Industrial Air Controls

Industrial Pneumatic
Fundamentals
Pneumatic
Fundamentals
Objectives
Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
• Define States of Matter (with emphasis

on liquids & gases and their effects on
pneumatic equipment)
Industrial Pneumatic Fundamentals
• Define Fundamental Pneumatic Terms

and concepts and constituents of air
• Define Gas Laws
• Define Force
• Review Air Preparation
2
Physical vs. Chemical State
Change
• Physical State
Change
Physical Change Of Water Into Ice
• Chemical State
Change
Chemical Change Of Water Into
Hydrogen Peroxide
3
Physical States of MatterEjercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Gas, Liquid, Solid, Plasma, and Bose-Einsten

Condensate (BEC)
Cool or
compress Cool
Heat or Heat
reduce
pressure Crystalline
Gas Liquid solid
Total disorder; Disorder; particles Ordered
much empty or clusters of arrangement;
space; particles particles are free particles are
have complete to move relative to essentially in fixed
freedom of each other; positions; particles
motion; particles particles close close together.
far apart. together.
(See notes for definitions of each state)

4
Water – Changes of State Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
125
F
Water vapor
D
100
E
Temperature (°C)
Ice and liquid and vapor

75
(vaporization)
50
Liquid water
25
0 B C
Ice Ice and liquid water (melting)

-25 A
Heat added (each division corresponds to 4kJ)
5
Relative Humidity and Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Dew Point
• What does this have to do with a
pneumatic system?
Amount of Water in Air at 100% Relative Humidity
Across a Range of Temperatures

100
= 100% Relative Humidity (Dew Point)
(grams H2O per Kilogram of Air)
90
= 50% Relative
80
70
Water in Air
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Temperature (degrees C) 6
Pressure Fundamentals
• Pressure – the force exerted by a fluid at

rest per unit area on which the force
acts.
• Units – pound-force per square inch or
psi (European unit is the bar; 1 bar =
14.5-psi).
• Differential pressure – difference in
pressure between two regions
7
Pneumatic Terms
• Standard Temperature Pressure

(STP)
• Normal air
• Free air
• Standard Cubic Feet per Minute
(SCFM)
• Relative Humidity
• Dew Point
8
Pneumatic Terms
• Desiccant
• Adsorption
• Absorption
9
Advantages / Disadvantages
of Pneumatics
Advantages:
– The working fluid (air) is abundant, readily available,
inexpensive, cleaner, and safer to use than oil-based
hydraulic fluids, and is less environmentally hazardous.
– Return lines are unnecessary.

– Due to the compressibility of air, pneumatic equipment is less
likely to be damaged by overpressure conditions.
• Disadvantages
– Energy density is lower than hydraulics. Higher pressures are
used in hydraulics, therefore the energy to move loads is
available.
– Pneumatic systems require bleeding pressure off to release a
load, whereas in hydraulics a slight movement of the load
releases the pressure.
10
Constituents of (Free) Air
• 78.084% Nitrogen (inert, and as a result, slows

combustion of Oxygen)
– 20.946% Oxygen (readily supports combustion)
– 0.934% Argon
– 0.038% Carbon Dioxide
– 1% water Vapor
– 0.002% other (Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton,
Hydrogen, Nitrous Oxide, Xenon, Ozone, Nitrogen
Dioxide, Iodine, and trace amounts of Carbon
Monoxide and Ammonia)
Total = 100.004 (due to rounding and does not include
water vapor, which is contained in the air, not part of it)
11
Characteristics of Gases vs.
Liquids
Gases expand to fill all of the available
space, liquids do not.
12
The Gas Laws
• Bernoulli’s Principle
• Boyle’s Law
• Charles’ Law (principle)

• General Gas Laws
13
Gas Law Concepts
For any given mass of air, the variable properties

are pressure, volume and temperature.
• Assuming one of the three variables to be held at

a constant value, we can look at the relationship
between the other two for each case:
– Constant temperature
PV = constant
– Constant pressure V
= constant
T
– Constant volume P constant
=
T 14
Bernoulli’s Principle
“in a system with a constant flow rate, energy is

transformed from one form to the other each time the
pipe cross-section size changes”
Ignoring friction losses, the

pressure again becomes the
In the small section pipe, velocity is same as at “A” when the flow
maximum. More energy is in the form velocity becomes the same as
of motion, so pressure is lower. at “A.”
PUMP A B C
PSI PSI PSI
Velocity decreases in the larger

pipe. The kinetic energy loss is
made up by an increase in 15
pressure.
Boyle’s Law
• “if the temperature of a confined body of gas

is maintained constant, the absolute pressure
is inversely proportional to the volume.”
F1
F2
F3
V1
P1 V2
P2 V3
P3
P1 X V1 = P2 X V2 = P3 X V3 = constant where P = pressure and V= volume 16
Constant Temperature
Pressure P
bar absolute
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
P1·V1 = P2·V2 = constant

17
Pressure P
bar absolute
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
18
Pressure P
bar absolute
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V
19
Pressure P
bar absolute
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Volume V

20
Charles’ Law
• If heated by 1 K degree at constant

pressure, air expands by 1/273 of its volume.
• This is shown by Charles’ Law where:
Volume1 Volume 2

