunction or
the contacts stick closed, excess current would flow to the field and generator output would
increase.
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Three-Unit Regulator
Certain light aircraft employ a three-unit regulator for their generator systems. This type of
regulator includes a current limiter, a reverse current cutout, and a voltage regulator. The
action of the voltage regulator unit is similar to the vibrating-type regulator described earlier.
The current limiter is the second of three units, and it limits the generator's output current.
The third unit is a reverse-current cutout which disconnects the battery from the generator
when the generator output is lower than the battery output. Since contacts have a tendency
to pit or burn when large amounts of current flow through them, vibrating-type regulators and
three-unit regulators cannot be used with generators that require a high field current.
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Current Limiter
In some generator systems, a device is installed which will reduce the generator output
voltage whenever the maximum safe load is exceeded. The current limiter operates by
having a current coil connected in series with the load, as shown in Figure. When electrical
load demands are heavy, the voltage output of the generator may not increase sufficiently to
cause the voltage regulator to open its contacts. Consequently, as the current flow increases
so does the magnetic flux around the current coil. When sufficient magnetic flux/field is built
up to overcome the armature spring tension then the contacts open. Opening the contacts
places a resistor in series with the generator field winding, thereby reducing the generator
output voltage which consequently reduces the output current. Maximum current adjustment
on the current limiter is achieved by adjusting the spring tension applied to the armature, until
the maximum current rating is set.
Reverse Current Cutout Relay (RCCR)

The RCCR is a combination of relays in one unit. The combination provides current and
voltage sensing. These relays allow current in one direction as a normal relay, but open the
circuit for a reverse current. Normal flow is from the generator (GEN) terminal to the battery
(BAT) terminal of the relay.
L5 voltage (shunt) winding made of many turns of fine wire.
L4 current (series) winding made of a few turns of heavy wire.
In normal operation (Gen output higher than battery voltage) both coils are wound to assist
each other. Initially at generator start-up, only the voltage coil actually pulls the contacts
close. At this point the current coil comes into play. Should the generator output voltage drop
below the battery voltage for any reason, current direction will change through the current coil
(as battery now attempts to supply generator) and the magnetic field produced will oppose
that of the voltage coil and the overall magnetic pull will decrease and the contacts will open.
If the battery were not disconnected, it would discharge through the generator armature when
the generator voltage falls below that of the battery. When this occurs the battery attempts to
drive the generator as a motor. This action is called motoring the generator and, unless
prevented, the battery discharges in a short time.
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Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator

Since contacts have a tendency to pit or burn when large amounts of current flow through
them, vibrating-type regulators and 3-unit regulators cannot be used with generators that
require a high field current. Therefore, heavy-duty generator systems require a different type
of regulator, such as the carbon-pile voltage regulator.
The carbon-pile voltage regulator relies on the resistance of carbon disks arranged in a pile
or stack. The resistance of the carbon stack varies inversely with the pressure applied. For
example, when the stack is compressed, less air exists between the carbon disks and the
resistance decreases. However, when the pressure is reduced, more air is allowed between
the disks causing the resistance to increase.
Pressure on the carbon pile is created by two opposing forces: a spring and an
electromagnet. The spring compresses the carbon pile, and the electro magnet exerts a pull
on the spring which decreases the pressure. Whenever the generator voltage varies, the pull
of the electromagnet varies. If the generator voltage rises above a specific amount, the pull of
the electromagnet increases, thereby decreasing the pressure exerted on the carbon pile and
increasing its resistance. Since this resistance is in series with the field, less current flows
through the field winding and there is a corresponding decrease in field strength. This results
in a drop in generator output. On the other hand, if the generator output drops below a
specified value, the pull of the electromagnet decreases and the carbon pile places less
resistance in the field winding circuit. This results in an increase in field strength and a
corresponding increase in generator output. A small rheostat provides a means of adjusting
the current flow through the electromagnet coil. Adjustment to core pressure is done via
adjustment screws.
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Voltage Regulator Types
Two regulator designs can be used:

The Grounded Regulator type The regulator controls the amount of battery ground
(negative) going to the field winding in the rotor.
The Grounded Field type The regulator controls the amount of Battery Positive (B+) going to
the field winding in the rotor.
Transistorised Voltage Regulator DC Alternator

Transistorised voltage regulators are taking over from the other forms of voltage regulators in
modern aircraft. The regulator discussed in this section is used on a light aircraft alternator
rectifier unit.
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Operation
Refer to Figure and assume the master switch is turned ON. The charge indicator light
illuminates gaining earth via the regulator D+ terminal, the alternator Ind, terminal, the
alternator rotor and transistor T1. This small current gives the field initial excitation. Once the
engine is started, the alternator output builds up. It is half wave rectified by the field exciter
diodes, and supplies the alternator rotor field gaining earth via transistor T1. When the
alternator voltage approaches battery voltage, the charge indicator light has near equal
potential on each side and will extinguish.
Alternator output voltage is impressed across resistors R1, R2 and R3. When the set voltage
value is reached, the zener diode ZD will conduct increasing current flow through R6 and
biasing transistor T2 so it conducts. This flow of current through T2 & R4 causes a voltage
drop across R4 which makes the base of transistor T1 less positive & T1 switches off.
T1 switching off stops the rotor field current and the alternator voltage drops. This drop in
voltage across R1, R2 and R3 causes the zener diode to stop conducting and transistor T2
switches off. T2 switching off lowers the voltage drop across R4 and the base of transistor T1
becomes more positive and switches on allowing field current to flow. This process is
repeated at a rate required to maintain alternator output voltage at the set value with varying
load and speed conditions.
The surge quench diode in the regulator is connected across the alternator rotor field
winding. When power is applied to the field by transistor T1, the surge quench diode is
reverse biased and will not conduct. When transistor T1 switches off the field current, the
magnetic field around the field coil collapses inducing a current in the field coil with opposite
polarity to that of the applied voltage (inductor theory). The opposite polarity forward biases
the diode which conducts and shorts out the current induced in the field coil, preventing
transistor T1 from sustaining any damage if the induced voltage exceeds the peak inverse
voltage of T1.
Note
Late model transistorised regulators are now mounted in the alternator rectifier unit and are
sealed. They are encapsulated, and if they are unserviceable, repair can only be done by
replacing them with a new item. Some light twin engine aircraft have one regulator controlling
both alternators and one regulator as an alternate that can be selected by the pilot if the first
regulator fails.
Voltage Regulators
Regardless of whether it is an AC generator, DC generator or DC alternator, typically the
voltage regulator senses the output and controls (regulates) the field current under varying
load conditions. As load conditions change, the voltage regulator adjusts the field current
automatically (typically) maintaining the generator output at the required output voltage.
Typically, aircraft DC generators/alternators are regulated to 28 VDC (14 VDC for 12 volt light
aircraft) and AC generators to 115 VAC (200 VAC 3 ).
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AC Alternators
AC alternators can be single phase, two phase, 3 phase and sometimes even 6 phase or
more. However, almost all aircraft AC electrical systems use 3 phase.
There are 2 types of alternators/AC generators:
Revolving armature type.
Revolving field type.
Typically, revolving-field type AC generators are used on aircraft.
Revolving-armature Alternator
The revolving-armature alternator is similar in construction to the DC generator in that the
armature rotates in a stationary magnetic field as shown in figure.
In the DC generator, the emf generated in the armature windings is converted from AC to DC
by means of the commutator. In the alternator, the generated AC is brought to the load
unchanged by means of slip rings. The rotating-armature is found only in alternators of low
power rating and generally is not used to supply electric power in large quantities. Note the
AC output is via the brushes and slip rings and therefore must carry the full load current. This
is a disadvantage of revolving-armature alternators.
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Revolving-field Alternator
The revolving field type alternator has a stationary armature winding (stator) and a rotating
field winding (rotor).
The advantage of this configuration is that the armature is connected directly to the load
without sliding contacts in the load circuit. Direct connection to the armature makes it
possible to use large cross-section conductors. Typically, aircraft AC generators are of the
rotating-field type.
Brushless Alternators
The AC alternators used in large jet-powered aircraft are of the brushless type and are
usually air cooled. Since the brushless alternators have no current flow between brushes or
slip rings they are very efficient at high altitudes where brush arcing is often a problem. As
discussed previously, alternator brushes are used to carry current to the rotating
electromagnet. However, in a brushless alternator, current is induced into the field coil
through an exciter.
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A brushless alternator consists of three separate fields, a permanent magnetic field, an

exciter field, and a main output field.
The permanent magnets furnish the magnetic flux to start the generator producing an output
before field current flows. The magnetism produced by these magnets induces voltage into
an armature that carries the current to a generator control unit, or GCU. Here, the AC is
rectified and sent to the exciter field winding. The exciter field then induces voltage into the
exciter output winding. The output from the exciter is rectified by six silicon diodes, and the
resulting DC flows through the output field winding. From here, voltage is induced into the
main output coils.
The permanent magnet, exciter output winding, six diodes, and output field winding are all
mounted on the generator shaft and rotate as a unit. The three-phase output stator windings
are wound in slots that are in the laminated frame of the alternator housing. The main output
stator winding ends of a brushless alternator are connected in the form of a Y, and in the
case of the previous figure, the neutral winding is brought to the outside of the housing along
with the three-phase windings.
The figure below is from a 747-400 Brushless Alternator. The figure clearly shows the rotor
and stator, as well as the Current Transformer Assembly on the feeder cables.
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Brushless Alternator GCU (Generator Control Unit)

The GCU actually monitors and regulates the main generator's output by controlling the
amount of current that flows into the exciter field. For example, if additional output is needed,
the GCU increases the amount of current flowing to the exciter field winding which, in turn,
increases the exciter output. A higher exciter output increases the current flowing through the
main generator field winding thereby increasing alternator output.
Typically, the separate generator control unit (GCU) contains the PMG rectifier, main field
regulator and aircraft bus contactor controls. The protective functions are also built into this
control unit such as differential/feeder faults or overvoltage etc..
Integrated Drive Generator IDG

Some modern jet aircraft produce AC with a generator called an Integrated Drive Generator
or IDG. An IDG differs from a CSD in that both the Constant Speed Drive (CSD) and the AC
generator are in the same housing.
This is an example of a modern integrated drive generator (IDG). The term generator is still
used even though these items are actually brushless alternators.
Flashing the Field

A generator may lose its residual magnetism if left standing for very long periods or for some
other reason. Flashing the field will enable the generator to start producing an output if there
is no residual magnetism. This is usually performed by using battery power directly
connected to the field. Some aircraft have the facility to flash the field from within the cockpit.
Always refer to the manufacturers directions if required to flash the field of a generator.
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Differential / Feeder Fault

This system is installed to protect against the possibility of a generator feeder cable shorting
to airframe. Feeder cables are the power cables that run between the generators and the
power distribution buses. Differential fault protection is typically the only protection for the
generator feeder cables.
The output of each generator is sensed at the generator and also at the load bus. This is
achieved using toroidal current transformers. If a difference exists between the two, then
there is a ground or short in the feeder lines between the generator and the load bus. This
fault is called a differential fault or a feeder fault. It is serious enough that when it trips the
field relay and generator breaker, the field relay is typically locked out and may not be reset
without resorting to an abnormal procedure to defeat the lockout.
If one of the current transformers (in a pair) was to go open circuit, the outputs of both would
be different and therefore sensed as a differential fault and the generator would be tripped off
line.
These toroidal current transformers are typical of those used for differential fault protection of
a 3 AC generator.
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Emergency Power Generation

Emergency power generation is installed on many aircraft to supply essential power in the
event of losing all normal power generation. Such a situation could arise if the engine driven
generators stopped outputting. This could occur if the fuel ran out or the engines flamed out
(eg. volcanic ash ingestion). Emergency generators are driven either directly by a wind driven
generator or driven from a hydraulic motor being supplied pressure from a wind driven
hydraulic pump.
Emergency generators are, normally without exception, permanent magnet alternators and
are typically constructed with a permanent magnet rotor and do not require battery power to
function.
Air Driven Emergency Generator

The illustrated emergency power supply is a manually deployed, air driven, emergency
electric supply for small aircraft. This is a 28 volt DC generator. The unit is capable of
supplying electric power to drive a basic complement of flight critical instruments. If a primary
electrical system failure should occur, the pilot deploys the miniature turboalternator. The
flight can then be continued to the intended destination, or terminated at a convenient airport
under more casual conditions. The turboalternator is a true stand-by power supply. In the
event the aircraft loses its total electrical system the alternator will still function. The unit is
self-exciting, thus it will work in the absence of the battery. It utilises a Permanent Magnet
Generator.
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Ram Air Turbine RAT

The RAT is used in emergency situations to generate sufficient power to keep an aircraft
flying long enough to land. The RAT typically consists of a propeller that is spun by the highspeed air flowing past the aircraft. The spinning propeller powers a turbine that provides the
emergency power needed to keep critical systems running, such as hydraulics, flight controls,
and key avionics. In normal flight, the entire assembly is folded up and stored in the aircraft
fuselage or wing.
Airbus A330 is equipped with a ram air turbine as evidenced by this illustration.
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System Description (Airbus A330)

The AC emergency generation which consists of the Hydraulic Electrical Generating System
(HEGS) enables to restore part of the distribution network in case of emergency configuration
(loss of the two main busbars: AC 1 and AC 2).
The HEGS is composed of the following items: the hydraulic Constant Speed Motor (CSM),
the AC generator & the Generator Control Unit (GCU).
The CSM & AC generator assembly is called the Constant Speed Motor/Generator (CSM/G)
8XE.
In case of loss of the two main busbars AC 1 & AC 2, the CSM is supplied by the green
hydraulic circuit which is powered either by the green hydraulic engine driven pump(s) (one
pump driven by engine 1 and/or the other by engine 2) if one engine at least is operative, or
by the Ram Air Turbine (RAT) pump in case of loss of both engines. In the case of the loss of
the AC main busbars, the CSM supplied by the hydraulic fluid drives the AC generator. The
AC generator is controlled by the CSM/G Generator Control Unit GCU (1XE) and provides
the AC power supply (115 VAC/400 Hz, 3 phases).
Constant Speed Motor/Generator (CSM/G) supplies the AC ESS buses through the EMER
GLC, & the DC ESS buses through the ESS TR.
The two main batteries (system 24-35-00) supply the DC ESS BUS and, via the static
inverter, the AC ESS BUS during the transfer to emergency generator operation after the loss
of the main busbars.
The AC ESS SHED BUS and the DC ESS SHED BUS are shed respectively by the relay
16XH and the contactor 1PH when the CSM/G is supplied by the RAT hydraulic pump and, in
batteries only configuration. AC ESS BUS SHED (4XP) Network
The AC ESS BUS SHED (4XP) supplies 3 115 VAC/400 Hz power: through the relay 16XH,
to the sub-busbar 401XP, NOTE : This sub-busbar is automatically shed in emergency
configuration when the CSM/G is supplied by the RAT pump or when the static inverter
operates.
Configuration of the DC network: DC SHED ESS BUS 8PP and the associated sub-busbars)
is shed through the contactor 1PH in emergency configuration when the network is supplied
by the CSM/G powered by the RAT PUMP, or by the batteries only.
In emergency configuration (CSM/G), sub-busbars 407PP and 805PP are recovered through
the contactor 9PH as soon as the LAND RECOVERY pushbutton switch located on the
EMER ELEC control panel (overhead panel) is pushed.
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Constant Speed Motor/Generator System description

Constant Speed Motor
The constant speed motor has a variable displacement axial piston hydraulic unit which is
controlled by a servo valve. This servo valve is controlled by the GCU speed regulator and
transforms the hydraulic power of the Green hydraulic system into constant speed for the
generator.
The CSM is equipped at the inlet with a solenoid control valve. The solenoid is supplied with
28 VDC from BAT 2 first, then from the PMG when the steady state operation is reached. The
solenoid control valve is used to isolate the hydraulic power from the CSM/G when not used.
It is also used to stop the CSM/G in the event of failures detected by the CSM/G GCU.
AC generator
The generator consists of three stages: a main generator, an exciter, & a permanent magnet
generator. It provides a three phase 115 VAC/200 VAC voltage at a constant frequency of
400 Hz with neutral output.
Main generator
The main generator is composed of a laminated stator, with a 6-pole, three-phase winding
and a salient pole laminated rotor. The rotor is supplied from the rotating member of a 3
phase exciter via diodes mounted on a rotating carrier. The diodes are configured in 3-phase
full wave.
Exciter
The exciter consists of: a laminated rotor stack containing a 3-phase 10 pole winding & a 10
coil wound laminated stator. The exciter receives its field current from the PMG via the GCU.
Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
The PMG consists of a laminated stator stack containing a 18-pole 3-phase winding & a
permanent magnet rotor.
The PMG supplies the necessary power for the following: the voltage regulator, the exciter
field winding, the speed regulator, the solenoid control valve and the GCU protection circuit.
CSM/G main features
Voltage : 115/200 VAC plus or minus 4 VAC at POR
Frequency : 400 Hz plus or minus 4 Hz
Power Factor : 0.75 to 1 lagging
The generator stator is cooled by forced air provided by an integrated fan driven its shaft. The
generator rotor is cooled by the hydraulic fluid.
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The B767 hydraulic motor generator (HMG) provides power to standby system, captains
flight instruments, & selected navigation, communication, lighting & anti-icing loads when
both main AC buses are unpowered in flight.
The HMG shutoff valve controls hydraulic fluid flow to the hydraulic motor generator.
The HMG is composed of three major components, the hydraulic motor, electrohydraulic
servovalve & generator all assembled as one line replaceable unit.
An electrohydraulic servovalve controls motor displacement to maintain a constant generator
speed of 12,000 RPM. The servovalve is controlled by a feedback signal from the generator
output. Speed control circuits are located in the generator control unit (GCU). A mechanical
overspeed governor provides backup speed control.
The brushless, self-excited generator is comprised of a main generator, an exciter generator
& a permanent magnet generator (PMG). The main generator develops 5 kva, 3 , 120/208
VAC, 400 Hz & 50 ampere, & 28 VDC.
The HMG Generator Control Unit (GCU) provides both main generator voltage regulation &
control sensing for system operation. The primary operational functions of the unit are
voltage regulation & control field excitation, undervoltage & underfrequency protection,
application or removal & lockout of the power ready signal to external bus transfer relays, &
an electrical speed control signal to the electrohydraulic servovalve in response to deviations
in generator output frequency.
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HMG ON With Loss of AC Buses

