The Description of Samples

Geology Wellsite _and, Opérations
Oxford Brookes University

Geology
6
Chapter 6
The Description of Samples and

Shows
Summary
This section outlines a systematic approach to the descriptions of cuttings, sidewall core samples, core samples and
associated hydrocarbon shows at the wellsite.
Date: October 2001 6.1 Author

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6.0 Sample and Show Description

One of the most important rôles of the wellsite geologist is the physical description of cuttings, cores and sidewall
cores plus an évaluation of any associated shows. The description of rocks and rock types is something that ail
geologists are trained to do and should be second nature.
However, describing a pièce of rock, whether it be a cutting, core chip or whatever can be very subjective. The
emphasis of this section is to promote a systematic and methodical approach to descriptions that will minimise the
potential variations caused by subjectivity. The guidelines presented throughout this section are there for you to
follow.
This section provides: •
• The correct equipment required for proper description of samples

• An overview of sampling and processing that will be st ensure the most représentative
• Brief guidelines for the systematic description and testing of samples of various rock
types:
* clastics
* carbonates
* evaporites
* organic material
• The description and analysis of shows
• Spécial requirements for cores and sidewall cores
The wellsite geologist must always strive to make the best possible description and évaluation of both samples and
shows.

Geology
6.1 Equipment for Sample Description

6.1.1 Equipment List
The foUowing list shows the ail equipment required for proper sample description and analysis. The list, below,
outlines who should provide such equipment in normal circumstances. Some oil companies provide some of this
equipment for your use. Others don't: -
Equipment Who provides it? Notes

Microscope Mudloggers or Client Should be kept clean and periodically maintained. Keep
acid fumes away from lenses.
Microscope
Microscope Lamp Mudloggers or Client Should give adéquate light even on highest magnification.
Sample trays Mudloggers Should be métal trays. Ensure they are kept clean and mst*
free. Check there is no build up of limescale on tray surface.
Prod, tweezers Mudloggers Thèse should be good quality and not bent Good tweezers
are essentiel for manipulating individual cuttings samples. If
they are bent ask the Mudloggers to order new pairs.
Spot Trays Mudloggers Thèse enamel trays can be used for examining individual
cuttings for shows and chemical tests. Tests using acid
should always be done in the spot trays. They should be
washed thoroughly after use.
UVbox Mudloggers Essentiel for évaluation of shows. Should be either close to
fume cupboard or should hâve m eans of evacuating
fumes.
Colour Comparison Mudloggers or Client if The AAPG colour comparison charts should be used by
ail geologists to ensure consistency.
chart required
Percentage/Grain Mudloggers/Geologists Ail the mudlogging companies hâve their own handy
visual comparison & grain size/roundness.
size charts
Chemicals Mudloggers Acids, chemical thinner, alizarin red. Ideally should be
kept in fume cupboard.
Sample Description Client or Cambrian Pads of description sheets are provided by citent Thèse
Sheets should be filled in as fully as possible.
Plastic 'Samplex' Mudloggers The lpggers hâve only a limited supply of métal trays.
Thèse trays are good for comparing samples over
Trays significant depth intervais.
Abbreviations list Client or Cambrian Most clients hâve a standard list of descriptive
abbreviations both in summary and in rull. Use Cambrian
standard abbreviations if required.
Ail the equipment should be thoroughly checked at the beginning of the well. J
Date: October 2001 6.3 Sample and Author

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Geology
6.1.2 Equipment and Location

Location
The descriptive equipment is noimally ail located in the mudlogging unit. The wellsite geologist should be assigned
a client area that should be sufGciently large to cany out the descriptive tasks in comforL Proper seating should be
provided and the area should be well lit
If any of the equipment are broken or damaged then they should be replaced as soon as possible.
The wellsite geologist should help in keeping the sample description area dean, neat and tidy. Don't assume that the
mudloggers are paid slaves who will always clear up after you - they hâve enough jobs to do already.
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1 shows a typical client area in a mudlogging unit Most of
the equipment required for sample description and évaluation are
shown hère.
Microscope
The microscope (Figure 6.2) should be of good quality, dean and
well maintained. Check that the microscope focuses properly at ail
powers and that the image is bright at maximum magnification. This
means that the microscope lamp must be powerfiil too.
Figure 62
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Geology
Sample Travs and Tweezers

Sample trays should be good qualiry, kept clean and should
be regularly scrubbed to clean off build up of calcareous
limescale deposits which makes the tray calcareous. There
should be plenty of them to allow a reasonable number of
samples to be stacked up.
Tweezers and prods for manipulating

samples should be of good qualiry.
Ends should be sharp and not bent to
allow proper manipulation of samples
transfer to spot trays etc. There
should be
at least two spot trays available, one for chemical tests and one for shows, more if possible
and should be thoroughly washed regularly.
Figure 6.4
UVBox
Make sure it is working BEFORE you need it, check for spare bulbs and find out if
there is a vacuum System for exhaust. Fumes from chemical solvent can be powerful
and detrimental to health. Ensure that there is a safe working environment. (Figure
6.5)
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.5
EOCK
-.COIOR CHART-
Colour and grain size charts should be available. Are ail the pages of the colour chart get
présent (they often l ripped out)? The 'grey colours' page is most used - are ail unfaded
colours présent and [ and is there a spare? Figure 6.6.
grain size charts - use will be discussed in the sample description
Figure 6.7
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
'
S
a
m
p
l
e
x
'
t
Chemicals r
a
are a minimum requirement for correct sample descriptions mate
y
identification) arbonate identification) (cernent identification)
s
évaluation)
're-hydrating samples) in proper, safe, plastic or glass
a
containers with droppers. r
e good for keeping a evaluating subtle changes
over large intervais, sample trays to be freed
up. Figure 6.9 trays.
Figure 6.9
Date: October 2001 6.5 Sample and Show Description Author

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Geology
6.1.3 Wellsite Lithology Description Sheets

An example of a wellsite lithology description sheet is presented below in Figure 6.10. Ail the relevant sections
need to be completed as it will provide one of the best databases of descriptions for the well and will ofien be
looked at after the well or possibly distributed to partners.
Guidelines for Wellsite Lithologv Description sheet completion
• Do keep the sheets neat and tidy. Use pencil so mistakes can be rubbed out
• Do write legibly. There's not much point doing the description if nobody else can read it
• Do number each sheet and put the date on. This makes life much easier when the pages
need to be archived.
• Do look at ail samples and, as a minimum, estimate the percentage lithologies and note
gases and ROPs.
• If a sample is not caught, for whatever reason, then note on the description sheet why
and which samples are missing. For example lost circulation etc.
• Do make comprehensive notes on the Description Sheets. Note any drilling problems or
events such as trips.
• Make a spécial note of contaminants and note their rough percentage. Métal shavings,
for instance, are they increasing?
• Do note any gas peaks on the sheets and note trip and connection gases if they occur.
The lithology description sheets are fairly generic. They can be modifîed if required. However, please use client
sheets if they are provided using the guidelines as outlined above.
WELU MB
Dftti falvof Pmi HnHon MchO Cir •M g M M su Ctf Ut Dol Ctfef PMCliplHM
ei
1 w a n } t U
•h a
Figure 6.10

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6.2 Représentative Samples

'Even the best sample descriptions are pointless if the samples are not représentative'
6.2.1 Overview
There are a number of ways in which the wéllsite geologist can ensure that the samples collected and which are
described are représentative of the interval drilled.
• Check that the lag is correct. See Chapter 3 for instructions on checking the lag.
• Occasionally check how the mudloggers or sample catchers are catching the samples
• Continuously review sample processing to ensure accuracy and consistency.
• Check that bags and dry samples are being fîlled and boxed correctly
The following subsections describe the steps to ensure the most représentative sample.
6.2.2 Types of Sample )

There are two main types of sample:
Interval for main! Sample

Sample, which is représentative of an interval drilled, and which are caught routinely for the whole well. Sample
intervais vary but generally:
• 10m or 30ft on tophole or intervais of lesser interest
• 3m, lOft over intervais of interest, possible hydrocarbon sources and réservoir intervais
• Smaller intervais may be required for spécial studies, e.g. high resolution palaeontology studies
• Larger intervais can be caught on top-hole, e.g. 50 ft
• Interval samples may be dispensed with over tophole intervais on production and platform wells.
Sampling programs are planned by the opérations geologist in coopération with license geologists and must fit in
with corporate and governmental régulations. Most governments will require that samples are caught on ail
exploration and appraisal wells and that there is full well coverage. They will also regulate about sample intervais.
In nearly ail cases a number of samples from each interval are taken in bags, tins etc for shipping from the wéllsite.
Thèse samples will be split and sent to the operator, partners and government for future analysis. Samples are also ; )
brought to the mudlogging unit in the sieves for processing; see section 6.2.9, and description.
Snot Sample
Spot samples are taken at the request of the wéllsite geologist, drilling supervisor or engineer or, in rare cases, on
the mudlogger's own initiative. As interval samples are taken relatively infrequently it is sometimes bénéficiai to
look at samples from a spécifie lagged depth - representing a very short interval. The sample is taken directly from
the shaker screens and processed through the sieves for description purposes only. No bagged or tinned samples are
taken. Examples when spot samples might be taken:
• Bottoms up from positive or négative drilling breaks

• To identify reasons for gas peaks
• When looking for core, casing points or total depth
• Commonly while coring
Spot samples are a very useful tool for spécifie lithology identification. Spot samples should not be taken too
frequently as the mudloggers complain about the workload, and should not interfère with interval sample collection.
Date: October 2001 6.7 Atithor

Geology
6.2.3 Sample Catching Equipaient

At the beginning of the well, and periodically throughout, check that the mudlogger's sample catching equipment is
not damaged.
Figure 6.11
— -- Sieves
Sample is generally washed through a coarse sieve and into a fine one.
The spécifications for thèse sieves are:
• Coarse -
2mm (or 10
mesh)
• Fine - 0.074
mm (200 mesh)
The sieves should be not be damaged. The fine sieves, through

continued use, can become ripped and fine sample can be washed out
through the tear. A comparison of sieve sizes, shaker screen mesh
and grain sizes can be found in Section 6.2.6.
Sample is generally ladled into bags and sieves by the use of a large
spoon. Check that this too is strong enough for the job.
There should be back-ups available for ail thèse items and, if not, the
wellsite geologist should ensure that new supplies are ordered.
AIso periodically check that sample bags, boxes and tins are marked up correctly.
6.2.4 Safety Equipment

Ensure that ail mudlogging personnel are aware of safety requirements and that they wear the correct equipment
when catching samples. This will include:
Hardhat
Gloves (waterproof) Safety glasses/goggles Ear protection
Fireproof coveralls Safety boots
Masks may also be required to combat fumes in the shaleshaker

house, especially when oil based muds are being used.
Figure 6.12

Geology
6.2.5 The Shaleshaker

The shaleshaker plays a big rôle in the sample catching process and it is worthwhile reviewing its components and
how they affect sample quality. Normally there may be 3 or 4 shakers in action at any one time but normally only one
is used for the catching of samples. Figure 6.13 shows a cutaway drawing of a 'double-decker' shaker.
Gas Trap
Flowline Vacuum Une to
mudlogging unit
Figure
6.13
Only one side of the
shaker is open. Shale
Header Tank
(Possum Belly)
shakers are
Cuttings
pile
Catching
plate
Shaker
closed off
Sand
Traps Shale
frequently being closed down for maintenance, chute
screen changes etc. Shutting down one
shaleshaker can increase the flow over the other shakers. This flow can be controlled
by opening or closing 'gâtes' at the top of each shaker- flow must not be too much to swamp the shakers, nor too
little to back up in the header tank. Excess flow can cause mud to flow over the screens and wash sample away.
Drill cuttings cornes into the header tank (also known as the possum belly) entrained in the mud via the flowline.
The header tank contains a number of sensors including, température sensor (FLT- flowline température), mud
density and gas trap. Each shaker has two screens, the upper screen is coarse and sieves out the larger cuttings and
cavings while the lower screen cuts out the fine cuttings. The mud passes through both screens and returns to the
pits via the sand-traps. The sandtraps allow provide an area of settlement for unwanted fine solids before the mud
passes down into the active pit System before being pumped round the hole again.
J
The vibrations of the shale shaker forces the cuttings down the screens and off the end. On most rigs a cuttings plate
has to be put down to collect the cuttings, otherwise they will be washed down through grating, into the shale chute
and thence, to the sea. Note that the cuttings will only go to the sea with water-based mud. Oil based cuttings will be
sent to cuttings hopper and transported from the rig site for environmentally-friendly disposai.
In some circumstances the shale shakers can be by-passed with returns to the sand-traps or dumped to the sea.
Note that shaker screen mesh size is determined by the mud engineer. With high mud flow rates on top hole then
coarser screens are used. Fine grained cuttings can go through thèse screens. The wellsite geologist should be aware
of the casing screen size currently being used.
• The wellsite geologist should periodically check that the mudlogger has placed the cuttings sample
plate at the optimum point for sample collection.
• Ensure that there are good communications so that the shaker hand informs the mudlogger of any
shaker changes in advance. The cuttings plate position can be changed and no sample lost.
Date: October 2001 6.9 Sample and Show Description Author