Temperatur e1 Temperatur e2
21
Constant Pressure Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Temperature
Celsius
100
80
60
40
20 293K
0
-20
-40
-60
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
V1 V2
= =c
T1(K) T2(K)
22
Constant Pressure
Temperature
Celsius
100
366.25K
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
V1 V2
= =c
T1(K) T2(K)
23
Constant Pressure
Temperature
Celsius
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
219.75K
-60
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
V1 V2
= =c
T1(K) T2(K)
24
Constant Pressure Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Temperature
Celsius
100
366.25K
80
60
40
20 293K
0
-20
-40
219.75K
-60
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 Volume
V1 V2
= =c
T1(K) T2(K) 25
The Combined Gas Law
The combined or general gas law is where

pressure, volume and temperature may all vary
between states of a given mass of gas but their
relationship results in a constant value.
P1 .V1 P2 .V2
= = constant
T1 T2
26
Compressibility
Review of Boyle’s Law

For a fixed mass of ideal gas at fixed
temperature, the product of pressure and

volume is a constant.
• VP = k
• V1P1 = V2P2
27
Compressibility – Charles Law
Review of Charles’ Law

At constant pressure, the volume of a given
mass of an ideal gas increases or
decreases by the same factor as its

temperature (in Kelvin) increases or
decreases.
• V/T = k
• V1T2 = V2T1
-65°C 250°C 28
Compressibility
Review of General or Ideal Gas Laws

The state of an amount of gas is determined
by its pressure, volume, and temperature
according to the equation:
• pV = nRT (or for most conditions) V1T2 =

V2T1
• P1V1T2 = P2V2T1 or P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
29
Compressibility
Conclusion – gases are easily

compressible, liquids are not.
– Gases – compressible roughly 1700 to 1

– As gas pressure increases, temperature
increases and volume decreases.
– Liquids – roughly 1 to 1 (considered non-
compressible)
30
Pressure Scales
Pressure in pneumatic systems is

measured in one of three scales: absolute
(psia), gauge (psig), and vacuum ("Hg).
Gauge
Atmospheric
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Vacuum-negative
gauge Pressure Absolute
Pressure
Absolute Absolute
Zero Pressure
31
Measuring Atmospheric
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure facts:
29.92”
• Average sea level

pressure = 101.325-kPa Sea Level
Atmospheric
(kilopascals)1-kPa = 1-
Pressure
millibar
• US reports atmospheric
pressure in inches
Barometer
(hundredths of inches) of
Mercury (& in mbar)
• 101.32-mbar is reported as
132 32
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric
pressure values are 101.5 mb
displayed on 101.2 mb
weather maps.
100.8 mb
• Lines (called isobars)
100.0 mb
show contours of
pressure in millibars. 996.0 mb
• Lines help predict
LOW
wind direction and
force.
33
Pressure at Various Altitudes
Altitude above sea Barometer Reading Approx. Atmospheric

level in Feet in Inches of Mercury Pressure in pounds
per square inch (PSI)
0 29.92 14.7
1000 28.8 14.2

2000 27.7 13.6
3000 26.7 13.1
4000 25.7 12.6
5000 24.7 12.1
6000 23.8 11.7
7000 22.9 11.2
8000 22.1 10.8
9000 21.2 10.4
10000 20.4 10.0 34
″Hg / PSI Conversions
Example : ″Hg to PSI Mercury

• 10 ″Hg x 0.491 = 4.91-psia Column X 0.491 = P.S.I.
• 29.92 ″Hg x 0.491 = 14.69-psia Height
Example: PSI to ″Hg

Sea Level
• 14.7-psia / 0.491 = 29.93 ″Hg Atmospheric
5 Pressure
• 10-psia / 0.491 = 20.36 ″Hg 3
1 Vacuum
PSIG 5”
Remember: 10”
• PSIA = PSIG + 14.7 15”

20”
• PSIG = PSIA – 14.7
25”
29.92”
35
Comparing ″Hg Vacuum to ″Hg
Absolute
″Hg absolute measures
Absolute Pressure Scale

atmospheric
Vacuum Pressure Scale

pressure (determined
30(29.92) 0
by how high a
25 5
column of mercury
the pressure will 20 10
cause) 15 15
10 20
″Hg vacuum 5 25
measures 0 30(29.92)
pressure below In. Hg. In. Hg.
atmospheric Abs. Vacuum
pressure Pressure 36
Pressure Scales
• Either of two
pressure 29.7 15
Absolute Pressure Scale

scales are
Gauge Pressure Scale

24.7 10
used to
19.7 5
measure
pressure — 14.7 29.92 0
an absolute 11.0 22.4 PSIG
7.35 14.9
scale or a
3.67 7.5
gage scale. 0 0
In. Hg.
PSIA
Abs. 37
Press.
Pressure Ranges
38
Gage Operation Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
(Plunger Gage)
Fluid In
5000
Plunger
4000
3000
psig
2000
1000 Pivot
0
Bias
Pointer Spring
Plunger Gage
39
Gage Operation
(Bourdon Tube)
Bourdon tube 1500
1000 2000
500 2500
0 Bourdon
Tube
0 3000
Needle
Pointer Linkage
Fluid in
Absolute Gage
= + 14.7 P.S.I.
Pressure Reading
40
Gage Reading Basics
• Reading accuracy – gages may

