Map Scale and

Projection
 Map Scale and Projections
 Map scale and transformations
 Distortions resulting from map
transformations
 Analysis and visualisation of distortion
 Choosing a map projection
 Commonly used map projections
For details about the contents of this topic, please refer to
Peter H. Dana, 1999: Map Projection Overview, The
Geographer's Craft Project, Department of Geography, The
University of Colorado at Boulder.
Map Scale and Projections 2
Map Scale and
Transformations
 Map, to be useful, are necessarily smaller than
the areas mapped.
 Map scale - the ratio between measurements
on the map to those on the earth.
 Transformation from globe to map means that
the map’s scale will vary from place to place.

Map Scale and Projections 3

Globe and a
Flat Map

Comparison between
globe and flat map of
the earth.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 4

Statements of Scale
 Representative fraction (RF): a simple ratio
(e.g. 1:20,000)
 Verbal statement
 Graphical or bar scale (scale bar)

Map Scale 1:1,000,000

10 8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40 km

Represents 1 km2

Map Scale and Projections 5

Scale Factor
 The scale factor (SF) at a point is computed
by: actual RF
SF 
principal RF

 On the reference globe, SF = 1.

 As the earth is essentially spherical, while the
view represented by a map is orthogonal, the
SF will be various from place to place.
 The sphere and the plane are not applicable.

Map Scale and Projections 6

 Scale Factor of Distance
i’
h’
i
h g’
g
f’
f
e’
e

d’
d

c c’
Orthographic
projection of an arc
to a tangent
straight line. b b'
After Robinson, et al., 1995
90°
a

Map Scale and Projections 7

 Scale Factor of Direction
b c
b

b’ c’
c
a b’
a d
Projection of rectangle abcd to rectangle
ab’c’d with side ad held constant. Left: the
perspective view shows the geometric
d c’ relations of the two rectangles. Up: the
relation of the two rectangles when they are
each viewed orthogonally.
After Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 8

Distortions Resulting From Map
Transformations
 Whenever the spherical surface is transformed
to a plane, it is certain that all of the
geometrical relationships on the sphere cannot
be entirely duplicated.
 The major alternations have to do with angles,
areas, distances and directions.

Map Scale and Projections 9

Tissot’s Indicatrix
B”
OA = OB = 1.0
B
M For the ellipse
M’
B’ OA’ = a = 1.25
b U
U’ OB’ = b = 0.80
a A’
0 A For the dashed
OA’ = a = 1.25
P’

P OB” = b = 1.25

 = U - U’
Map Scale and Projections 10
 Transformation

The great circle

(solid line) and
the rhumb
(dashed line) as
they appear on
Mercator’s
projection.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 11

 Analysis and Visualisation of
Evaluation of
visual
Distortion
characteristics
of the earth’s
 Parallels are parallel.
coordinate  Parallels are spaced equally on meridians.
systems
 Meridians and great circles on a globe
appear as straight lines.
 Meridians converge toward the poles and
diverge toward the equator.
 Meridians are equally spaced on the
parallels, but their spacing decreases to the
pole.

Map Scale and Projections 12

 Analysis and Visualisation of
Evaluation of
visual Distortion (Cont.)
characteristics
of the earth’s  Meridians and parallels are equally spaced at or
coordinate near the equator.
systems
 Meridians at 60° latitude are half as far apart as
parallels.
 Parallels and meridians always intersect at right
angles.
 The surface area bounded by any two parallels and
two meridians is the same anywhere between the
same parallels.

Map Scale and Projections 13

 Visual Analyses
Equatorial Oblique

Polar
Different centerings of the
sinusoidal projection produce
different appearing graticules.
Nevertheless, the arrangement
or pattern of the deformation is
the same on all, since the same
system of transformation is
employed.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 14

Graphical
Portrayal of
Distortions

A head drawn on the

Mollweide projection (top)
has been transferred to
Mercator’s projection
(centre) and to the
cylindrical equal-area
prjoection with standard
parallels at 30° (bottom).
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 15

 Distortions of Directions

Selected great circle arcs on an equatorial case of the sinusoidal

projection showing their departures from straight lines. Each
uninterrupted and interrupted arc is 150° long.
Courtesy W.R. Tobler, cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 16

Choosing a Map Projection
 Cartographers need to be thoroughly familiar
with map projections.
 Cartographers frequently transfer data from
one projection to another.

Map Scale and Projections 17

Guidelines
 Projection’s major property:
 conformality, equivalence, azimuthality, reasonable
appearance, etc.
 Amount and arrangement of distortion:
 Mean distortion (angular or area).
 Map series have special projection requirements.
 To show the same pattern of distortion for large areas as for
small areas.
 The overall shape of the area.