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6.2.6 Sïeves, Shaker Screens and Sampie Grain Sîze

Figure 6.14 illustrâtes the
Wentwort relationship between grain
Size mm size, the (US) sieve sizes
h Size
and standard shale shaker
Class screen sizes.
BOULDER Always be aware of

shaker screen sizes and
Standard US Standard
the possible affect on
Slave Mesh Shaleshaker
COBBLE samples. Be aware,
Slzes Mesh Slzes
however, thatasthe
4— PEBBLE sampie is mixed up and
cornes offthe shaker in
'lumps' glued together by
10- GRANULE -10x10 mud and mud filtrate that
"12x12 grain sizes much fîner
VC -14x14
-16x16 than theoretically will not
20— -18x18 pass through aie shaker
- 20x20 nwshslze -
Largorthe 30—
8x20 theflnerthe screen. This is why barite
rnosh SI XB is commonly found in the
theflMr 40 ----- sampie.
-30x40.40x36,40x40
tho Mlv« 50— S AND -50x40 -
50x50
60- Note the typical sieve sizes
-60x60 -60x40 -
80---- 70x30.80x80 - and relationship to grain
100x100
120- size. Remember that this
is grain size and not
-200x200
cuttings size.
Bârite" 400- SILT

CenWuge
CLAY
Bentonlto
Date: October 2001 6.10 Sampie and Author

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6.2.7 Interval Sample Catching Quality

Assuming that that lag has been checked regularly by carbide bomb or similar metbod the next step in ensuring a
représentative sample is to make sure that the sample is caught correctiy by the mudioggers. It is a wise précaution
to explain to each mudlogger exactly bow you want the samples caught. But what is the right way?
First, let us review how an interval

_________________________________________________
surface and highlight some of the ways in
which a sample can be caught badly.
Figures 6.15-6.19 show, in order, how a

10m (33ft) interval sample is eut and
circulated to the surface. Interval
samples bf 10m are common on
tophole hole sections, but that is quite a
large interval - think of a cliff-face of
that height and trying to get one
représentative sample and description. Start
of sample interval at 2510m First 5m of
sand drilled and circulated up hole
Figure 6.15-
6.19
Claystone then drilled Claystone drilled for 2nd 5 m, Claystone to surface and covers
sandstone cuttings in annulus sandstone to surface plate sandstone cuttings on plate. J
The sample from 2510 to 2520 m is now at the surface and ready for collection.
• The mudlogger should watch the lag and hâve ail sample bags ready to catch the sample at the
correct time.
The first 5m of the sample - the sandstone - will be at the base of the cuttings pile and will be covered by the second
5m of sample - the claystone.
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Geology
6.2.8 Catching the Sample
-QAS TRAP LOCATED

ABOVE FLOWLINE Spot samples should be taken
by taking spoonful of sample
upper and lower screens
UPPER 8CREEN
urrmt)
2510m
Représentative sample through

middle of cuttings plie into
each bag and sleve
Make sure cuttings plate is Cuttings pile should be
receiving cuttings from fine AND Cuttings Plate cleaned off after taking sample
coarse screens Sampl
e froin^/ fine screen doser to shaker
Cuttlngs
Figure 6.21 Plate
Sampls from
coarse
screen
further from
shaker
Figure 6.22
The sample falls into a pile (Figure 6.21), with the shallowest sample of
the interval at the bottom. Also the sample from the finer screen tends to fall close
to the shaker (see Figure 6.22). If lower screen is fine there will be considérable
amounts of barite as well as fine sample.
For a représentative sample: Spot samples sbould be

taken from the top and
• Sample for each bag, tin, and for the sieve should be bottom screens for
représentative of the whole interval Each spoonful should hâve processing. Ensure that fine
sample taken through the middle ofthe cuttings pile. They should as well as course cuttings are
notjvst be taken from the side ofthe pile or just on top. Sample taken and that they are
should also be taken from next to the shaker where the cuttings représentative of what is
from the fine screen will tend to fall. coming over the shaker at
• Are there différences between individuals in how they carry out the sample catching process? It
can hâve noticeable effects on sample appearance. Do the samples noticeably change at
mudlogger shift changes?
• The cuttings plate should be cleaned after each interval sample ready for the next sample interval.
• If you suspect that the shaker screens are coarse enough to allow fine cuttings through then check
content of de-silters, desanders or mud cleaners. Thèse are run to remove fine solids from the mud

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system and fine sand may be apparent in samples taken from outflow which cannot be seen in shaker
derived samples. However, barite will heavily contaminate thèse samples. • Is the lag correct? Do
samples tie in with drilling breaks or LWD responses? A lag check should be performed at least
once a day.
The wellsite geologist should regularly check how the mudloggers or sample catchers are catohing the
samples to ensure consistency. Is the sample représentative?

Geology
6.2.9 Sample Processing Quality Figure 6.23

It is also important that samples are processed correctly: -
The sample in the coarse sieve should be gentry washed through into the fine sieve. Take
a sample o f any unconsolidated clay for analysis before the washing process commences.
Put the coarse sieve to one side but don't throw away the sample. The coarser fragments
should be analysed for amount (is it increasing - pore pressure indicator) and for rock fab ric
analysis.
Further wash the sample in the fine sieve to remove any traces of drilling fluid. Not
too much if the sample is unconsolidated clay - it will be washed away.
A représentative sample should be taken from the fine sieve. Note that as when you
are panning for gold ail the heavier fragments are forced to the side ofthe sieve by
the washing process. Take sample from the middle to the edge of the sieve as
shown in Figure 6.25. Figure 6.24
Tray Sample taken from centre to edge of sieve
Figure The
sample
in the métal cuttings tray s h o u l d
be gently swirled round to
distribute the sample evenly
(Figure 6.26). Ideally, the sample
on the cuttings tray should be
uniformly one cutting deep
across the tray for optimum
descriptive conditions. A depth
tag sh ould be placed on the tray
corresponding to
depth ofthe interval. S a m p l e s s h o u l d
be briefly left propped up on a sponge to drain off excess wàt!
description (Figure 6.27-6.28).
Again, it is useful to show the mudloggers exactly how you want the samples presented. See Figure 6.29. Things to
check regularly: -
•Samples are being processed in the correct manner.

•A représentative sample is being taken from the sieve.
•Make sure sample processing such as shale densities are
carried out consistently on each sbift
Figure 6.30
It is extremely important that depth tags are

placed on every sample. If there are lots of
samples waiting to be described then it is
impossible to tell them apart without a depth
tag. Never take depth tags off of trays unless
the sample is finished with. (Figure 6.30Ï
Sample 1 layer
thick on tray
Small pile of
unwashed sample
J Date: October 2001 6.14 Sample and Author

Geology
6.2.10 Mudlogger's Sample Processîng tasks

As well as washing and preparing the cuttings samples for évaluation by the geologist the mudlogger must carry out
other tasks on the sample. Thèse may include:
Packing away wet samples and tins Ail the wet sample bags and geochemical tins etc should be packed away in boxes or
bags. Full boxes should be marked clearly and stored away in containers.
Shale density Washed shale sample taken fresh from fine sieve and analysed for density using shale
density column
Calcimetry Small atnount of washed and dried sample is mixed with acid in a sealed chamber. Any
reaction with carbonates gives off CO2. The amount of CO2 and the rate of reaction can
be used to estimate percentages of calcium and magnésium carbonate (limestone and
dolomite
Blender gas Small cupful of un washed sample is put in a kitchen blendor together with some water
and mixed. Any gases given off are sucked into a detector and analysed. Can give an
indication of low permeability réservoirs - gas retained in cuttings.
Dry sample processing Washed cuttings are taken fiom the fine sieve, placed on métal trays and put in an oven to
dry. When dry, the sample are placed in dry sample envelopes. Thèse are kept at the rig
for future référence by the wellsite geologist, if required, and then stored or distributed
after the well.
Figure 6.31
Figure 6.32
6.2.11 Oil Based Muds - Sample Processing

The use of oil-based mud requires another step in the processing of a sample. Unlike samples from water-based
mud, which can be washed using water, samples from oil-based muds need to be washed in base-oil or détergent.
Most mudloggers will set up a washing station in the shale shaker house. Hère containers of base-oil and détergent
will be set up. Thèse will be large enough to allow washing of samples in the sieves. As much of the oil based mud J
as possible should be removed at this stage, before washing in water to remove the détergent. Samples are then
processed in the mud-logging unit as normal.
While samples tend to be of better quality with oil-based muds this washing process obviously may wash away any
hydrocarbons. There is a délicate balance between not washing enough and having oil based mud still in the sample
and washing too much and losing shows.
Thinas the wellsite aeoloaist should watch

• Overwashing or underwashing of sample
• Requirement for fresh détergent - samples will become progressively 'oily' as détergent loses its
effectiveness through over-use. Ensure mudloggers change out détergent as required.
Date: October 2001 6.15 Sample and

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Author
Geology
SAFETY
• Oil based mud can give off fumes when hot Make sure mudloggers wear appropriate safety equipment
including breathing masks.
• Dry samples will give off fumes wbile being dried in sample oven. Ensure that fumes are exhausted from
unit
• Make sure mudloggers keep unit clear of oil based mud. It is commonly dragged in on boots and coveralls
and many mudlogging units set up 'clean zones' where personnel must remove boots or wear plastic
overshoes.
6.2.12 Other useful tips

Unconsolidated, soft It is highly likely that soft clays will be easily washed away. Over zealous sample washing can
completely wa sh away soft clays. Cet the Mudloggers to put a small pile of unwasbed sample on
and sticky Formation the tray in thèse circumstances (See Figure 6.29).
Washing consistency Ensure samples are washed to same amount and that drilling mud is washed away. This especially
applies to oil and glycol based mud. Insufficient washing can cause grains to hâve a coating
around, or stain on, the grain that makes analysis difficulL The colour is masked and it prevents the
cutting reacting with acid properly.
Cavings Uthology Always check the coarse sieve from time to tinte to check for cavings. Large cuttings found hère
are also useful as they give better dues to rock fabric and allow you to make better descriptions.
évaluation Provenance of large cuttings/cavings is, however, ofien questio nable, so be careful with thèse.
Cavings monitoring Ensure amounts, type and size of cavings are monitored closely. When cavings are présent or
suspected, this tact should be noted on the worksheet and may indicate an underlying formation
pressureorboreho leinstabililyproblenLForexançle,drillmgmaliniestonesuccessicmwhilst
experiencing cavings fromoveriyingshales,tbepercentages may be 90% shale, 10% limestone. Thèse
would be recorded with die added note: 'shale ail cavings'
Sample backlogs Never let a backlog of samples accumulate, not only is it difficult to catch up but the Mudloggers get
short of métal trays. Use Samplex trays (see below) to keep samples for review purposes if
available. It is possible to eut the bottom off of polystyrène or cardboard cups to use as temporary
storage after samples hâve been described. Always describe samples on the métal trays.
Keeping samples moist Cuttings samples are coDected wet fiom die shale shaker. Samples should be described whilststillwet and
should not be left to dry out or re -hydrated with water. Put samples in plastic bags, or at least cover them
up, if it is to be sometime before they are described. However, the texture of certain formation types can
be seen more clearly when dry, so occasionally keep a portion of sample forlater.dry
Mud additives Get the Mudlogger to bave représentative samples ofall potentiel mud additives that may beusedintne
well. If you think mère is contamination fiom drilling flirid additives then dwck with your référence set
Remember, thèse may change somewhat after being subjected to the pressures and températures of
circulation.
6.2.13 Macroscopic as well as Microscopic

As well as descnbing individual samples the Wellsite geologist should also look at the broader view. Lay out
sample trays - either métal trays or plastic samplex trays (Figure 6.33) - on a bench in the unit in depth order. By
doing this subtle colour or texture changes can be seen which may be missed in individual samples.
If changes do occur then look again at individual samples to see if any changes hâve been missed. Do thèse changes
tie in with tops? Thèse changes can be used for descriptive intervais on logs and reports.
Note depth tags on ail samples

Colour
Charte
Samplex
Trays
Figure 6.33

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6.2.14 Description Consistency

Discuss the samples with your opposite number and mudloggers during the shift-change handover. Discuss
lithology types, colours, features etc. Ensure that there are smooth transitions between shifts and no major lithology
changes at sbift changes (although it can happen)
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Geology
6.3 Systematic Sample Description

This section describes how samples should be described systematically. It is recommended that you establish a
methodical routine to describe samples so that each is described consistently and to the same standard each time.
As a minimum please try to follow the checklists presented hère. They are meant to ensure that ail relevant aspects of
the samples are described and help to assure quality.
6.3.1 Sample Description Overview