be read to one-half of the
smallest increment.
• Make sure equipment is

depressurized before opening
system or performing
maintenance.
41
Vacuum Gage
15
10 20
5 25
Vacuum 30
0
in Hg.
Vacuum Gage
Absolute Vacuum
= 30 -
Pressure Reading
42
Pneumatic Transmission of
Energy
• Pneumatics energy is used to perform work.
• Energy is stored in the form of compressed air and the
energy is released when the air is allowed to expand.
• A device is needed (an air compressor) to supply

compressed air at a desired pressure.
• A cylinder is one type of device that can be used to
convert the stored energy into work.
43
Force Transmission
Through a Solid
Movable
Piston
Solid
44
Force Transmission
Through a Liquid
45
Force Transmission
Through a Gas
46
Measuring Fluid Performance
• Pascal’s Law simply stated

says: “Pressure applied on
a confined fluid is
transmitted undiminished in
all directions, and acts with
equal force on equal areas,
and at right angles to the
surface.”
Pressure
exerted by fluid
equal in all
directions
47
Force Transmission Through a
Fluid – Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s Law (principle)
LBS
48
Force Transmission Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Through a Fluid
1000 lbs.
Piston area
10 sq. in.
100 psi.
Piston area
15 sq. in.
100 psi.
1500 lbs.
100 psi. Object of

resistance
49
Definition of Pressure
• Definition of pressure:
If F is the magnitude of the normal force on
a piston and A is the surface area of a
piston, then the fluid pressure, P, is the

ratio of the force to area.
Force F F
Pr essure  P
Area A P A
Pressure in PSI (pounds per square
inch) if Force in in pounds (lbs) and area
is in square inches. 50
Primary/Secondary
Air Treatment
Primary air treatment – conditioning of air
before, during, and after compression; but
before distribution.
• Secondary air treatment – conditioning of air

at or near the point of usage.
• Conditioning equipment:
– Filters
– Lubricators
– Regulators
51
Compressed Air System
Compressor
Motor
Gauge
Tank
52
Regulator
Damping spring
Valve Seat
Valve disc
Diaphragm
Vent hole
Spring
Adjusting
Screw
Drawing
Symbol 53
Air Filter
An in-line air filter collects

and retains contaminants.
Air Out
Air In
Baffle plate
Filter
Filter bowl
Drawing
Symbol
Drain
54
Lubricators
Duct
Drip Chamber
Valve
Drip Duct
Inlet Outlet
Check Valve
Oil passage
Drawing
Symbol
55
Venturi Principle
• The pressure difference Δp (pressure gradient)

between the pressure in front of the air nozzle
and the pressure at the smallest section of the
nozzle is used to draw liquid (oil) from a

container and to mix it with the air.
Δp
56
FRL
Regulator Lubricator
Filter
and Gauge
Drawing
Symbol
57
Types of Compressors Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Types of
Compressors
Reciprocating Rotary piston Flow

piston Compressors Compressors Compressors
Piston Diaphragm Radial flow Axial flow

Compressor Compressor Compressor Compressor
Sliding vane rotary Two axle Lobe type

Compressor Compressor Compressors
58
Reciprocating
Piston Compressor
59
Diaphragm Compressor
60
Sliding Vane Rotary
Compressor
61
Screw Compressor
62
Lobe Compressor
63
Axial-Flow Compressor
64
Radial Flow Compressor
65
Summary
• Review Objectives
• Question and Answer Session
66
Fundamentals
Pneumatic Controls
and Devices
Objectives
• Define types of pneumatic valves and

symbols
• Define types of logic valves and

symbols
• Define pneumatic actuators and
symbols
• Define piston force
• Define pneumatic motors and symbols
68
Pneumatic Valves
• The basic function of valves is to switch air

flow
• The range of pneumatic valves is vast
• To help select a valve they are placed in a

variety of categories:
– style
– type
– design principle
– type of operator
– function
– size
– application
69
Style
• Style reflects the look of a valve range

as well as the underlying design
principle
70
Type
• Type refers to the

valves installation
arrangement for
example sub-base,
manifold, in line,
and valve island
Design
• Design refers to the

principle of
operation around
which the valve has

been designed, for
example, spool
valve, poppet valve
and switch or plate
valves.
Valve Operators
Push
Shrouded Mushroom Twist

Button Button Button
Key Key Plunger Roller

Released Operated
Switch Emergency Air Pilot Solenoid

Stop
Pilot
73
Operator Symbols - Manual
Manual
General manual Lever

Push button Pedal
Pull button Treadle
Push/pull button Rotary knob
74
Operator Symbols - Mechanical
Mechanical
Plunger Pressure
Spring normally Pilot pressure

as a return
Roller Differential pressure
Uni-direction Detent in 3 positions

or one way trip
75
Operator Symbols - Electrical
Electrical
Solenoid Solenoid pilot

direct with manual

override and
external pilot
Solenoid pilot supply
When no integral
Solenoid pilot or external pilot
with manual override supply is shown it
and integral pilot is assumed to be
supply integral
76
Valve Function
• Function is the
switching
complexity of a
valve
• This function is
shown by two
figures 2/2, 3/2,
4/2, 5/2, 3/3, 4/3
& 5/3
Valve functions 5/3