With the left & right 115 VAC buses powered, K858 & K859, the L & R AC BUS OFF relays
energised, & after a 0.5 second time delay, the K860 HYD GEN CONT relay close coil is
energised. The loss of voltage to both main AC buses in flight for at least 0.5 seconds (both
K858 & K859 relax) energises the open coil of K860.
HMG Hydraulic Motor Function
As the motor rapidly accelerates, the PMG provides GCU operational power. The PMG
frequency is also used as a feedback signal to the GCU speed control module. The
frequency feedback signal is compared to a reference frequency & any error is transmitted to
the electrohydraulic servovalve to modulate displacement.
HMG Electrohydraulic Servovalve Function
Electrohydraulic servovalve primary components are the torque motor, jet pipe, slide valve &
feedback spring (not shown). A change in generator load causes a speed change. The speed
control module supplies servo power & completes the circuit to either increase or decrease
speed coil. Motor displacement increases or decreases causing an increase or decrease in
motor speed. When the slide valve feedback spring torque equals the torque motor torque,
the jet pipe returns to center position stopping flow to the slide valve.
The electrohydraulic servovalve maintains main generator output frequency at 400 +/-2 Hz
under steady-state conditions. In the event of feedback signal or electrohydraulic servovalve
failure a mechanical overspeed governor maintains the frequency at 430 +/-10 Hz.
HMG Generator Function
The GENERATOR portion of the HMG is composed of a permanent magnet generator,
exciter generator & main generator with rotors mounted on a common shaft. The permanent
magnet generator supplies 3 800 Hz to the GCU for excitation, control & protection
functions. A ten-pole AC exciter generator supplies a 3 AC output to a half-wave rotating
rectifier bridge for main generator field excitation. The GCU voltage regulator controls
excitation current to maintain a nominal 120 volts AC line to neutral at the Point of Regulation
(POR).
The main generator has two output windings, AC & DC; one to produce 5 kva, 400 Hertz,
120/208 volt three phase AC power & the other winding output is full wave bridge rectified to
supply 24 to 30 VDC up to 50 amps.
HMG OFF With AC Buses Recovered
If power to both main AC buses is recovered, the ADP ON signal is removed & the hydraulic
shutoff valve closes automatically after a 0.5 secs. The HMG shuts down & the bus transfer
relays are de-energised.
Normal Operation
The permanent magnet generator (PMG) power enters the GCU & is three phase full-wave
rectified to produce 28 volt dc power. The power is used by the GCU voltage regulator &
sensing circuits.
The average of the point of regulation ac voltage is monitored by the voltage regulator for
supplying exciter generator field excitation.
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Generator Power Ready Relay

When hydraulic motor generator output voltage & frequency reach the power ready limits
(100 volts ac & 380 Hz) & K873 GEN RESET relay is relaxed, enabling signals are applied to
gate 1. The Generator Power Ready Relay closes & dc power is applied to K861, K862,
K863, K864.
Ground signal removal from the sensing level shift circuit enables the undervoltage &
underfrequency trip levels at 104.5 +/-1.5 volts ac (three phase average) & 385 +/-5 Hz. The
fault signal path from gate 2 to gate 3 is inhibited.
Bus Transfer Relays

When energized K861 HYD GEN POWER relay connects dc generator output to the hot
battery bus & disables K873 GEN RESET relay. Energizing K862 INSTR TRANSFER BUS,
K863 & K864 L(R) TRANSFER BUS relays connects ac generator output to the captains
flight instrument, left & right transfer buses.
Also, both EICAS computers receive a dc voltage input (K862 energized) that activates the
HYD GEN ONstatus & maintenance message (NVM in air). A ground applied from K864 to
K868 EMER LTS ALT TRANSFER relay switches the emergency light power source from
right dc bus to battery bus. Grounding the L radio distance magnetic indicator (L RDMI)
inertial reference system (IRS)source select input changes heading data source from right
IRS to center IRS.
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Fault Sensing Operation

An undervoltage or underfrequency fault condition that lasts longer than 9 +/-1 seconds trips
the generator power ready relay, de-energizing the bus transfer relays. The generator still
receives excitation current. A ground applied to the sensing level shift circuit enables power
ready sensing.
K873 applies a reset signal automatically for 1.5 seconds after the trip occurs. If the fault
condition has not cleared, the generator power ready relay is inhibited from closing by a fault
signal from gate 2 through relay contacts to gate 3. If the fault condition has cleared, the 1.5
second reset signal removes lockout & after K873 relaxes, the voltage regulator is enabled.
The generator power ready relay closes after power ready limits are reached. Bus transfer
relays reclose automatically to re-energize loads.
System Reset:
f power to both main ac buses is recovered, the hydraulic motor generator shuts down & deenergizes the bus transfer relays.
Purpose
The RAT is an air turbine driven hydraulic pump that provides emergency hydraulic power for
the flight controls in the event that power is lost on both engines.
Description
The RAT is stowed inside the right, aft body fairing. When deploying, the RAT pivots
downwards to extend the turbine into the airstream. An electric motor drives the unit for both
deployment and stowing.
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Hydraulic Pump
The Abex variable displacement nine piston, pressure compensated pump has a rated output
flow of 11.3 gpm at 2140 psi at a governed speed of 4165 45 rpm at a minimum airspeed of
125 knots.
Electric Motor
Extends and retracts RAT by rotation of motor arm and actuation link.
15 Limit Switch
Permits partial retraction of RAT so that blade can be locked & blade centered switch can be
closed.
Down/Up Limit Switches
Provides extend/retract motor shut off at full down or full up travel limits.
Automatic Deployment
Automatic deployment of the RAT only occurs in the air mode when N2 speed on both
engines falls below 50% and airspeed is 80 kts or greater.
Manual Deployment WARNING: RAT extends rapidly. To avoid serious injury clear RAT area
of all personnel and guard area when extending.
The RAT may also be extended in either the air or ground mode by depressing the RAT
manual override switch located on the P5 overhead panel.
Retraction
Retraction of the RAT is possible only on the ground and is controlled by a guarded switch
near the checkout module on the keel beam in the right main gear wheel well.
Ground Checkout (Backdrive)
The RAT checkout module contains provisions for ground testing of the RAT. To accomplish
ground checkout the center hydraulic system must be pressurized with the air driven pump
(ADP), (or adequate external ground hydraulic power).
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RAM AIR TURBINE CONTROL LOGIC

Automatic Deployment
Automatic deployment of the RAT occurs when in the air mode, the calibrated air speed is
greater than 80 knots and both engines have an engine speed of less than the low idle
speed. The engine speed circuits are used to monitor N2 on both engines.
Manual Deployment
Manual deployment of the RAT can be made at any time, ground or air mode, by depressing
the guarded two position RAT control & indication switch S7 on the P5 overhead panel.
Power is from the hot battery bus.
NOTE: Manual and automatic deploy circuits utilise separate relays and limit switches to
provide system redundancy. Hot battery bus only required for manual deploy and retract,
battery bus and hot battery bus required for auto deploy.
Indications
An amber RAT unlocked light in the RAT control and indication switch (S7) on the P5 panel
will illuminate any time the RAT is not in the stowed position and an EICAS RAT UNLOCKED
advisory message will be annunciated. A green pressure light in switch S7 will illuminate
when the RAT is developing above approximately 1700 PSI.
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Retract Control
Before the RAT can be retracted the RAT control and indication switch on the overhead P5
panel must be reset in the OFF position. The RAT retract switch is located above the RAT
tachometer module in the right wheel well. The blade lock and centered limit switch (13.5)
and the strut angle switch (15) operate in parallel in the RAT retract circuit.
When the RAT is fully extended the blade lock and centered switch is open (Blade lock
disengaged) and the strut angle switch on the RAT trunnion is closed. The RAT will retract
the first 15 through the strut angle switch.
Above 15 the strut angle switch will open, and the retract circuit can be completed only when
the blade is centered and the locking pin is in place, permitting the blade locked and centered
switch to close.
The Boeing 757 and 767 have a RAT that only supplies hydraulic power. A variable pitch
blade of 41" produces about 15 GPM based on airspeed, only to the primary flight controls.
767 does have a small hydraulic driven generator off the primary hydraulic system. The
generator is not part of the RAT.
The 777 has a RAT with both the 15 GPM hydraulic pump to flight controls (not high lift, plus
there are no primary and secondary named flight controls, just flight controls on 777) plus a 5
KVa generator. It also has a variable pitch blade about 50".
757, 767, 777 have auto deploy based on different conditions. 757 and 767 are in air, >80
kias, and N2 on both engines < 50 %.
Ram Air Turbine (RAT) and Engine Start and Ignition Panel (Boeing 767)
RAM AIR TURB Switch - Deploys RAT when pushed and held for at least two seconds.
PRESS Light - Indicates RAT is supplying satisfactory Pressure to the center hydraulic
system.
UNLKD Light - Indicates RAT is not Locked in the retracted position.
The RAT is primarily used on military fighters and transports while some advanced designs
employ emergency power units (EPU) that burn hydrazine to generate emergency power.
However, APUs and RATs are designed for extended use while the EPU only functions for a
brief period that allows the pilot to safely eject.
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RAT Precaution
The extension time for a RAT is approximately 2 seconds. Ensure all personnel are clear
prior to deployment as such deployment could result in serious or fatal injury.
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Inverter
An inverter is used in some aircraft systems to convert a portion of the aircraft's DC power to
AC. This AC is used mainly for instruments, radio, radar, lighting, and other accessories.
These inverters are usually built to supply current at a frequency of 400 cps, but some are
designed to provide more than one voltage; for example, 26 volt ac in one winding and 115
volts in another.
There are two basic types of inverters: the rotary and the static. Either type can be single
phase or multiphase. The multiphase inverter is lighter for the same power rating than the
single phase, but there are complications in distributing multiphase power and in keeping the
loads balanced.
Rotary Inverter
A rotary inverter is basically a DC motor driving an AC generator. Typically, they consist of a
28 V DC compound wound motor driving a 115 V AC single phase or 115/200 V AC three
phase alternator. Frequency control is achieved by regulating the motor field current. AC
output voltage is controlled by regulating the alternator field current.
Rotary inverters are reliable and produce a pure sine-wave output. Disadvantages of a rotary
inverter are lack of frequency control, low surge capability (50% above maximum rating) and
lower efficiency (50% to 80%). Rotary inverters are not as common as electronic (static)
inverters.
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Static inverters
Convert DC to AC, electronically. Static inverters are a solid state device with no moving
parts, are quieter, lighter and more reliable and require less maintenance than rotary
inverters because they do not have:
Brushes, slip rings and commutators.
Bearings.
Rotating windings.
They provide a backup AC power supply in the event the main AC supply is lost on aircraft
fitted with alternators. They only would supply essential AC in this case. Cooling holes must
be kept clear. The primary reason for failures is overheating. When operating, a whistle or
whine noise is normal. Inverters are usually operated in pairs so that in the event of one
failing, the other will supply the AC bus automatically.
Static Inverter Basic Operation
Unless you were to become involved in the repair and maintenance of these inverters, you
only need to know the basic principles of their operation, so we will refer to the block diagram
Figure and observe these points:
The filter prevents fluctuations and spikes on the 28 V DC supply.
A square wave generator (oscillator) produces a 400 Hz square wave output.
Pulse shaper, power driver and output stage shapes and transforms square wave into
sinusoidal wave at the required voltage.
The output filter removes the odd harmonics ensuring a sine wave output.
A voltage regulator circuit ensures the correct voltage is maintained.
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Transformers
Transformers allow the values of AC voltage and current to be changed through the use of
mutual inductance. A typical transformer consists of two coils of wire wound around a
common core, but not connected electrically.
When an alternating current flows in the primary coil, a voltage is induced into the secondary
coil. The amount of voltage generated in the secondary coil is equal to the voltage in the
primary times the turns ratio between the two coils.
For example, 100 turns in a primary coil and 1,000 turns in a secondary equates to a turns
ratio of 1:10. Therefore, if 115 volts flows across the primary, 1,150 volts are induced across
the secondary. Since a transformer does not generate any power, the product of the voltage
and the current in the secondary coil must be the same as that in the primary coil (less the
transformer losses). Therefore, whenever volts are increased in a transformer, amperes must
decrease by the same ratio. In other words, if the voltage is increased by a ratio of 1:10, the
current must decrease by a ratio of 10:1.
A transformer can have its primary coil connected directly across an AC power line and, as
long as there is an open circuit in the secondary coil, the back voltage produced in the
primary coil blocks the source voltage so almost no current flows through the primary
winding. However, when the circuit is complete in the secondary coil, secondary current flows
producing lines of flux that oppose the back voltage and allow source current to flow in the
primary coil.
Some transformers may have multiple secondaries or tappings at various voltages (both
higher and lower than supply voltage). A tap is nothing more than a wire connection made at
some point on a winding between the very ends. Not surprisingly, the winding turn/voltage
magnitude relationship of a normal transformer holds true for all tapped segments of
windings.
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Autotransformers
An autotransformer is a form of variable transformer. In an autotransformer there is only one
coil that acts as both primary and secondary. One lead of the coil is in common with both,
while the other secondary lead connects to a movable brush that makes contact with the coil.
The position of this brush determines the amount of secondary voltage.
Transformer Rectifier Principles

It is often necessary to convert alternating current into direct current to power various circuits
in the aircraft or within electronic equipment. The conversion of alternating to direct current is
accomplished by a circuit referred to as a rectifier. Rectifier circuits typically employ diodes
that allow current flow in only one direction.
In the illustrated example, if it were to be an aircraft TRU, it would transform 115/200 Volts
AC to around 30 Volts AC and then would be rectified for a 28 Volt DC output.
Typically, there is more than one TRU connected to a DC system thus providing redundancy.
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Transformer Rectifier Unit TRU

TRUs are a combination of static transformers and rectifiers used as a secondary or main
conversion unit in aircraft having rectified AC power systems. Aircraft TRUs are designed to
operate on a regulated 3 phase input of 200 VAC 400 Hz to provide a continuous DC output
of 28 VDC (approx.). They consist of a transformer and two, three phase bridge rectifier
assemblies. The transformer has a star wound primary winding and secondary winding is star
and delta. Each secondary connected to individual bridge rectifier made up of 6 silicon diodes
and connected in parallel.
A shunt connected to O/P enables reading of amps at aux terminals. Cooling of TRUs is
typically by natural convection. A thermal switch provides warning through a overheat (light)
(set at 150 deg c to 200 deg c).
400 Hz 3 phase AC, when full wave rectified, has a DC voltage with a ripple frequency of
2400 Hz. A star to star transformer s input and output are in phase. A star to delta
transformers input and output are 30 degrees out of phase. The outputs of both secondary
outputs are then full wave rectified. Therefore, the parallel rectified outputs of the two
secondary winding has a DC ripple frequency of 4,800 Hz. With such a high frequency DC
ripple the DC voltage is almost linear and the capacitive effect of the rectifier diodes smooth
the ripple to acceptable limits.
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Circuit Protection
Protective devices are installed in electrical circuits to prevent damage caused by
overloading a circuit or a short in a circuit. Overloading a circuit results from connecting loads
that are too large for the wiring. A short, on the other hand, occurs when part of a circuit
comes in direct contact with the return side of the circuit. When a short occurs, a path for
current flow with little or no resistance is established. This results in large amounts of current
flow and conductor heating.
2 main types of Circuit Protection Devices:
Fuses
Circuit Breakers
Fuses
One of the cheapest and most simple forms of protection for electronic circuitry is the fuse.
Although the outer appearance of fuses varies widely in electronic and electrical appliances,
the basic components of the physical construction are the same. These components are the
Body or Case, Mounting and Fuse Link.
The Body or Case can be made of glass, ceramic, fibre or other non-conducting material.
The body not only holds the fuse together but its design and construction material have
important functions. For example, a glass body allows easy identification of a blown fuse.
Some ceramic fuses are designed for use in areas where a spark from a blowing fuse could
be a hazard, especially in combustible environments.
The Mounting forms the electrical connection to the circuit. There are several types of
mounting including knife blade, cartridge or ferrule, and lead connection.
The Fuse Link connects to the mounting and is the part of the fuse that breaks the circuit.
The fuse link is designed to disconnect circuit current once predefined limits are exceeded.
The limits are determined by the size and composition of a fusing link. Once the current limit
of the fusing link is exceeded, the heat generated by the current flowing through the fusing
link will melt (or blow) the fusing link. There are various types of fuse link including bead,
element filament and others.
In the cartridge fuse, the fuse link is enclosed in a tube of insulating material with metal
ferrules at each end (for contact with the fuse holder). Some common insulating materials are
glass, bakelite, or a fiber tube filled with insulating powder. In the slow blow fuse illustration
shown above, this is not a spring but actually a wire wound resistor to limit current flow and
introduce a time factor.
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Current Limiter
The current limiter is another kind of fuse commonly found in aircraft power distribution
systems and other high current DC power systems. It's a device that still behaves like a fuse
but with much longer time constants. It's designed to be a protection from hard faults as
opposed to continuous but small overloads. This device will take over 6 times longer to open
than a fast blow fuse. This may seem like a really big difference but in a hard fault of this
circuit, it's not uncommon to see currents of 1000A or more . . . even the current limiter will
open in a few tenths of one millisecond . . . it will all be over before you know it!
There are some noteworthy characteristics of typical current limiters. Note that they will carry
nearly 2X their rated current indefinitely. This makes them behave more like fusible links. The
long time constant and overload capability of current limiters are not subject to the nuisance
tripping we encountered occasionally with much faster fuses. Current limiters are used in
large aircraft to protect long power distribution leads that carry huge starter-generator
currents and even feeds from batteries. This level of protection is dictated in large aircraft.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers overcome the one major disadvantage a fuse has when protecting a circuit.
That is, a fuse destroys itself whilst a circuit breaker trips and can be reset once the fault is
rectified. Another advantage the circuit breaker has is that it gives a visual indication that
circuit parameters have been exceeded and the circuit is no longer operating. We will now
look at the basic operation of the two types of circuit breaker. These are the magnetic circuit
breaker and the thermal circuit breaker.
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Magnetic Circuit Breaker