'Samples' include cuttings samples created from the action of the bit, core chip samples, sidewall core samples and,
occasionally, samples taken from junk baskets, stock to drill collais and hole openers etc.
Ail samples should be examined for :-
• Lithology and accessory minerais, microfaunal content

• Texture and fabric
• Porosity and permeability
• Hydrocarbon type and content
Essentially, ail of thèse samples can be described in the same way although rock fabric and texture is more di£Scult in
small cuttings. Whilst we advocate a systematic examination technique you should never limit your descriptions to those
aspects described hère if you feel that there are other relevant aspects. Always note down any unusual features which may
be useful for identification purposes later.
If there are micropalaeo or geochemical personnel making examinations of samples at the wellsite then make use of their
résulte in your descriptions. Never ignore any source of information or data abo ut the samples.
The fîrst part of this chapter deals with the description and testing of samples. The second part of the section is devoted to
show évaluation and description.
The description of samples is split into four main catégories:*
• Gênerai descri ptive séquence

• Clastics
• Carbonates
• Evaporites
Figure 6.34

Geology
6.3.2 Gênerai Séquence of Description

The séquence of description of cuttings samples should follow the saine standard routine:-
1. Look al the sample tray without the microscope. Are the various lithotypes easily distinguishable?
Ensure there is sufficient sample on the tray and that it is a maximum of one layer thick.
2. Put the sample tray in the UV box, is there any fluorescence? Is this natural minerai fluorescence or is
there a possible show?
3. Put the sample tray under the microscope at low magnification and look round the tray. As the sample
tray is p rocessed the various lithotypes are aggregated by the washing action.
4. A visual détermination of the relative percentages of the various lithologie components should be
made and entered on the Wellsite Description Sheet Don't be afraid to go back and change thèse
percentages when you hâve described the lithotypes as it is sometimes better to gauge percentages
after the descriptions and the sample has dried a bit
5. Methodically describe the samples as per the guidelines laid out below.
6. Perform lithotype tests as required.
7. Check and describe shows as per guidelines later in this section.
8. FUI in as much information as possible on the Wellsite Description Sheet
9. Review percentages again.
10. Do samples fit in with changes in ROP or LWD curves?
11. See how sample fits in to overall séquence of samples.
6.3.3 Estîmating Percentages

This becomes easier with expérience. The main things to
remember are: -
CONFARISON CHART FOR VISUAL
PERCENTAGE ESTIMATION
• Do not spend hours agonising about each percentage - you
haven't got time. It is not an exact science and you will not
be penalised for being 10% out Use a chart (e.g. Figure
6.35)
• Estimate percentages to nearest S - 10%. Anything less than
5% is usually designated as rare trace to good trace.
• If the cuttings are gradational between a numberof end
members, e.g. sandstone, siltstone and claystone then
estimate the relative percentages as best you can but make a
note of the gradational nature. Pick criteria to décide what is
what and stick by it Discuss thèse criteria with your relief
and with the Mudloggers too. You don't ail want to be
repoiting totally différent lithologies for the saroe depth
interval on your reports.
• Always reassess percentages after you hâve described the
lithotypes. It is often easier to see when you hâve 'got your
eye in' on the lithotypes.
Figure 6.35
J
Geology
6.4 Description of Clastic Rocks

6.4.1 Overview
Clastic rocks are those built up of pre-existing rock types produced by the processes of weathering and érosion.
They are normally transported to their place of déposition and may be subsequently subject to cémentation and
slight chemical changes. Typical sedimentological analysis of clastic rocks based on mineralogy and thin section
work is not possible at me wellsite due to constraints of time and equipment. A classification System based on size
and texture, however, has evolved over the years and is pretty much standard for ail companies.
Description of cuttings samples is very différent to that of thin sections. We are looking at small chips of rock under
relatively moderate magnification with little rock texture visible. It takes a while to become proficient at cuttings
descriptions but it is time well spenL Good cuttings descriptions can yield much information regarding porosity,
permeability, texture, environment of déposition, shows - indirectry and directly..
The following methodical scheme can be followed when describing samples. It is a generic version. If the company you
are working for has mère own scheme then use theirs as a préférence.
Descriptions are generally made on the Wellsite Description sheets using abbreviations. This saves time and space.
However, it is not compulsory to use abbreviations. If you feel it is easier to use full words men please do. However, do
not use your own abbreviations as other people may not be able to understand them. Either use standard abbreviations or
full words. Abbreviations should generally be used on the Wellsite Lithology Log but not on reports and the Final
Composite Log. Again this will dépend on client préférence.
It is possible to write descriptions direct into a computer but can be more time-consuming and the cuttings area can be
wet and adjacent to chemicals. Not tiie best environment for computers.
Standard Abbreviations can be found in the Appendix of this manual.
Descriptions should be made for clastic rocks using catégories in the following orden -
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION
Rock Type Sandstone, sUtstme etc.
Colour Use standard colour charte
Grain Colour Mmnry applies to sandstones
Hardness How résistant are tfae cuttings to applied force

Cuttings Shape Gênerai shape of cuttings
Grain Size Use standard grain size charte, mainly sandstones
Grain Shape Use grain shape chart, mainly sandstones

Sorting Use sorting chart if available
Cémentation/Matrix Types of cernent and matrix
Poroslty/Permeabiliry Visual déterminations only
Accessory Minerais Glauconhes, micas etc. with some qualifier as to abundance
UnusualFeatures Microfossils, fissures, etc.
Hydrocarbon Shows Seeseparate section
Try to describe each of catégories in turn for each sample description. Obviously grain shape will not be applicable to
claystones, for example, so ignore catégories which do not apply.
Each of the catégories is now described in more detail:-
Date:October2001 6.20 Sample and Author

Geology
6.4.2 Rock Type

The type of rock or lithotype you are looking at is usually fairly readily identifiable at a glance to any reasonably
trained geologist. A quick look at the grain size and a dab of acid is usually sufficient to make a fairly confident
identification of most rock types. Sometimes it may not be quite so easy: -
Gradational lithotypes Silty claystones, argillaceous sandstones, sandy siltstones are always difficult to describe and to
put relative percentages on. As noted before, tiy not to spend hours agonising over percentages
and make a note of the gradations on worksheets and descriptions. Qualifying names such as
those above and tuffaceous claystone etc. must only be used if there is a significant amount of the
qualifying rock type présent
Consolidation Distinguish the rock types based on the degree of consolidation:
Consolidated---------------------- > Unconsolidated
Gravel Conglomerate
Scree Breccia
Till Tillite
Sand Sandstone
Silt Siltstone
Clay Claystone Shale
Contaminants Mud additives, métal shavings and cernent can ail dilute the sample to varying degrees. You will
need to infonn the drilling supervisor and mud engineer about the contaminants and if they
become too pervasive and start to mask the sample then inform the drilling supervisor and
opérations geologist.
Sandstone type It is very difficult to differentiate between the main classes of sandstone using cuttings samples. It
might be possible to tell between tbe following: ¦ Orthoquartzite - Quartz more than 75% of
rock plus silica cernent Howeve r, recognising feldspars can be difficult in cuttings samples •
Greywacke - Common lithic fragments and feldspar with quartz only 25% of content and poorly
sorted. • Arkose - Feldspars more common than lithic fragments and quartz less than 75%.
Again difficult to identify feldspars at times
Loose Sand Grains Loose sand grains are a common featute on sample trays and need to be given more flian a cursory
examinabon • Firstiy, are/fey jonrfgrains? CiystaUinebarite looks verysimilarto fine loose sand
grains and you must examine (he grains carefully to ensure they are sand. Barite dries with a dusty
white sheen and crushes easily to white powder. • On top hole,the sandstone units are fairly
unconsolidated and poorly cemented. The action of the bit and the jetting action of the mud are
enough to completely disaggregate the sand grains but you should check for any residual cernent or
matrix around the grains and also for minerai growfhs on the grains. * Loose sand grains
froradeeper in the well may be a signofoverbalance. If the sandstone cuttings are not cleared
quickly from die bit then they will be subjected to much grinding action by the bit itself which will
dissagregate die grains. If there is little overbalance then nie sandstone cuttings should be liberated
fairly quickly and should be seen as proper sandstone cuttings. Again check for residual cernent and
matrix in loose grains. Where grains are loose it is impossible to estimate permeability and porosity
Metamorphic/Igneous It can sometimes be difficult to identify some igneous and metamorphic rock types based on physical
appearance in cuttings. It is enough to roughly dassify tbem and make a full description. As long asthey
lithotypes are described in reporte then if there is much interest then samples can be analysed in a laboratoryaway
from tbe wellsite to get an exact identification. Don't spend a great deal of time describing themas they
are unlikely to be of particular interest in oil industry tenus other than for provenance studies.
If you cannot identify a particular rock type then don't worry. As long as you note its présence, do a full description
and make a stab at identification this will be good enough.

J
Author
Geology
6.4.3 Colour
Colour is very subjective. Each individual has their own idea of colour and it
is a pointless exercise to argue over relative shades. To make this category more
objective it is strongly recommended that ail members of tfae wellsite crew use a
standard Rock Colour Chart such as that produced by tfae Geological Society ------COLOR CHART-
ROCK
of America (Figure 6.36). It consists of a small booklet where each page
consists of small oblongs of différent hues of the same colour. Each colour
has a name and a number
• Grip a small représentative pièce of wet cutting with tweezers. You will
need at least a moderately sized pièce.
• Put the colour chart, with me page of the a pproximate colour visible,
under the microscope.
• Compare tfae cutting with each hue in turn until you get tfae closest match
Most operators prefer tfae colour to be written down whilst otfaers may require
tfae colour code. Figure 6.36
It is recommended that the colour is described when the cutting is wet as it

will be much lighter when dry. Also tfae power of the microscope lamp and
tfae amount of magnifîcation you use can affect the hue of the colour. Try
to make colour comparison using the same lamp power and magnifîcation if possible. If a lithotype is vari -coloured
then describe it as being so, give a dominant colour and try to estimate the percentages of each colour. Does one
colour remain dominant or does it change with depth?
Are the colours variable? There are various terms that can be used?
Mottled Mott Varieeated Vgated
Streaked Strkd Spedded Spkld
Varicoloured vcol Spotted spttd
Colour can also be used as simple diagnostic tool to aid in minerai and environmental détermination.
Colour Minerai Indications Environmental Indications

Red - Orange bon Ferriooxydised state indicative of oxygenated environments, cg. déserts and river
Systems. TneTertiary 'La* Formation' (Robertsons)above the BaWerFonnation, parts
offlie Upper Cretaceous Itodby Formation and Pcnrdan Kupferscheifer
Lightgreen Iron Ferous reduced state indicative of reducing environment Greens and purple réduction
spots are found in parts of Tertiary, Triassic etc.
BrightGreen Glauconite, Chlorite , Glauconite is common i n many horizons and is thought, in many cases to be a product
offishtaeces. It is common on lower marine shelf euvuoiuuenls. Chlorite and
and Chamosite chamoshe (an oxy-chlorite) may be found in sédiments derivedfiom nearby
metemorphic sources or in deeper wells as products of diagenesis.
Blue Tufiàceous Blue colouration is common in Balder Formation which is of volcanic origin
D a r k g r e y- Carbonaceous material Anoxie environments, usually marine in nature. This allows préservation oforganic
material and disseminated iron sulphide is commonly associatcd The Kimmeridge
brown black - Clay/Draupne Formation of the North Sea is characteristicaUy a brown black-olive
olive black black colour and is one of me best hydrocarbon source rocks in the world.
Yellow - ochre Limonite Limonite covers a range of hydrated iron oxides and iron hydroxides. It is a weathering
product of ail iron containing minerais.
Brown Oil Check for shows!
Sandstones and coarser

When describing sandstones and pebbles you will need to describe not only the colour of tfae constituent grains and clasts,
but also their transparent, translucent or opaque nature. This will help in minerai identification. Also note any surface
discoloration of the grains or if there are any coloured inclusions. See also later in S ubsection on grain shape and surface
features.

Version: 2.01 Show Description
Geology
6.4.4 Hardness and Fracture

This category is intended to reflect the degree of induration, cémentation and compaction of the lithology and how the
sample fractures. The common adjectives used to descnbe hardness include:
Loose lse Grains disaggregate when the sample dry. Not used on
clay/shale rocks.
Friable fii Loose grains can be separated by pressure fiom the fingers.
Fïnn Grains can be separated with a probe.
Hard hd Grains difiîcult to defach, pressure results in cuttings
breaking grains.
Veryhard vhd Individual grains cannot be detached and cuttings break
through grains.
For clay based lithologies, the following terms can be used:
Verysoft vsft Can be dispersed by water/drilling mud.