• Three position valves have a normal central position
that is set by springs or with a manual control such
as a lever
• The flow pattern in the centre position varies with

the type. Three types will be considered
• 1, All ports sealed
• 2, Outlets to exhaust, supply sealed
• 3, Supply to both outlets, exhausts sealed
78
2 Position, 5 Port Valve
Control Input to Valve Input 14
14 5 1 3 12
5 1 3
14 12
4 2
4 2 79
2 Position, 5 Port Valve
Control Input to Valve Input 12
14 5 1 3 12
5 1 3
14 12
4 2
4 2 80
Valve Size
• Size refers to a valve’s port thread.
• The port size M5

R3/8
R1/2
R1/8
progression M5, R1/4
R1/8 , R1/4, R3/8 ,
R1/2, R3/4, R1.
R1 R3/4
Application
• Application is a category for valves described
by their function or task
• Examples of specialist valves are quick

exhaust valve, soft start valve and monitored
dump valve
• Examples of standard valves are power
valves, logic valves, signal processing valves
and fail safe valves
• A standard valve could be in any category
depending on the function it has been
selected for in a system
Other Valve Designs
• Shut off Valves

• Limit Switches
• Selector Switches
• Pressure Switches
• Flow Regulators/Control
• Quick Exhaust
• AND / OR Valves
83
Shutoff Valves
Drawing Symbol
84
Limit Switch Valves
3
3
1
1
2 2
2
12 10
3
1
Selector Switch Valves
2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1
2 4
1 3
2 4
1 3
Pressure Switch (pneumatic)

• Relay to boost weak signals
2
• Relay for a pneumatic time 12 10
delay
3 1
• When the signal at port 12

reaches about 50% of the 2
supply pressure at port 1, 12 10
the pressure switch
3 1
operates to give a strong
output signal at 2
• For time delays at any
pressure only the linear part
of the curve will be used
giving smooth adjustment
12 10
3 1
Pressure SwitchesEjercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Off Actuated
3 3
12 1 2 12 1 2
2 2
12 10 12 10
3 1 3 1
Pressure Switch - Electrical
• This example uses a

built in single acting
cylinder to operate a Fixed
standard changeover
microswitch Adjustable
• The operating pressure
needs to overcome the
combined force of the
cylinder and
microswitch springs
• Adjustable pressure
switches are also
available allow
adjustment to the
operating pressure
Flow Regulator
Flow Regulation for Speed

Quick Exhaust Valve

2 2
1
Symbol
Circuit example
Air Logic
• In the age of microchips and personal

computers, air logic can still provide an
effective, efficient, and inexpensive means
of control for certain pneumatic machines.

• Air logic controls can perform any function
normally handled by relays, pressure or
vacuum switches, time delays, limit
switches, and counters. The circuitry is
similar, but compressed air is the control
medium instead of electrical current.
93
Logic “OR” Shuttle Valve

3
3
1 2
1 2
1
3
≥1
2
1 3
Logic “AND” Shuttle Valve

3 3
1 2 1 2
3 3
1 2 1 2
3 3 1
3
1 2
&
1 2
ISO Popular old 2
symbol symbol
Two Hand Anti-tie Down
Timing
Chamber
When timing SYMBOL

done will block
input air from 2
output if not 3
present already
2 enables 1 to 1
pass to 3 or
output
OR gate – 1 or 2
passes to timing
96
Timers
Positive Timer Example

TIME
DELAY
ON
INPUT
OFF
ON
OUTPUT
OFF
Positive Timer Negative

Symbol Timer Symbol
INPUT OUTPUT
97
One Shot Timer
Logic symbol ANSI symbol
98
Actuators
• Pneumatic actuators include linear

cylinders and rotary actuators.
• They are devices providing power and

motion to automated systems, machines
and processes.
• A pneumatic cylinder is a simple, low cost,
easy to install device that is ideal for
producing powerful linear movement.
• Speed can be adjusted over a wide range.
• A cylinder can be stalled without damage.
Actuators
• Adverse conditions can be easily tolerated

such as high humidity, dry and dusty
environments and cleaning down with a
hose.
• The bore of a cylinder determines the
maximum force that it can exert.
• The stroke of a cylinder determines the
maximum linear movement that it can
produce.
• The maximum working pressure depends
on the cylinder design. Thrust is
controllable through a pressure regulator.
Basic Construction
Piston
Seals Piston Rod Packing ring
Wiper
Bushing
Bearing Cap
Base Cap Cylinder Barrel
101
Construction of a pneumatic cylinder with end position cushioning
Some Fundamental Designs
• Pneumatic actuators are made in a wide variety of

sizes, styles and types including the following
• Single acting with and without spring return
• Double acting
– Non cushioned and fixed cushioned
– Adjustable cushioned
– Magnetic
• Rodless
• Rotary
• Clamping
• Bellows
Piston Force
Cylinder Piston
Piston Rod
Cylinder Piston Rod