Referring to Figure, inside the sensing coil is a non-magnetic delay tube which houses a
spring-biased moving magnetic core (core). An armature links the contacts to the coil
mechanism, which functions as an electro-magnet. When the circuit breaker is set (button
actuator pushed in, rocker actuator to the correct position etc.), current flows through the
sensing coil and a magnetic field is created around the coil.
As current flow increases above the circuit breakers rated current, the:
Strength of the magnetic field increases.
Core moves towards the pole piece.
Magnetic circuit efficiency is increased and electro-magnetic force increases.
Core reaches fully in position.
Armature is attracted to the pole piece.
Trip mechanism activates (and the circuit breaker is tripped or popped).
Contacts are opened.
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Thermal Circuit Breaker

A thermal circuit breaker uses a bi-metallic strip to operate. The basic internal construction of
a thermal circuit breaker is shown in Figure. The thermal circuit breaker consists of three
major assemblies:
Bi-metal thermal element.
Contact type switch unit.
Mechanical latching mechanism.
In normal operation, current flows through the main contacts and thermal element to the load.
The heat produced in the thermal element is radiated away quickly. When current exceeds
the circuit breakers rating, (as in a short circuit) the temperature of the thermal element
begins to build up. Due to the different rates of expansion of the two metals in the thermal
element the following actions occur:
The thermal element distorts.
The latch mechanism releases.
The main switch contacts open.
The push button extends.
The circuit breaker has now tripped.
No current is supplied to the load.
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Circuit Breaker Precautions

We have seen the operation of the two types of circuit breakers, now we will look at the
precautions associated with them. Firstly, if a circuit breaker has tripped, DO NOT
immediately reset it. First, isolate the faulty circuit or component and repair it, then reset the
circuit breaker. Resetting it immediately could result in further damage to the circuit or
equipment being protected. Secondly, when replacing a damaged or unserviceable circuit
breaker only use the circuit breaker stated in the applicable publication. Failure to adhere to
this could damage the circuit or equipment the circuit breaker is protecting.
Small white band shows when tripped.
Aids pilot to see which C/B has popped.
Protects circuit wiring.
Can be reset no need to carry spares.
Magnetic or Thermal (Bimetal) types.
Either trip free or non trip free.
Trip free will still trip even if trying to reset.
Thermal trip free must cool down.
Non trip free can be manually held closed.
Most common are trip free thermal.
Note the symbols used in schematics / wiring diagrams.

All circuit breaker panels are clearly labelled to show circuits they protect and must clearly
show their current rating in AMPS. The primary reason why circuit breakers and fuses are so
close to the power supply (busbar) is to protect the wiring run from short circuits, which would
cause an overload and possible fire. The secondary feature is to protect the component at
the end of the wiring
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Reverse Current Cut-Out Relay

A reverse current cut-out relay is used principally in a DC generating system either as a
separate unit or as part of a voltage regulator. The circuit arrangement, as applied to tin
generating system typical of several types of small aircraft, is shown in the figure. The relay
consists of two coils wound on a core and a spring-controlled armature and contact
assembly. The shunt winding is made up of many turns of fine wire connected across the
generator so that voltage is impressed on all times. The series winding, of a few turns of
heavy wire, is in series with the main supply line and is designed to carry the entire line
current. The winding is also connected to the contact assembly, which under static conditions
is held in the open position by means of a spring.
When the generator starts operating and the voltage builds up to a value which exceeds that
of the battery, the shunt winding of the relay produces sufficient magnetism in the core to
attract the armature and so close the contacts. Thus the relay acts as an automatic switch to
connect the generator to the busbar, and also to the battery so that it is supplied with
charging current. The field produced by the series winding aids the shunt-winding field in
keeping the contacts firmly closed.
When the generator is being shut down or, say, a failure in its output occurs, then the output
falls below the battery voltage and there is a momentary discharge of current from the
battery; in other words, a condition of reverse current through the cut-out relay series winding
is set up. As this also causes a reversal of its magnetic field, the shunt winding-field will be
opposed, thereby reducing core magnetization until the armature spring opens the contacts.
The generator is therefore switched to the off-line condition to protect it from damaging
effects which would otherwise result from motoring current discharging from the battery.
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Switched Reverse Current Relay

This relay is adopted in the DC. generator systems of some types of small aircraft, its
purpose being to permit switching of a generator on to the main bus bar, and at the same
time retain the disconnect function in the event of reverse current arrangement is shown in
the figure.
In addition to a current coil the relay has a voltage coil, and a pair of contacts actuated via a
contactor coil. When the voltage output is at a regulated value the current through the voltage
coil is sufficient to actuate its contacts which then connect the generator switch and contactor
coil to ground. The contactor coil is thus energized from the A+ output of the generator and
so the auxiliary and main contacts close to connect the generator output to the battery and
main busbar. The magnetic effect of passing through the current coil assists that of the
voltage coil in keeping the pilot contacts closed.
During engine shut-down, the generator output voltage decreases thereby initiating a reverse
current condition, and because the magnetic effect of the current through the current coil now
oppose of the voltage coil, the pilot contacts open to de-energize the contactor coil; thus, the
main and auxiliary contacts are opened to disconnect the generator from the battery and
main busbar.
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Reverse Current Circuit Breakers

These circuit breakers are designed to protect power supply systems and associated circuits
against fault currents of a magnitude greater than those at which cut-outs normally operate.
Furthermore, they are designed to remain in a locked-out condition to ensure complete
isolation of a circuit until a fault has been cleared.
An example of a circuit breaker designed for use in a DC generating system is shown in the
figure. It consists of a magnetic unit, the field strength and direction of which are controlled by
a single-turn coil connected between the generator positive output and the busbar via a main
contact assembly. An auxiliary contact assembly is also provided for connection in series with
the shunt-field winding of the generator.
The opening of both contact assemblies is controlled by a latching mechanism actuated by

the magnet unit under heavy reverse current conditions. In common with other circuit
breakers, resetting after a tripping operation has to be done manually, and is accomplished
by a lever which is also actuated by the latching mechanism. Visual indication of a tripped
condition is provided by a coloured indicator flag which appears behind a window in the
circuit breaker cover. Manual tripping of the unit is effected by a push-button adjacent to the
resetting lever.
The figure is based on the circuit arrangement of a DC generating system used in a particular
type of aircraft, and is an example of the application of a reverse current circuit breaker in
conjunction with a cut-out relay. Unlike the reverse current cutout relay circuit, the relay
controls the operation of a line contactor connected in series with the coil of the reverse
current circuit breaker. Under normal current flow conditions closing of the relay energizes
the line contactor, the heavy- duty contacts of which connect the generator output to the
busbar via the coil and main contacts of the normally closed reverse current circuit breaker.
The magnetic field set up by the current flow assists that of the magnet unit, thus maintaining
the breaker contacts in the closed position. The generator shunt field circuit is supplied via
the auxiliary contacts.
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When the generator is being shut down, or a failure of its output occurs, the reverse current
resulting from the drop in output to a value below that of the battery flows through the circuit
as indicated, and the cut-out relay is operated to de-energize the line contactor which takes
the generator off line. Under these conditions the reverse current circuit breaker will remain
closed, since the current magnitude is much lower than that at which a specific type of
breaker is normally rated (some typical ranges are (generator) 200250 A and 850950 A).
Let us consider now what would happen in the event of either the cut-out relay or the line
contactor failing to open under the above low magnitude reverse current conditions, e.g.
contacts have welded due to wear and excessive arcing. The reverse current would feed
back to the generator, and in addition to its motoring effect on the generator, it would also
reverse the generator field polarity. The reverse current passing through the circuit breaker
coil would continue to increase in trying to overcome mechanical loads due to the engine and
generator coupling, and so the increasing reverse field reduces the strength of the magnet
unit. When the reverse current reaches the pie-set trip value of the circuit breaker, the field of
the magnet unit is neutralized and repelled, causing the latch mechanism to release the main
and auxiliary contacts to completely isolate the generator from the busbar. The breaker must
be reset after the circuit fault has been cleared.
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Overvoltage Protection
Overvoltage is a condition which could arise in a generating system in the event of a fault in
the field excitation circuit, e.g. internal grounding of the field windings or an open-circuit in the
voltage regulator sensing lines. Devices are therefore necessary to protect consumer
equipment against voltages higher than those at which they are normally designed to
operate. The methods adopted vary between aircraft systems and also on whether they
supply DC or AC. An example of an overvoltage relay method applied to one type of DC
system is shown in the figure.
The relay consists of a number of contacts connected in all essential circuits of the generator
system, and mechanically coupled to a latching mechanism. This mechanism is
electromagnetically controlled by a sensing coil and armature assembly, the coil being
connected in the generator shunt-field circuit and in series with a resistor, the resistance of
which decreases as the current through it is increased. Under normal regulated voltage
conditions, the sensing coil circuit resistance is high enough to prevent generator shunt-field
current from releasing the relay latch mechanism, and so the contacts remain closed and the
generator remains connected to the busbar. If, however, an open circuit occurs in the
regulator voltage coil sensing line, shunt-field current increases and, because of the inverse
characteristics of the relay sensing coil resistor, the electromagnetic field by the coil causes
the latch mechanism to release all the relay contacts to the open position, thereby isolating
the system from the busbar. After the fault has been cleared, the contacts are reset by
depressing the push button.
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The figure illustrates a method employed in a frequency-wild AC generating system, the full
of which is provided by magnetic amplifiers. The output of the overvoltage protection
magnetic amplifier is fed to a bridge rectifier and to the coil of a relay, via a feedback winding.
The main contacts of the relay are connected in the normal DC supply switching circuit to the
line contactor.
Under normal voltage output conditions the impedance of the magnetic amplifier is such that
its AC output, and the rectified AC through the relay coil, maintain the relay in the deenergized condition. When an overvoltage condition is produced the current through the relay
coil increases to a pre-determined energizing value, and the opening of the relay contacts
interrupts the DC supply to the line contactor, which then disconnects the generator from the
busbar. At the same time, the main control unit interrupts the supply of self-excitation current
to the generator, causing its AC output to collapse to zero. The relay resets itself and after
the fault has been cleared the generator output may be restored and connected to the busbar
by carrying out the normal starting cycle.
An overvoltage protection system adopted in one example of a constant frequency (nonparalleled) AC generating system is shown in basic form in the figure.
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The detector utilizes solid-state circuit elements which sense all three phases of the
generator output. and is set to operate at a level greater than 130 3 volts. An overvoltage
condition is an excitation-type fault probably resulting from loss of sensing to, or control of,
the voltage regulator such that excessive field excitation of a generator is provided.
The signal resulting from an overvoltage is supplied through an inverse time delay to two
solid-state switches. When switch s1 is made it completes a circuit through the coil of the
generator control relay, one contact of which opens to interrupt the generator excitation field
circuit. The other contact closes and completes a circuit to the generator breaker trip relay,
this in turn, de-energizing the generator breaker to disconnect the generator from the busbar.
The making of solid-state switch S2 energizes the light relay causing it to illuminate the
annunciator light which is a white one in the actual system on which the figure is based. The
purpose of the inverse time delay is to prevent nuisance tripping under transient conditions.
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Differential Current Protection

The purpose of a differential current protection system is to detect a short-circuited feeder
line or generator busbar which would result in a very high current demand on a generator,
and possibly result in an electrical fire. Under these conditions, the difference between the
current leaving the generator and the current arriving at the busbar is called a differential fault
or a feeder fault. In an a.c. system current comparisons are made phase for phase, by two
three-phase current transformers, one on the ground or neutral side of the generator (ground
DPCT) and the other (the load DPCT) on the down stream side of the busbar. The figure
illustrates the arrangement and principle of a system as applied to a single-phase line.
If the current from the generator is I, and the fault current between the generator and busbar
equals If, then the net current at the busbar will be equal to I - If. The fault current will flow
through the aircraft structure and back to the generator through the ground DPCT. The
remainder of the current I - If, will flow through the load DPCT, the loads, the aircraft
structure, and then back to the generator via the ground DPCT. Thus, the ground DPCT will
detect the generators total current (I If) + (If.) which is equal to I, and the load DPCT will
detect I If.
If the difference in current (i.e. the fault current) between the two current transformers on the
phase line is sensed to be greater than the specified limit (20 or 30 amperes are typical
values) a protector circuit within a generator control unit will trip the generator control relay.
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Merz Price Protection System

This system is applied to some AC generating systems to provide protection against faults
between phases or between one of the phases and ground. The connections for one phase
are shown in the figure; those for other phases (or other feeders in a single-phase system)
being exactly the same. Two similar current transformers are connected to the line, one at
each end, and their secondary windings are connected together via two relay coils. Since the
windings are in opposition, and as long as the currents at each end of the line are equal, the
induced e.m.fs are in balance and no current flows through the relay coils. When a fault
occurs, the fault current creates an unbalanced condition causing current to flow through the
coils of the relays thereby energizing them so as to open the line at each end.
Electrical Bus Bars

In most aircraft types, the output from generating sources is coupled to one or more low
impedance conductors known as bus bars. Bus bars are typically copper or aluminium bar to
which input and output supply connections can be made. Known as a bus or buses.
Some organised form of distribution is necessary for load sharing purposes, and for
prioritisation under load shedding conditions. The more important the system the more
possible supplies it may have. Distribution is designed for the arrangement of busbars and
distribution circuits so that they may be fed from different power sources. It is usual to
categorise services into their order of importance and, in general, they fall into 3 groups:
Vital, essential and non-essential.
Vital Services
Vital services are those which would be required after an emergency wheels-up landing, eg.
Emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers. These services are
connected directly to the battery.
Essential Services
Essential Services are those required to ensure safe flight in an in-flight emergency situation.
They are connected to DC and AC busbars, as appropriate, and in such a way that they can
always be supplied.
Non-essential Services
Non-essential Services are those which can be isolated in an in-flight emergency for load
shedding purposes.
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Bus Tie Breaker - BTB

The BTBs used in these types of circuits are interchangeable three phase contactors (same
part No) they will however, perform different functions within the circuit. They may also be
used as Generator Circuit Breakers (GCB) controlled by the GCU, or they may be known as
Bus Tie Contactors.
These contactors contain three heavy duty contacts which connect three phase power to the
generator busbars where it is distributed to the aircraft AC loads. They also contain a
number of auxiliary contacts that are used to connect various control and indication circuits
within the AC distribution system.
Power supplied to the close coil causes the main contacts to close and the auxiliary contacts
change, so the normally open contacts close and become mechanically locked in this
position. Power can now be removed from the close coil and the breaker remains in the
closed position.
Power applied to the trip coil releases the mechanical lock and spring-tension forces the main
contacts to open and the auxiliary contacts to return to the normally closed position.
Generator Circuit Breaker GCB

The main functions of the GCB in a split bus system are:
To connect the AC generators output to its respective bus if the generator is serviceable.
To ensure that when the generators output is connected to the generator bus the bus tie
breaker is tripped therefore, ensuring that the AC loads receive power from only power
source at any one time.
To isolate the generators output from the aircrafts loads if a fault is detected by the
generator control unit.
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Basic DC Aircraft
This is a simple representation of a small aircraft with one generator and how the power is
distributed. The battery would be charged from the bus when generator was outputting at a
higher voltage. The inverter provides the aircraft with AC voltage.
Tied DC Bus System

Buses are separated from each other, particularly with respect to order of importance for
flight safety and in relation to redundancy following power malfunctions. Each generator
feeds its own bus, and the tied breaker would close if only one generator was available such
as a situation of a generator failure or engine failure.
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Basic Twin Engine AC System