(solnble)
Soft sft No shape or strength, very easily deformed.
Sttcky stky Sticks to fingers and sample probe.
Plastic plas Easily moulded and retains shape, difficult to wash through sieve.
Firm frni Definite shape and structure, penetrated and broken by probe.
Hard hd Sharp angular edges, not easily broken by probe. Variously
subdivided as moderately to very hard.
To détermine hardness you will need to crush a number of grains using a probe or tweezers to get a représentative
hardness for each lithotype. If there is a range of values then make a note of Ibis. Is there some reason for hardness
ranges? Does the hardness vary with colour or calcareous content?
Further terms are ofien applied to clay-based lithologies which descnbe the solubiliry to water of the claystone. This is
especially so when dealing with soft tophole clays. Various terms are used, soluble hydrateable, hygroturgid etc. and they
ail mean pretty much the same - the lithology disintegrates when exposed to water.
It is recommended that when dealing with soft, soluble lithologies that -
• You occasionally check how the sample is being washed by the mudlogger. Is much of the
claystone fraction being washed away?
• Get the mudlogger to put a small pile of unwashed sample on the sample tray. This allows a
direct comparison between the washed and unwashed sample.
• Try to make estimâtes of percentages based on unwashed sample rather than washed sample in O
thèse circumstances. The non-soluble fraction may be considerably enhanced by the washing
process.
When testing for hardness the fracture or 'break' of the cutting can described. The break may be described using the
following terms: -
Crumbly crmly Easily ciushed into constituent parts

BritUe brit Breaks into small pièces when fractures
Conchoidal conch Curved fracture planes such as those seen in flint
Hackly hkly Inegular break with no preferred fracture orientation
Splintery splty Very hard and splinters into sharp pièces when broken
or may be described using terms defined in the next section on cuttings shape.

Version: 2,01 Show Description TJH
Geology
6.4.5 Cuttings Shape

Basic Cuttinas Shape
This category is largely used to describe die cuttings shape of day based lithologies but can be applied to other
lithologies and the fracture or 'break9 of ail lithologies (see above). It does not refer to constituent grains of cuttings,
which are described later. Cuttings shape and size are strongly influenced by rock type, bit type and the degree of
overbalance (see below). If the well is close to balance , hold down force is low and cuttings are freely liberated. They
tend to be bigger and 'fresher' looking when seen at oie surface. If the cuttings get too big then the circulation System will
not be able to carry them quickly up die hole. They will tend to become abraded by constant impacts with other cuttings
and the borehole wall.
If there is a high overbalance men cuttings are not freely liberated and they are much smaller. They may be rolled round
on bottom and will hâve a more rounded and less 'fresh' appearance. Influences on bit shape are discussed below
The common, fâirly self explanatory, descriptive adjectives used for cuttings shape include:
Amorphous amor No shape - generally due to hydration of sample, preferrcd fracture

orientation masked.
Blocky blky Square, angular appearance with no preferred fracture orientation
Platy phy Fiat appearance whh rounded edses, prefeired fracture plane
Subfissfle sbfiss Flatter and more elongatethan platy, not as sharp edged as fissile,
prefetrcd fiacttne plane
Fissile fiss Generally flat and elongate wift shaip edges, marked fracture orientation.
May be curved if'pressure caving'.
Various qualifying parameters are

commonly used to 'grade' thèse such as
'slightly', 'very* etc. and terms such as
'sub-blocky' are also used for intermediate
stages. However, as it is difficult to define Blocky Platy
what sub-blocky actually means it is
recommended that terms such as this are
not used. Use blocky-platy instead for
instance. Subfissile Fissile 'Pressure Caving'
Figure 6.37
Influences on Drill Cuttinos Shaoe

The wellsite and opérations geologist should become aware of the influence on cuttings shape by the type of bit that
is being used. This can hâve important implications on cuttings quality and, of course, the ability of die geologist to
make good cuttings descriptions.
Cuttings shape is influenced by a number of factors: -

• Type of drill bit being used
• The amount of overbalance
• The texture of the lithology being drilled
• The type of drilling fluid being used.
The corollary of this is that if we know what the bit type is and the lithology that the bit shape may give us some
indication of the overbalance, which will help us with formation pressure évaluation (See Appendix 1).
The following table shows how cuttings are influenced by bit type and overbalance.

Geology
Type of bit No overbalance Slight overbalance High overbalance

Tri-cone Brittle failure. Cuttings shoot out Transitional failure. Chips are Pseudoplastic failure.
and aie easily carried away sluggishly removed. Optimised Original rock fabric is lost
milltooth and jet impact force will help clear and texture disrupted.
insert bits cuttings.
Diamond Bit Only Shear to brittle failure leading to Shear to brittle failure leading to Pseudoplastic failure. Original
small cuttings where original rock small cuttmgs where original rock rock fabric lost and in some
used in hard fabric is retained or disrupted circumstances the heat
fabric is retained or disrupted by
formations. shears generated at the bit
'métamorphoses' the sample. .
This results in bumt and
vitrified sample whicb are
useless for évaluation.
PDCBits Large ridged or stepped cuttings. Large ridged or stepped cuttmgs. Smooth or very slightly
Each step separated by a shear Each step separated by a shear ridged cuttings caused by
Produces fracture. fracture. Original rock fabric pseudoplastic failure. Rock
characteristic poorly preserved. fabric almost totally lost
PDC «platelets'
PDC Platelets
PDC bits produce very characteristic cuttings shapes as
shown in Figure 6.38. In a situation close to balance, as in
the left of the figure, sheared and stepped cuttings are
produced. With a situation of overbalance then a sheared
but more uniform cutting is produced. Note that in each
case the rock fabric is severely disrupted if not totally
destroyed.
Figure 6.38
A typical PDC cutting is shown in Figure 6.39, highly magnified, on the right
and shows the typical stepped appearance. A vague rock iàbric can just be made
out and wbich has been disrupted by the shearing process. The curved surface
may hâve a smoothed and polished appearance.
The cuttings will be slightly crumbly and moderately hard when force is applied
to them. They are very characteristic.
Figure 6.39
Figure 6.40 illustrâtes some perfect PDC

cuttings from a well offshore Norway. They
are rarely this large or well developed.
Figure 6.40

J
Author
Geology , Wellsite and Opérations
r
Oxford Brookes Unrversity _, .
Geology
Pseudoolastic failure
Pseudoplastic failure can lead to the production of the following bit generated textures:-
• Rock or Bit Flour: Usually soft and lighter colored than normal' cuttings. It is soft,
amorphous, pasty and is slightly hydrated by the mud in water based drilling fluids.
• Loose sand grains: For cemented and consolidated sandstones the original sandstone
matrix is ground out and the sand grains are liberated. The original sandstone texture is
destroyed. Unconsolidated sandstones can be totally disrupted by jetting (force of mud
through bit jets) and will resuit in loose sand grains in samples.
• Clasts: Clasts from conglomérâtes and breccias may be released by bit action that
destroys the matrix. Large clasts will be too large for transportation and will be broken
up. Small pebbles may be transported up the annulus.
The geologist should pay some attention to cuttings shape and quality as well as describing the lithological features.
The nature of the cuttings can be used as a pore pressure indicator.
Bit Metamorphism of cuttinos

This can be seen when a diamond bit is used in combination with a turbine rotating at high RPMs. This combination
is used by the drillers in an effort to drill through long séquences of hard formation in a short a time as possible.
However, the bit becomes very hot and with high weights on bit the cuttings take on a 'burnt', 'crispy' and
metamorphosed appearance, rendering them almost unrecognisable. Sometimes it is impossible to describe the
cuttings and even basic rock identification is difficult Running this bit and turbine combination is not recommended
when lookmg for core or casing points.

Geology
6.4.6 Grain Size.

This refers to constituent grains of cuttings WENTWORT T ADJECTIVE SIZETERMINOLOGY
(sandstones, siltstones etc.) and not to the H SIZE SIZE mm.
CLASS
cuttings themselves. Evaluation should
BOULDER
include both the dominant size grade and — 256.0
the range of grades in the sample. COBBLE CONGLOMERA T VERY COARSE TO PEBBLY
64.0
Sandstone, for example, may be PEBBLE
predominantly coarse grained yet still 4.0
GRANULE
exhibit a range of grain size from médium 2.0
to very coarse. Comparison with the — 1.0 COARSE GRAINED
Wentworth scale is in Figure 6.41.
— 0.50 SANDY
SAND MEDIUM GRAINED
— 0.25 FINE GRAINED
— 0.126 VERY FINE GRAINED
0.0625 SILTY MICRO GRAINED

Figure 6.41 SILT
— 0.0039 CLAYEY
CLAV
Grain size can be easily measured using one of the grain size comparison charte that are available in many of the
Mudlogging units such as the old Exlog one in Figure 6.42. It also gives comparisons for sorting and roundness
which are also most useful.
Figure 6.42
It must also be noted that the grain size will also be affected by the
mesb size of the shale shakers that are being used. Always be aware of
the shaker screen size that is currently in use and how it will affect the
samples. On tophole it is common for large mesh sizes to be used so
that cuttings and even fairly coarse sand grains will go straight
through and thus will not be seen in samples.
The common set up at ail times is to hâve coarser screens above finer
ones on the shale shakers. This is why it is important that
représentative samples must be taken from both screens and mud
cleaner/centrifuge output to ensure that, for
instance, fine sand grains are not missed.
As it is difficult to gauge comparative grain sizes in whole rock samples of cuttings and core chips it is best to
J
disaggregate the sample to evaluate grain sizes. Simply crush a few grains of sandstone in a spot tray or on a spare
métal tray and spread the grains out so they are one layer thick. Use the grain comparison chart to gauge the grain
size and also you will get a much better idea of sorting. It is easy to note other characteristics of the rock at this
stage.

Geology
6.4.7 Grain Shape and surface features

This refers to constituent grains of cuttings (sandstones, siltstones etc.) and not to the cuttings themselves - see cuttings
shape. Grain shape is usually applied to arenaceous rocks and refers to the angularity and smoothness of the grains. It can be
subdivided into the following classes of sphericity and angularity:-
Angular Ang Fiat, plane surfaces, terminating in acute or right angles,

thin, sharp edges.
Snb-aneular SbanK Fiat surfaces tffnninating în comas.
Sub-rounded SbRndd Rounded comcis and increasiiigly surfaces.
Ronnded Rndd Rounded surfaces, edges and corners.
WeUronoded WRnd BecorrangspheroidaL
HKJH
Sphericity is a measure of hpw spherical a
grain is and this is illustrated in this chart
from Powers (Figure 6.43).
Grain shape and sphericity can give

indications of:
¦ The maturity of the sandstone.

¦ Mode and distance of transport
Roundad Roundad
¦ Porosityandpenneability .60 M
ANGULARITY
It is worthwhile spending a Utile time
FromPewMs
looking at thèse maturity indicators. Figure 6.43
However, thèse can be affected by later minéralisation so that the original grains are eroded, coated or overgrown. Any
évidence for this needs to be described, as it will effect grain shape and porosity and permeability. A number of terms are
commonlyused:-
Pftttae Surfaces of grains hâve small holes caused by chemical solution or physical impacts.
Staining Thin veneer of minéralisation with a coloured, barely noticeable, powdery appearance.
Jnm stainine is common but may also be oil staining!
Coatine Thicker veneer of minéralisation on grain surfaces.
Frastine As its name implies a w*ite powdery coatine to grains caused abrasion of surfaces.
Striated Abrasions or scratchesoftenparallel in nature «
Glassy Minerai overgmwms into void with fiât crystal surfaces apparent
Check ail translucent and transparent grains for internai features such as inclusions and fractures.

Geology
)
6.4.8 Sorting
Sorting applies to the coarser clasn'c rocks. The degree of sorting should be classified according to the following tenus:
WeD sorted wellsrtd Range of particle size confined to two adjoining grain sizes.
SUtstones must be well sorted by this criteria.
Moderateiy sorted modsrtd Range of particle size confined to four adjoining grain sizes.
Poorly sorted prlysrtd Range of grain sizes over more than four grain sizes.
Sorting gives an indication of the textural maturity of the sédiment and is one of the major influences on porosity
and permeability. As it is difficult to gauge comparative grain sizes in whole rock samples of cuttings and core
chips it is best to disaggregate the sample to evaluate sorting. Simply crush a few grains of sandstone in a spot tray
or on a spare métal tray and spread the grains out so they are one layer thick. Ensure you are not looking at well
sorted laminations of différent grain sizes.
6.4.9 Other Terminology

Other terms can be applied to the texture of claystone rocks. They describe their appearance and also, to a certain j
extent, their break.
Eartby rthy Has the texture and hardness of wet soil.

