C LANGUAGE PPT

By
Chandrashekar Reddy.G
Chandrashekar.gajula@gmail.com
Chandrashekar.gajula@trusstechnosofts.com

Contact
+91406524833
+919985199433
Welcome
C
 Introduction

C programming language was developed 1972 by Dennis

Ritchie in Bell Laboratories.

Its an offspring of Basic combined programming called B

which was developed by Ken Thomson

B language was interpreter-based but it was very slow

So Dennis Ritchie modified the B language and named it as

C
 History
1960 ALGOL International Group

1967 Martin Richards

BCPL

1970 Ken Thompson

B

Dennis Ritchie
1972 Traditional C

Kernighan & Ritchie

1978 K&R

ANSI C ANSI Committee

1989

ISO Committee
1990 ANSI/ISO C
 Benefits

C programs are efficient, fast & Highly portable

It can be written in one computer and can be run in another

computer without any Modification.

Its easy for debugging, testing & maintenance because of

structured programming

Functions can be used many Number of building blocks

COMPILER
A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs)
that transforms source code written in a computer
language (the source language) into another computer
language (the target language, often having a binary form
known as object code). The most common reason for
wanting to transform source code is to create an executable
program.
The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that
translate source code from a high-level programming
language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language
or machine code). A program that translates from a low
level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A
program that translates between high-level languages is
usually called a language translator,
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPILER AND
INTERPRETER

1.Compiler checks syntax of programme where as

Interpreter checks the keywords of a prog.
2. compiler checks at a time all the prog, But
interpreter checks simultaneously in the eidtor.
3.Interpretor provides colour coding to the prog
and helps in self debugging while writing a prog.
Why C used Widely
Pointers it allow reference to memory location
by a name

Memory allocation Allow static as well as

dynamic memory location

Recursion Is a process in which a function can

call itself

Bit Manipulation Allows manipulation of data

in its lowest form of storage
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC

Static memory allocation: The compiler allocates the

required memory space for a declared variable. By
using the address of operator, the reserved address is
obtained and this address may be assigned to a pointer
variable. Since most of the declared variable have static
memory is assigned during compilation time.
Dynamic memory allocation: It uses functions such as
malloc( ) or calloc( ) to get memory dynamically. If these
functions are used to get memory dynamically and the
values returned by these functions are assingned to
pointer variables, such assignments are known as
dynamic memory allocation. memory is assined during
run time.
 Structure of the programming

Documentation Section

Link Section

Definition Section

Global Declaration Section

Main() Function Section

{
Declaration Part
Executable Part
}

Subprogram Section (User-defined FUnctions)

ABOUT PRINTF:
Printf
The printf statement allows you to send
output to standard out.
Here is program that will help you learn more
about printf:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, b, c; a = 5; b = 7; c = a + b;
printf("%d + %d = %d\n", a, b, c);
return 0;
}
ABOUT SCANF:
The scanf function allows you to accept input from
standard in, which for us is generally the keyboard.
For Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, b, c;
printf("Enter the first value:");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("Enter the second value:");
scanf("%d", &b); c = a + b;
printf("%d + %d = %d\n", a, b, c);
return 0;
}
 Simple Programs
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
Void main()
{
/*Program to Display The Content*/
clrscr();
printf(Good Morning..! Have a Nice Day);
getch();
}
 Simple Programs
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
Void main()
{
/*Program for Addition*/
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf(Enter the value of A :);
scanf(%d,&a);
printf(Enter the value of B :);
scanf(%d,&b);
c=a+b;
printf(The Value of C is :,c);
}
Character Set

The Character that can be used to form words,

numbers and expression depends upon the
computer on which the program runs.

Letters
Digits
Special Character
White Space
, .Comma & .Ampersand

. .Period ^ .Caret

; .Semicolon * .Asterisk

: .Colon - .Minus Sign

? .Question Mark + .Plus Sign

' .Aphostrophe < .Opening Angle (Less than sign)

" .Quotation Marks > .Closing Angle (Greater than sign)

! .Exclaimation Mark ( .Left Parenthesis

| .Vertical Bar ) .Right Parenthesis

/ .Slash [ .Left Bracket

\ .Backslash ] .Right Bracket

~ .Tilde { .Left Brace

- .Underscore } .Right Bracket

$ .Dollar Sign # .Number Sign

% .Percentage Sign . .
Keywords
auto double int struct
Keywords are words that
have special meaning to
break else long switch
the C compiler.
These keywords cannot be
case enum register typedef
used as identifiers in the
program
char extern return union

const float short unsigned

continue for signed void

default go to size of volatile

do if static while
 Identifiers
Identifiers" are the names you supply for variables,
types, functions, and labels in your program.
Identifier names must differ in spelling and case from
any keywords.
You cannot use keywords as identifiers; they are
reserved for special use.
Rules:

First character must be an alphabet (or

underscore).
Must consist of only letters, digits or underscore.
Only first 31 characters are significant.
Cannot use a keyword.
Must not contain white space .
 Constants