In this example the generators (alternators) supply their individual buses. The AC bus then
feeds the TRU which provides the DC requirements of the aircraft as well as charge the
battery. The emergency AC bus is fed from the AC bus directly. Should this AC supply fail for
any reason the static inverter would be commanded to start and provide the Emergency AC
from the battery.
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Split System Breaker

If the split system breaker (SSB) will not close, it would be caused by a situation where the
buses properties would be outside limits of voltage, phase rotation sequence or frequency.
A tied bus system means the AC generators outputs are connected together onto the same
bus. Before the generators can be connected together or paralleled they must be matched
so:
Their output wave forms are the same.
They must have the same phase rotation.
Their output voltages must be the same.
They must have the same frequency.
Their voltages are in phase.
The phase rotation will be correct if the generators are all connected to the lines in the same
way. If this is not correct, a correct synchronisation indication will not be achievable.
Their output voltages will be within acceptable limits if the voltage regulators are set correctly.
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This is a schematic representation of an aircraft AC/DC power distribution system.
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Split Bus Distribution System
When operated on the ground with external power connected & no engines running, all loads
will be supplied by the external power source via the external power relay & the closed
contacts of the BTB (note both GCBs will be tripped & the changeover relay will be energised
closed).
When one of the aircrafts engines is started & its generator is operating within system limits
its GCB will energise close. This will cause the external power relay to open removing
external power from the system loads. The BTB however, will remain closed, connecting the
three phase power from the operational generator to all of the aircrafts loads.
When the second aircraft engine is started & its generator is operating within system limits its
GCB will close. As the power to the BTBs close coil is now redirected through the auxiliary
contacts of the GCB to the BTBs trip coil the BTB will trip causing the operational generators
to supply their individual busbars. Power from the generator busbars is then distributed to the
AC non-essential loads & TRUs. The essential AC loads are supplied from the AC essential
bus which under normal operating conditions (both AC generators operating within system
tolerance) is connected via a changeover relay to the No. 1 generator bus.
If one of the generators should become inoperative (fail or be switched OFF), its GCB will
trip. Power is now supplied via the auxiliary contacts of the tripped GCB to the close coil of
the BTB causing the BTB to close. When closed the BTB connects both generator buses
together thereby enabling the output from the serviceable generator to supply power to all
system loads.
If, for any reason, both generators should become inoperative (fail or be switched OFF) then
both GCBs will trip. Battery power will energise the BTB closed however as both generators
are off line no power will be available to operate the non-essential loads. In this situation the
changeover relay between No. 1 generator bus & the essential AC bus will automatically deenergise & connect the essential bus to the static inverter. The systems essential AC loads
will be supplied with 115 VAC from the static inverter while the non-essential AC loads will be
effectively isolated. As we saw in DC systems if the system operates for a long period of time
under these conditions the battery will become discharged. Therefore, before this occurs the
circuits battery relay will be turned OFF isolating the aircrafts AC & DC essential loads
from power while allowing the aircraft to operate under emergency DC power.
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External / Ground Power

Electrical power is required for the starting of engines, operation of certain services during
turn around servicings, eg. Lighting, and for testing electrical systems during routine
maintenance.
DC Power Receptacle / Plug

Application of external DC to aircraft is via this type of plug (nato type). It has 2 large pins for
the DC supply and earth return, and a smaller pin used for interlock sense and polarity check.
It also ensures plug will only fit one way in receptacle. The reason why it is shorter than the
main pins is that in the event of the plug being withdrawn with the circuit live, the external
power relay will de-energise before the main pins are disengaged from the socket. This
ensures that breaking of the supply takes place at the contactor, thus preventing arcing at the
pins of the external power plug/connector.
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DC External Power Circuit

As can be seen from the diagram, the short pin is connected to the positive pin of the plug.
This connection is internal in the plug. Should the Ground Power Cart lead/plug be
accidentally wired incorrectly, the external power relay will not energise, due to the reverse
polarity diode, and thus, incorrect polarity will not be supplied to the aircraft.
This is a schematic representation of a typical aircraft DC external power system.
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AC Power Receptacle / Plug

4 Large pins. These are one for each phase and one for the earth. The 2 small pins are the
interlock sense which must be seen correct before the AC can be connected to modern
aircraft. This also means as if the plug is accidentally pulled or someone trips over the lead
dislodging it, the circuit between (E) and (F) is interrupted cutting power. This is done so
there can be no arcing of the big current carrying pins and sockets.
Auxiliary Contacts Bus Tie Breaker and Generator Circuit Breaker

Interlocking circuitry through auxiliary contacts of relative contactors and breakers is used to
prevent unsynchronised power sources being connected in parallel. Refer back to the
breaker illustrated in Figure and notice the auxiliary contacts which have both normally
closed and normally open contacts. The bottom set of contacts will trip all the other generator
breakers so ground-power cannot be connected to any generator.
Switching ON the on-coming source automatically switches OFF the present source. For
example, ground power is supplying the loads and the APU generator is switched ON. The
APU breaker closes and its auxiliary contacts de-energise the ground power contactor,
disconnecting ground power from bus system.
This is a schematic representation of a typical aircraft AC external power system.
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ELECTRICAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Degrees of Electric Shock
The human body depends on two body functions to maintain life:
Breathing or respiration.
Heartbeat or circulation.
To maintain these two functions the brain, via the bodys nervous system, sends tiny
electrical pulses to the muscles that control breathing and circulation. Should there be a
failure of these two functions, then life will be in danger.
When the body is exposed to an electric shock, the shock will cause current to flow within the
body that can interfere with the electrical impulses that control the respiration and circulation
functions. The degree of interference is dependent upon:
Where the current flows within the body.
The amount of current flowing.
The duration of the electric shock.
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Reaction of Human Body to Electric Shock

The human body is not designed to withstand a continuous application of electricity. Muscular
contraction caused by an electric shock can lead to serious injury or death.
Current (milliamperes) Effect
up to 2 mA
limit of perception
2 mA to 8 mA
sensation becomes obvious and more painful.
8 mA to 12 mA
muscle spasms and pain
12 mA to 20 mA
unable to control muscles, it becomes impossible to let go of a

live conductor.
20 mA to 50 mA
if current flow is across the chest, interference with the heart and
lung muscles may result in breathing stopping.
50 mA to 100 mA if current flow is across the chest, heart commences ventricular

fibrillation.
100 mA to 200 mA heart stops beating
above 200 mA
severe burns.
Immediate Action
If you find someone who is in contact with live electrical equipment/wiring you must isolate
the victim from the current source before trying to give first aid.
WARNING
Do NOT touch the victim until the power source is removed.
WARNING
Do NOT cut the cable.
The action to be followed is:
1.
Isolate the victim from the power by either:
Turning the power OFF at the isolation switch (preferred method),

OR
If this is not possible, use of an insulating material to remove the victim from the source is
essential. An insulating material is anything which will not conduct electricity. (Insulating
materials could be dry wood, blankets and hoses etc.)
THEN
2.
Give first aid to victim.
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Precautions
Only qualified personnel are to perform electrical maintenance.
Maintenance to be carried out in accordance with applicable maintenance manual.
When disconnecting/connecting any electrical equipment, ensure power is OFF.
Ensure ALL power is isolated before working inside panels.
Before any maintenance on electrical equipment is carried out, the equipment must
be isolated from electrical power.
WARNING
Electrical equipment is to be isolated from power prior to maintenance.
Attach safety notices (tags) to switches and circuit breakers as

required
Before commencing work on any circuit or component in aircraft:

o
Isolate power to circuit pull circuit breaker / fuse, and
Tag relevant circuit breaker / fuse
Electrical circuit isolation

When you are working on and around aircraft, there are many people performing all sorts of
maintenance, from cleaning the aircraft to fuel replenishment and fault rectification. During
these maintenance checks and servicing there are many dangers that could happen to an
unwary person. The electrical power available on and around aircraft ranges from 12 volts
DC (Direct Current) to 415 volts AC (Alternating Current).
When working on aircraft it is often necessary to isolate equipment from the power supply to
enable work to be carried out. This can be done by:
Switching off the circuit breaker or master switch.
Removing the fuse.
This in itself is not enough to protect you from some other person turning on the power while
you are still working on the equipment. You must also put signs on the switches to alert
others that work is being done on the system. This should make you the only person who has
authority to turn these circuits back on.
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Warning
These signs do not prevent others from turning the switch back on or replacing the fuse or
resetting the circuit breaker. The best way to ensure that no electrical power is applied, is to
isolate the aircraft power supplies totally, if this is possible.
Remove all rings, bracelets and similar metal items.
Never assume that a circuit is OFF.

Do not tamper with safety devices. Verify that all safety interlocks operate correctly.
Keep all tools and equipment in good working order. Use the correct tool for the job.
Note: Incident
One incident with an airframe mechanic who, while working on some totally unrelated
equipment, accidentally contacted a live 28 V terminal with his gold wedding ring. Before the
power could be turned off his ring welded itself to the terminal and glowed red hot, burning
his finger to the bone. It was later amputated at the knuckle. Remember! The smell of burning
flesh is not at all pleasant, especially when it is your own!
Verify that capacitors have been discharged.
Do not remove equipment earth connections.
Do not use adaptors that defeat earth connections.
Do not work when you are tired or taking medication that can cause drowsiness.
Avoid working in poor light.
Avoid working in damp areas.
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Isolation Safety Equipment

Mains powered equipment (i.e. 240 V or 415 V 50 Hz) is not to be used on an aircraft unless
it is operated through an Residual Current Device (RCD) or Isolation Transformer. An RCD is
sometimes referred to as an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB).
Ensure RCD is installed as close as possible to power outlet (ie. Hangar wall). This way it
protects the entire circuit, extension lead and appliance, not just appliance. Most RCDs
operate with a discrepancy of 30mA. There are also 10mA RCDs, but these are usually used
in hospitals, etc.
RCD
A RCD (Residual Current Device) is a device which detects an imbalance between the
current 'leaving' and 'returning' from and to the circuit. If more current leaves than returns
then some is leaking away (to 'earth') due to a fault.
Electrical Power Leads

The following procedures are to be observed when using electrical extension leads:
If at all possible, a Residual Current Detector (RCD) is to be used (sometimes called

an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker). Do not use when working in damp conditions or
outside in inclement weather.
Extension leads must be fully unwound before use.
When routed through doors, the lead is to be protected to prevent the door being
closed and damaging the cable.
If leads are to be run across walkways or driveways, etc, then feed-through covers or
ducts are to be used for protection.
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Battery Maintenance Safety Precautions
Never short out the terminals of a battery.
Do NOT charge batteries while still fitted to aircraft (on ground) as this could create an
explosive situation.
Batteries release hydrogen and oxygen during charging Hydrogen is highly

explosive. Ensure NO sources of ignition come anywhere in the vicinity of charging
batteries.
Acids and alkalines neutralise each other. Acid is very harmful to ni-cad batteries. Use
separate equipment (ALL) and maintenance facilities for lead-acid and alkaline
battery maintenance. Do not store close to each other.
A lead acid battery under charge will release large quantities of hydrogen and oxygen
gasses as it reaches the fully charged state. Under no circumstances must the
charger be connected or disconnected with the power turned on. The resulting spark
will ignite the gas and could cause a massive explosion. A 4% build up of hydrogen in
the air will explode.
When using sulphuric acid or potassium hydroxide to mix electrolytes, always slowly
add to water. Do not do in reverse order. This causes splattering.
Ensure access to neutralising agents in clearly marked containers.
Only charge in a well ventilated facility.
Only ever add water to a battery in service Never acid or alkaline
Be familiar with batteries and electrolytes to cope with them safely
Ensure the correct PPE is worn when performing maintenance on batteries:

o
Safety full face shield.
Acid proof gloves.
Acid proof apron.
Acid and alkaline electrolytes are dangerous in eyes or on skin. Flush with water and
seek medical attention for eyes and, if necessary, for skin.
Beware of jewellery watches, rings, bangles. Can short terminals.
REMEMBER: SAFETY FIRST
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Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
TOPIC 13.6 EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS

Purpose of Equipment
Emergency locator transmitters help rescue crews find airplanes which land away from an
airport. The transmitters send a radio signal to satellites, other airplanes, and air traffic
control facilities. Rescue crews use information from these sources to find the airplane.
Frequency:
121.5 MHz. Civil aircraft distress frequency.
243 MHz. Military aircraft distress frequency.
406.025 MHz. Satellite frequency.
Modulation:
Data biphase L encoding, short message, Serialized Aviation User Protocol.
121.5/243 100% AM tone, swept downwards 1500 to 500 Hz @ 3 sweeps/second
RF Output Power:
406.025 - 5 Watts.
121.5/243 MHz 250mW
Battery Endurance:
50 hours minimum.
Physical:
Length: 68cm
Width: 8.5cm
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B2-13.6 Equipment and Furnishings

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Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
In-Flight Entertainment System
Uses:
In-flight movies
Video Games
Duty-free shopping
Customer Surveys
PES Function Groups

Head-End
Digitises audio and modulates onto an RF carrier. Audio and Video RF signals are mixed
prior to distribution throughout the aircraft.
Area Distribution
Intelligent data routing to and from the seat columns, RF splitting with level adjustment and
column power control.
Seat Group
Passenger entertainment selection, channel tuning, audio/video presentation and gives
passengers access to the service functions
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Part 66 Subject
B2-13f Electrical
Head-End Equipment
Primary Access Terminal
Gives cabin crew full control over entertainment system video player control, processing of
credit cards, print receipts, preview movies.
Maintenance crew can run full diagnostics of the system components and print failure
reports.
80486 based PC running Windows
10 inch touch screen LCD
500MB hard disk
Magnetic credit card reader
Cabin File Server

80486 DX 4 / 100 MHz based PC with 500MB hard drive, automatic operation - no user
action required.
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Video Players
Teac triple deck VEP, VCR, VCP, VTR, VTP 8mm video
Video Modulator
Modulates up to 8 video signals (PAL or NTSC) and combines them onto a single RF cable
Two video modulators
can be cascaded to give
16 video channels
Later models as used in TES process 24 channels

Passenger Entertainment System Controllers
Adds audio signals to RF signal generated by video modulator
PESC-V (video):
adds soundtrack to films etc
PESC-A (audio):
adds radio stations and other pre-recorded messages.
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Area Distribution Equipment

Area Distribution Box
Distributes RF video and audio throughout cabin
ADB is also responsible for:
Control of 115V power to seat columns
Routing of serial communications between seats and controllers
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Seat Group Equipment

Seat Electronics Box (Audio Video Unit)
AVU
Location - Throughout the aircraft under the Seats
Multiple
Each AVU controls the channel selection and volume for 2 or 3 seats
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Passenger Control Unit
UPCU
1 per seat
Allows the passenger to control the system. Includes channel selection, volume
control, game control, telephone, reading light on/off, and Flight Attendant call
button
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System Block Diagram
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TOPIC 13.9 LIGHTS

Exterior Lighting
The above illustration shows most of the exterior lighting used on a modern commercial
aircraft.
The main lighting to be identified is;
1. Navigation
2. Anti Collision
3. Landing and Taxi
4. Ice detection and
5. Strobe lights
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Navigation Lights
May also be known as position lights on some aircraft. Positioned on each wing tip and the
tail of an aircraft (some aircraft have a dual light system where a white tail light is located at
the end of each wing tip). Coloured, so other aircraft can determine the direction of travel of
the aircraft. The tail light is clear/white, the port light is red and the starboard light is green.
Aviation authority regulations require the lights are visible at certain angles. These angles are
shown below.
The main fault in lighting systems is bulb failure. When checking light systems always check
that all bulbs in a multi-bulb light are working. Always replace a bulb with one that has the
part number listed in the aircraft maintenance manual.
When checking lighting systems with an intensity control, check the system through the full
intensity range.
Navigation Light Operation

May be selected to:
Steady or Flash (not common on many of todays aircraft)
Bright or Dim (also not a common feature on modern aircraft).
Most commercial aircraft now have a redundancy system, where two lamps are placed in
parallel. If one lamp fails the other can be used until the aircraft arrives at a maintenance
facility.
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Cautions
Do not handle bulbs with bare hands, oil from skin will cause local heat spots and bulbs may
fail prematurely. These bulbs operate at very high temperatures.
Anti-Collision Beacons
These lights are flashing red beacons producing between 40 and 100 flashes per minute.
They should be visible from all directions within an angle of 30 degrees above and below the
horizontal plane of the aircraft. An aircraft can have one unit on top of the vertical stabiliser or
one on top of the fuselage and one on the bottom of the fuselage.
There are three types of anti-collision beacons which are described below.
Rotary Reflector Type

Light aircraft use a rotating reflector type which has a small motor and gear train driving a
reflector around a bulb. The light has a red lens. Larger aircraft use a sealed beam shining
onto a double reflector rotated by a small motor and gear train above the sealed beam.
Rotating Bulb Type

Two bulbs with a reflective surface on approximately half the bulb are positioned with the
reflective surfaces back to back and are rotated by a small motor and gear train.
Strobe Type
The strobe light as an anti-collision light utilises a red lens. It operates in the same principle
as any other strobe light, where by a high intensity light is generated from a power source
located independent of the strobe unit. This power source supplies high voltage to the strobe
unit at the required flash rate.
White Collision Avoidance Strobe Lights