Waxy wxy Cuttings surface has waxy appeaiance
Résinons resins Surface has a tesinous appeaiance
6.4.10 Visual Porosity and Permeability

Porosity and permeability in drilled cuttings are difficult to evaluate and are determined, at best, only very subjectively.
Take a good look at a number of samples and cuttings and see how well they are cemented or if there is a common
matrix. Sorting also affecte porosity and should be evaluated first as it may be a porosity indicator. Thèse preliminary
indications are useful to reinforce évidence from the technique described below.
Evaluation is best camed out by examining dry sample. Représentative cuttings may be selected from the dried portion of
the sample, or more simply sélect pièces from the wet sample to describe lithology and then let them dry out Porosity
may then be estimated by placing a drop of water on a dried cutting while viewing through the microscope. The speed at
which the water is absorbed by the cutting will help in subjectively evaluating porosity and permeability. Where
distinguishable, porosity should be described using the following ternis:
Trace Tr 0-5% O
Poor Pr 5-10%
Fair Fr 10-20%
Good Gd 20-30%
The évaluation of porosity should also include an évaluation of the type of porosity présent (e.g. intergranular, vuggy, pin-
point, etc.).
Permeability will be related to the porosity to a certain extent If you can see porosity but water absorption rates are low then
you must assume that the permeability is fairly poor.
J
Geology
6.5 Description of Carbonate Rocks

6.5.1 Introduction
The classification and description of carbonate rocks at the wellsite is constrained by the samples and the equipment
available. There hâve been many attempts over the years to classify carbonate rocks and it is diffîcult to do even with
thin sections and microscopes. Of necessity, then, the wellsite classification of carbonate rocks is based on a fairly
simple scheme proposed by Dunham (1962). His classification is based on depositional textures produced by varying
degrees of environmental energy.
DEPOSITIONAL TEXTURE RECOGNIZABLE DEPOSITIONAL TEXTURE

NOT RECOGNIZABLE
Original Cofnponantanotboundtogether during Original commenta

Déposition
ContakwMud (partdes of day and Lacksmud and as fhown tw kitararown (SubdMdeacconingto

fine a» slza) NI grain- skeWalmotteir. tamlraUon contrary fJiniBificnHnn riftavQnftn to bttsron
sifiported to dravHy, or »dment-
floûr©dcsv&s that
Mud-aupported Gmln-eupporlad areroofedowbyorganlcor
Leaslhan 10 Morethan 10 phyakal texture or dageneHs)

parant grain» ptfC6nt Qrsns
Mudstones Wackeatane
are too large to ba fntanboes.
Figure 6.44 From Dunham
Carbonate rocks are generally deposited in shallow, warrn marine environments. Clastic input is minimal allowing the
waters to be clear and light If the original textures are présent then the Dunham classification can be used and some
basic inferences as to energy of déposition made. If me carbonate rock has been subject to recrystallisation then a
description giving the basic rock features and crystal size is generally ail that is possible at the wellsite.
Rock Type Liraestone, Dolomite, gradations in betweea Define in ternis of Dunham if
possible. Some définitive tests aie possible.
Colour Use standard colour charte
Hardnèss How résistant aie the cuttings to applied force
CuttingsShape Gênerai shape ofcuttings
Grain/Crystal Size Ifcrystalline
Crystal Shape Ifappiopnate
Sorting If appropriate, in packstones and grainstones etc.
Surface Texture Whatdistinctivesurfece features are apparent?

Cémentation/Matrix Types of cément and matrix
Porosity/Permeability Visual déterminations only
Accessory Minerais Glauconitcs, etc. with some qualifieras to abundance
Unusual Features Microfossils, fissures, etc.

Hydrocarbon Shows See sepaiate section
Follow this systematic séquence of description as illustrated in the above table. The description of carbonate rocks is
in most ways the same as that for clastics and only the différences will be highlighted in the text below.

Geology
6.5.2 Rock Type

The main carbonate rock forming minerais are calcite, aragonite and dolomite. Calcite, iron and magnésium are
commonly substituted to produce a whole range of rock types of which limestone (predominantly CaCo3) and Dolomite
(CaMg(CO3)2) are by far the most common. The foUowing table shows a guideline for basic nomenclature based on
calcium percentages (as opposed to magnésium):-
Percentage Calcium Rock Name

0-50% Magnesite
50-60% Dolomite
60-75% Calcareous Dolomite
75-90% Dolomitic Limestone
90-100% Limestone
Détermination of carbonate rock type at the wellsite usually consists of working out via simple tests what the rock is
and then fitting it in to the Dunham classification. If crystalline, the rock should be described in terms of its crystal
size.
"^^^ "Dolomite"
-Uimtww"
The Mudloggers usually hâve a calcimeter - a specialised apparatus to measure total

carbonate content of samples. This can give relative abundances of Pressure Sensor
limestone and dolomite and may help to make a basic classification
of the carbonate. Whilst it does not provide a définitive évaluation it is certainly more
objective than dropping cuttings in acid. There are a number of tests described below that
J
allow more spécifie déterminations of rock character to be made.
Whilst Iimestones and dolomites are the commonest rock types there are several other
'subtypes' that are commonly used.
Figure
6.45
Chalk
Very fine grained, predominantly white limestone made up of the skeletons of a planktonic algae called
coccolithospheres. Chalk is very widespread in the Cretaceous but many Iimestones can be said to hâve a 'chalky'
texture and it is a readily identifiable rock type.
Mari
This is a fine grained calcareous mudstone. There are various définitions of mari and it is recommended that the term
is not used with either calcareous claystone or argillaceous limestone being used instead. Even hère it is often difScult
to pick between thèse two tenns as they are just gradational members of the same séries.
Ideally when put in dilute hydrochloric acid a calcareous claystone cutting will retain its integrity whilst an
argillaceous limestone cutting will not, leaving a clayey residue in the spot tray.
Arenaceous Limestones
Differentiate sandy limestone and calcareous sandstone in the same way as argillaceous limestones. Drop cuttings in
dilute hydrochloric acid and see if they disaggregate.
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Oxford Brookes Universtty _ .
Geology
6.5.3 Other Catégories

Colour
Colours can be very subtle and variegated in carbonates and requires the use of colour charts.
Grain Size
Grain size détermination may be difficult with carbonates especially if recrystallisation has taken place. It may be that
a description of crystal size or a mixture of crystal and grains may be required.
Sortinq
Again may be difficult as grain types may be so variable and recrystallisation may hâve occurred.
Surface Texture
Surface textures can be enhanced by etching cuttings with a small amount of acid. This may reveal grain size and
shape, crystallim'ry, fossil material etc. Crystal shape may also be distinguished:
Cryrtalline Crystals are commonly visible

Mkromytalllne Veryfinelycrystalline
Suerosic Sugar Iike texture, typically dotoirritic
Microsncrosle Very finely suerosic
Chalky Chalky texture is common - very fine grained
OoUtic Spheroidal, very rounded grains produced by wave motion and may hâve
nucleus.
Cernent and Matrix

Cémentation and recrystallisation can be complex in carbonates and diagenesis may also hâve occurred. It is very
difficult to do anything other than a broad description of cément or matrix in cuttings samples.
Recrvstallisatîon and Minéralisation

Thèse processes may take many forms bu t may be expressed in a number of ways in carbonates. Some of them can
be seen in cuttings samples.
¦ Crystal growth
¦ Fractures and fissures
¦ Vugs
¦ Stylolites
Stylolites are quite common in carbonates but may appear as argillaceous/carbonaceous streaks especially in PDC bit-
derived cuttings.
Porosîtv and Permeabilitv

This is determined in cuttings samples using the same methods as dastics. Porosity can take many différent forms in
carbonates and visible porosity type should be described in ternis of amount and style. This is not always easy in
small cuttings.

Version: 2.01 Sample and Show Description TCH
Geology
Natural Fluorescence
Many carbonates exhibit natural minerai fluorescence. Assuming there is no eut (in which case there is probably a
show), always check samples under the UV light to see if minerai fluorescence is présent It may be the fîrst
indication that carbonate rocks are présent.
Rock Type Natural Minerai fluorescence

Limestones N o n- brown
Chalk Purple
Dolomite and arenaceous limestones Yellow to yellow brown
Mari Yellow to brown grey
This is not a définitive test!

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Version: 2.01 Show Description TÏH
Geology
6.5.4 Determinatîve Testing for Carbonates

SAFETYNOTE
Use the following procédure to give provisional indications of The simplest test to show if a cutting is a carbonate
carbonate content. is to drop some dilute acid on it You need to be
careful on two counts when you do this:-
Requlrements! - • Putting acid directly onto the cuttings below
Clcan sample trays and spot trays
the microscope can cause damage to the
Pistilled water
Pihite Hydrochloric acid microscope lens if effervescence is strong
Applianceofheat and bubbles up quickly sending acidic fumes
and moisture into the air.
1. Wash cuttings in distilled water. Mud additives may be • Make sure me sample trays are cleaned
calcareous or oil based fluids or glycol can coat grains (as thoroughly. Drill water is sometimes impure
they are designed to do) and inhibit reactions. and a deposit of carbonate material can build
2. Dip the cutting in diluted HC1 (10%) for a few seconds in up on the trays mat will fizz readily on the
a spot tray. If the sample is a carbonate it will effervesce application of acid. This can be mistaken for
and become etched. Etching emphasises the texture and calcareous sample. Use spot trays for analysis
structure and gives you more information on the cuttings. involving acid.
3. If the sample effervesces allow the reaction to go to
completion. The insoluble residue may consist of clay,
kerogen, anhydrite, pyrite, etc., and helps détermine the présence of some otherwise difScult to detect
minerais as accessories.
4. If the rate of effervescence is slow then suspect that the cuttings are partially dolomitic.
5. Place suitable washed cuttings in a spot tray, cover with dilute HCL and heat If the sample is dolomitic
it's effervescence will increase considerably until a strong reaction occurs. Again check for residues and
accessory minerais. Be careful whilst handling hot acid.
6. If the sample faits to effervesce in diluted and heated HC1, it is probably not a carbonate.
Use the Mudlogger's calcimeter to get a more reliable measurement of both the calcium and magnésium carbonate in a
particular sample. Thèse can be determined by this instrument in a few minutes. This data should complément and not
replace yourown observations however.
6.5.5 Distinguishing Calcite from Dolomite by Staining

Techniques
The following procédures outline the technique of calcite-staining of ditch samples at the wellsite. Materials required:
Reqnlremena:-
Clean spot tray and 3 -5 cm
Distilledwater
Paper Towcltodtv
Dilute Hydrochloric acid (20%)
Potassium fcmcyanidc
Alizarin Red solution
The following procédure is recommended for calcite staining with Alizarin Red;
1. The larger dish should be filled about half-full with the staining solution,
2. Wash cuttings or core chips with freshor distilled water and allow to dry.
3. Place the dry fragments into the staining solution of hydrochloric acid, potassium ferricyanide and alizarin red..
4. The staining of the fragments becomes visible afterone minute.
5. Examine me samples in me solution.
6. Calcite will be stained red, ferroan calcite, purple, ferroan dolomite, blue, and dolomite remains unstained.
The staining solution can be re-used, but must not be poured back into the container of fresh solution.

Geology
6.6 Description of Chemical Rocks

6.6.1 Evaporites
Evaporites are sédiments resulting from the evaporation of saline water. As such they are not sources of
hydrocarbons or réservoir rocks, but are important as trap producing mechanisms and seals. They are found in strata
of every âge from the Cambrian and in many basins throughout the world. There are two methods of evaponte
formation:-
• Sabkha - From the Arabie term referring to wide, sait encrusted supra-tidal areas such as those
in Abu Dhabi. Occasional flooding of the surface and subséquent evaporation of the seawater
leads to déposition of gypsum and salts. Anhydrite is for med by the re-solution and
replacement of gypsum. Whilst thin evaporite units are formed using this mechanism, thicker
units are harder to account for.
• Basinal - This method requires a basin with restricted inflow of saline fluids. The fluids
evaporate and evaporites start to form when saline water concentration is above 50% of the
original volume. This method of formation is more likely to give thicker evaporite intervais
than that of sabkha although it does dépend on the frequency of influx waters which may tend
to dilute the basinal waters.
Minerais tend to be formed in the reverse order of their solubilities but this also is température dépendant Gypsum,
for example, will be deposited below 42°C, and anhydrite above. Assuming constant conditions, a typical evaporite
séquence or cycle is shown below. However, this idéal séquence may be disrupted by influxes of water into the
basin, subséquent recrystallisation and température changes.
5. Potash and Magnésium Salts KC1 (Sylvite) & KMgCl,.6H2O (Carnallite)

4. HaUte (Rock Sait) NaCl
3. Gypsum or Anhydrite CaSO4.2H2O,CaSO4
2. Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
1. Limestone CaCO3
The description of evaporite rocks follows similar catégories to those of clastics and carbonates and, apart from rock
type récognition will not be expanded upon further than that presented in the table below:-
Rock Type A number of identification methods can be used to correctly identify rock type.
Colour Use standard colour charts
Hardness and fracture How résistant are the cuttings to applied force
CuttinssShape Gênerai shape of cuttings
CrystalSize Ifcrystalline
CrystaISbape If appiopriate
Solubility In salts etc.
Recrystallisation Evidence forre-crystallisan'on
Porosity/Penneability Visual déterminations only. Likely to be almost always zéro.
Accessory Minerais Where appiopriate - likely only to be other evaporites or, rarely argillaceous
material
Unusual Features Microfossils, fissures, etc.
Hydrocarbon Shows Not normaUy associated with evaporites
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Version: 2.01 Show Description
Geology
6.6.2 Identification of Evaporites - Rock Name