Constants

Numeric Constants Character Constants

Single
Integer Real Character
String
 Data Types
This enables the Data Type Bytes Default Range
programmer to select the
appropriate data type as signed char 1 -128 to 127
per the need of the
application Unsigned char 1 0 to 255

short signed int 2 -32768 to 32767

ANSI C supports three
classes of data types short unsigned int 2 0 to 65535

long signed int 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647

Primary data types
Derived data types long unsigned int 4 0 to 4294967295

User-defined data types Float 4 -3.4e38 to +3.4e38

Double 8 -1.7e308 to +1.7e308

long double 10 -1.7e4932 to +1.7e493

 Operator and Expressions
Operator indicates an operation to be performed on
data that yields a value

1. Arithmetic operators (+,-,*,/,%)

2. Relational operators (>,<,= =,>=,<=,!=)
3. Logical operators (&&,||,!)
4. Increment and decrement operator (++,--)
5. Assignment operator (=)
6. Bitwise operator (&,|,^,>>,<<)
7. Comma operator (,)
8. Conditional operator (?,:)
Operator Precedence
Operator Description Associativity
Parentheses (function call) (see Note left-to-right
1)
()
Brackets (array subscript)
[]
Member selection via object
.
name
->
Member selection via pointer
++ --
Postfix increment/decrement (see
Note 2)

Prefix increment/decrement right-to-left

++ --
Unary plus/minus
+ -
Logical negation/bitwise
! ~
complement
(type)
*
Cast (change type)
Dereference
&
Address
sizeof
Determine size in bytes

* / % Multiplication/division/modulus left-to-right

+ - Addition/subtraction left-to-right

<< >> Bitwise shift left, Bitwise shift right left-to-right

Relational less than/less than or left-to-right

< <= equal to
> >= Relational greater than/greater
than or equal to
== != Relational is equal to/is not equal to left-to-right

& Bitwise AND left-to-right

^ Bitwise exclusive OR left-to-right

| Bitwise inclusive OR left-to-right

&& Logical AND left-to-right

|| Logical OR left-to-right

?: Ternary conditional right-to-left

Assignment right-to-left
Addition/subtraction assignment
= Multiplication/division
+= -= assignment
*= /= Modulus/bitwise AND
%= &= assignment
^= |= Bitwise exclusive/inclusive OR
<<= >>= assignment
Bitwise shift left/right
assignment

, Comma (separate expressions) left-to-right

BACKSLASH CODES FOR IN CHARACTER
CONSTANTS AND STRINGS
\a alert, audible alarm, bell
\b Backspace,
\f Form feed, new page,
\n New line, carriage return and line feed
\o Octal constant
\r Carriage return, no line feed,
\t Horizontal tab, tab
\v Vertical tab,
\x Hexadecimal constant,
\" Quote character
\ Apostrophe character
\\ Backslash character
\? Question mark character
 FORMAT COMMANDS FOR PRINTF() SCANF()
FPRINTF(), FSCANF() SPRINTF() SSCANF()
%c a single character, char
%d a decimal number, int , %hd is for short %ld is for long
%e a floating point number, float in scientific notation, %E for 1.0E-3
%le is for double, %Le is for long double
%f a floating point number with decimal point %10.4f 10 wide .dddd %lf
is for double, %Lf is for long double
%g a floating point number, %f or %e as needed, %G for capital E %lg is
for double, %Lg is for long double
%h an unsigned hexadecimal short integer (scanf only), old usage
%i an integer, int %hi is for short int, %li is for long int
%n pointer to integer to receive number of characters so far, int *i
%o an unsigned octal number, unsigned int %ho and %lo for short and
long
%p a pointer, void **x
%s a string ( must be null terminated ! ), use %s for scanf
%u an unsigned decimal integer (printf only), unsigned int %hu %lu
%x a hexadecimal number, %X for capital ABCDEF.
PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES:
#include "mine.h"search current working directory first
#include <stdio.h>search command line directory then system
#define TRUE 1macro substitution, usually use capitals
#define min(a,b) (a<b)?(a):(b)macro substitution with parameters
#define abs(a) (a<0)?(-(a)):(a)macro substitution
#define note /* comment */ this comment gets inserted every time note
appears */
backslash \ at end of a line means continue
#undef TRUEundefines a previously defined macroname
#error stop compiling at this point
#if expressionconditional compilation, start if structure
#elif expressionelse if expression != 0 compile following code
#elseelse compile following code
#endifend of conditional compiling
#ifdef macronamelike #if, compiles if macroname defined
#ifndeflike #if, compiles if macroname undefined
#line number [filename]set origin for __LINE__ and __FILE__
#pragmagives the compiler commands
 Decision Statement

To alter the flow of a program.

Test the logical conditions.

Control the flow of execution as per the selection.

if-statements
if-else statement

else-if statement

Nested if statement

switch-statement
 If-Construct

Syntax: ii) if(expr)

i) {
if (expr) statement1;
statement; statement2;
}
where expr is Boolean

Note:
True Boolean values are any integer different
from zero.
False Boolean value is the integer zero.
 If-else Construct