Most aircraft have two of these lights, usually mounted in each wing tip but there can be one
underneath and one on top. Larger aircraft have a third one mounted in the tailplane. A few
light aircraft have only one mounted on top of the vertical stabiliser.
The strobe lights give an extremely intense flash of white light for a very short period at a
frequency of 50 to 80 times a minute. The flash should be visual from any point around the
aircraft in an area 30 degrees above and below the aircraft horizon.
They denote that the aircraft is in flight. Due to their intensity they are switched on just before
takeoff and switched off after exiting the runway on landing.
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Strobe Light Flash Tube

The flash tube is filled with argon gas and has a cathode, anode and an external trigger
electrode. The clear tube can be made from glass or quartz. Glass tubes should not be
touched by hand, so care should be taken when changing the tube. If the tube is touched it
should be cleaned with a soft dry cloth.
Power packs can be manufactured to supply one, two or three lights. If a multi-light
installation is installed with single power packs, the packs have to be interconnected so the
lights are synchronised to flash at the same time.
Power packs are located independent of the strobe unit, usually in a water proof section of
the aircraft.
Precautions
The output power from the power pack can be lethal. Always ensure that input power to the
power pack is disconnected for five minutes before any maintenance is performed. Unless
otherwise stated in Manual.
The white flashes produced by a strobe light can cause eye damage if looked at from a close
position.
Do not look directly at an operating strobe.
Do not operate strobes during refueling operations.
Do not touch the tube assembly with bare hands.
Strobe Lights
Remember the precautions detailed under this heading above. CASA has reported on five
on-the-ground explosions and a fatal crash involving strobe lights and tip tanks. It is
suspected that because of the high voltage, bad connections (including the airframe return
path) can cause arcs to occur and ignite fuel vapour leading to an explosion and/or fire. Care
must be taken to ensure that connections are clean and secure and that there is return path
bonding so arcs will not occur. Care must also be taken to ensure there are no fuel leaks or
vapour sources in the area of these lights.
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Landing Lights
These lights are normally cooled by ram air so beware not to overheat on ground. These
lights generate a lot of heat so testing on ground must be carried out quickly.
The type of bulb used in landing lights can be a pre-focused bulb placed in a parabolic
reflector or a sealed beam. Most aircraft use sealed beams.
When replacing lamps, tighten the retaining device evenly so the glass sealed beam will not
be placed under stress, which may cause it to crack. A crack in a sealed beam allows air to
enter the bulb and the filament will burn out.
Quartz Halogen Bulb

These bulbs are used in some aircraft taxi lights, landing lights and floodlights. Their
envelopes are made of quartz which withstands much higher temperatures than glass. The
hotter filament temperature produces more light for the same electrical power and these
bulbs have a longer life than the ordinary incandescent bulb. Care must be taken not to touch
the envelope of this type of bulb. If it is handled it must be cleaned with lead-free spirit.
Two types of landing lights exist. Fixed and retractable.
Fixed Landing Lights

Fixed landing lights can be set in the nose or leading edge of the main plane behind a
Perspex cover. Their beam is fixed and can only be adjusted by removing the Perspex cover
and adjusting the beam guiding screws.
Retractable Landing Lights

These are mounted in the wing, flaps or under the fuselage. When retracted they will be flush
with the surface of the aircraft. They can be extended out to one or more positions and are
driven by a small split field rotary actuator and a gear train.
Extend to One Position Only

With this type when the control switch is selected ON, the landing light extends to a preset
position where a cam depresses a micro-switch and stops the actuator motor.
Extend to Two or More Pre-Set Positions

This system has more than one position on the selection switch, for example,
APPROACH and LAND.
For each selected switch position, there is a micro-switch which the cam will strike, stopping
the light in that position. Some aircraft use these types of landing lights as taxi lights and on
selection of taxi the lamp is stopped in a position suitable for taxiing.
This system is also used when the landing light is located in one of the flap fairings. At each
of the flap settings, a micro switch and cam arrangement is used to extend or retract the
landing light to ensure that it remains parallel with the aircrafts path. This occurs
automatically when the landing light switch is selected to on and the flaps are cycled through
their desired range.
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Manual Selection to any Position

Operated by a switch spring-loaded to centre in the OFF position from the EXTEND and
RETRACT positions, this system allows the crew to stop the light at any angle. Microswitches limit full extension and retraction to prevent damage to the motor and gear train.
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Taxi Lights
Most taxi lights are fixed and can be mounted alongside fixed landing lights, but set on a
different angle. Many aircraft have them attached to the nose landing gear. By attaching it to
the nose landing gear of the aircraft, the beam will follow the intended direction of the aircraft.
The electrical circuit is the same as for fixed landing lights.
Basic ON-OFF switch control. Some aircraft operate through a relay in the landing gear
limiting use to periods when the landing gear is extended.
Retractable landing light and taxi lamp circuit for Cessna 310
Ice Detection or Leading Edge Lights

Mounted on the side of the fuselage under a Perspex cover, these lights shine a beam down
the wing leading edge. This permits observation of the wing to visually detect ice formation
on the wing. Usually a sealed beam lamp is used.
On some aircraft this type of ice detection is used in conjunction with a black strip of paint,
located on the wing leading edge.
Basic ON-OFF switch control.
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Interior Lighting
Cabin Lighting
Cabin lights are used to illuminate the main cabin of the aircraft. They are normally located on
the ceiling of the aircraft or near the overhead lockers of the aircraft. Most modern aircraft
have fluorescent lamps which use indirect lighting techniques to disperse the light around the
cabin.
The controls are located at the flight attendant station of the aircraft. In larger commercial
aircraft, several control units maybe used to control different sections of the aircraft. Most
modern commercial aircraft have the cabin lighting operating off the ground service bus, as
this allows for the operation of the aircrafts cabin lighting without the need for the aircraft AC
power to be fully activated.
Lamp replacement should be done in accordance with the aircrafts manual. Never use lamps
or ballast units not stipulated in the aircrafts manuals.
Most military aircraft, fitted with cabin lighting, use incandescent lamps in dome lights. These
are dispersed around the cabin to provide lighting. Some aircraft (cargo transport) have multi
coloured lamps for the purpose of night operations. These lamps are usually red or another
colour suitable for night vision equipment.
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Cabin Window Lighting

This type of cabin lighting is used on most commercial aircraft to improve lighting of the
seating area. They are usually fitted in parallel along the side of the interior of the aircraft.
Fluorescent tubes are commonly used and most aircraft use a ballast unit instead of a
fluorescent starter.
They are controlled from the flight attendant station, either at the front or the rear of the
aircraft. In some larger aircraft the window lighting maybe divided into sections controlled
from separate locations within the aircraft.
The window lighting system is run independently of other cabin lighting in most aircraft.
Passenger Advisory Signs

These signs indicate FASTEN SEAT BELTS, NO SMOKING, RETURN TO SEAT and
TOILET OCCUPIED-VACANT. They are illuminated by electroluminescent lighting or small
incandescent globes which are placed behind a transparent cover coated with an opaque
covering. The lettering is cut out of the opaque cover and the light shows the sign.
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How the system operates

Advisory signs, except for the toilet, are controlled by the flight crew with switches in the
cockpit and are simple circuits. However some aircraft also have automatic control of these
signs which will illuminate them in certain situations, for example:
When the undercarriage lever DOWN position is selected
If there is any extension of the flap
If a decompression occurs.
When any of the signs except the toilet are illuminated, an audio tone sounds over the PA
system.
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Lavatory Lighting
The Toilet Occupied-Vacant signs are simply a circuit-breaker, switch and the lights for each
of the individual toilets. The circuit also uses a switch located in the door lock. When the
passenger locks the door a hammer or plunger strikes against the micro switch in the door
surround, this closes the circuit and illuminates the occupied sign. When the door is unlocked
the micro switch is released and the sign extinguishes.
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Passenger Reading Lights

These lights provide a restricted light in the reading area of a passenger and will not annoy
other passengers. Usually have a master switch located on the Flight Attendant panel. Each
light is individually switched and the circuit is simply powered from a circuit-breaker to
individual switches and lights. Some aircraft reading lights are controlled by electronic units
located in or near the seats.
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Cockpit Lighting
Cockpit lighting has to be sufficient to illuminate all controls, switches, instruments and panel
inscriptions with uniform intensity, but not shine at, or disturb the crew in any way. Flood or
background Cockpit lighting in modern day civil aircraft is usually white with some older civil
aircraft have red lighting fitted. Military aircraft use red lighting or NVG green which cannot be
seen outside the aircraft.
There are 5 main types of cockpit lighting
Integral lighting
Post or Pillar Lights
Trans-illuminated panels
Floodlights
Utility or Wander lights
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Integral Lighting
This form of lighting is used to illuminate cockpit instruments. In older aircraft it is used for
most instrumentation illumination. In modern aircraft commonly used for ECAM or EICAS
light intensity control and for the standby instrumentation.
In multi-pilot aircraft, both pilots are able to control their own instrument lighting, independent
of the other. The pilot in command will also control the centre instrument panel (usually
engine and standby instruments).
This form of lighting comes from globes inside the instrument. One form has several smaller
globes, usually six, positioned around the dial in a plastic ring. This diffuses the light which
shines on the dial. In some instruments six red and six white globes are fitted. The operator
can select which colour will be used.
Post or Pillar Lights

These lights, as illustrated, are used in areas where there is insufficient light from other
sources. They are screwed to the panel and have a hood which directs the light down and
across an arc of 90 degrees. Usually the hood can be turned through 360 degrees so it can
be adjusted to ensure the light illuminates the correct area.
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Trans-Illuminated Panels
Trans-illuminated panels, or indirect lighting, are made from transparent plastic or Perspex
which is painted with a translucent white, then an opaque black or grey paint. The opaque
material is engraved with inscriptions such as PILOTS PANEL LIGHTS around switches and
other controls. Light shines through the engraved inscriptions.
This method of cockpit lighting is most commonly used to display system controls and
switching (e.g. hydraulic panel, electrical panel etc.). Operates through a dimmer unit,
controlled by switches in the cockpit.
Have students explain reason for this type of lighting.
Minimum number of lamps can illuminate large areas of paneling.
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Floodlights
Floodlights can be mounted to shine on overhead, side and centre consoles, floors, circuitbreaker panels and main instrument panels. They are usually incandescent globes with a
dimming facility, but can be fluorescent tubes. Usually controlled through a switch and a
dimmer control unit.
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Utility or Wander Lights

These lights can be used as floodlights, map reading lights and emergency lights to replace a
failed light system and are often powered from a hot battery bus so they can be used as
emergency lighting in the event of a total power failure. They have a flexible chord and are
mounted in a ball clip socket. They can be removed by hand and placed in other ball clip
sockets around the cockpit or hand held. They can also be pivoted up and down and left to
right. The rheostat controls the switching and intensity of the light. The bezel on some of
these lights is used to focus the beam. Some have two lenses one white and the other red.
Warning and Caution Lighting

These cockpits lights are used to alert the crew to system failures and/or abnormalities.
Two main colours are used.
Amber Used to indicate a system abnormality or unsafe condition. It does not necessarily
mean a dangerous condition.
Red These warnings are designed to alert the crew to an unsafe condition which may affect
the safe flying of the aircraft. These warnings require immediate crew action.
Cargo Compartment Lights

These lights are fitted in cargo compartments. They can be fluorescent or incandescent and
are simple light systems. Most commercial aircraft cargo lighting systems operate through a
micro-switch located in the door of the cargo compartment, so once the door is closed,
regardless of the lights being selected on or off, they are switched off upon closing of the
door. Once the door is cargo door is opened, they can usually be operated through normal
switching controls, located inside the cargo compartment or near the cargo door.
Loading Lights
These lights shine out from the aircraft to illuminate areas where cargo and baggage loading
takes place and are simple light systems. The controls for these lights are usually located on
the outside of the aircraft, and in some aircraft, are controlled by a micro-switch in the
aircrafts landing gear, which turns on the lights when the weight of the aircraft is placed on
the wheels.
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Emergency Lighting
These lights have to mark all exits and illuminate the cabin with enough light for the crew to
operate emergency equipment and guide passengers to safety, without outside lighting. The
intensity and position requirements of these lights are detailed in relevant civil aviation
regulations.
Emergency Exit Lights

Fitted over or near each emergency exit, these lights indicate EXIT and have a window at the
bottom using white light to illuminate the exit, therefore acting as emergency lighting at the
same time. In older aircraft they were powered from hot battery buses and could be switched
manually by the crew or automatically by a crash or inertia switch, or when the aircrafts
power supplies are deactivated.
Modern aircraft usually have an independent power source, a nickel cadmium battery. If
aircraft power fails the battery is automatically switched to power the light. Under normal
conditions the battery is charged from the aircraft power system, via the aircrafts DC power
system. Each emergency exit point has its own power source.
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Portable Emergency Lights

As well as the fixed lights over the exits there are portable emergency exit lights near the
exits which have an internal battery pack. The light can be detached and used as a torch and
will turn on if the aircraft power fails or its switch is placed to the ON position.
Emergency lights with battery packs that turn on if the aircraft power fails, will turn on if they
are not disarmed before power is taken off the aircraft. This will discharge batteries and
render the aircraft unserviceable until the batteries are replaced with charged batteries.
Should power be removed from an aircraft before the emergency lights are disarmed, power
has to be reconnected and the lights disarmed to correct the situation.
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TOPIC 13.12: FIRE PROTECTION (ATA-26)

The Fire Triangle
In order to understand how fire detection and extinguisher systems work, you first need to
know a little bit about fire.
Three (3) things must be present at the same time in order to produce fire:
Enough oxygen to sustain combustion,
Enough heat to raise the combustible material to its ignition temperature, and
Some sort of fuel or combustible material.
The important thing to remember is: take any of these elements away, and you will not have a
fire or the fire will be extinguished.
Essentially, fire extinguishers put out fire by taking away one or more elements of the fire
triangle. Fire safety, at its most basic, is based upon the principle of keeping fuel sources and
ignition sources separate.
Aircraft Fire Protection
An aircraft carries large amounts of fuel and has several sources of ignition electrical
devices, hot engines and hot exhaust gases. Fire in flight is extremely dangerous. The most
likely place an aircraft fire will occur is in an engine. If the fire is not detected early and
extinguished, the consequences could be disastrous.
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Fire/Overheat Detection Systems

Detection systems must be capable of providing rapid detection of a localised fire or overheat
condition and indication of the area in which some corrective action is required. Detectors
must not automatically operate fire extinguishing units, although they maybe used to shut
down power or fuel to certain areas or components.
Fire detection systems must:
Be reliable.
Give immediate indication of fire / overheat situation and also when that situation is
extinguished.
If the system fails it is more likely that system will be inoperative than to cause
erroneous readings.
That the system can operate independently of other systems.
That the system is able to operate when main power systems are no longer
operational. Most systems operate of the aircrafts 28VDC or the 28VDC Hot battery
bus.
Thermal switch system

The thermal switch fire detector illustrated, uses a bimetal strip to close a set of contacts at a
preset temperature. It operates off the 28VDC battery bus, which allows for operation during
periods when the aircrafts main AC power is not connected.
As the temperature increases outside of the thermal switch sensor, the bimetal strip expands.
When the outside temperature reaches a preset level, the contact points in the bimetal strip
will make contact. This completes the circuit and gives a warning to the flight crew of a fire or
overheat situation.
Some types are made so that their operating temperature can be adjusted. This is done by
adjusting the position of the sliding piston. This increases or decreases the distance between
the contact points of the bimetal strip. This change in distance is directly proportional to the
heat required to bring the contact points together.
Also known as Thermostat switch or spot detector.
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Thermal switch system - How the system operates.
All the switches are bolted to the aircraft frame which connects one of the contacts of the
switch to earth. The illustrated circuit shows that the other contact of each of the switches is
connected in parallel to the coil of relay RL1. Should any switch close, a current path is made
for the coil of RL1. When energised the contacts of RL1 complete a current path for the bell
and red light. When the crew has been alerted, they can stop the bell from ringing by
pressing the BELL CANCEL button. This action energises RL2, breaking the bells current
path and completing its own coils current path. The bell cancel button can be released, but
RL2 will remain energised until the fire warning disappears. This system normally operates of
the 28VDC battery bus.
Testing
The test button completes an earth connection to R1 via all the wiring connecting the thermal
switches. This checks the wiring for continuity. The bell should ring and the red light
illuminate. If the bell cancel button is pressed, the bell should stop, but the red light remains
illuminated. Individual switches can be tested for correct operation (continuity) by using an
Ohmmeter.
Warning
Always install a thermal switch of the correct part number as detailed in the aircraft manual.
Installation of a switch of a different operating temperature could cause a false warning or no
warning in the event of a fire.
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Thermocouple Detection Sensors

You learnt about thermocouples previously. Illustration is of a typical thermocouple fire
detector. The hot junction is in the open and therefore is exposed to the air around it,
although it does have a protective frame. The cold junction is in the body of the detector
which insulates it to some extent from the surrounding air. When the hot junction is exposed
to heat from an external source, an increase in current is obtained. The increase in current is
directly proportional to the temperature at the hot junction. When the current reaches a preset
level, warning indication is activated. This system is used in such areas as engines and in the
aircraft pneumatic air bleed system. Again for the purpose of redundancy, this system
operates off the aircrafts 28VDC system
Inspection and maintenance

Apart from the normal electrical inspection, the thermal switches have to be tested with a
temp-cal, or similar tester, at periods detailed in the aircraft or component manual.
The switches are heated by the tester and the temperature is indicated. A test light is
connected across the switch contacts and the temperature recorded when the light
illuminates. The temperature at which a particular switch operates will be detailed in the
aircraft manual
Thermocouple Detector System