Identification of evaporite rocks at the wellsite is sometimes straightforward, at other times it is anything but. The
wellsite geologist must use a number of différent Unes of évidence to deduce the présence of evaporites and to
identify them correctly. Correct identification is useful as, because the déposition of evaporite rocks is cyclical in
nature, then it may give évidence as to positioning within a particular section
The main identification tools at your disposai are:-
• Drill rate and torque • Colourof cuttings

• LWD/MWD - Wireline • Solubility of cuttings
• Mud chloride levels • Tasteof cuttings
• Cuttings quality and quantity • Chemical tests
• Gas levels
Thèse are summarised in the table below: -
Identification Tool Description

Drill rate and torque Drill rate and torque may give early indications of evaporites. Aahydrite will drill veiy slowly, may cause bit
bouncing, and torque will be fairly consistent Salts, on the other hand, tend to drill fairly quickly with a
uniform drill rate and low, uniform torque.
LWD/MWD & The LWD/MWD tool even with a basic gamma ray configuration is an important indicator of evaporites.
Most evaporites will hâve a very low, if not zéro, reading. However, the potassium salts will give readings in
Wireline excess of 200 API and even 500+ in the case of sylvite. More advanced LWD tools may give densities which
are useful in rock-type identification. Wireline tools may help with further identification at the end of a hole
section or if intermediate logs are run.
Mud chloride levels If a sait saturated water based mud or oil based mud with water pha se sait saturated is used then sait will be
seen at the surface. If a sait is drilled and the mud is not sait saturated then the chlorides content of the
drilling fluid will increase dramaticaUy. The sait bed will gradually dissolve and cause hole enlargement (is
lag increasing?) and the mud will gradually sait saturate if the bed is thick enough. If you suspect that sait
beds hâve been drilled then get the Mud Engineer to do a chloride check on the mud to confirm it.
Altematively, if the Mud Engineer gets an unexpected increase in chlorides he may ask you if sait beds hâve
been drilled. If this is the case then check some of the other indicators. Note, however, a complication brought
about by bottom hole températures. As température increases with depth, the saturation point of any particular
drilling fluid will also increase. Mud Systems that are sait saturated at surface température may be undersaturated at
depth (providing the bottom hole température in a séquence of sait is high enough) and take sait int o solution. When
circulated up the annulus the mud cools and the saturation point fatls, resulting in précipitation of sait This can
resuit in the confusing situation where sait continues to be seen in the cuttings some timeafter the sait bed has been
penetrated.
Cuttings quality and There will be no change in cuttings when drilling the harder evaporites in the séquence such as anhydrite,
dolomite etc. However, with a mud that is not sait saturated there will be a marked decrease in cuttings
quantity quantity when drilling salts. This is because the sait is dissolving into the mud and thus ail the cuttings will
dissolve before they reach the surface. This will resuit in the shakers appearing clean and the Mudloggers
complain that they hâve no sample to coll ect! Ensure that bags are suitably marked up to explain the lack of
sample. Do not just throw the bags away as confusion may later ensue when the samples are processed
onshore - where are the missing samples?
Gas levels Because evaporites are essentially lacking in porosity, gas levels are generally very low when drilling them. Of
course if there is any secondary porosity some gas may be found and the gas levels may be masked if gas is
seeping into the hole at other levels.
Colourof cuttings Most of the evaporites are colourless to white or very light grey with some translucence. Polyhalite may hâve a
red tinge, whilst anhydrite is white, hard and dense. Use colour comparison charts as appropriate.
Solubility of cuttings Cuttings of sait can look very sim ilar to sand grains in some circumstances. However, the sait will crush quite
easily and is readily soluble in fresh water.
Tasteof cuttings Sait obviously tastes salty! Some of the salts, such as camallite, can taste particularly bitter whilst other
evaporites, such as polyhalite and anhydrite hâve no taste.
Chemical tests There are basic chemical tests that can be carried out to identify common evaporites. Mudlogging units
should hâve the necessary chemicals and you should check at the beginning of the well that they hâve thèse if
evaporites are prognosed (see next page).
Geology Wellsîte and Opérations
Geology
The table below sumtnarises evaponte rock properties: -

Minerai Chemistry Colour Taste Solubillty S.G. SonlcDT GR Comments
Anhydrite CaSO4 White. llght grey, rrly It blue None None 2.96 50 0 Very hard, bit may bounce
Barytes Ba(SO4) colourless, white, yellow None None 4.40 Rare, co mmonly
assoclated with anhydrite
Bischoflte MBCI2.6H2O Colourless, white Very VSoluble 1.60 - 0 Hole enlargement If mud
bitter notsaltsaturated
Camallite KO.MgCB.6H20 White, slightly red & yellow Very VSoluble 1.61 78 200 Hole enlargement if mud
bitter notsaltsaturated
Epsomlto MgSO4.7H2O Colourless, white Very VSoluble 2.10 Simllarto Camallite
bitter
Glauberite Na2SO4.CaS04 Colourless, white, grey, yellow - None 2.70 - - - Rarely developed, found
white 2.80 with mlrabilite
Gypsum CsSOMHÎO Colourless, white, rr plnk None None 2.32 52.5 0 Above 500-700 m only
yellow and grey
Hallte NaCI Colourless, tlnted when impure Salty Soluble 2.17 67 0 Hole enlargement If mud
not sait saturated, uniform
drill rate
¦ ¦ ¦
Hexahydrite MgSO4.(IH2O - - - Rare
Kalnlte M(|SO4.KajH20 Colourless, white & light grey Very Soluble 2.13 225 Rare, commonly
salty & assodatedwithhalite
si bitter
Kieserite MgSO4.H20 Colourless, white & light grey None VSoluble 2.57 0 Oftenassociatedwith
-
Syhrite
Langbelnite K2SO4JMgSO4 Colourless, white, occaslonally None VSoluble 2.83 52 275 Rarely developed
si plnk
Mlrablllte Na2SO4.4H2O Colourless, white Salty Soluble 1.4- - - Falriy rare. Assoclated with
1.5 halite
Polyhalite K2SO4.2MgSO4.2Ca Grey white, si yellow & red None VSoluble 2.78 57.5 180 Oftenassociatedwith
SO4.2H2O Anhydrite
Sylvtte KQAIsCt2.6H2O Colourless, white Bitter Soluble 1.98 74 >500 Similartorocksalt
and
salty
J
Geology
6.6.3 Barium Chloride Test for Anhydrite and Gypsum

Requirements:-
aean test tube
Distilled water
Dilute Hydrochloric acid
FilterPaper
Barium Chloride
The présence of either anhy drite and gypsum can be confirmed by the following test:
1. Pick out several good cuttings from the sample and place them in a test tube.
2. Fill the test tube with distilled water and wash the grains thoroughiy by shaking the test tube
vigorously.
3. Pour offthe water and then repeat the washing séquence again.
4. Add dilute hydrochloric acid.
5. Shake the test tube vigorously.
6. Filter the solution
7. Add two drops of barium chloride.
8. The présence of calcium sulphate (indicative of anhydrite or gypsum) will be confirmed by t he

appearance of a pearly white discoloration of the fluid.
6.6.4 Evaporation Test for Anhydrite and Gypsum

Requirements:-
Clean evaporatmg dish
Distilled water
Dilute Hydrochloric acid
SmaUheater
The présence of either anhydrite and gypsum can be confirmed by the following test:-
1. Wash a small quantity of cuttings in distilled water.
2. Dissolve the cuttings in dilute hydrocbloric acid in an evaporating dish.
3. Put the dish on a small heater or other warm surface.
4. If calcium sulphate is présent a small rim of acicular crystals will develop.

Geology
6.6.5 Chert
Cherts are very hard chemicaliy derived rocks and can impact on drilling opérations. Chert is, cryptocrystalline, very
hard and very brittle, with conchoidal fracture and, typically, large sharp cuttings. The colour of chert is indicative
of its depositional environment:
Diatomaceous and radiolarlan chert Black to grey - argillaceous

Spiculiferous chert Light to médium grey brown and green.
If chert is found in sample the wellsite geologist should inform the drilling supervisor straight away. Chert can
dramatically reduce the life of ail types of bit as it is so abrasive.
Date: October 2001

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6.41 Sample and Author
Geology
6.7 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks

In the oil industry igneous and metamorphic rocks are, obviously, much less commonly drilled than sedimentary
rocks. However, sills and dykes may occasionally be encountered and pyroclastic material, such as tuffs, is relatively
common. Description and identification of igneous and metamorphic rocks can be diffîcult under wellsite conditions
due to the limited ability to test the cuttings and also time constraints. In many cases, drill cuttings of igneous and
metamorphic rocks cannotbe easily distinguished from sedimentary rocks and it is recommended that the same
methodical, step-by-step descriptive techniques be applied.
Igneous or metamorphic rocks are often classified as being 'basement'.
6.7.1 Igneous Rocks

Acidic Intermediate Basic
" Granité Diorlte Gabbro

Coarse grained, quartz, Coarse grained, feldspathlc (digodase to andeslne) Coarse grained,feldcpar,
feldspawilca, w/ apatile, plus bloUte, hornblende and pyroxene and ollvlne
zircon, magnette,
'Subsurface' tourmaline
Pegmatite Ï~£*
'Coarse grained rock, gônëfir/
^N. Intrusive — ? , acidic terni applied to coanfs" gabbros and dlorites
Dolente
(Dykes/Sills) Aplite
Fine grained rock, generally acidic but Mermediate and bjislc
(Diabase)
9 Médium grained, feldspar,
Intrusive Plutonic - apNtesoccur Andésites
;|?gra@*- pyroxene and olivine
r ? Rhyolite
Fine grained and glassy Fine grained and glassy
Large igneous fntrustve
bodies vlscouslava
TNn bodles tbrcsd Into pre- fPeléas Haïr J Bombs 1 Pumlc* Lscoriaa Basait
eidstlng rocks, vertical dykes Llquld. Consdidalad ash' glassy material, country rock, Fine grained and glassy,
am) horizontal BiBs coarse grained sometlmes called "«>iomeraie
Ejecta
Solid . (Welded Tuff) Hlgh température déposition of ashy pyroxene,piagloclsse,
common
magnetite, quartz
Ejecta* material ash - edges weld togethar on déposition
'Surface . Extrusives
Volcanic' — Ash Fall
Surface flows as lava, Ash Flow
sometimes terni extended to
Waterlaid
surface plug remains
Pyroclastics
Fragmentai volcanic material
blown into atmosphère by
Figure 6.46 explosive acBvity
The simple classification illustrated above shows only a small number of rock types. In most wells drilled by the oil
industry only a very few of the vast range of igneous rocks will be encountered. The most common igneous rocks
encountered will be dolente dykes and sills, basalts and, most frequently, pyroclastic material, especially tuffs.
However, 'basement' could consist of any type of igneous rock. Only the more commonly encountered igneous rocks
are described hère.
Granités
Granités, when fractured, can in fact form producible réservoirs and in drill cuttings can be very difficult to
distinguish from immature sandstones and 'granité wash'. Distinguishing factors will be very slow and generally
consistent ROP, low gas readings and fresh crystal faces. Examine crystals/grains closely for évidence of cleavage.
Polerites
Usually consist of hard, fine grained material with angular cuttings shapes which are very dark grey black in colour.
Again characterised by slow ROPs and low gas readings.

