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Nomenclature
- Compounds
- Ionic Compounds
- Polyatomic or Binary Ionic
- Molecular Compounds
- Cations = metals (positive)
- Anions = nonmetals (negative)
Moles
Moles to Grams = Number of Moles (will be given) x Molecular Mass (of substance
you are trying to achieve)
Grams to Moles = Grams (will be given) / Molecular Mass
- BE SURE TO ALWAYS USE UNITS AND LABEL WITH GRAMS, LITERS etc.
Moles to Volume of Gas @ STP = Number of Moles x 22.4 L (gas at STP)
Volume to Moles = Volume of Gas (will be given) / 22.4 L
Moles to Representative Particles = Number of Moles x 6.02 x 10*23
Representative Particles to Moles = Number of representative particles / 6.02 x
10*23
** Make a kitchen on the right hand side of paper for calculations, and LABEL
UNITS
Percent Composition = Mass of an element in one mole of that compound / Mass of
whole compound x 100
Empirical Formula
- Given the Percent Composition, find the lowest possible whole ratio of atoms in a
Molecular Formula
1) Given the new percents as shown in the explanation to Number 8, divide by the
singular molecular mass, just as Empirical Formula
2) When you have divided by the Molecular Mass, divide each new number by the
SMALLEST
3) Using common sense, round up or down to the NEAREST WHOLE RATIO
4) After you have your whole number ratios, find the TOTAL MOLECULAR MASS and
divide its molecular mass by it
- Simply, take the first set of WHOLE NUMBER RATIOS (5, 7, 1) and set them in
a chemical formula C5H7N
- Then multiply the ratios (5, 7, 1) by the singular molecular mass, as shown
above
- 5 x 12.01
- 7 x 1.01
- 1x 14.01
- Then add up ^ to get 81.13
- Then, using the 162.0 g/mol in the given, set up an equation = 162.0/81.13
to get like 1.9967
- HERE, USE COMMON SENSE AGAIN TO ROUND UP TO WHOLE RATIO = 2!!
BECAUSE 1.9967 IS CLOSE TO 2
- Once you have that whole ratio, 2, MULTIPLY it to the original equation,
C5H7N, so multiply 2 to each subscript
- Then the New equation is the molecular formula (C10H14N2)
Chemical Equations
- Skeletal Equation = Regular Equation that is not balanced
- Balanced Equation = Same number of atoms and moles on each side of the
equation
- Equation Synthesis = LEFT SIDE = REACTANTS
RIGHT SIDE = PRODUCTS
- Combination Reaction = 2 or more substances reacting or combining to form a new
substance
- Combustion Reaction = something reacts with air to produce CO2 and H2O
- Include use of a hydrocarbon: C?H? , with the ?’s being many different
subscripts
- Decomposition = single compounds break down into 2 or more simpler products
- Single Replacement Reaction = an element replaces another element in a
compound
- Double Replacement Reaction = 2 ionic compounds change partners in a reaction
- Usually occurs in an aqueous solution
- Often water is formed
Stoichiometry
- Mole Ratio = Identifying substances in the form of a ratio
- Solving Stoich problems:
1) BALANCE EQUATION
2) Put the “known” into train tracks
3) Convert grams into moles if it already isn’t
4) Apply mole ratio
5) Make sure answer uses CORRECT AMOUNT OF SIG DIGS
4) Once you have completed finding the moles for BOTH (I only did one) reactant,
compare each using a mole to mole ratio, and say the BALANCED EQUATION =
2C + 2O2 2CO2
- Once you have a BALANCED EQUATION, look at the two elements that
are reacting, here say Carbon and Oxygen, and with their moles
found, insert mole ratio to find mole of the other
O2 0.4375 2.703
C 2.703 0.4375
5) Once you have done all that math, to determine the limiting reagent, whichever
element NEEDS MORE THAN THAT ELEMENT HAS is the limiting reagent
- So, in this case, O2 needs 2.703 moles, but only has 0.4375 so it is the L.R
Percent Yield
- This is simple, both the actual yield and the theoretical yield will be given to
you
Theoretical Yield
1) To find theoretical yield, you must look back at the limiting reagent
problem to find the masses given
32.46 grams of C and 14 grams of O2
2) From here, divide by molecular mass, as for L.R, the apply mole ratio, then
MULTIPLY by molecular mass of the product that you are comparing it to
3) To decide whichever is the Theoretical Yield, CHOOSE THE SMALLEST OF THE TWO
The smallest is 5.2544 grams of C = 5.3 grams of C BECAUSE OF SIGNIFICANT
DIGITS
4) When doing either % yield, T yield of L.R PAY ATTENTION TO SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Particles of Gases can be described as: Small particles, Hard Spheres, no significant
volume, no forces between them
Variation Graphs
- As temperature rises, so does the pressure as the molecules are hitting each
other more often
- As volume goes down, pressure rises
- As the concentration rises, so does pressure
Periodic Trend
- As you move Across, the atoms Decrease
- As you move Down, the atoms Increase
Group Trends
- The reason size increases as you move down, is because the atoms of the
element are further away from t he nucleus and there is less an attraction
(shielding effect)
Ionization Energy
- The energy required to remove an electron when an element is in a gaseous
state (opposite of atomic radius)
- Ionization energy Increases as it goes Across, and Decreases as it goes
Down
- as you go down, the electrons are farther away from the nucleus, and
therefore little energy is needed to remove them, because they are
not strongly attracted
negativity decreases
Atomic Radius goes from Francium up to the noble gases (first arrow)
Electro Negativity goes from Fluorine down to the left (second line)
Ionization Energy starts at the right and goes down to the left (last arrow)
Atomic Spectra
- When atoms absorb energy, electrons "jump up" to higher energy levels.