In a typical thermocouple system, it has one or more thermocouples, called active
thermocouples. These are placed in fire zones around an engine while a separate
thermocouple, called a reference thermocouple, is placed in a dead air space between two
insulated blocks.
Under normal circumstances, the temperature of the air surrounding the reference
thermocouple and the active thermocouples are relatively even and no resultant current is
produced. However, when a fire occurs, the difference in temperature produces a current in
the circuit and activates a warning.
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System test
Selection of the test function passes current through a heater around the test thermocouple.
Its output will cause the system to operate. The test checks the continuity of the circuit and is
usually the only test applied to these systems. Each of the individual thermocouples is not
tested normally.
Maintenance procedures
Because of the low voltage currents involved, all connections must be clean and tight. If a
thermocouple is replaced ensure it is connected in the correct polarity.
Continuous loop fire element detector system

These systems use different types of elements and control systems, manufactured by the
Fenwal and Walter Kidde companies. The elements are also called fire wires. The Fenwal
system uses a single conductor element and the Walter Kidde system uses a dual conductor
element. Both are used primarily for engine fire detection and overheating detection of bleed
air systems.
Single conductor element

A thin wall tube of approximately 2mm diameter made from the alloy inconel is filled with a
compound. Embedded in the centre of the filling compound is a single nickel conductor. The
filling compound can be in different forms. Two examples are:
Ceramic heads or porous aluminium oxide ceramic tube impregnated with a eutectic salt:
the salts melting point is low and its resistance lowers drastically when it melts, but will
increase again when solidified
aluminium oxide suspended in fibrous glass: the resistance of this compound lowers with
heat, also its dielectric qualities improve so the capacitance of the fire wire is higher as
temperature increases.
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Two conductor element

The tube is made from the same alloy as the single conductor element tube and is about the
same size. Two nickel conductors are embedded in the filling compound which is referred to
as a thermistor material, having a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. That is, an
increase in temperature decreases resistance.
Fire elements come in different lengths and are identified by part number. There may be
several sections joined together to make up the one element for an engine. These sections
are joined to each other and the aircraft wiring by small plugs. The element is positioned
around the engine or other compartment and attached by clamps, sleeves or grommets.
When replacing fire wire, ensure path of wire going on matchs wire being replaced.
Testing
Testing is usually carried out through the aircrafts fire test system, which is done through the
control unit. Always use the correct test procedure (as per the aircraft manual) when testing
continuous loop systems. Most test functions test the integrity of the circuit and the fire wires.
Installation
When installing an element the following points must be complied with:
Bends can be no sharper than 1 inch radius.
The grommet must protect the element from the clamp. The clamp should not touch the
wire.
The split in the grommet must be placed so that the element will not pull through.
The element must not rub or touch anything.
The element must be free of contamination, as oil etc can give erroneous readings.
The element must not be placed too near a hot area.
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Inspection and maintenance

Damage to the element can cause failure of the system to operate or a false warning.
Damage can be caused by poor installation, being stood on or having tools or other items
placed or dropped on them. Ensure not to kink or over bend fire wires. This will cause internal
breakage of wire, making the system inoperative.
When inspecting an element, you must also ensure that:
The element is not broken, there are no cracks in the surface and no part of the surface is
chaffed.
Indentations in the surface do not exceed parameters detailed in the aircraft manual
Grommets are in good condition
All plugs are tight and lock wired. If not, inspect for cleanliness and internal damage.
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Controllers
There are several types of control units that can go with fire elements. Some work using
resistance only, some use capacitance only and some use both.
Controller using resistance only

The twin conductor element works on the resistance property of its thermistor filler material.
At a preset level of temperature, the element passes enough current to bias the solid state
controller to switch the warning devices.
Controller using capacitance only

The capacitance element acts as a capacitor, storing the positive half of each cycle and
releasing it during the negative half of the cycle. As the temperature rises, the capacitance of
the element increases and at a preset temperature the energy released by the element will
cause the solid state controller to conduct and energise the warning relay.
Testing
Testing is carried out by pressing the test switch which completes a DC current path for the
test relay coil. When energised, the test relay disconnects the centre conductor from the
bridge rectifier and connects it to earth. This causes a warning to occur. Notice the test
checks the continuity of the system. Should there be a break in the element, the test will not
be successful. When the test relay is de-energised, it reconnects the central conductor to the
bridge rectifier so that the power source is connected to both ends of the centre conductor. If
a break in the element occurs, power will still be applied to the entire element, so a warning
would be given in the event of a fire, but a test would not work.
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PNEUMATIC CONTINUOUS LOOP SYSTEMS

Two types of pneumatic continuous-loop systems
Lindberg System
Systron-Donner System
Lindberg System
Consist of a stainless steel tube with an inert gas inside and a discrete material capable of
absorbing a portion of the gas. The amount of gas the material can absorb varies with
temperature, and when the discrete material is heated, it releases the absorbed gas,
increasing the pressure in the stainless steel tube. One end of the tube is sealed and the
other is connected to a responder which consists of a pressure sensing element and a set of
electrical contacts. When the contacts are forced closed by the increased pressure in the
stainless steel tube, a warning system is activated (lights and/or audible warning)
To test a Lindberg system, low voltage AC is sent through the stainless steel casing heating
the sensing element until the gas is released from the discrete material eventually resulting in
the warning system activating. outer casing. When the test switch is released, the sensing
element cools and the discrete material re-absorbs the inert gas, decreasing the pressure
and opening the switch contacts in the transponder.
When tested, the entire system is functionally tested encompassing the control unit, wiring
and the temperature sensor.
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Systron-Donner System
Also a pneumatic continuous system incorporating a stainless steel tube filled with helium,
but incorporates a titanium wire running through the centre. The titanium wire acts as the gas
absorption material, because it contains a quantity of hydrogen.
The Systron-Donner system provides a warning if an average OVERHEAT is detected, in
addition to a FIRE warning.
At normal temperatures the helium gas pressure has insufficient force to close the diaphragm
switch. However, when the AVERAGE TEMPERATURE along the length of the tube reaches
an OVERHEAT level the gas pressure increases enough to close the diaphragm switch
contacts, activating the alarm.
The FIRE warning function is provided by the titanium wire. When the titanium wire is
exposed to localised heating such as a fire or a bleed air leak, it releases hydrogen gas which
again increases the overall pressure within the stainless steel tube, triggering the warning
system. Typically this system will activate if exposed to 1100 Celsius (2000 Fahrenheit) for
5 seconds.
After the fire is extinguished the hydrogen gas is reabsorbed by the titanium wire and the
responder contacts break, resetting the alarm (switching it off).
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To check system integrity, the responder unit contains an integrity switch which has the
contacts held closed by the normal gas pressure exerted by the helium. When the system is
serviceable and helium pressure is satisfactory (no leaks) depressing the FIRE TEST switch
results in the fire warning alarms activating. However, if the helium pressure is below its
normal pressure, as a result of a leak in the system, depressing the FIRE TEST switch will
have no result, because the test voltage will not be applied to the warning circuit, because
there is an open circuit at the integrity switch contacts.
A typical system consists of two separate sensing loops for redundancy. Both loops are
required to sense a fire or overheat before an alarm will sound, however if one loop fails
(integrity switch opens) the system control box (typically computerised) will isolate the
defective loop and reconfigure to a single loop operation using the good loop. In the case of
this occurring, the system control box would also set a maintenance code indicating the fire
loop failure to initiate maintenance at the next possible opportunity. It is also part of all preflight checklists for flight crew and/or maintenance crews to perform a fire detection system
integrity test before each and every engine start to confirm system serviceability before
operating the aircraft engines.
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Overheat Detection System Operation

The above system is a typical duct and compartment overheat detection system.
The top circuit is for a compartment area of the aircraft. It has several detector sensors
arranged in a parallel circuit. This connected to a warning light and to the Master Warning
System (MWS). No test function is supplied to this circuit. The reset temperature of this circuit
is 100C.
The bottom circuit is for duct overheat detection. Two detectors are located in separate areas
of the aircraft (typically the pneumatic ducting) and are tested from the one test switch. The
test switch does not test the function of the detectors, just the circuit. Both detectors are
again connected to a warning lamp and to the MWS.
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Smoke detectors
As there is usually smoke before flames, smoke detectors are used to detect fire in
equipment areas, toilets and the cargo / baggage compartments of commercial and some
military aircraft. In these larger areas by the time enough heat was being generated to
activate a heat detector, the aircraft would be consumed in fire.
Two main types exist:
Photoelectric (comparison and Refraction types) and
Ionisation type
Comparison Photoelectric System

This system has two photoelectric cells. One is in a sealed compartment, the other in a
compartment through which a sample of air passes. Both cells receive the same amount of
light from one projector lamp. If smoke gets into the sampling compartment, the amount of
light to that photoelectric cell will be less than the light to the one in the sealed compartment.
This causes an imbalance in the photoelectric cells, which are connected in a bridge circuit.
When the imbalance reaches a preset level, a warning light in the cockpit or other area of the
aircraft is activated (i.e. Toilet warning lights are also usually located in the cabin area).
In most modern aircraft the output from the cell is passed through a control box, which
monitors the output of the cell and provides a warning through a centralised system.
Testing is usually achieved by providing a source of smoke, which is put near the detector.
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Refraction photoelectric system

If you look at the above diagram, you will see this system has an air sample passing through
a chamber. A photoelectric cell is placed at 90 degrees to a light beam. If smoke comes into
the chamber, some of the light beam is refracted to the photoelectric cell (When light is
reflected onto photo cell circuit resistance decreases allowing output to fire/overheat
warning systems). The output from the photoelectric cell is amplified and at a preset level, it
switches a warning device such as a light in the cockpit. In most modern aircraft the output
from the cell is passed through a control box, which monitors the output of the cell and
provides a warning through a centralised warning system.
Testing
A small test light is aimed at the photoelectric cell and when test is selected. It provides a
direct light source on the cell, triggering the system.
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Ionisation type
If you look at the figure above, you will see air pass through a chamber. On one side of the
chamber is an electrode with a very small amount of radioactive material. There is an
electrode opposite it. The radioactivity causes ionisation of the oxygen and nitrogen gases in
the air, so current is able to pass across the electrodes via the ionised gases. If smoke
comes into the chamber it affects the amount of ionisation and will reduce the current flow
between the electrodes. When the current flow falls below a preset value, a solid state sensor
turns on the warning device in the cockpit.
Again, testing is carried out through the use of a source of smoke generation.
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Smoke Detector Systems

Smoke Detectors are most commonly used in aircraft cargo and toilet compartments. All run
on the 28 VDC system to allow for protection during periods when aircraft AC power is not
available.
Lavatory Systems
Most airlines of the world now have smoke detectors in the toilets to catch cigarette smokers.
Example below is that of a 737 aircraft.
They operate with an internal warning system which normally consists of a warning tone and
a small LED.
On larger aircraft, they are also connected to the master caution system, which alerts flight
crew. Not classified as a master warning system input, so no warning bell is activated. In
most cases a chime and the appropriate caution lamp will illuminate.
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Cargo Systems
Provides warning to crew of smoke in cargo compartments. Connected directly to a master

warning system or through a fire detector module to the master caution system.
Roof mounted in cargo hold as this avoids damage and also smoke rises.
Usually are recessed and have a protective cover or grill to ensure cargo hold items do not
damage the detector.
Modern Cargo Smoke Detection System Operation

Smoke is detected by one or more of the smoke detectors located in the aircrafts cargo hold.
The signal from the smoke detector/s is sent to the local control unit which processes the
signal. The processed signal is sent to the control display unit which sends the signal to the
cockpit display.
The crew take the required action to extinguish the fire in the hold. Usually one bottle per
hold, ETOPS aircraft are required to be fitted with two.
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Fire Extinguisher Systems

Aircraft fire extinguisher systems are used for the purpose of removing fire from the aircraft.
Most aircraft extinguisher systems will remove either heat or oxygen from the fire triangle to
extinguisher fire from the aircraft.
Most aircraft have fire extinguisher systems for various areas of the aircraft.
Engines
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
Cargo Holds
Example Twin Engine System
Look at a twin-engine aircraft system with one bottle in each engine nacelle, operated by a
pull lever which also runs the motorised gate value low pressure cock closed. This system is
illustrated above.
Each bottle has two outlets. Assume the PORT engine is on fire; the bottle selector switch
should be in the first shot-position. The pilot shuts down the engine and pulls the Tee handle.
The Tee handle switch completes a current path to the close side of the low pressure cock
and the first shot cartridge of the PORT fire bottle which discharges into the PORT engine.
If the fire persists, the pilot selects second shot PORT with the handle still pulled out. A
current path is made to the starboard fire bottle second shot cartridge. The STARBOARD
bottle discharges into the PORT engine and the flap value prevents its contents going into the
empty port bottle.
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Description and Maintenance

The Fire Bottle is a circular bottle, usually brown in colour, containing the extinguishing agent.
They are usually stored in a non-pressurized section of the aircraft. Bottles without a gauge
have to be removed and weighed to check their contents. Fire bottles have to be serviced at
regular time periods, which will be detailed in the aircraft manual.
The gauge indicates the pressure in the bottle. Some systems are also fitted with a remote
gauge.
The safety plug will operate if the bottle pressure exceeds a preset level. It is designed to
release the agent from the bottle in a safe manner. The output from the safety plug is
connected to the discharge disks located on the aircraft.
The outlet is connected to plumbing which directs the extinguishing agent into the fire zone.
There are some bottles with two outlets.
The cartridge is electrically detonated when the fire handle is activated. Cartridges have to be
serviced at regular time periods, which will be detailed in the aircraft manual. Otherwise
known as squibs.
The frangible seal is broken by a plunger driven by the force of the cartridges explosion.
The strainer stops pieces of the seal from blocking the plumbing.
Two indicating disks which are placed in an easily seen position on the outside skin of the
aircraft. The red disk is connected by plumbing to the bottle relief valve. If the relief valve
releases pressure, the red disk blows out. If this occurs, the bottle has to be serviced. A
yellow disk is connected by plumbing and a restrictor to the bottle outlet. If the bottle
discharges normally, the yellow disc blows out. If this occurs the bottle has to be changed.
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Extinguishing agent pipelines are identified by Brown coloured tape. This tape also has
diamond- shaped symbols and the words Fire Protection.
Fire extinguishing agent is distributed in the engine / APU sections by spray nozzles and
perforated tubing. This is also marked with the brown fire tape.
Extinguishing Agent
The most common agent is Halon. It is a CFC based chemical.
Halon is a colourless, odourless, non-toxic, gas.
It is fast acting - it cools the surface and chemically interferes with the combustion
process.
The gas is attracted to heat, moves around barriers and tracks to a fire. It blankets the
fire area and reduces the risk of flashback.
Halon is clean and evaporates completely, it's non-staining, non-corrosive and

nonconductive.
Halon will not damage any surface, including electronics, fabrics and painted
surfaces.
Halon does cause damage to the atmosphere and is in the process of being replaced.
Halon can be used equally effectively on flammable liquid (Class B) and flammable
gas (Class C) fires.
Fixed installation aircraft fire extinguishing systems

These systems are usually installed to extinguish fire in the engine, APU and cargo holds.
Once the fire handle has been activated, voltage is applied to the cartridge (cartridges should
fire with only 3 volts DC applied with very little current) the cartridge then fires. The frangible
seal is then broken, allowing the release of the agent, under pressure, through the strainer
into the piping where it is directed to the fire area by spray nozzles and perforated tubing.
Fire Panel
Relevant handle lights may flash or illuminate steady, depending on aircraft design. Some
aircraft handles flash for engine turbine area overheat and illuminate steady for turbine fire.
All use red for fire warning and amber for overheat indication.
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Crew procedure for an engine fire

In the event of an engine fire, the crew will activate the necessary fire handle.
When the handle is pulled or activated it closes off the fuel, hydraulics, pneumatics, electrics
and the thrust reverser systems. The next movement of the handles will cause the fire
extinguishers to be activated.
System Basics
Most aircraft have two fire bottles fitted, one bottle per engine with cross-feed plumbing, so
the bottle can be discharged into the other engine as a second shot. The discharge of the first
bottle is called first shot and the discharge of the next bottle is called second shot. The
electrical switching to discharge the bottles always has protection against inadvertent firing.
This can be:
A push button guarded by a flap. The switch is illuminated, indicating the button to be
selected. Most common in Airbus aircraft.
A toggle switch guarded by a hood
A Tee handle which has to be turned 90 degrees before it can be pulled. These are usually
transparent and contain a fire warning light (see above photo). This helps prevent wrong
selection because it is the illuminated handle that has to be pulled. This is the most in Boeing
aircraft.
Example Twin Engine System
The above diagram illustrates a twin-engine aircraft system with one bottle in each engine
nacelle (each bottle has two outlets), operated by a pull lever which also runs the motorised
gate value low pressure cock closed.
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System Operation
Assume the STARBOARD engine is on fire; the crew receive a warning through the aircrafts
fire detection system. The bottle selector switch should be in the first shot position.
1. The pilot pulls the Tee handle.
2. The Tee handle switch completes a current path and the first shot cartridge of the
STARBOARD fire bottle which discharges into the STARBOARD engine.
3. Power is provided through the fire handle and relay to the closed side of the low
pressure fuel cock motor. This closes off fuel to the starboard engine.
4. If the fire persists, the pilot selects the second shot PORT with the handle still pulled
out.
5. A current path is made to the port fire bottle second shot cartridge.
6. The PORT bottle discharges into the STARBOARD engine and the flap value
prevents its contents going into the empty starboard bottle.
Fire Extinguisher System Operation

The diagram below illustrates a Boeing 727 fire extinguisher system.
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System Overview
The system is operated off the aircrafts 28 VDC bus. Three engine discharge switches are
located in the cockpit and are used to operate the engine selection valves and fire bottles.
The system has two fire bottles, which are connected through a shuttle valve to all three
engines. The bottle discharge sequence is controlled by the selection of the bottle discharge
switches, located in the cockpit. A yellow discharge disk is located in the supply line, which is
used to indicate when a bottle has been discharged under normal use. Bottle discharge
indication is provided in the cockpit by bottle discharge lighting. A cut away is also provided
to show the operation of the engine selection valves.
Operation
The flight crew receive a warning of a fire and this is displayed on the cockpit fire handles. In
this system the fire handle will illuminate red when a fire has been detected. The flight crew
will then pull the relevant fire handle, after selecting the fire bottle to be used. The bottle to be
used is selected via the transfer switch located on the pilot light shield panel. Once the
handle has been operated, a circuit is completed from the 28VDC bus to the fire bottle
selected. 28 VDC is also placed on the engine selector valve. This operates the valve so as
to allow for the fire agent to enter the engine.
Once the bottle has been fired, the agent forces the shuttle valve against the opposite bottle,
preventing agent into the other bottle. The yellow disk is also expelled under the pressure of
the agent. Upon the bottle firing, the bottle discharge switch is activated and completes the
circuit for the bottle discharge cockpit lighting.
The agent is then released into the applicable aircraft engine.
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APU Fire System.