Syntax: Example: a=5,b=10

if (expr) if (a<b)
statement1; {
else printf(b is bigger than a);
statement2; }
else
{
Printf(a is bigger than b);
}
 Else-if Construct
Syntax: Example: a=5 b=10 c=15
if (expr) If (a>b && a>c)
Statement 1; {
else if(expr1) printf (a is the biggest no);
Statement 2; }
else if(exp2) else if (b>c)
Statement 3; {
- printf(b is the biggest no);
- }
else else
Statement n; {
Printf(c is the biggest no);
}
 Nested if Construct
i) ii)
If(expr)
If(expr) {
{ -
- if(expr1)
- statement1;
if(expr2) else
statement2;
statement 1;
}
-
else
- {
} if(expr2)
statement3;
else if(expr3)
statement4;
else
statement5;
}
 Example for Nested if
A=5 b=10 c=20 evencount = oddcount = 0;
if ( (num % 2) == 0 )
If(a>b) {
{ printf(%d is an even number.\n, num);
if(a>c) ++evencount;
{ if( (num % 4) == 0 )
printf(a is the biggest no); printf(It is divisible by 4\n);
} if( num == 0 )
else {
{ printf(It is zero.\n);
printf(c is the biggest no); printf(That isnt interesting.\n);
} }
} }
Else if(b>c) else
{ {
printf(b is the biggest no); printf(%d is an odd number.\n, num);
} ++oddcount;
Else if( (num % 9) == 0 )
{ printf(It is divisible by 9\n);
printf(c is the biggest no); else
} printf(It is not divisible by 9\n);
}
 Switch Construct
Syntax:
switch (expr) /* expr is a boolean expression
{
case C1:
{statement0;break;}
case C2:
{statement1;break;}

default: /* optional */
{DefaultStatement;break;}
}

Note : C1 & C2 represent values. It is the type of int or

char only.
 Example for Switch Construct
Char a;
Int a;
Scanf(% c,&a);
Scanf (%d,&a);
Switch (a)
Switch (a)
{
{
case a:
case 1:
printf(you entered : a);
printf (you entered : %d,1);
break;
break;
case b:
case 2:
printf(you entered : b);
printf(you entered : %d ,2);
break;
break;
case c :
case 3:
printf(you entered : c);
printf (you entered : %d
,3); break;
break; default: /* optional*/
default: /*optional*/ printf(you entered except
a,b,c);
printf (you entered except
1,2,3); }
}
 Loop Control Statements
Looping is deciding how many times to take certain action.
In looping process in general would include the following four
steps
1. Setting and initialization of a counter.
2. Exertion of the statements in the loop.
3. Test for a specified conditions for the execution
of the loop.
4. Incrementing the counter.

Types

while-statement
do-while statement

for-statement
 While Constructs

Syntax:
while(expr)
while (expr) {
Statement; statement1;
statement2;
}

where expr is Boolean

Note:
True Boolean values are any integer different from zero;
False Boolean value is the integer zero.
 Example for While Construct

i=0; #include<stdio.h>
while(i<10) int main()
{ {
printf(precision\n); int counter, howmuch;
i++; scanf("%d", &howmuch);
counter = 0;
}
while ( counter < howmuch)
{
counter++;
printf("%d\n", counter);
}
return 0;
}
 Do-while Construct

Syntax:
do
do {
Statement; statement1;
while (expr); statement2;
}while(expr);

Note:

while statement executes zero or more iterations of the loop;

do-while statement executes one or more iterations of the loop.
Example for do-while construct

i=0; #include<stdio.h>
do int main()
{ {
printf(precision\n); int counter, howmuch;
scanf("%d", &howmuch);
i++; counter = 0;
} while(i<10); do
{
counter++;
printf("%d\n", counter);
}
while ( counter <
howmuch); return 0;
}
For Construct
Syntax:
for(expr1;expr2;expr3)
for(expr1; expr2; expr3) {
Statement; statement1;
statement2;
}

Semantic: equivalent to
expr1;
while (expr2)
{
Statement;
expr3;
}
Example for For Construct

#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
int main() int main()
{ {
int i; int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) for (i =20; i >10; i--)
{ {
printf ("Hello\n"); printf ("Hello\n");
printf ("World\n"); printf ("World\n");
} i--;
return 0; }
} return 0;
}
 Looping Related Statements

Break
Continue
 Break statement
Syntax:
break;

Semantic:
terminates the execution of a loop or a switch
Example for Break Statement

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
i = 0;
while ( i < 20 )
{
i++;
if ( i == 10)
break;
}
return 0;
}
Continue statement

Syntax:
continue;

Semantic:
terminates the current iteration of a loop
Example for Continue Statement
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
i = 0;
while ( i < 20 )
{
i++;
continue;
printf("Nothing to see\n");
}
return 0;
}
Unconditional jump statement

Syntax:
goto Label;

where Label:Statement;
belongs to the program

Semantic:
forces control to go to the Statement;
Example for goto Statement
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
Int i=0;
START: i++;
printf(%d\n,i);
if(a<=10)
{
goto START;
}
else
{
goto END;
}
END: return 0;
}
 Array
One-Dimensional array
Two-Dimensional array
Multi-Dimensional array
One-Dimensional Array
collection of elements of same data type
that are stored contiguous in memory.

data

10 20 30 25 35 6 50 45 28 14

1000 1002 1004 1006 1008 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018

Address
One-Dimensional Array
The subscript, or the index of each array
element is determined based on the
number of offset positions it is from the
starting position. The starting offset is
taken as 0.

offset

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 20 30 25 35 6 50 45 28 14

1000 1002 1004 1006 1008 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018
One-Dimensional Array
Syntax:
datatype variablename [size];

Example:
int a[10];
block of 10 contiguous elements in memory.

Array name (Starting address of the array)

a

offset

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7] a[8] a[9]
One-Dimensional Array
Initialization

A character array needs a string terminator, the NULL

character (\0) as the last character, whereas integer and float
arrays do not need a terminator.