When the electrons move back down to their ground state, they emit energy.
- Each element has its own unique atomic emission spectra
Bonds
Four types: ionic, metallic, covalent network, molecular compounds (covalent
bonds)
Bonding Symbols
- -, .. = single bond
- - = Double bond
- - - = Triple bond
- Chlorine, on the other hand, can only have 1 bond, but there
are still 3 other places to fill
- To fill the other places, use dots
- EXCEPTIONS = NO2
- BORON HAS 3 spots
- HYDROGEN HAS one
Geometry
- Diatomic, Triatomic =
- Trigonal Planar
- Pyramid
- Tetrahedral
- The number of unshared pairs also determines the shape of the bond
- 4 shared pairs and 0 unshared = Tetrahedral
- 3 shared pairs and 1 unshared = Pyramid
- 3 shared pairs and 0 unshared = Trigonal Planar
- 2 shared pairs, and at least 1 unshared = Bent Shape (water molecule)
* All diatomic shapes are linear
Bond Polarity
- How equal the bond sharing is
- Measured by finding the difference in electro negativity
- Any time there is a bond between 2 different atoms, it is polar
Molecular Polarity
- One end of the molecule is slightly different than the other
- If the molecule is symmetric, it is non polar
* The molecule might have polar bonds, but it could still be non polar
Hydrates
- A compound that incorporates H2O in its solid structure, in a much defined
ratio
- CaSO4 . 2H2O (for every formula unit of CaSO4 there are 2 water molecules)
- Water in a hydrate is called hydration, when it is removed, it is called
anhydrous or anhydrate
Solutions
- Homogenous Solutions are aqueous solutions, that containing water
- Solvent = dissolving medium
- Solute = stuff that's dissolved
- On a micro level, the polarity of H2O attracts ions, not all ionic bonds dissolve in
water, "likes dissolve likes"
Molarity
- Number of moles of solute per unit of solution
- M = Moles / Liters *must be in liters
In the problem above, you are to find grams (moles in this case) so you need to
transform the equation to solve for moles
- Then you need to change mL into Liters, and multiply liters by the molarity
to get moles
- Finally, find the molecular mass of Epsom and MULTIPLY the number of
moles by molecular mass
Dilution
- M1 (V1) = M2 (V2)
- The volume may either be used in mL of L, but be consistent
Hydrate Problems
- With recorded lab data, one should be able to conduct the following
Thermochemistry
- The study of energy in chemical reactions, and their change of state
- Heat is energy transferred from one object to another because of
temperature difference between them
- Heat flows from warm to cold
- How is heat measured?
- Units: calorie = quantity of heat needed to raise temperature of a
gram of water 1 degree Celsius
- The calories in food are BIG C’s, called kilocalories
- Joule: standard unit of energy
- What is specific heat?
- The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a
substance 1 degree Celsius
- Formula for specific heat:
- C (specific heat) = q (heat) x M (mass) x T (temperature)
- In solving specific heat, if the temperature goes DOWN, it is
ENDOTHEORMIC (Positive Answer)
- If it goes UP, it is EXOTHOERMIC (Negative Answer)
Hess Law
- Allows us to determine change in heat for a reaction by adding all the heats
for an intermediate reaction
Rates of Reactions
- Why do reactions occur?
- Collisions theory explains that reactions happen when colliding
particles have enough kinetic energy
- The minimum amount of energy needed for a reaction to occur is called
activation energy
Reversible Reactions
- Reactions that occur simultaneously in both directions in a closed system
* Noted by double arrows
Equilibrium = when the rate of a forward reaction and reverse reaction equal each
other
Lachateliers Principle
- If stress is applied to a system in a dynamic equilibrium, the system reacts to
counteract the stress
- Examples of stress: addition of removing of products/reactants, lowing or
raising temperature, increase or decrease pressure
[H2S (g)]2
Keq =
[H2 (g)] 2
* [S2 (g)]
[0.5 M ]2
Keq =
[2.16 M] 2
* [0.3 M]
- If the Keq is greater than one, than the Products are favored, and if it is less than
one, the Reactants are favored
Bases
- cleaning solutions
- Slippery feel to them
- Hydroxide ions
- NH3 = ammonia
Arrhenius
- He said acids are compounds containing Hydrogen ions that ionize in water
- He said bases are compounds containing OH ions that ionize in water
Bronsted – Lowry
- Acids are hydrogen ion donors
- Bases are hydrogen ion acceptors
Conjugate Pairs
- Two substances that are related, on either side of the reaction
- Must be opposite pairs (acid and base vice versa)