Most modern day commercial aircraft have a separate APU fire detection and extinguisher
system. This is due to the APU being required to operate during ground operations.
The APU fire detection system is usually a single or double fire loop detection system, which
only detects fires and not overheat situations. The loop is connected to an APU Fire
Detection Module, located in the main electronics area of the aircraft. Fire warnings are
provided both in the cockpit and in a remote location of the aircraft usually on the nose
landing gear or in the main wheel well (see above photo).
From both of these locations an aural and visual fire warning is displayed. In most aircraft the
activation of the APU fire warning system will automatically shutdown the APU.
The APU fire bottle can be discharged from either the cockpit or remote location fire panels.
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PRECAUTIONS
Never use an ordinary ohmmeter for checking extinguisher circuits - It can fire the cartridge!
Use only a safety ohmmeter.
Ensure all associated circuit breakers are pulled before working on the aircraft fire protection
system.
Ensure no static charge is present on person or tools prior to touching fire bottle cartridges.
Cartridges are to be shorted at all times when NOT fitted to bottles.
PPE
Always wear approved:
Breathing Mask or protective eyewear as required:
Gloves:
Special overalls or protective clothing and
Protective footwear.
ALWAYS refer to the MSDS for the correct and current handling precautions.
The employer should have a copy of the MSDS (under current OH&S law) for each chemical
in use by the organisation.
Extinguisher Agent Properties

Chemical may be:
Toxic
Carcinogenic
Corrosive
Lethal
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Classes of Fire
A CLASS fires are those involving ordinary combustible solids, such as, paper, wood, cloth,
rubber, and many plastics.
A class fires need a high amount of heat to break down the burning material and turn it into
vapours that are consumed in the combustion process. To extinguish these types of fire
cooling is required. The best method of cooling is to apply water directly to the burning
material to reduce its temperature, stop it giving off vapours and therefore extinguish the fire.
The most suitable type of extinguisher for this material is WATER which are typically rated 2A
or 3A, (the A being for A class fires), but any extinguisher displaying an A rating, or a green
pictograph depicting a waste paper bin and wood on fire, may be used.
B CLASS fires are fires involving flammable liquids. such liquids as petrol and oils, even high
flashpoint liquids such as diesel fuel.
B class fires can involve many different types of flammable liquids. Some, such as petrol and
shellite are easily ignited at room temperature and will rapidly consume the material.
These fires cannot be adequately cooled to bring the material below the point where
flammable vapours are being produced. Other liquids may need to be heated to produce
adequate vapours to burn, whilst these materials could be cooled to extinguish the fire using
common water, we find that applying water to very hot liquids can result in a violent reaction
as the water turns to steam causing the burning liquid to froth and boil over spreading the fire
in all directions. Extinguishers suitable for B class fires are designed to smother the fire or
remove the oxygen from the fire. Some also interupt the chemical reaction which is the fire.
Extinguishers suitable for B class fires will carry a rating such as 20B or up to 80B (the B
being for B class fires). They may also have a green pictograph displaying a fuel can and
liquid on fire.
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C CLASS fires are fires in flammable gases. there are a wide range of gases in common use
that are flammable, most common would be LPG and acetylene.
C class fires involve flammable gases, which are already a vapour and ready to burn when
mixed with sufficient oxygen and ignited. Cooling the fire will not be enough to extinguish it. In
fact extinguishing the fire may lead to a greater hazard of explosion, by allowing unburnt gas
to escape. If extinguishing the fire is neccessary to to control the fire, and the gas can then be
controlled, then an extinguisher suitable for C class fires must be used. The common
extinguishers don't carry a C class rating where the hazard exists a DRY CHEMICAL type
extinguisher will be installed. This is the only common type of extinguisher suitable for
flammable gas fires.
D CLASS fires are metals fires. some metals are capable of sustaining combustion if
adequately heated and ignited. most commonly occurs in workshops machining high
magnesium content metals.
Fires involving metals are rare due to the amount of heat required to commence the
combustion process. Typical areas where a D class hazard exists is in machine shops where
magnesium based metals are being machined and small pieces of metal accumulate, the
aircraft industry can also have metals that may burn. Cooling of a D class fire is not readily
possible as the extreme heat and chemical reaction may cause the fire to flare violently with
the introduction of a cooling agent. Extinguishers suitable for D class fires are a specialised
area, they generally involve the use of specialised dry chemical agents (powders) that are
expelled slowly from a special extinguisher so as to encase a D class fire and form a crust
sealing off the metal from the air.
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E CLASS fires are those involving live electrical hazards. the actual material burning may be
of any other class, but if live electrical components are suspected to be involved then it is
essential the extinguishing medium be suitable for E CLASS fires.
Electricity does not burn, however electricity can be a cause, or involved in many fires, and it
is extremely hazardous to us. E class extinguishers are those extinguishers which contain
materials that will not conduct electricity. These extinguishers will be rated for another class
of fire and also contain a rating (E), the E is in brackets to indicate that it is not the burning
material, but it is an important subsidiary risk. Where you can reasonably suspect that an
electrical hazard exists always use an extinguisher that carries a rating that includes (E), the
extinguisher may also carry a green pictograph displaying a powerpoint and plug.
F CLASS is particularly for cooking fats and oils.

F class fires are included as a class of their own to allow for the Wet Chemical extinguisher
which is particularly effective against fires involving cooking fats and oils, but is not suitable
for other flammable liquid type fires (B class). F class will not appear on the extinguishers
rating as a single letter, rather most B class extinguishers may be used and those which are
particularly suitable may carry the words 'suitable for fires involving cooking fats and oils'
alongside the rating.
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Extinguisher Types
3 most common extinguisher types:
Water
Dry chemical powder (DC)
Carbon dioxide (CO2).
Other less common extinguisher types are foam and wet chemical
Water Extinguishers Class A

Water or APW (air pressurised water) extinguishers are large, red extinguishers, filled about
two-thirds with ordinary tap water and then pressurised with air. This type of extinguisher
most effectively removes the heat element of fire triangle. When the extinguisher is activated,
a powerful stream of water is forced out the nozzle. In passenger commercial aircraft, this
type of extinguisher may be mounted only in the passenger cabin.
Never use water to extinguish an electrical fire.
Water is a good conductor, and there is a high risk that you may receive a severe electric
shock if water used on an electrical fire. Electrical equipment must be unplugged and/or deenergized before you use a water extinguisher on it.
Never use water to extinguish flammable liquid fires. The burning liquid may float and spread
out on the water surface, thus spreading the fire.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

Filled with non-flammable carbon dioxide gas under extreme pressure.
Pressure is so great that when used, bits of dry ice may shoot out nozzle.
Extinguishes fire by displacing air thus removing the oxygen.
Also provide some cooling of the fire.
Recognised by its black band on a red body and a large, wide nozzle shield on end of a
flexible hose.
These extinguishers are frequently used in laboratories and other areas where flammable
liquids are stored or used.
Dry Chemical Power Extinguishers

Filled with a fine powder and pressurised by nitrogen.
Extinguishes fire by coating fuel with a thin layer of powder.
This layer separates the fuel from the oxygen in the air.
Powder also interrupts the chemical reaction of fire.
Identified by a white band on a red body.
They are extremely effective at extinguishing fires.
Dry chemical extinguishers come in 2 types
1. AB(E) indicating they are designed to extinguish class A,B, and (E) fires
2. B(E) designed to extinguish class B and (E) fires, but NOT class A
Either one may be used for a class C (flammable gas) fire after the source of gas is turned
off, and for a class F (cooking oil or fat) fire.
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Foam Extinguishers
Foam extinguishers are suitable for either Class A, (combustible materials) and class B,
(flammable liquid) fires. Giving a good flame knock-down, the foam extinguisher retains the
features to both extinguish the risk and secure the hazard.
Wet Chemical Extinguishers

Wet Chemical Extinguishers are a special purpose designed extinguisher, specifically for use
in kitchens and restaurants, where the major risk is from burning fats and oils (class F fires)
Extinguisher Use
Even though extinguishers come in a number of shapes and sizes, they all operate in a
similar manner. Here's an easy acronym for fire extinguisher use:
P A S S - Pull, Aim, Squeeze, and Sweep
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TOPIC 13.14: ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION (ATA-30)

Ice Formation
The formation of ice on aircraft is caused by water droplets in the atmosphere which are at a
temperature below zero degrees centigrade, but which have to lose their latent heat before
they will freeze. As the droplets strike the metal surfaces of the aircraft, the metal conducts
the heat away from the water and the droplets freeze on the metal.
Types of Ice
There are two types of ice which form on aircraft while in flight, they are:
Rime ice
Glaze ice.
Rime Ice
This ice formation is caused when small droplets freeze immediately they come in contact
with the aircraft. It builds up slowly, is opaque, and has a rough surface which increases drag
and changes the aerofoil shape, but is easy to break off.
It is rough because the temperature of the air is very low and freezes the water before it has
time to spread.
This type of ice formation is mainly found on the top surface as the water freezes upon
contact with the aircraft.
Glaze Ice
This ice forms when large droplets of super-cooled water strike an aircrafts surface which is
below zero degrees Celsius. The water spreads over the surface and freezes.
Glaze ice is the most dangerous: it is clear, adds large amounts of weight to the aircraft and
is hard to break off.
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Dangers of ice forming on an aircraft

Ice forming on an aircraft is dangerous and can cause an accident for the following reasons:
Ice formation on the wings and stabiliser increases the aircrafts weight and disturbs the
smooth aerofoil shape, reducing lift.
Ice formation in piston engine carburettors can block the carburettor air intake causing
engine failure.
Ice formation on a propeller of either a piston or jet engine will lower the efficiency of the
propeller, make it ineffective or affect its balance and cause vibration.
Ice formation on jet engines air intakes restrict the airflow, causing loss of power or
overheating. Ice formed when breaking off can cause engine compressor blade damage.
Ice formation can block ram air intakes.
Ice formed on masts and probes such as pitot tubes, stall warning vanes and antennas can
cause the associated system to fail, as well as increase drag.
Ice formed on windshields can obscure vision.
Rain on windshields can also obscure vision.
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Ice Detection is carried out by two methods:

Visual- look and see with the aid of lighting and witness marks (ice build up on the wings,
windscreen or wipers). Method usually used by smaller aircraft, where costs are a factor. Also
used by some older aircraft designs.
Electrical by the means of an electro mechanical device. This is the most common method
of ice detection in modern aircraft.
Visual Ice detection

Visual detection is the main form of ice detection on smaller and older aircraft and the reason
for the ice detection (leading edge) lights. Black witness marks are used on some aircraft as
a visual aid of detecting ice build up. As ice builds upon the leading edge of the wing, the
black witness marks becomes more reflective and harder to see when the light from the
leading edge lights are shined on them. This indicates to the crew that icing conditions are
present.
Ice will usually build up on windscreen wipers (very visual) in the event of flying in icing
conditions.
Electrical Ice Detection

Electrical and electronic detection methods are also used, of which there are three types.
Pressure
Ice shave
Frequency
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Pressure probe ice detection

This is a probe positioned in the airflow which has a pressure produced in it, acting on a
diaphragm. Should ice form, it will restrict the probe opening, reducing pressure on the
diaphragm and allowing a set of contacts to close.
The contacts will supply current to an ice warning light and a heater in the probe to melt the
ice formed in the probe. The crew takes the necessary action while the heater in the probe
melts the ice formed in the probe.
Once the probe heater melts the ice, pressure on the diaphragm increases, opening the
contacts and switching off the detection probe heater and associated warning light. The
warning is repeated if ice forms again.
Ice shave system

Most common method of ice detection. A sample of the air passes over a rotor driven by an
electric motor. Two methods are used supply a warning light signal
1. If enough ice forms on the rotor, a blade in close proximity will shave it off. The
shaving requires more motor torque, causing the motor to twist slightly in its mount.
This action activates a micro-switch to turn on a warning light. If icing ceases, the
shaving stops and the motor torque decreases. This deactivates the micro-switch,
turning off the warning light.
2. It can also be sensed by the current draw, as the drum slows it draws more current to
maintain its RPM, this being sensed by a current metre. When the current draw level
exceeds a preset point, a warning light is activated in the cockpit.
This system can also be used to control a de-icing system.
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Frequency probe system

As illustrated, the probe is mounted in a suitable place on the aircraft and is often duplicated.
Operation
The probe is designed to have a natural resonant frequency in the ultrasonic range. An
oscillator induces this frequency in a coil around the probe.
If ice forms on the probe, its resonant frequency reduces due to the extra weight of the ice.
When this reduction reaches a preset level, electronic circuitry switches on a crew warning
light and a probe heater.
The probe heater is kept on by the 5 second time delay and should melt all ice formed then
switch off in the 5 seconds.
If ice re-forms within the remaining 55 seconds that the warning light remains on, the process
will be repeated.
The warning light delay will continue to keep the light on while ice continues to form.
For example we have a probe which is supplied by a microprocessor with 40 Hz causing it to
vibrate. As ice builds up on the probe in the airflow it causes the frequency to slow which is
sensed by the microprocessor, which in turn will give the crew a visual warn light to say they
are entering icing conditions.
Types of ice control systems

Ice control systems can be categorised as:
Anti-ice systems which prevent the formation of ice, and
de-ice systems which remove ice after it forms.
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De-icer Boots
This system is in common use on propeller aircraft. If you look at the illustration, you will see
a rubber boot fixed to the leading edge of an aerofoil. For many years aircraft have used deicing systems consisting of inflatable boots on leading edges and stabilisers. The inflatable
boots are usually constructed with several separate air passages or chambers enabling some
to be inflated while the others are deflated.
These chambers or tubes in the boot are attached to plumbing from an air control valve. The
valve will apply low pressure or vacuum to all the tubes when the de-icing system is not in
use, so the boot is held hard against the aerofoil, presenting a smooth surface to the airflow.
This vacuum pressure can be achieved by either engine driven pumps or by a simple ejector
operating on the venturi principle. When in use, tubes will be inflated with high pressure air
(approximately 18 psi) for a specified time (usually 6 seconds) then reconnected to the low
pressure line. The tubes are inflated for the same period and reconnected to the low pressure
line. The inflation of alternate tubes makes them protrude out and break the ice, which is
blown away by the airflow.
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Pneumatic De-Ice System Operation
The diagram above is a typical deicing system for a twin-engine airplane. This system has
wet-type air pumps on both engines. The discharge air from these pumps flows through oil
separators and check valves into the deicer control valve. When the system is turned OFF,
the air discharges overboard, and when it is turned ON, the air flows to the distributor valve
timer. An electric motor drives the distributor valve in a timed sequence to the center tube of
the outboard boots, then to the outer tubes of the outboard boots. The boots on the
empennage then inflate and deflate, then the center tubes, and finally the outer tubes on the
inboard wing boots inflate and deflate.
The boots actuate symmetrically to keep the airflow disturbances even on both sides of the
aircraft. This minimizes any flight or control problems caused by these disturbances.
When the system is turned OFF, the distributor valve connects the suction side of the air
pumps to the boots to hold them tightly against the leading edges. A suction-relief valve
installed between the check valves and the distributor valve regulates the amount of suction
that is applied to the boots.
Proper actuation of the deicer system may be determined by watching the pressure and
suction gages. The pressure gage fluctuates as the timer sequences the different boots, but
the suction gage remains steady since the vacuum side of the pump is not used during
normal operation of the system.
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Turbine-engine aircraft have a ready source of warm compressor bleed air for anti-icing, and
they normally use thermal ice control. Some of the smaller turbine engines do not have an
adequate quantity of bleed air for thermal ice control, but do have enough for inflating
pneumatic deicing boots. Systems that use compressor bleed air for this purpose have a
pressure regulator that lowers the pressure to the correct value and a venturi downstream of
the regulator that produces suction when the boots are not inflated. This suction holds the
tubes deflated and tight against the leading edges.
Thermal pneumatic systems