Examples:
char array1[ ] = {A, R, R, A, Y, \0};

char array2[ ] = {ARRAY};

char dayofweek[7] = {M, T, W, T, F, S, S};

float values[ ] = {100.56, 200.33, 220.44, 400.22, 0};

 One-Dimensional Array
Initialization

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
char array1[ ] = {A, R, R, A, Y, \0};

char array2[ ] = {ARRAY};

int i = 0;

printf( String 1 is %s\n, array1);

printf( String 2 is %s\n, array2);

}
One-Dimensional Array
Initialization
int a[5]={7,3,8,2,25};
(or)
int a[5];
a[0]=7;
a[1]=3;
a[2]=8;
a[3]=2;
a[4]=25;
Input To Array

Normal Variable: Array Variable:

Array offset
int a[20],i; always start
int a; with 0
for(i=0;i<20;i++)
scanf(%d,&a);
{
scanf(%d, &a[ i ]);
Array Variable:
}

int a[20];
scanf(%d,&a[0]);
--- 4 lines
---
scanf(%d,&a[19]);
Which one is best ?
20 lines
Array Manipulation Using Subscripts
/* this function finds the length of a character string */
#include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
int i = 0;
char string[11]; /* char array decalaration */
printf(Enter a string of maximum ten characters\n);

gets(string); /* get the input from the keyboard (stdin

buffer) */

fflush( stdin); /* clear the stdin buffer */

for(i =0; string[i] != \0; i = i + 1);

printf(The length of the string is %d \n, i);

}
Array Addressing

In the declaration:
char string[11];
the name of the array refers to the starting
address of the area that gets allocated for
storing the elements of the array.

Thus, string contains the address of string[0].

In the aforesaid declaration, string refers to

the starting position of the array, and the
subscript refers to the offset position from the
starting position.
Array Addressing

string

100

100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110

a b c d e f g h i j \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 Array Addressing
To arrive at the address of the particular element, the compiler
applies the following simple formula:

starting address of the array + ( offset position * size of

data type)

Address of element 4 = 100 + ( 3 * 1) = 100 +3 = 103

One-Dimensional Array
Example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int iMarks[4];
short newMarks[4];
iMarks[0]=78;
iMarks[1]=64;
iMarks[2]=66;
iMarks[3]=74;
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
newMarks[i]=iMarks[i];

for(j=0; j<4; j++)

printf("%d\n", newMarks[j]);
return 0;
}
Two-Dimensional Array
Syntax:
datatype variablename [rowsize] [columnsize];

Example:
int a[4][3];

block of 15(5*3) contiguous elements in memory.

0 1 2 Column offset
a[0][0] value
Address 0
1000
Of a[0][0]
1006 1 a[0][2]
1004
Row offset 2
value
3 ?
Two-Dimensional Array
Initialization

Example:
int array1[ 2 ][ 3 ] = { { 1, 2, 3 }, { 4, 5, 6 } };
int array2[ 2 ][ 3 ] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
int array3[ 2 ][ 3 ] = { { 1, 2 }, { 4 } };

char arr[3][12]= { "Rose", "India", "technologies" };

Two-Dimensional Array
Initialization

Example:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
char arr[3][12]= { "Rose", "India", "technologies" };
clrscr();
printf("Array of String is = %s,%s,%s\n", arr[0], arr[1], arr[2]);
getch();
}
 Input To 2-D Array

1-D Array: 2-D Array:

int a[20],i; int a[10][5],i,j;

Increment
for(i=0;i<20;i++) for(i=0;i<10;i++) row index
{ {
scanf(%d, &a[ i ]); for(j=0;j<5;j++)
Increment
} { column index
scanf(%d,&a[i][j]);
}
}

Note:
In this 2-D array example we will get input row by row. That means get rows
value one by one using inner for loop. Increment row using outer loop.
Example:
main ( )
Two-Dimensional Array
{
int stud [4] [3];
int i, j;
for (i =0; i < =3; i ++)
{
for(j=0;j<=2;j++)
{
printf ("\n Enter roll no. and marks");
scanf ("%d%d", &stud [i] [j], &stud [i] [j] );
}
}

for (i = 0; i < = 3; i ++)

{
for(j=0;j<=2;j++)
{
printf ("\n %d %d", stud [i] [j], stud [i] [j]);
}
}
 Functions
A function is a sub-program of one or more statements that performs a
special task when called
C supports two types of function
Library Function
User Defined Function
main()
{ -------
abc(x,y,z); Function call (Actual argument)
-------
}
abc(l,k,j) Function Definition (Formal argument)
{ -------
-------
}
 Functions
A function is a sub-program of one or more statements that performs a
special task when called

C supports two types of function

Library Function
User Defined Function

A function is declared as
return-value-type function-name( parameter-list )
{
declarations and statements
}
 Function definition format (continued)
return-value-type function-name( parameter-list )
{
declarations and statements
}

Declarations and statements: function body

Variables can be declared inside blocks
Functions can not be defined inside other functions
Returning control
If nothing returned
return;
If something returned
return expression
Rules and Regulations

A function should follows

1.Function Declaration
2.Function call
3.Function Definition
Example
#include<stdio.h>
Void display() /* function declaration*/
Void main()
{
display();/*function call*/
}
Void display()/*function definition*/
{
int a,b,c;
a=10;b=20;
c=a+b;
printf(%d,c);
}
Key Points
C program is a collection of one or more functions.
A function gets called when the function name is followed by a
semicolon. For example, main( )
{
argentina( ) ;
}
A function is defined when function name is followed by a pair of
braces in which one or more statements may be present.
For example,
argentina( )
{
statement 1 ;
statement 2 ;
statement 3 ; }
 Any function can be called from any other function. Even
main( ) can be called from other functions.
For example,
main()
{
message( ) ;
}

message( )
{
printf ( "\nCan't imagine life without C" ) ;
main( ) ;
}
 A function can be called any number of times.