Map Scale and Projections 18

 Common Distortion Patterns on
Map Projection

Azimuthal patterns of deformation. (a) Conical patterns of deformation. (a)

The pattern when the plane is tangent The pattern when the cone is tangent
to the sphere at a point, and (b) the to one small circle, and (b) the pattern
pattern when the plane intersects the when the cone intersects the sphere
sphere. along to small circles.

Map Scale and Projections 19

 Common Distortion Patterns on
Map Projection (Cont.)

Cylindrical patterns of
deformation. (a) The
pattern when the cylinder
is tangent to a great
circle, and (b) the pattern
when the cylinder is
secant.

Map Scale and Projections 20

Example of
Equatorial World
Map Projections

A few of the many

equivalent world map
projections. (a) cylindrical
equal-area with standard
parallels at 30°N and S
latitude; (b) sinusoidal
projection; and (c)
Mollweide’s projection.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 21

 Minimising Distortion

Modified-stereographic conformal projection of Alaska, with lines of

constant scale superimposed.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 22

 Minimising Distortion (Cont.)

Modified-
stereographic
conformal
projection of 48
United States,
bounded by a near
rectangular area
of constant scale..
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 23

Commonly Used Map
Projections
 Conformal projections
 Mercator
 Transverse Mercator
 Lambert’s conformal conic (with two standard
parallels)
 Equal-area projections
 Alber’s equal-area
 Lambert’s equal-area

Map Scale and Projections 24

Mercator’s Projection

Map Scale and Projections 25

 Mercator and Transverse
Mercator Projections

Right: The conceptual cylinder for the

normal form of Mercator’s projection is
arranged prarllel to the axis of the
sphere. Up: To develop the transverse
Mercator projection, the cylinder is
turned.
Map Scale and Projections 26
Lambert’s Conformal Conic
Projection

Map Scale and Projections 27

World Equal-area Projections
 Cylindrical equal-area
 Sinusoidal
 Mollweide’s projection
 Goode’s homolosine projection

Map Scale and Projections 28

Albers’ Equal-area Conic
Projection

Map Scale and Projections 29

 Goode’s Homolosine Projection

Goode’s homolosine projection is an interrupted union of the

sinusoidal projection equatorward of approximate 40° latitude and the
poleward zones of Mollweide’s projection.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 30

Condensing

(a) An interrupted flat

polar quartic equal-
area projection of the
entire earth. By
deleting unwanted
areas, i.e. condensing
as in (b), additional
scale is obtained
within a limiting width.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 31

Azimuthal Projections
 The stereographic: conformal.
 Lambert equal-area: equal-area.
 Azimuthal equidistant: the linear scale is uniform
along the radiating straight lines through the centre.
 The orthographic: perspective view.
 The gnomonic: all great-circle arcs are represented as
straight lines anywhere on the projection.

Map Scale and Projections 32

 Class of Azimuthal Projections

The hypothetical positions of the points of projection for the class

of azimuthal projections: (1) gnomonic, (2) stereographic, (3)
equidistant, (4) equivalent, and (5) orthographic.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 33

Comparison of
the Classes

“The important thing

to note is that the only
variation among the
projections is in the
spacing of the
parallels. That is, the
only difference among
them is the radial
scale from the
centre”.
Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 34

The Five Well-known Azimuthal Projetions

(a) Stereographic;
(b) Lambert’s equal-area;
(c) azimuthal equidistant;
(d) orthographic; and
(e) gnomonic.

Map Scale and Projections 35

Azimuthal
Equidistant

Map Scale and Projections 36

Other Map Projections
 Plane chart (equidistant cylindrical)
 Simple conic
 Polyconic projection
 Robinson’s projection
 Space oblique Mercator projection

Map Scale and Projections 37

Plane Chart

Map Scale and Projections 38

Simple Conic Projection

Map Scale and Projections 39

Polyconic Projection

Map Scale and Projections 40

 Polyconic Projection (Cont.)

The distribution of
scale factors on a
polyconic projection in
the vicinity of 40°
latitude.

Map Scale and Projections 41

 Robinson’s Projection

“The Robinson projection is neither conformal nor equal-area

but a compromise between the two”.
Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 42

 Space Oblique Mercator

The central line of the space oblique

Mercator projection is slightly curved
and oblique to the equator. It crosses
the polar area at about 81°N and S
latitude. Along this line, which
represents the Landsat groundtrack,
the SF is essentially 1.0. The
conceptual basis for the projection is
similar to that of the transverse
Mercator projection, but the central
line is not a great circle.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Map Scale and Projections 43