Piston
D
D
2
Force (lbs)  Area (in )  Pr essure( psi)
2
2 Diameter (in)  
Area (in )  103
4
Example of Cylinder Force
A cylinder with a 4 inch diameter and 1.5

inch cylinder rod diameter with air
pressure of 80 psi (pounds per square
inch).
Area = 12.6 sq in.
Area of rod end = 1.8 sq in.
Force = 80 X (12.6 – 1.8) = 864 lbs on retract

of cylinder.
Force = 80 X 12.6 = 1008 lbs on extend of
cylinder. 104
Force Of A Take-up Air
Cylinder
•An air take up is used to keep a chain
conveyor from becoming slack due to load
changes. This is a common application to
production chains a mile long in automobile

plants.
•If a take-up cylinder has a 12 inch diameter
and 3 inch cylinder rod diameter and the chain
pull has been determined to be 2225 pounds
then what should the air pressure be set to.
•The pull is at the rod end.
•Use Pressure = Force ÷ Area
105
Cylinder Force Table Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
CYLINDER FORCE TABLE (Pounds)

Bore Piston PRESSURE (PSI)
(in) Area
(in) 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 90 100
0.75 0.44 4.4 8.8 12 17.6 22 26.4 35.2 39.6 44
1 0.79 7.9 15.8 23.7 31.6 17.4 47.4 63.2 71.1 79
1.5 1.77 17.7 35.4 53.7 71 88 106 141 159 177
2 3.14 31.4 62.8 94.2 126 157 188 251 283 314
2.5 4.91 49.1 98.2 147.3 196 245 295 393 442 491
3.25 8.3 83 166 249 332 415 498 664 747 830
4 12.57 125.7 251.4 377.1 503 628 754 1,005 1,131 1,257
5 19.63 196.3 392.6 588.9 785 982 1,178 1,571 1,767 1,963
6 28.27 282.7 565.4 848.1 1,131 1,414 1,696 2,262 2,545 2,827
106
Cylinder Rod Force Deduction Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Chart
Cylinder Rod Force Deduction Chart
Rod Rod PRESSURE (PSI)

(in) Area
(in)
10 20 30 40 50 60 80 90 100
0.25 0.049 0.49 0.98 1.47 1.96 2.45 2.94 3.92 4.41 4.9
0.5 0.196 1.96 3.92 5.88 7.84 9.8 11.76 15.68 17.64 19.6
0.625 0.307 3.07 6.14 9.27 12.28 15.35 18.42 24.56 27.63 30.7
0.75 0.441 4.41 8.82 13.23 17.64 22.05 26.46 26.46 39.69 44.1
1 0.785 7.85 15.7 23.55 31.4 39.25 47.1 62.8 70.65 78.5
1.375 1.485 14.85 29.7 44.55 59.4 74.25 89.7 118.8 133.65 148.5
3 7.068 70.68 141.36 212.04 282.72 353.4 424.08 565.44 636.12 706.8
107
Cylinder Speed
• Volume is V = A x S
• Compression Ratio
Pr essure _ at _ cylinder  Absolute Pr essure

Compression _ ratio 
Absolute Pr essure _ at _ site
• Finally calculate the flow rate CFM (cubic feet per

minute) needed to move the load
Volume  Compression _ ratio

CFM 
Time _ to _ fill  22.8
108
Actuators
• Cylinders symbols can be any length.
• The piston and rod can be shown in the
retracted, extended or any intermediate
position
109
Single Acting
• Normally in
• Normally out
110
Double Acting
Piston Piston
Rod 111
Double Ended
112
Cylinder Mounting
Foot Mounted Thread Mounted

Front Flange Rear Flange
Swivel Flange Swivel Flange Swivel Flange

Front Center Rear
113
Air Motors Advantages
• Advantages
– Do not require electric power
– Smaller than electric motors

– Do not need reducers
– Simple regulation using flow controls
– Torque varied by regulating pressure
– Do not need relays or motor controllers
– Do not generate much heat
114
Air Motor Disadvantages
• Disadvantages
– Cost can exceed an electric motor
– Cost of operating can be greater

– Speed control not as accurate
– Plant air variations cause speed and
torque fluctuations
115
Piston Air Motors
Motor Single
Direction
Symbol
Motor
Bi-directional
Symbol
116
Vane Motors
Motor Single
Direction
Symbol
Motor
Bi-directional
Symbol
117
Vacuum Equipment
Vacuum generator Vacuum filter

Vacuum cups Vacuum silencer
Vacuum gauge
NC NO
2 2
Vacuum switch
pneumatic 3 1 3 1
118
Vacuum Cup
Orifice that generates vacuum or

suction via the venturi principle
P R
A
119
Summary
120
Fundamentals
Pneumatic Symbols
and Drawings
Objectives
• Define Industry Standards used for

Industrial Electrical Drawings.
• Define Pneumatic Diagrams or

Drawings and how they are structured.
• Define Pneumatic Symbols and logic
applied to pneumatic drawings.
122
Standards
• STANDARDS ARE IMPORTANT FOR THE