For example,
main( )
{
message( ) ;
message( ) ;
}
message( )
{
printf ( "\n Hai Welcome to C Language !!" ) ;
}
Advantages of Functions

Divide and conquer

Manageable program development
Software reusability
Use existing functions as building blocks for new programs
Avoid code repetition
 Types of functions

There are mainly 4 types of functions

1.Function with no arguments and no return values

2.Functions with arguments and no return values
3.Functions without arguments and no return values
4. Functions with arguments and return values
Function with no arguments and no return values

void main()
{
Printf(welcome to c);
message();
printf(for good learning c);
}

Void message()
{
printf(all the best);
}
Function with arguments and no return values

#include<stdio.h>
Void main()
{
int a,b,c;
a=10;b=20;
add(a,b);
}
Void add( int x,int y)
{

printf(%d,(x+y));
}
Function without arguments and return values

#include<stdio.h>
Void main()
{
Int c;
c= add();
Printf(%d,c);
}
int add()
{
int a,b,c;
a=10;b=20;
return(a+b);
}
Function with arguments and return values
#include<stdio.h>
Void main()
{
int a,b;
a=10;b=20;
c= add(a,b);
Printf(%d,c);
}
int add (int x, int y)
{
return(x+y);
}
Invoking functions
Function can be be invoked by using two ways
1.Call by value
2.call by reference
Call by value
If a function is invoked by passing values of actual
arguments to is corresponding formal arguments.

Whenever using call by value, the values of actual

arguments is copied into its corresponding formal
arguments

Whenever we make changes in formal arguments which

will not reflect to its corresponding actual arguments.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
Void exchange(int a,int b)
{
int t;
t=a;
a=b;
b=t;
printf(the values of a and b are:%d%d,a,b);
}
Main()
{
int a,b;
a=10;b=20;
exchange(a,b);/* call by value procedure*/
}
2. Call by reference
If a function is invoked by passing the address of
actual arguments to its corresponding formal
arguments.

If we make changes in the formal arguments ,all

the values will reflected into its corresponding
actual arguments.
 Example
#include<stdio.h>
Void exchange(int *a,int *b)
{
int t;
t=*a;
*a=*b;
*b=t;
printf(the values of a and b are:%d%d,*a,*b);
}
Main()
{
int a,b;
a=10;b=20;
exchange(&a,&b);/* call by reference procedure*/
}
 Function Prototype
Function name
Parameters what the function takes in
Return type data type function returns (default int)
Used to validate functions
Prototype only needed if function definition comes after use in
program
The function with the prototype
int maximum( int, int, int );
Takes in 3 ints
Returns an int
 Recursion Function
A function call by itself

Example:
int main()
{
int result, number;
...
result = factorial( number );
}
int factorial( int num ) /* Function definition */
{
...
if ( ( num > 0 ) || ( num <= 10 ) )
return( num * factorial( num - 1 ) ); /*call itself */
}
 Structures
A structure is a collection of one or more variables, possibly of different
types, grouped together under a single name for convenient handling.

Structures help to organize complicated data, particularly in large

programs, because they permit a group of related variables to be treated as
a unit instead of as separate entities.

An example of a structure is the payroll record: an employee is described

by a set of attributes such as name, address, social security number, salary,
etc.
Declaring a Structure
The C language provides the struct keyword for declaring a
structure. The following is a structure declaration for employee
attributes.

struct empdata
{
int empno;
char name[10];
char job[10];
float salary;
};
Declaring a Structure Variable
struct empdata
{
int empno;
char name[10];
char job[10];
float salary;
} emprec; /* emprec is a variable of structure type empdata */

Or a structure can be declared separately as:

struct empdata emprec;/* emprec is a variable of structure type

empdata */
Accessing Elements of a Structure
Once a structure variable has been declared, the individual members of the
structure can be accessed by prefixing the structure variable to the element
of the structure.

struct empdata
{
int empno;
char name[10];
char job[10];
float salary;
}
struct empdata emprec;
emprec.empno=101;
/* referring to the element of the structure variable emprec */
 Structure Example
#include< stdio.h >
void main() printf(Enter the age of the student);
{ scanf(%d,&new student.age);
struct
{ printf(Student information\n);
int id_no; printf(student
char name[20]; id_number=%d\n,newstudent.id_no);
char address[20]; printf(student
int age;
}newstudent; name=%s\n,newstudent.name);
printf(student
printf(Enter the student Address=%s\n,newstudent.address);
information);
printf(Now Enter the student printf(Age of
id_no);
scanf(%d,&newstudent.id_no); student=%d\n,newstudent.age);
printf(Enter the name of the }
student);
scanf(%s,&new student.name);
printf(Enter the address of the
student);
scanf(%s,&new student.address);
Initializing of a structure

struct empdata
{
int empno;
char name[10];
char job[10];
float salary;
}emprec={101,Arun,Developer,20000};
Array of Structures
Just as it is possible to declare arrays of primitive data types, it should also be
possible to declare arrays of structures as well.