The jet engine bleed air thermal pneumatic system takes hot air from the engine compressor
and directs it between the aerofoil leading edge outer skin and an inner skin before
exhausting overboard. If you refer to illustration, you will see the ducting and the airflow
between the two skins.
Heated air for anti-icing is obtained by bleeding air from the engine compressor. The reason
for the use of this type of system is that large amounts of very hot air can be tapped off the
compressor, providing a source of anti-icing and de-icing heat.
The hot bleed air is mixed with ambient air and at approximately 350F, flows through
passages next to the leading edge skin. Each of the shutoff valves is pneumatically actuated
and electrically controlled.
When the temperature in the leading edge reaches approximately 185F a thermal switch
connected to the control solenoid of the shutoff valve causes the valve to close and shut off
the flow of bleed air.
An operational system check can be carried out by using an external source of air. Most
systems are designed with a test plug to permit ground checking of the system without
operating the aircraft engines. When using an external air source make certain that the air
pressure does not exceed the test pressures established for the system.
The air used for airframe leading edge de-icing / anti-icing is vented back out, in most aircraft,
via small holes located under the wing.
For other areas of the aircraft where thermal pneumatic air is used, this is exhausted via the
rear of the leading edge surface, into the non-pressurised area of the airframe (e.g. vertical
stabiliser, horizontal stabiliser).
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Chemical de-icing
Although it is not often used on modern aircraft, chemical de-icing can carry out all de-icing
requirements on slower aircraft.
The common de-icing fluid used is a mixture of isopropyl alcohol and ethylene glycol. These
substances emulsify with water and lower its freezing temperature so the ice will melt. The
de-ice fluid also makes the surfaces slick so ice will have trouble reforming on them.
Therefore, the de-ice fluid performs both a de-ice and anti-ice function.
How the system works

Each system being chemically de-iced has an electric motor driving a pump. The pump
supplies the de-icing fluid from a storage tank through plumbing to the area to be de-iced as
follows:
Windshield de-ice: the fluid is sprayed over the windshield
Carburettor de-ice: the fluid is sprayed into the carburettor air intake
Propeller de-ice: the fluid is sprayed out along the blades
Wing and empennage: de-icing is achieved by the de-ice fluid being slowly released through
a porous boot fixed to the leading edges.
The circuit is shown. A rheostat (variable resistor) is used to control the speed of each pump
motor, which controls the fluid flow rate.
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Propeller De-icing Fluid System

A typical anti-icing system consists of a control unit, a tank (anti-icing fluid) a pump to deliver
fluid to the propeller and nozzles. The control unit contains a rheostat which is adjusted to
control pump output. Fluid is pumped from tank to a stationary nozzle installed just behind
the propeller on the engine nose case. As fluid passes through the nozzle, it enters a circular
U-shaped channel called a slinger ring. A typical slinger ring is designed with a delivery tube
for each blade. Once fluid is in the slinger ring, centrifugal force sends the anti-icing fluid out
through the delivery tube to each blade shank.
Propeller Ice Control - Electrical

Electrical heating is the preferred method of ice control for propellers due to the available
supply of electrical power during flight. Rubber boots with heater wires embedded in the
rubber are bonded to the leading edges of the propeller blades. Electrical current is passed
through these wires to heat the rubber and melt any ice that has formed, allowing centrifugal
force and airflow to carry the ice away.
Electric elements are set in insulating material on the propeller leading edges and in the
propeller spinner for the purpose of de-icing. There is no air intake de-icing on piston engines
and some do not have propeller de-icing.
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Timer Unit
The timer controls the sequence of current to each of the heater mats. The sequence of
heating is important to provide the best loosening of the ice so it can be carried away by the
centrifugal force, it is also important that the same portion of each blade be heated at the
same time. Also if heat is applied for to long duration to the heating mat, delamination could
occur, causing damage to the system.
Load Meter
The ammeter monitors the operation of the system and assures the pilot that each heater
element is taking the required amount of current.
This system above would typically use a 28VDC power supply.
Two heater elements are fitted to each propeller, an outboard and inboard heater element.
Each of the elements is connected to the power supply via slip rings and brush box
assemblies. The timer unit is common to all propellers used on the aircraft.
With the system selected on, power is supplied through the circuit breaker and ammeter to
the timer unit.
The timer then supplies the power to the heater in the cycle sequence (1) and through the
brush block and slip rings; power is delivered to the heater element.
After this the current is then passed back to the slip and through to earth.
When an aircraft flies through icing conditions, ice can build up in the engines inlet duct and
on its inlet guide vanes. This disrupts airflow and reduces efficiency. Furthermore, large
pieces of ice could break off and enter the engine causing serious damage to compressor
blades. To prevent ice formation and ingestion, turbine inlet ducts are typically equipped with
some form of anti-icing system.
Engine Air Inlet Ice Control Systems
When the anti-icing system is switched on, a bleed air valve directs hot air to the inlet duct
leading edge, nose dome, and inlet guide vanes to prevent the ice from forming.
An indicator light illuminates (usually amber) in the cockpit to show anti-icing is on. Amber is
used as an advisory display as this system is not normally an operating system. Once the air
has been used, it is vented out onto the airflow by venting ports located in the engine cowl. A
disadvantage with this type of system is that, whenever bleed air is taken from a turbine
engine, the power output is decreased. This is not normally a problem on larger modern
turbofans, but can be a factor on smaller turbine engined aircraft.
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When the anti-ice is selected to on, this drives the motor in the engine anti-icing valve to the
open setting.
With the valve open, pneumatic system air is allowed to pass through the air regulator. The
air regulator is fitted with a bimetallic spring coil. This controls the amount of air flow to the
engine anti-icing system by the temperature of the air being delivered. As the pneumatic
system air flows over the bimetallic strip, it increases the temperature of the bimetallic strip.
Once the temperature increases to a predetermined level, the bimetallic strip will expand and
reduce the airflow to the de-icing system. This will then control the airflow and the
temperature of the de-icing surfaces. Excessive temperature can cause damage to these
areas. By using this type of air regulator airflow and temperature can be controlled from the
one device.
From this point it is divided up and distributed to the spinner and nose cowl anti-ice systems.
Air is then removed from the engine via venting holes, located around the nose cowl and the
spinner of the engine.
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Engine Air Inlet Ice Control Systems

This engine power loss may be alleviated by the use of an electric engine air inlet anti-icing
system. This system utilises electric heating elements surrounding the engine air intake.
This system is only used on turboprop aircraft. Not used by high bypass turbofans as current
required would be to large.
Usually has two selections, fast and slow (low / high). This provides operation in various icing
conditions, as continuous use of the fast (high) setting in low to medium icing could cause
damage to the air intake heaters.
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Windscreen Wipers
Aircraft windshield wipers can be powered by a pneumatic motor, a hydraulic motor or
electric motor, the latter can be a DC or AC motor. This is the most common form of rain
removal from aircraft windscreens. Most aircraft wipers can be operated independently of
each other.
Do not operate on dry windscreens and ensure clear of foreign matter, as this will cause
damage to the windscreen.
Usually four position selector switch is used (Off, Park, Slow and Fast).
Park is a momentary switch, which is used to park the wiper out of view once the wipers are
no longer required. Operates against spring tension and once released the switch goes back
to the OFF position. Forces Cam to operate wiper till internal park switch is activated, stop
motor and wiper is then in the park position.
The slow and fast operation provides power to the wiper motor. During the slow operation a
higher resistance value is used.
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Pneumatic Rain Removal System

Windscreen wipers have problems with blade loading and speed. With the advent of turbinepowered aircraft, the pneumatic rain removal system became feasible. The air blast forms a
barrier that prevents raindrops from striking the windshield surface.
Air is bleed from the aircrafts engine bleed air system. This air is then forced over the
windscreen by small ducts.
Usually cannot be operated independently for each pilot. Most commonly used on military
fighter aircraft.
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Rain repellent system
Rain repellent fluid reduces the rainwater surface tension so that it forms into globules and is
blown away by the airflow. The rain repellent fluid is in a pressurised container connected to
a reservoir. Plumbing connects the reservoir via a solenoid valve to a spray nozzle at the
bottom of each windshield; there is a solenoid valve for each spray nozzle. When operated,
the solenoid valve only opens for approximately 0.25 seconds so that approximately 5 cubic
centimetres of fluid is metered out on the windshield. This is achieved by a time circuit,
stopping power to the solenoid valve after 0.25 seconds.
Do NOT apply repellent on dry windows. Undiluted repellent will restrict visibility.
Do NOT operate windscreen wipers after having applied repellent. Smearing may occur and
reduce visibility
Most aircraft have this system deactivated due to environmental reasons as CFC was used
as the propellant. New products are now available if operator wishes to use.
Electric windshield anti-icing

Windscreens are heated to prevent the build up of ice and also to make the windscreen more
pliable and therefore, more able to withstand the effects of a bird strike. The laminated
construction also helps to prevent the windscreen from shattering into small sharp pieces
when broken.
Some light aircraft have windshields made with fine wire elements embedded in a layer of
vinyl, sandwiched between two layers of glass. 28 V DC current is passed through the
element and a thermistor, also embedded in the windshield, is used to control the DC current
to maintain a temperature of approximately 45C.
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Larger Aircraft
The construction of large aircraft windshields is shown in illustration. The conductive film can
be stannic oxide or gold, rolled so thin that it is transparent.
The temperature is monitored by the temperature sensing element (shown in centre of photo)
and the temperature control unit turns the power relay on and off to regulate the temperature.
Do NOT operate on ground for extended periods only quick test.
ALWAYS test in accordance with the aircrafts maintenance manual to prevent possible
damage to the aircrafts windscreen.
Temperature Control
We will look at a system powered by a 3-phase 200 V AC source which can be frequencywild or have constant frequency.
In the previous figure you can see the three elements, one for each phase, and the normal
and overheat temperature sensing thermistors. You may see windshields with several
thermistors. They are placed there during manufacture and the best two are selected for the
job.
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Operation
The 3-phase 200 V AC power source goes to an auto transformer. The transformer has two
output voltages; both are higher than the input voltage. The lower voltage is applied to the
windshield element when low heat is selected, and the high voltage is applied when high heat
is selected.
Assume the windshield control switch is selected to LOW. If the windshield temperature is
below 45C, the temperature controller will complete a current path for the coil of relay RL1.
When energised, RL1 connects the lower voltage from the autotransformer to the windshield
elements.
The windshield elements heat the windshield until it reaches 45C. Then the normal heat
thermistor will cause the temperature controller to break the current path to the coil of RL1,
which de-energises, breaking the current path to the heating elements.
As the windshield cools, the thermistor causes the controller to switch the heat back on.
If ice still forms on the windshield when LOW heat is selected, HIGH will have to be selected.
This will cause the temperature controller to operate relay RL2 instead of relay RL1. Relay
RL2 will switch the higher voltage output from the autotransformer to the heating elements,
so more current will flow through the elements producing more heat. The temperature
controller will still control the windshield temperature, so that it does not exceed 45C.
If the temperature controller or the normal thermistor fails, the temperature of the windshield
can rise above 45C. Should the temperature reach 55C, the overheat thermistor will cause
the other windshield temperature controller to break the earth circuits of relays RL1 and RL2.
This will stop current flow through the windshield elements. The windshield can continue to
operate in this condition but must be fixed when the aircraft lands.
A magnetic indicator for each windshield will show NORM when the system is operating
normally, OH if it is operating in the overheat condition, or OFF when off.
Jet aircraft windshield strength
The windshield of a jet aircraft has to take all the forces of the air acting on it at speeds up to
1,000 kilometres per hour. It must also be able to withstand the impact of a two kilogram bird
at the cruise speed of the aircraft.
Leaving the windshield heat selected to LOW even when there is no icing conditions will have
the following results:
increase in the windshields impact resistance
increase of the windshields life
better dissipation of static electricity.
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Probe heaters
In larger aircraft which are equipped for flight in bad weather, heaters are provided to reduce
ice formations which would affect the airflow about the tube, or completely seal off the
opening, there by producing erroneous readings.
Any aircraft which, in the course of its operation, can fly at or above icing levels must be fitted
with heated pitot and static probes to prevent the build-up of ice. What exactly is the icing
level? As you know, the temperature of the atmosphere decreases as you go higher up. This
means that any moisture which lands on the probe in flight, will eventually freeze and block
up the probe, destroying any readings (see photo).
To overcome this problem, heating elements are fitted into the forward parts of the
probe which will heat up and melt any ice build-up in flight. Where more than one Pitot static
system is fitted, heater operation is totally independent of each other.
Do NOT touch probes after flight, as units are extremely hot. Allow cool down time before
attempting maintenance.
Unless otherwise stated in the appropriate maintenance manual, anti-icing systems using
electrical heating are NOT TO BE OPERATED ON THE GROUND. Without the cooling
effect of airflow over the heater, it is possible that the temperature of the heater can rise
sufficiently to cause severe damage to the heated area.
Where heated probes are fitted, the covers should be manufactured from cotton canvas
rather than vinyl or synthetic materials, so that in the event of the heater probes being turned
on with the covers still fitted, they will burn away rather than stick to the probes, possibly
plugging up the openings.
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Pitot-Static Probe Heaters Circuit

Operation
Each main pitot-static probe is anti-iced by two electric heaters.
On Ground
On the ground, with engines not operating, the Probe Heaters are not powered. With any
engine operating, relays R7423 and R7425 are energized.
The strut of the probe is supplied with 115 volts AC power.
Reduced power is supplied to the head of the probe.
In Flight
In flight, relay R7425 is deenergized, relay R7423 remains energized through the engine
speed sense card or relay R7334.
The head and strut of the probe are supplied with 115 volts AC power.
Display
The power supply to the heaters is sensed by two current sensors.
If power is not supplied through the heater, the current sensor provides this information to
EICAS through the EFIS/EICAS interface units.
Test
The heater operation can be checked on the ground by the Central Maintenance Computer.
During test, relays R7421 and R7423 are energized. The head and strut of the probe are
supplied with 115 volts AC power.
The test results are observed on the CDU.
Pitot-Static Probe Heaters Circuit
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Total Air Temperature Probe Heater Circuit

Operation
Each total air temperature probe is anti-iced by an electric heater.
On Ground
On the ground the probe heater is not powered.
In Flight
In flight, relay R8268 is energized through the air/ground relay R7334. The heater is supplied
with 115 volts AC power.
Display
The power supply to the heater is sensed by a current sensor.
If power is not supplied through the heater, the current sensor provides this information to
EICAS through the EFIS/EICAS interface units.
Test
The heater operation can be checked on the ground by the Central Maintenance Computer.
During test, relays R7421 and R8268 are energized. The probe heater is supplied with 115
volts AC power.
The test results are observed on the CDU.
Total Air Temperature Probe Heater Circuit
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Water and Toilet Drain Heaters

Heaters are provided for toilet drain lines, water lines, drain masts, and waste water drains
when they are located in an area that is subjected to freezing temperatures in flight.
Typical heater types used are:
Integrally heated hoses
Ribbon
Blanket
Wrap around patch
Gasket
These heaters are designed for continuous operation. They usually operate in two modes
Air and Ground. This is controlled by the air to ground sensor system of the aircraft.
Most systems operate at 26 VAC on ground mode and 115 VAC in air mode.
Anti-icing may also use bleed air. Small line from the aircraft bleed air manifold is directed
onto the probe.
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Drain Mast Heater Circuit

Ground Operation
Ground Handling Bus Powered
With the Ground Handling Bus powered, relay R8277 is relaxed, relay R731 is energized and
the Heaters are supplied with 42.5 volts. AC comes from the Drain Mast Heater Transformer.
No Ground Handling Bus Power
When power is supplied to the Main Airplane Busses, relays R8277 and R731 are energized
and the Heaters are supplied with 42.5 volts. AC comes from the Drain Mast Heater
Transformer.
Air Operation
In flight, the Ground Handling Bus is not powered, relays R8277 and R731 are relaxed. The
Heaters are supplied with 115 volts AC from the Ground Service Transfer Bus.
Drain Mast Heater Circuit
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Electrical Power (ATA 24)

Equipment and Furnishings (ATA 25)

Lights (ATA 33)

Fire Protection (ATA-26)

Ice and Rain Protection (ATA-30)

Issue B January 2008

To describe the nature or basic qualities of.

To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).

Specify in words or writing.

To set forth in words; declare.

To establish the identity of.

Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or

To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.

Make known in detail.

Offer reason for cause and effect.

Issue B January 2008

Issue B January 2008

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Issue B January 2008

Equipment and Furnishing

Identify Electronic Emergency Equipment and describe their requirements and

Issue B January 2008

Topic 13.12.1 Fire Protection (ATA 26)

Topic 13.12.2 Portable Fire Extinguishers

Ice and Rain Protection

Issue B January 2008

TOPIC 13.5: ELECTRICAL POWER (ATA-24)

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Battery Temperature Monitor System

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Typical Battery System

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Battery Installation Procedures

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

The brush assembly.

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Diode Rectifier Bridge

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Wye Wound Stator

Delta Wound Stator

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Generator Voltage Regulation

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Vibrating-type Voltage Regulator

Issue B: January 2008

B2-13.5 Electrical Power

Issue B: January 2008