FOLLOWING REASONS.
– · Components must be interchangeable and must
perform to known standards. This includes actuators,

valves and pipe fittings.
– · Symbols must be interpreted the same way by any
competent person so that they can follow a circuit diagram
and install them correctly.
– · Drawings layouts and drawing symbols must be
interpreted the same way by any competent person
and this involves both circuit and layout drawings.
– · There are many other standards concerning things
such as health and safety, hydraulic fluids and filters.
– There are various organizations devoted to producing
standards in the field of fluid power.
123
Shapes
• Shapes and lines that are used to
construct symbols and circuits:
124
Basic Symbols (shapes)

Circles
energy conversion units
measuring instrument
mechanical link
roller
125

control component
Square connections
perpendicular to
sides
Square at conditioning apparatus
45o connections to corners
Rectangle cylinders and valves
126

Rectangles
piston
cushion
certain control
methods
127
Basic Symbols
rotary actuator, motor or
Semi-circle pump with limited angle
of rotation
Capsule pressurised reservoir

air receiver, auxiliary
gas bottle
Double line mechanical

connection
piston rod, lever,
shaft
128
Basic Symbols
2
Line Working line, pilot 12 10
supply, return, electrical 3 1

Dashed Pilot control, bleed,

filter
Enclosure of two
Chain
or more functions
in one unit
Line Electrical line
129
Functional Elements
Direction and nature of fluid,
Triangle
open pneumatic or filled
hydraulic
Spring
Arrow Long sloping indicates

adjustability
130
Functional Elements
Arrows
Straight or sloping path and

flow direction, or motion
Tee Closed path or port
Restriction
131
Functional Elements
Curved arrows rotary motion

Shaft rotation clockwise from right hand

end
anti-clockwise from right
hand end
both
Seating 90o angle

132
Functional Elements
Temperature Indication or control

size to suit
Operator Opposed
solenoid
windings
Prime mover M Electric motor M
133
Flowlines
Junction Single
Junction Four way junction
Crossing not connected
Hose usually connecting

Flexible
parts with relative
line
movement
134
Connections
Air bleed Continuous
Temporary by probe
Air exhaust No means of

connection
With means of
connection
135
Connections
Coupling quick
Both to exhaust
release
Coupling quick Source sealed

release self sealing
Coupling quick Both sealed

release self sealing
136
Connections
Rotary connection one

line
Rotary connection two

lines
Rotary connection
three lines
137
Function components
Silencer
Pressure to electric switch

preset
Pressure to electric switch

adjustable
138
Function components
Uni-directional flow regulator

Rotating joint
Pressure indicator
Pressure drop indicator

139
Plant
Compressor and electric
M
motor
Air receiver
Isolating valve
Air inlet filter
140
Combination units
FRL with shut off valve
and pressure gauge
Lubro-control unit
Filter and lubricator
Filter regulator with gauge
FRL Combined unit

141
Filters
Filter with manual drain

Filter with automatic drain
Filter with automatic drain and

pressure drop indicator
142
Pressure regulators
• A pressure regulator symbol represents a normal state with the spring holding the regulator
valve open to connect the supply to the outlet.
Adjustable Regulator
simplified
Adjustable Regulator with

pressure gauge simplified
143
Pressure relief valves

• A pressure relief valve symbol represents a
normal state with the spring holding the valve
closed.
Adjustable relief valve simplified
Preset relief valve simplified
144
Pressure regulators
Pre-set relieving
Pre-set relieving with

pressure gauge
Adjustable relieving
Adjustable relieving with

pressure gauge
145
Valve symbol structure

• The function of a valve is given by a pair of
numerals separated by a stroke, e.g. 3/2..
• The first numeral indicates the number of main
ports. These are inlets, outlets and exhausts but

excludes signal ports and external pilot feeds.
• The second numeral indicates the number of
states the valve can achieve.
146

• A 3/2 valve therefore has 3 ports
(normally these are inlet, outlet and
exhaust) and 2 states (the normal state

and the operated state)
• The boxes are two pictures of the
same valve
operated normal
147
Basic Valve Symbology
• Valve switching positions are illustrated with

squares on a schematic.
• The number of squares is used to illustrate the
quantity of switching positions.

• Lines within the boxes will indicate flow paths with
arrows showing the flow direction.
• Shut off positions are illustrated by lines drawn at
right angles to the flow path.
• Junctions within the valve are connected by a dot.
• Inlet and outlet ports to the valve are shown by
lines drawn to the outside of the box that
represents the normal or initial position of the valve
148

• A valve symbol shows the pictures for
each of the valve states joined end to end
operated normal
149

• A valve symbol shows the pictures for
each of the valve states joined end to end
operated normal
150

• The port connections are shown to only one of
the diagrams to indicate the prevailing state
normal
151

• The operator for a particular state is
illustrated against that state
Operated state
produced by
pushing a button
152

Operated state Normal state

produced by produced by
pushing a button a spring
153

Operated state Normal state

produced by produced by
pushing a button a spring
154

• The valve symbol can be visualised as
moving to align one state or another
with the port connections
155

156

157

• A 5/2 valve symbol is constructed in a
similar way. A picture of the valve flow
paths for each of the two states is

shown by the two boxes. The 5 ports
are normally an inlet, 2 outlets and 2
exhausts
158
• The full symbol is then made by joining the two

boxes and adding operators. The connections are
shown against only the prevailing state
159