Consider the structure declaration for the employee details used earlier.
struct empdata
{
int empno;
char name[10];
char job[10];
float salary;
};
struct empdata employee_array[4];
Structure Example
#include< stdio.h >
{
struct info
{
int id_no;
char name[20];
char address[20];
char combination[3];
int age;
}
struct info std[100];
int I,n;
printf(Enter the number of students);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf( Enter Id_no,name address combination age\m);
for(I=0;I < n;I++)
scanf(%d%s%s%s%d,&std[I].id_no,std[I].name,std[I].address,std[I].combin
ation,&std[I].age);
printf(\n Student information);
for (I=0;I< n;I++)
printf(%d%s%s%s%d\n,
,std[I].id_no,std[I].name,std[I].address,std[I].combination,std[I].age);
}
Structure within Structure
A structure may be defined as a member of another structure. In such structures the
declaration of the embedded structure must appear before the declarations of other
structures.

struct date
{
int day;
int month;
int year;
};
struct student
{
int id_no;
char name[20];
char address[20];
char combination[3];
int age;
structure date def;
structure date doa;
}oldstudent, newstudent;
Structures & Files
Consider a situation where your application needs to read records from a file
for processing.

The general approach would be to read the various fields of a record into
corresponding memory variables.

Computations can then be performed on these memory variables, the

contents of which can then be updated to the file.

But, this approach would involve manipulating the current file offset for the
relevant fields that need to be updated.
Writing Records On To a File

The fwrite( ) function allows a structure variable to be

written on to a file.

The following statement writes the structure variable

salesvar on to a file SALES.DAT, which is pointed to by
the FILE type pointer fp:

fwrite( &salesvar, sizeof(struct salesdata), 1, fp);

Reading Records from a File
Records can be read from a file using fread( ). The corresponding
read statement using fread( ) for the earlier fwrite( ) statement
would be:
fread(&salesvar, sizeof(struct salesdata), 1, fp);

Here, the first parameter &salesvar is the address of the structure

variable salesvar into which 1 record is to be read from the file
pointed to by the FILE type pointer fp.

The second parameter specifies the size of the data to be read into
the structure variable.
Structures with pointers

We can store the address structure variable in a pointer variable

The pointer variable also should be the variable for the structure data
type;

#include<stdio.h>
struct student
{
int rollno;
int marks;
}s={101,99},*p;
Accessing structure by pointer

#include<stdio.h>
struct student
{
int rollno;
int marks;
}s={101,99},*p;
main()
{
p=&s;
printf("%d",(*p).rollno);
printf("%d",(*p).marks);
}
 Accessing structure by pointer
With pointers, though, in accessing structure members an arrow notation is
used, rather than the dot notation:

struct student
{
int rollno;
int marks;
}s={101,99},*p;
main()
{
p=&s;
printf("%d",p->rollno);
printf("%d",p->rollno);
getch();
}
Passing structure in a function
struct student{
int rollno;
int marks;
}s={101,99},*p;
main()
{
p=&s;
printf("%d",p->rollno);
printf("%d", p->marks);
f1(&s);
printf("%d", p-> rollno);
printf("%d", p-> marks);
}
f1(struct student *s1)
{
s1->rollno=103;
}
 Pointers
Pointers is a memory variable that stores a memory
address
It always denoted by (*) asterisk symbol

Features
Pointers save the memory space.
Direct access to memory location
Useful for representing two-dimensional & Multi- dimensional
array

Declaration
int *x;
float *f;
 Example for Pointer
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int v=10, *p;
clrscr();
p=&v;
printf( \n Address of V = %u ,p);
printf( \n Value of V = %d ,*p);
printf( \n Address of P = %u ,&p);
}
Output
Address of V = 4060
Value of V = 10
Address of P = 4062
 Pointers
Pointers are variables that contain memory
addresses as their values.

A variable name directly references a value.

A pointer indirectly references a value.

Referencing a value through a pointer is called
indirection.

A pointer variable must be declared before it can

be used.
It always denoted by (*) asterisk symbol
 Concept of Address and Pointers

Memory can be ADDR1 Contents1

conceptualized as a ADDR2
linear set of data ADDR3
ADDR4
locations. ADDR5
Variables reference the
ADDR6
*
contents of a locations *
Pointers have a value
*
of the address of a ADDR11 Contents11
given location
*
*
ADDR16 Contents16
 Syntax:

datatype * variablename;
identifier

Indirection operator
Example:
Pointer variable
int *a;

Note: A normal variable(identifier) declared with * symbol is called

pointer variable.
 Examples of pointer declarations:

int *a;
float *b;
char *c;

The asterisk, when used as above in the declaration,

tells the compiler that the variable is to be a pointer,
and the type of data that the pointer points to, but
NOT the name of the variable pointed to.
 Consider the statements:

#include <stdio.h>
int main ( )
{
int *aptr ; /* Declare a pointer to an int
*/
float *bptr ; /* Declare a pointer to a
float */
int a =10; /* Declare an int variable */
float b =2.5f; /* Declare a float variable */
aptr = &a ;
bptr = &b ;

printf(%u,&a); aptr a
printf(%u,aptr); 1000 10
printf(%d,a);
printf(%d\n,*aptr); 1000

printf(%u,&b);
bptr b
printf(%u,bptr); 1500 2.5
printf(%f,b);
printf(%f,*bptr);
1500
return 0 ;
}
Output:
1000 1000 10 10
1500 1500 2.500000 2.500000
 Use of & and *

When is & used?