Oxford Brookes University —, ¦
Geology
Tuffs
Tuffs consist of consolidated ash derived from volcanoes by explosive force and may bave been deposited as ash
falls, in aerial flows or laid down in water. Essentially they are clastic deposits and the descriptive séquence for
clastics should be followed. They can be aerially extensive and being the resuit of relatively short -lived phenomena
can form good 'marker horizons' for corrélation. Tuffs generally consist of volcanic glass, lava, crystals, fragments
of 'country rock* but are often altered by subséquent déposition and diagenesis. The rocks tend to de-vitrify and
become silica cemented and bentonite is a common breakdown product.
Thus, tuffs can be very variable in colour and grain size. They are commonly described as grey through blue grey
and green grey, speckled black and white with glassy shards and globules. Grain size can vary from very fine
through to coarse. More often than not they hâve been deposited and re-worked with sands and clays and tuffaceous
sandstones and claystones may be encountered depending on the environment of déposition.
6.7.2 Metamorphic Rocks

Again metamorphic rocks are not normally encountered in oil industry wells as the conditions for their formation are
not conducive for the présence of hydrocarbons. Metamorphic rocks form due to a combination of heat and pressure
and can be subdivided into two main catégories
Contact Metamorphism Local metamorphism caused by proximity to a spécifie

source of heat or pressure, e.g. intrusion or thrust fault zone
etc.
Régional Metamorphism Régional scale event caused by major tectonism such as
subduction zone
Contact metamorphism will occur around intrusions. Look out for minéralisation of sedimentary rocks.
Régional metamorphism (Greenschist faciès) starts at températures of 350 to 500°F (176 to 260 °C). It will affect rock
texture and causes a green colouration caused by appearance of chlorite, epidote and actinolite.
J
Geology
6.8 Description of Core Chips and Sidewall

Cores
Cores and sidewall cores allow the description of much larger fragments of rock. While the description technique is
much the same as for cuttings, rock textures and sedimentary structures are obviously observed much more in thèse
larger fragments.
6.8.1 Whole Core Descriptions

Whole core is rarely seen at the wellsite nowadays as cores are usually retrieved in aluminium or fibre-glass sieeves.
In the whole core the following can be described:-
Major lithological units and thicknesses

Bedding, type and inclination
Sedimentary and diagenetic feature
Fractures and partings
Fossils
Secondary porosity
Hydrocarbon shows - odour, staining or bleeding etc (see section below)
Otherwise, core chips are taken every mètre or so and at intervais of especial interest. Core chip descriptions are
described below.
Do not leave cores or sidewall cores out in the open for too long as they will dehydrate and any hydrocarbons
présent may start to evaporate and be lost. Keep ail samples sealed in plastic bags or bottles.
6.8.2 Core Chips
Figure 6.47
Figure 6.47 shows a typical core chip and it's size. The process oftaking core chips is described in Chapter 7. The
same process should be observed for conventional whole core as for chips from sleeve coring.
Ensure ail the chips are placed in well marked bags or bottles
Ensure containers are clean
Keep samples from exposure to air as much as possible ,
Keep description area clean and that you hâve ail necessary equipment for description.
A hammer is useful for hard samples

Oxford Brookes University _ .
Geology
Ouïck-look Description
During coring opérations time is generally short and office based personnel are keen to fmd out the results of coring.
The opérations geologist will be constantly being asked 'what does the core look like?' etc. and, in turn, will be calling
the wellsite geologist. To alleviate this pressure it is useful to carry out a 'quick-look' review of the core samples and to
write a short report on the essentials of the sample. A full description will take many hours if done correctly but the
quick-look report will contain the essentials only:
• Lithotype, i.e. Sandstone, Limestone.

• Grain size (if pertinent)
• Permeability/porosity estimate (visual only)
• Fluorescence (quick eut évaluation if time)
This information should be treated as prelùninary and should be emphasised on any transmission. The detailed
description may reveal subtle shows or porosity and pertneability that cannot be seen on any 'quick-look'.
NOTE: Quickly replace ail core chips in bags to stop them de-hydrating. If nec essary put chips into new, clean
well-marked bags. This is especially so when oil-based mud is used as the bags get covered in OBM and the
markings rub off. It also helps to minimise contamination of the samples.
Detailed Description
A detailed description, especially when there are shows, can take some time. For a 30 m core with lm core chip
samples the total description time may be 4 hours or so. Before starting the main description:
• Ensure ail the trays, spot trays, prods and tweezers are clean and you hâve ail the necessary equipment and
plentiful supply of chemicals
• You might need a hammer for hard core chips
• Make sure the description area is clear and you hâve plenty of room to spread out.
When carrying out the main description view the whole core chip and break off a small représentative chip for
microscope work.
Look at the core chip as a whole:

• Are there any structures or sedimentary fabric visible,
• Bioturbation, cross-lamination, fossils, rootlets etc?
• Annotate your core description sheet, with diagrams if required.
N
• Break off a pièce of the core chip for descriptive proposes, _)
• Keep the rest wrapped up in the bagso that it does not de-hydrate.
Place the chip on a métal sample tray.

• Make a note of any gross features observable under low and then high magnification.
• Systematically describe each sample looking at each property in turn.
• Try not to use 'As Above', is the sample really the same?
Porosity and Permeability

Porosity and permeability are also slightly easier to evaluate with whole rock samples. Put a spot of distilled water on
a flat surface of the sample and see how long it takes to sink in. If it is fast then permeability and porosity are very
good, if slow then, at least, permeability is poor. Remember, however, this is not a définitive test.
Shows
Take a small pièce of sample and place on a spot tray. Put under UV light and check for shows. Carefully describe
àll aspects of shows as described later in this chapter. Remember to describe the amount degree and colour of oil
staining, fluorescence and eut for each chip. In the case of patchy show development more than one solvent eut
analysis may be required for each core chip. It is sometimes bénéficiai to methodically place show samples in order
on spot tray so that the variations in shows through the core can be assessed. x

Geology
Clearing Up
When the sample description is complète then throw away ail material used in the description. Clean off the métal
sample tray ready for next sample. Always keep the workplace clean and tidy and avoid cross-contamination of
samples. Clean up when you hâve finished.
Put ail samples away in well marked plastic bags and place neatly in box for transportation.
6.8.3 Sîdewall Cores

There is not usually the urgency for sidewall
core descriptions and no requirement for any
sort of 'quick-look'.
Description should be the same as that for core

chips. Take care with samples as 'percussion'
cores, especially, can be fragile.
Only use small pièces for descriptive purposes

and wrap samples in clingfilm and aluminium
foil immediately after use. Place the samples in
the bottles provided and ensure that they are
fully, and unambiguously, marked.
Keep bottles in padded boxes and mark up for

transport
Figure 6.48

Geology
6.9 The Description of Oil and Gas Shows

One ofthe most important duties ofthe wellsite geologist is to systematically examine ail samples for hydrocarbon
shows. This following subsections:-
• Define a show
• Give an overview of factors which influence shows
• Describe gas shows and how to evaluate them
• Describe oil shows and how to evaluate them
6.9.1 What is a Show?

Définition
A 'show' may be defined as the présence of hydrocarbons, as liquid or gas, in the cuttings or drilling fluid returned
to the surface. A proper show means 'significant' amounts of hydrocarbon and not just a few ppm of Cl. Defining
'significant' is not easy as it will vary from well to well. Expérience will teach you what is significant and thèse
subsections try to give some background information on this.
Factors which Influence a Show:

A number of factors are known to influence a show:-
Factor Description
Rock Properties The type and magnitude ofthe porosity and permeability greatly influence the magnitude or amount of any show.
Highly porous and perméable rocks are rapidly and often completely flushed by the mud filtrate so there may be a
large show in the mud stream, detected by oil in the pits, while the cuttings will hâve very little residual oil and only a
poor show. Imperméable rocks tend to retain their formation fluids throughout the drilling process so there will be a
small show in the mud stream but a comparatively better show in the ditch samples. Vuggy or fracture porosity bas a
very high penneability coupled with a very simple pore geometry. This type of rock may be flushed almost entirely
of its contained fluids the instant it is penetrated so that the shows will be quite small, even for good producing
intervais.
Type of Hydrocarbon In gênerai, heavy oil will be flushed léss easily tha n light oils or gas. The in-situ réservoir conditions will govem
the gas-in-mud and oil-in-mud concentration. Solution of large amounts of gas in oil will resuit in shrinkage ofthe oil,
diminishing the amount that will enter the mud. Dry gas and distillate réservoirs are difficult to evaluate because
ofthe lack of oil in either the mud or the cuttings. For thèse, a chromatographic analysis ofthe mud gas is very useful.
An oil réservoir is easier to detect because the cuttings provide direct évidence.
Drilling Rate The magnitude ofthe show in the drilling mud will be directly propoitional to the rate of pénétration because this
rate governs the rate at which hydrocarbons are added to the mud stream. A rapid pénétration rate reduces the rime the
J
formation is subjected to the differential pressure that may exist between the mud and formation fluids, thereby
diminisbing the flushing effect
Density and Viscosity The greater the density ofthe drilling fluid, the greater will be the pressure differential existing between the mud
and die formation fluid pressure, resulting in increased flushing action. Jet drilling bits also increase the flushing
ofthe Drilling Fluid action. If the mud is too light, there will be a tendency for the formation up the hole to bleed gas into the mud and pro
vide an undesirable background of gas. When the mud has a high viscosity, the release ofthe gas from the mud at
surface is inhibited. If the mud is not de-gassed efficiently, the gas détecter will show a large and persistent
background reading that may obscure a genuine show. If the gas in the mud continues to build up, the gas détecter may
eventually become saturated and thus not be able to loganyjiew shows.
Depthof the Well A deep well is usually associated with high pressure differentials and slow drilling rates, both of which will reduce the
magnitude of any shows. In deep wells the hole size is usually smaller so that less rock is pulverised per meter of
pénétration. Circulation rimes are longer in deep wells, resulting in greater chances for mixing and dilution of
hydrocarbons in the cuttings.
Miscellaneous Occasionally the geologist will encounter an anomalous show, i.e. one that just does not seem valid. For gas shows,
suspect the addition of some chemicals or diesel oil to the mud. Some additives used in the mud may cause it to
Drilling Conditions foam.

J
Author
Oxford Brookes Universrty
Geology
6.10 Evaluation and Description of Gas

Shows
6.10.1 Gas Basics
The évaluation of gas shows can be more subjective than that of oil shows. You are dépendent on the mudlogger's
gas System working properly. If the gas system does not work then you will hâve no gas to record and analyse. This
is why it is most important that you ensure that the Mudlogger's gas system is regularly maintained and calibrated.
This is one of the more important aspects of your QC of the Mudlogging Unit.
The main hydrocarbon gases recorded by the Mudlogging unit devices are:-
Méthane Cl CH,
Ethane C2 CH3,CH3
Propane C3 CH3, CHî, CH3
Butane iC4,nC4 CH3,(CH2)2,CH3
Pentane iC5, nC5 CH3,(CH2)3,CHj
Cl through C5 are the common names used to dénote thèse gases at the wellsite. The relative proportion of thèse
gases can give an indication of the type and composition of réservoir fluids (See Gas Ratios below).
Gas is recorded by the Mudloggers in two ways:-
• Total Gas: AH hydrocarbon gases totalised and constantly measured and recorded in
percentage (1% = 10,000 ppm)
• Chromatograph: Components, usually just Cl to CS recorded cych'cally every few
minutes (ppm).
The Total Gas trace is the one that is usually reviewed and which provides a continuous monitor of gas levels
produced from the well. It is measured as a percentage gas in air.
The Chromatograph takes a sample every few minutes and provides a chromatographic breakdown in ppm. The
values of Cl, C2 ... etc are calculated accurately by an integrator, which measures the exact area under each
chromatographic peak, compares it with the calibration and transmits the value to the computer database. Figure
6.49 illustrâtes a basic diagram of the gas system.
Periddlcsunpling
<J Contlnuoua lampling
& détection of
hydrocarbon gases,
iiMMuradm
ma In air
GasTrap
(3-5 minute») and

Figure breakdown of gas,
imuurad In ppm
Gas and diluting air are sucked into the System

by the vacuum pump. The gas is transported through a thick Une to the vacuum pump, passing 2 condensate bottles
on the way. As their name suggests thèse bottles trap moisture, formed by condensation that might cause a
problem to the sensitive détection sensors. The gas is pushed forward, under positive pressure, to the hydrocarbon
sensors - total gas and chromatograph. Samples of gas may also be continuously read by H2S and CO2 sensors as
well.
Date: October 2001 6.48 Sample and AUthor

Oxford Braokes University
Geology
On most chromatographs the cycle timing can be adjusted. On tophole intervais when 'heavy' gases, i.e. C3+ are
rare the cycle time is set to 3 minutes or so just to pick up Ihe light gases. When heavy gases are suspected then the
fiill cycle should be instigated, which can take up to 5 minutes. This is quite a long time and, often, to sample at a
gas peak, it is possible to hold the cycle and initiate it when required. At the end of each cycle the System is flushed
before the next cycle résumes.
It must be realised that thèse gas readings are ail relative. The values recorded dépend on so many factors that the
levels are only a qualitative and not an exact quantitative value. With this in mind it must be realised that it is
impossible to compare values between wells and, sometimes, within the same well. Gas levels are affected by: -
Mud Properties The higher the overbalance, the Iower the gas levels will be in the mud. Also gel strength has an effect; a
thick mud will retain the gas more.
Gas Trap Effîciency The positioning of the gas trap in the ditch/header tank is crucial (Figure 6.51). If it is not placed in the
correct position it may miss the main flow and gas readings will be Iower. The trap itself may be too high or
low in the mud, partially blocked with cuttings etc. Thèse factors will affect the mud flow through it and
the amount of entrained gas that can be released. The Mudloggers should always check the trap
regularly. Some gas traps hâve an air slot to dilute the gas. If this becomes partially blocked the gas
values will be artificially enhanced.
Configuration of surface Gas may be Iost at the bel! nipple, flow Une (if partially uncovercd) and from the ditch/header tank.
More gas will be liberated if the ditch has a larger surface area.
system
Gas Detectors Gas levels will be affected by the ef ficiency and calibration of the Mudloggers System.
Hole Size The bigger the hole drilled the more gas will be released per depth unit penetrated.
Gas loss
from top of Excessive gas
riser (Bell loss If open Gas to mudlogging
Nipple) flowllne
Gas loss from unit *
flow Une Floating Gas Trap - Figure 6.50
Gas loss from i correct positioning
s
headertank^
liS_
fu
Shale
\
i Shaker
Texpels
u r b u lmore
e n t f lgas
ow ^ * l
A
S
Agitator
Header Tank
Poor Gas Trap pos ition