160

161

• The boxes can be joined at either end but the operator
must be drawn against the state that it produces. The
boxes can also be flipped
• A variety of symbol patterns are possible
normally
normally
open
closed
162
Valve functions 5/3

• Three position valves have a normal
central position that is set by springs or
with a manual control such as a lever

• The flow pattern in the centre position
varies with the type. Three types will be
considered
• 1, All ports sealed
• 2, Outlets to exhaust, supply sealed
• 3, Supply to both outlets, exhausts sealed
163
Valves 5/3
All valves types shown in the normal position
Type 1. All ports sealed
Type 2. Outlets to exhaust
Type 3. Supply to outlets
164
Valves 5/3
All valves types shown in the first operated
position
165
Valves 5/3
All valves types shown in the second operated position
166
Operators
Manual
General manual Lever

Push button Pedal
Pull button Treadle
Push/pull button Rotary knob
167
Operators
Mechanical
Plunger Pressure
Spring normally Pilot pressure

as a return
Roller Differential pressure
Uni-direction Detent in 3 positions

or one way trip
168
Operators
Electrical
Solenoid Solenoid pilot

direct with manual

override and
external pilot
Solenoid pilot supply
When no integral
Solenoid pilot or external pilot
with manual override supply is shown it
and integral pilot is assumed to be
supply integral
169
Port markings
The valve connections can be labelled with capital letters or
numbers as follows:
Alphabetical Numerical
Designations Designations
Working A, B, C …….. O (excludes 2, 4, 6 . . . .
Lines L)
Leakage Fluid L ………………………… 9
Supply Air P ………………………… 1
Exhaust R, S, T ………………..W 3, 5, 7 ……
Pilot Lines Z, Y, X ………………….. 12, 14, 16, 18…
170
Port Markings
2 2
12 10 12 10
1 3 1
2 4 4 2
14 12 14 12
1 3 1
5 3
171
Port Markings
2 2
12 10 12 10
1 3 1
2 4 4 2
14 12 14 12
1 3 1
5 3
172
Actuators
• Cylinders symbols can “l”
be any length.
• The piston and rod can
be shown in the
retracted, extended or
any intermediate position
173
Rotary actuators
Semi rotary double acting
Rotary motor single direction

of rotation
Rotary motor bi-directional
174
Simplified cylinder symbols

Single acting load returns
Single acting spring returns
Double acting non cushioned
Double acting adjustable cushions
Double acting through rod
175
Sample Pneumatic DrawingEjercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
ITEM DESCRIPTION QTY. I.D. SPECIFICATION

1 Air Cylinder 1 A1 REX C23-7600
2 2/5 DC Valve 1 V1 NG-7124/3/8
3 Flow Control 2 FV1,2 NG-7128/3/8
4 Safety Shut Off 1 V2 NGS-7126/3/8
5 Shut Off Valve 3 SV1,2,3 NG-7129/3/8
6 Silencer 2 S1,2 S-407/3/8
7 Regulator and Gauge 1 R1 R-88/3/8
1 8 Filter 1 F1 F-88/3/8
Cyl. A1
3 FV1 FV2 3
2
V1
6
6 S1 S2
4
V2
SV3 5
R1 7
F1
Track Switch
8
AD003
Drawn:
DWG. NO. T. Smith
5 SV1 SV2 5 Checked Jones 176
Scale None
Installation
Summary
177
Fundamentals
Example
Pneumatic Circuit
Objective
• To demonstrate and explain the

reading of pneumatic drawings by way
of example.
179
CLOSE START OF DIE OPEN SEQENCE – LV1 , LV3 AND LV5 OPEN
ARE CLOSED – LV31, LV2, LV4, LV6 ARE OPEN
AIR APPLIED TO
OPEN INPUT
LV31
CAM C LV2 LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
LV5 AIR
LV4 CAM B
CAM B
LV3
LV6 CAM C
BH3 AIR CLOSE BH1 BH5

BH4
SHUTTLE BALL RV2 RV3

BLOCKS CLOSE
INPUT LINES
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2
PV1B PV1A PV2B PV2A PV3B

INITIAL INITIAL SECONDARY SECONDARY LIFTERS PV3A
CAMS CAMS OPEN CAMS CLOSED CAMS OPEN DOWN LIFTERS UP
CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM A CAM C
CYLINDER CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV31
CAM C LV2 LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR
LV4 CAM B
CAM B
LV3
LV6 CAM C

BH4
RV2 RV1, RV2 and RV44 RV3

SHIFT WITH L1 AND
L3 CLOSED
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM A CAM C
CYLINDER CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV31
CAM C LV2 LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR
LV4 CAM B
CAM B
LV3
LV6 CAM C

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2
PV1 SHIFTS
WITH L1 AND L3
CLOSED AND
RV1 SHIFTED
CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM A
CYLINDER CAM C
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
‘A’ and ‘B’ CYLINDERS

BEGIN EXTENDING
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV31
CAM C LV2 LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV1 AND LV3 OPEN WHEN
LV4 CAM B
A AND B CYLINDERS CAM B
BEGIN MOVEMENT LV3
LV6 CAM C