When is * used?

& -- "address operator" which gives or produces

the memory address of a data variable
* -- "dereferencing operator" which provides the
contents in the memory location specified by a
pointer
 Arithmetic and Logical Operations on Pointers

A pointer may be incremented or decremented

An integer may be added to or subtracted from a

pointer.

Pointer variables may be subtracted from one

another.

Pointer variables can be used in comparisons, but

usually only in a comparison to NULL.
 Arithmetic Operations on Pointers

When an integer is added to or subtracted from a

pointer, the new pointer value is changed by the
integer times the number of bytes in the data
variable the pointer is pointing to.

For example, if the pointer valptr contains the

address of a double precision variable and that
address is 234567870, then the statement:
valptr = valptr + 2;
would change valptr to 234567886
 Arithmetic Operations on Pointers

Example: Before this Statement

a b
int *a; 1000 2.5
int b=10;
a=&b; 1000
a++;
After this Statement
a++ a=a+1 Integer 1=2bytes
1000++ a=1000+1
a value is 1002
Arithmetic Operations on Pointers

Example:
#include< stdio.h >
main()
{
int *ptr1,*ptr2;
int a,b,x,y,z;
a=30;b=6;
ptr1=&a;
ptr2=&b;
x=*ptr1+ *ptr2 6;
y=6*- *ptr1/ *ptr2 +30;
printf(\nAddress of a +%u,ptr1);
printf(\nAddress of b %u,ptr2);
printf(\na=%d, b=%d,a,b);
printf(\nx=%d,y=%d,x,y);
ptr1=ptr1 + 70;
ptr2= ptr2;
printf(\na=%d, b=%d,a,b);
}
Pointer to arrays

An array is actually very much like pointer.

We can declare the arrays first element as

a[0] or as int *a
because a[0] is an address and *a is also an address
the form of declaration is equivalent.
The difference is pointer is a variable and can
appear on the left of the assignment operator that
is lvalue.
The array name is constant and cannot appear as
the left side of assignment operator.
 Pointer to arrays
/* A program to display the contents of array using pointer*/
main()
{
int a[100];
int i,j,n;
printf(\nEnter the elements of the array\n);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(Enter the array elements);
for(I=0;I< n;I++)
scanf(%d,&a[I]);
printf(Array element are);
for(ptr=a,ptr< (a+n);ptr++)
printf(Value of a[%d]=%d stored at address %u,j+=,*ptr,ptr);
}

Strings are characters arrays and here last element is \0

arrays and pointers to char arrays can be used to perform a
number of string functions.
File I/O in C
Files in C

In C, each file is simply a sequential stream of

bytes. C imposes no structure on a file.

A file must first be opened properly before it can

be accessed for reading or writing. When a file is
opened, a stream is associated with the file.

Successfully opening a file returns a pointer to

(i.e., the address of) a file structure, which
contains a file descriptor and a file control block.
 Files in C

The statement:
FILE *fp1, *fp2 ;
declares that fptr1 and fptr2 are pointer variables
of type FILE. They will be assigned the address
of a file descriptor, that is, an area of memory
that will be associated with an input or output
stream.

Whenever you are to read from or write to the

file, you must first open the file and assign the
address of its file descriptor (or structure) to the
file pointer variable.
 Opening Files

Syntax:

FILE *fp;
fp=fopen(filename,mode);

The statement:
fp1 = fopen ( "mydata", "r" ) ;
would open the file mydata for input (reading).
 Opening Files

The statement:
fp = fopen ("results", "w" ) ;
would open the file results for output (writing).

Once the files are open, they stay open until you
close them or end the program (which will close
all files.)
 Testing for Successful Open

If the file was not able to be opened, then the

value returned by the fopen routine is NULL.
For example, let's assume that the file mydata
does not exist. Then:
FILE *fptr1 ;
fptr1 = fopen ( "mydata", "r") ;
if (fptr1 == NULL)
{
printf ("File 'mydata' did not open.\n")
;
}
Open Mode

"r Open text file for reading only

"w Truncate to 0 length, if existent, or create
text file for writing only.
"a Append; open or create text file only for
writing at end of file
"r+ Open text file for update (reading and
writing)
"w+ Truncate to 0 length, if existent, or
create text file for update
"a+ Append; open or create text file for
update, writing at end of file
 File operation functions in C

Function Name Operation

fopen() Creates a new file for use

Opens a new existing file for use

Fclose() Closes a file which has been opened for

use

getc() Reads a character from a file

putc() Writes a character to a file

 File operation functions in C

fprintf() Writes a set of data values to a file

fscanf() Reads a set of data values from a file

getw() Reads a integer from a file

putw() Writes an integer to the file

 File operation functions in C

fseek() Sets the position to a desired point in the

file

ftell() Gives the current position in the file

rewind() Sets the position to the begining of the file

getc() & putc()