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM A
CYLINDER CAM C
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV31
CAM C LV2 LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR
LV4 CAM B
LV31 CLOSES OPEN CAM B
WHEN AS B CYLINDER LV3
LV6 CAM C
CONTINUES
MOVEMENT

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM A
CYLINDER CAM C
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV31
CAM C LV2 LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR
LV4 CAM B
CAM B
LV3
LV6 CAM C

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2
PV2 SHIFTS WITH

L31 CLOSED
CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B ‘C’ CYLINDER
CYLINDER
EXTENDS
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 LV3
CAM C

BH4
LV2, LV4, LV6
CLOSE WHEN RV2 RV3
ALL THREE
CYLINDERS
ARE
EXTENDED
RV1
AND LV5
OPENS
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 LV3
CAM C
RV3 AND PV3 SHIFTS

WITH L2, L4 AND L6
CLOSED
BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C LIFTER
CAM A
CYLINDER CYLINDERS
CYLINDER
CAM B LIFTER CYLINDERS

CYLINDER EXTEND
CLOSE END OF DIE OPEN SEQENCE – OPEN AIR INPUT OFF – LV 2, OPEN
LV4, LV6, LV31 ARE CLOSED AND LV1, LV3 AND LV5 ARE OPEN
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 LV3
CAM C

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE START OF CLOSE DIE SEQENCE – AIR INPUT TO OPEN
CLOSE PORT
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 LV3
CAM C

BH4
AIR IS APPLIED TO
RV2 RV3
CLOSE INPUT –
SHUTTLE BALL SHIFTS
TO BLOCK AIR FROM
OPEN LINES
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 LV3
CAM C
RV1, RV2 AND RV4

ARE OPERATED

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 LV3
CAM C

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2 PV1 AND PV3 ARE
OPERATED

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 LV3
CAM C
RV3 AND PV1

OPERATE

BH4
LV5 CLOSES WHEN RV2 RV3

‘C’ CYLINDER
RETRACTED
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
CLOSE OPEN
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 ALL CYLINDERS RETRACTED: LV 1 LV3
CAM C
AND LV3 ARE CLOSED; LV2, LV4,
LV6 AND LV31 ARE OPEN

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
‘A’ AND ‘B’

CYLINDERS
RETRACT
CLOSE END OF CLOSE DIE SEQENCE AIR REMOVE FROM OPEN
CLOSE INPUT– RETURN TO START OF OPEN SEQUENCE
LV5 LV2 LV31

CAM C LV1 CAM A
CAM A CAM B
CONSTANT
AIR LV4
CAM B
CAM B
LV6 LV3
CAM C

BH4
RV2 RV3
RV1
RV4
PV1 PV3
PV2

CLOSED R G R G R G
CAM C
CAM A
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
LIFTER
CYLINDERS
CAM B
CYLINDER
Summary
195

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Industrial Air Controls

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Industrial Pneumatic

• Define States of Matter (with emphasis

• Define Fundamental Pneumatic Terms

Gas, Liquid, Solid, Plasma, and Bose-Einsten

(See notes for definitions of each state)

Ice and liquid and vapor

Ice Ice and liquid water (melting)

Heat added (each division corresponds to 4kJ)

Across a Range of Temperatures

• Pressure – the force exerted by a fluid at

• Standard Temperature Pressure

– Return lines are unnecessary.

• 78.084% Nitrogen (inert, and as a result, slows

• Charles’ Law (principle)

For any given mass of air, the variable properties

• Assuming one of the three variables to be held at

“in a system with a constant flow rate, energy is

Ignoring friction losses, the

Velocity decreases in the larger

• “if the temperature of a confined body of gas

P1·V1 = P2·V2 = constant

P1·V1 = P2·V2 = constant

P1·V1 = P2·V2 = constant

P1·V1 = P2·V2 = constant

• If heated by 1 K degree at constant

• This is shown by Charles’ Law where:

The combined or general gas law is where

relationship results in a constant value.

Review of Boyle’s Law

temperature, the product of pressure and

Review of Charles’ Law

decreases by the same factor as its

Review of General or Ideal Gas Laws

according to the equation:

• pV = nRT (or for most conditions) V1T2 =

Conclusion – gases are easily

– Gases – compressible roughly 1700 to 1

Pressure in pneumatic systems is

• Average sea level

Altitude above sea Barometer Reading Approx. Atmospheric

1000 28.8 14.2

Example : ″Hg to PSI Mercury

Example: PSI to ″Hg

• PSIA = PSIG + 14.7 15”

Absolute Pressure Scale

Vacuum Pressure Scale

Absolute Pressure Scale

Gauge Pressure Scale

• Reading accuracy – gages may

• Make sure equipment is

• A device is needed (an air compressor) to supply

• Pascal’s Law simply stated

Fluid – Pascal’s Law

100 psi. Object of

piston, then the fluid pressure, P, is the

• Secondary air treatment – conditioning of air

An in-line air filter collects

• The pressure difference Δp (pressure gradient)

nozzle is used to draw liquid (oil) from a

Reciprocating Rotary piston Flow

Piston Diaphragm Radial flow Axial flow

Sliding vane rotary Two axle Lobe type

• Define types of pneumatic valves and

• Define types of logic valves and