#include< stdio.h >

main()
{
file *f1;
printf(Data input output);
f1=fopen(Input,w); /*Open the file Input*/

while((c=getchar())!=EOF) /*get a character from key board*/

putc(c,f1); /*write a character to input*/

fclose(f1); /*close the file input*/

printf(\nData output\n);
f1=fopen(INPUT,r); /*Reopen the file input*/

while((c=getc(f1))!=EOF)
printf(%c,c);
fclose(f1);
getw() & putw()

#include< stdio.h >

main()
{
FILE *f1,*f2,*f3;
int number I;
printf(Contents of the data file\n\n);
f1=fopen(DATA,W);
for(I=1;I< 30;I++)
{
scanf(%d,&number);
if(number==-1)
break;
putw(number,f1);
}
fclose(f1);
f1=fopen(DATA,r);
f2=fopen(ODD,w);
f3=fopen(EVEN,w);
getw() & putw()

while((number=getw(f1))!=EOF)/* Read from data file*/

{
if(number%2==0)
putw(number,f3);/*Write to even file*/
else
putw(number,f2);/*write to odd file*/
}
fclose(f1);
fclose(f2);
fclose(f3);
f2=fopen(ODD,r);
f3=fopen(EVEN,r);
printf(\n\nContents of the odd file\n\n);
while(number=getw(f2))!=EOF)
printf(%d%d,number);
printf(\n\nContents of the even file);
while(number=getw(f3))!=EOF)
printf(%d,number);
fclose(f2);
fclose(f3);
}
 Reading From Files

In the following segment of C language code:

int a, b ;
FILE *fptr1, *fptr2 ;
fptr1 = fopen ( "mydata", "r" ) ;
fscanf ( fptr1, "%d%d", &a, &b) ;

the fscanf function would read values from the

file "pointed" to by fptr1 and assign those values
to a and b.
End of File

The end-of-file indicator informs the program when

there are no more data (no more bytes) to be
processed.
There are a number of ways to test for the end-of-
file condition. One is to use the feof function which
returns a true or false condition:
fscanf (fptr1, "%d", &var) ;
if ( feof (fptr1) )
{
printf ("End-of-file encountered.\n);
}
 End of File

There are a number of ways to test for the end-of-

file condition. Another way is to use the value
returned by the fscanf function:
int istatus ;
istatus = fscanf (fptr1, "%d", &var) ;
if ( istatus == EOF )
{
printf ("End-of-file encountered.\n) ;
}
 Writing To Files

Likewise in a similar way, in the following

segment of C language code:

int a = 5, b = 20 ;
FILE *fptr2 ;
fptr2 = fopen ( "results", "w" ) ;
fprintf ( fptr2, "%d %d\n", a, b ) ;

the fprintf functions would write the values

stored in a and b to the file "pointed" to by fptr2.
Closing Files

The statements:

fclose ( fptr1 ) ;
fclose ( fptr2 ) ;

will close the files and release the file descriptor

space and I/O buffer memory.
 Reading and Writing Files

#include <stdio.h>
int main ( )
{
FILE *outfile, *infile ;
int b = 5, f ;
float a = 13.72, c = 6.68, e, g ;

outfile = fopen ("testdata", "w") ;

fprintf (outfile, "%6.2f%2d%5.2f", a, b, c) ;
fclose (outfile) ;
 Reading and Writing Files

infile = fopen ("testdata", "r") ;

fscanf (infile,"%f %d %f", &e, &f, &g) ;

printf ("%6.2f%2d%5.2f\n", a, b, c) ;
printf ("%6.2f,%2d,%5.2f\n", e, f, g) ;
}
12345678901234567890
****************************
13.72 5 6.68
13.72, 5, 6.68
fseek()

int fseek ( Stream, Offset, Whence);

where stream -- file pointer

offset -- no of position in bytes
whence from position

**whence must be one of the values 0, 1, or 2

Whence value:
0 Beginning of the file
1 Current position
2 End of the file.
 ftell() & rewind()

Ftell();

FILE *stream;
long ftell (stream);

Rewind():

FILE *stream;
void rewind (stream);
Pre Processing

in

C
Pre Processing

Refers before compiling the c program.

Loads the template before compiling.

Syntax
#Macro Template Macro Expansion
Types of Macros
Defining Macros
File Inclusion

Conditional Macros

Special cases
 Defining Macros
#define <Label>(parameterlist)<Expansion>
main()
{

.
<Label>
}
Defining Macros
Example:

#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.14
#define AREA(radius) (PI*radius*radius)
main()
{
float areas[3]={AREA(1),AREA(2),AREA(3)};
int count;
for (count=0; count <3; count++) {
printf("Circle area=%f\n",areas[count]);
}
return 0;
}
File Inclusion
#include<file name>
(or) #include filename
main()
{
..
..
}
Conditional Macros
Syntax:
#ifdef MACRO
controlled text
#endif /* MACRO */

Syntax:
# if expression
controlled text
# endif /* expression */
Conditional Macros
Syntax:
#if expression
text-if-true
#else /* Not expression */
text-if-false
#endif /* Not expression */
Example for elif
Example:
#if X == 1
...
#elif X == 2
...
#else /* X != 2 and X != 1*/
...
#endif /* X != 2 and X != 1*/
Thank You.