(out of main flow)
Better Gas Trap

position (in main Ail thèse factors affect the gas levels and the amount
flow) of a gas 'show'. You must ensure that the gases that
are recorded are represenatative.
Flowline
Note that if one of shakers is closed off for screen
replacement then the active flow may by-pass the gas
trap almost entirely.
Figure 6.51
Date: October 2001

J
6.49 Sample and Author
Geology
6.10.2 Représentative Gas Values

How can we assure that we hâve représentative gas values? Although the mudlogger is responsible the wellsite
geologist should:
At beginning of well check that the gas trap is optimally placed

Penodically check that gas trap height is optimal (even if floating type)
Penodically check that gas line to unit is OK and vacuum pump is working - no leaks that may dilute the
sample - and that condensation bottles are closed
Check that gas system caUbrations are carried out
Check that gas peaks are reported consistently

Version: 2.01 Sample and Show Description HH
Geology
6.10.3 Gas Définitions

The following définitions are provided for a better understanding of the varions origins of gas shows, and to
establish a standard terminology for reporting them.
Type Description
Background This is die sustained level of gas contimiously carried in the drilling mud over a period of time. 'Continuously carried' does not
mean that entrained gas in the annular mud is not knocked out when it reaches the shaker, sandtrap and de-gasser.
gas Background gas enters the annular mud at one or several points of the open hole and is dissipated at the surface. The gas
may bleed ftom a spécifie formation up-hole, or it may be the gas released from cuttings. The best way to estimate
background gas is to 'eye -ball' it on a chart or plot You can quickly eliminate any bad readings.
Liberated gas Gas that is liberated by the drilling process as the bit cuts the formation. Some gas will be liberated ftom the cylinder of
rock eut and will be entrained in the mud, other sas will be remain in the cuttings.
Produced gas Oas that seeps into the wellbore from formations already penetrated. This condition will exist when a state of
underbalance existe.
Gas peak When the gas level rises above average readings and peaks out over a short period of time. Maximum gas levels should be
recorded by Mudloggers on a gas peak summary sheet Total gas and chromatographic breakdown should be measured
and recorded above background.
Recycled gas After a large gas peak much of the gas will be extracted as it passes through the shaker and down through the surface
Systems. Howeve r, if the mud is thick it is possible for some of the gas to remain entrained in the mud and be re-circulated
round the System. A muted and much broader gas peak will be recorded one full circulation time later. If this starts to
become a problem then the rig de-gassers should be used.
Gas show Any déviation in the amount or composition of gas from the established background. A gas show may or may not indicate a
significant gas accumulation.
Trip gas The mud circulated out of the hole following a bip often contains formation fluids and gases. It may corne from one or
several zones of the open hole, but usually cornes from the bottom where the mudeake has not had time to seal effectively.
Trip gas can be a show just encountered prior to making the trip. Trip gas will usually peak and decrease rapidly. If high gas
readings persist for some time after bottoms up, it might be a legitimate show. If sufficiently large, not ail of the trip gas
will be removed from the mud System by the degasser. In this case it is usual to see an anomalous, but much muted, gas
peak one full circulation after the initial appearance of the trip gas, as the gas entrained in the mud is re-circulated. Trip gas
should be measured at its peak. It should be recorded as the levels above background.
Connection This develops when drilling is interrupted to add a joint of pipe to the drilling string. Bottom connection gas résulte from gas
introduced at the bottom of the hole through swabbing action of the bit and collars passing freshly drilled hole, and the
gas différence in hydrostatic pressure between static mud weight and effective circulating density when pumps are stopped.
Connection and trip gas are often good indicators of me pressure differential across the bottom of the hole, and, used in
conjunction with other formation pressure sensitive parameters, (e.g. cuttings size and shape, drill rate etc.), provide usef ul
data on the degree of mud hydrostatic overbalance or underbalance. Connection gas need not corne from the bottom of the
hole, however, careful observation of lag times is required to check for this - 'about right' is not good enough! It only
takes a few strokes to clear hundreds of feet of small diameter, collar filled hole. Connection gases should be measured at
me peak and recorded as values above background.
'KellyAir'or Is the resuit of air being introduced into the drill string at the surface during a connection. This causes, after the connection is
made, a lightened section of mud to be pumped throug h the System and can become contaminated with entrained gases. It
'Top can give a small gas peak a full circulation after a connection.
connection gas1
Swab gas: Very similar in mode of occurrence to connection gas but caused when the pipe is pulled up but not at a connection.
Micro- or
Swab gases should be measured at the peak and recorded as values above background.
(Very rarely used offshore nowadays). During the course of drilling it is important to compare the continuously measured gas
J
from the ditch trap wi th a single, independent sampling technique. Spécifie quantifies of mud or cuttings are placed in a
Blender gas: blender with a measured quantity of water. This is capped and agitated and the released gas is drawn off by vacuum across
to a gas détecter.
This system, called microgas-analysis (the results being called blender gas), shows the amount of gas trapped in the mud or
cuttings. The units of gas measured from diluted mud should be 1/2 to 2/3 less than the ditch gas readings from the same
ditch mud. When it is equa l to or greater than a corresponding ditch gas measurement, the funnel viscosity may be
dangerously high and the PV/YP properties of the drilling mud (yield point in particular) are not correctly proportioned.
Blender gas values cannot be compared on a parallel basis with the ditch gas readings but are indicative of the porosity-
permeability characteristics important to the geological évaluation of the formation.
Gas Kick This has two meanings. The usual meaning is a sudden influx of gas into the wellbore i.e. the well 'kicks'. However, some
geologists refer to a sudden increase in gas levels, incorrectly, as a 'gas kick'. This leads to misunderstandings and
unnecessary panic so the terni should always be qualified with an explanation and only use it in its well control context
J
Geology
Figure 6.52, on the right, illustrâtes graphically how some of thèse

gases appear.
Figure 6.52
- Connection
6.10.4 Reporting Gas Values
No
Circulation
Whenever a gas show is reported it must also be in conjunction with no gas
the reported background levels. The gênerai notation is:
Peak above background % / background %
For example in Figure 6.53 below gas peaks A and B are both 5%.
However, gas peak A is much more significant being 4% above a
background of 1 % compared with peak B wbich is 1 % over a
background of 4%.
Peak heights both 5%
Figure 6.53

Geology
6.10.5 Simple Gas Ratios

Comparison of the magnitude and relationship of the hydrocarbon components determined from chromatograph
analysis often hâve diagnostic value in estimating the type, and sometimes the quality, of the petroleum réservoir
encountered. The use of the hydrocarbon ratio technique permits the comparison of gas components to réservoir
content, regardless of gas show magnitude.
Gas ratio plotting is part of an overall évaluation. The results are not conclusive due to the empirical nature of the
plot, and the uncertainty of the gas analysis.
The components of reservoired hydrocarbons hâve been found to vary over definite ranges, and tlms the ratio ranges
of thèse components should also vary in a predictable fashion. The magnitude of the C1/C2 ratio détermines the
type of hydrocarbons in the réservoir. The slope of the line, when the ratios C1/C2, C1/C3, C1/C4 and C2/C3 are
plotted on the Cambrian Gas Ratio Evaluation Sheet (Figure 6.54, below) détermines whether water or
hydrocarbons will be produced (Form = gasrat.xls).
Note that this plot should only be used as a 'quick-look' analysis.
Gas ratio plottîna procédures:
Record gas peak chromatograph values (Cl - C4) for the zone of interest.
Record background gas - look back on charte.
Calculate the gas values above background, and the hydrocarbon ratios.
Plot the ratios on the Gas Ratio Evaluation Worksheet
The spreadsheet (gasratxls) does ail the calculation automatically.
Rules for Use and Interprétation:

• Generally the magnitude of gas yapiipiiiiiiiiiigi^jiiii^ii^
readings should be suffïcient to
record ail components (Cl - C4) if
présent, and the background gas
should not be greater than 25% of vahtM ind
Valiws
% ¦ckgtDund RM
total gas recorded. C1 CI

D2
C1/C2
S1/C3
• For the zone to be hydrocarbon 23 C3 Z$
productive each ratio value should

fall within the individual envelope Gas Ratio Plot
as defined on the graph.
• For the zone to be hydrocarbon
productive each successive ratio
must be equal to or greater than the
previous ratio.
• Dry gas zones (productive) will
yield mainly Cl. Very high ratios
may also indicate gas in solution in
a water zone.
• Reversai in slope and absence of
one or more components indicates
water production.
(AfterPixler, 1969)
J
Figure 6.54
Geology
6.10.6 Mudlog Gas Ratios

The mudlogging companies ail hâve programs that will plot out gas ratios versus depth or for spécifie readings.
Thèse help to interpret and identify réservoir type and productivité
The output is far superior to single page plots described in the previous section. They are continuous plots of
chromatograph gas ratios and can give much more interprétative résulte. They will use also use différent
terminology and produce différent styles of output You will still need to interpret thèse plots so make sure you
understand the principles and resuite of their plots.
Baker Huahes Intea Gas Ratios

Baker Hughes Inteq use the following:
Ratio Equation Notes

Hydrocarbon Wetness Ratio C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 xlOO C1 Will increase with increase in oil and gas densities.
(Wh) + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 Interprétation: Wh% Fluid Potential <0.5%
Non Productive/dry gas 0.5 -17.5 Potential gas -
Increasing density with increasing Wh% 0.5 - 17.5
Potential oil - Increasing density with increasing Wh% >40
Residual Oil
Plotted in same track as Bh - Log scale
Hydrocarbon Balance Ratio C1+C2 C3 + Relates to density of réservoir fluid, decreases with increase in
(Bh) C4 + C5 fluid density
Plotted in same track as Wh - Log Scale
Hydrocarbon Character Ratio C4 + C5 Only used when excessive méthane is présent - this retards
Ci Wh and Bh values. If Ch > 0.5, gas/light oil o r condensate is
(CH) indicated. See steps interprétation steps below.
Plotted in ifs own track - Linear scale.
Date: Octobar 2001 6.54 Sample and Author

Geology
Interpr étation
GAS RATIOS
Ch RATIO Wh RATIO
The following steps are recommended to détermine fluid Bh RATIO

character:
1. If the Bh is > 100, the zone is excessively dry gas 00 TT T T T 11 10 100

™) 1 1
2. If the Wh is in the gas phase and Bh > Wh, the closer
2 3
the values/curves the denser the gas * (see below)
I
3. If the Wh is in the gas phase and Bh < Wh, gas/oil or Very Light
gas/condensate is indicated * (see below) Dry Gas
4. If the Wh is in the oil phase and the Bh < Wh, the
greater the différence/séparation, the denser the oil
5. If the Wh is in the residual oil phase and Bh < Wh,
Light Gas ? i
Jtf
residual oil is indicated
* Aiter comparing Wh and Bh values, the CH is checked to see if

situation 2 or 3 occur:
I lI
Gas/Light
1. If the Ch < 0.5, gas potential is indicated and the Wh vs Oil
Bh interprétation is correct
2. If the Ch > 0.5, gas/light oil or condensate is indicated.
Coal Bed
Effect
ilu S11
i
Médium
GravItyOil ç
s
Residual
Oil
1 11 J
Figure 6.55
6.10.7 Conclusion
Assuming that the gas values are représentative, then ftom the simple gas peak and chromatograph readings a great
deal of information can be obtained regarding gas type and potential productivity at the wellsite.
J
Geology
6.11 Evaluation and Description of Oil Shows

Ali drilled samples should be routinely examined by the wellsite geologist for hydrocarbon shows. It is not
sufficient to examine samples in ultra violet light only when hydrocarbons are anticipated - the geologist must get
into the habit of inspecting every sample for fluorescence during the course of a well. This will not only avoid the
risk of missing a subtle oil show, but will also help distinguish the characteristics of spurious oil shows from pipe
dope and other mud contaminants, and with minerai fluorescence.
The wellsite geologist should be especially vigilant if the 'heavy gases', C3-C5 appear and start to increase in
magnitude. Thèse are strong indicators of the présence of hydrocarbons.
Followed correctly, the systematic approach to show évaluation and description outlined below will ensure that ail
the characteristics of a particular show are evaluated and described.
6.11.1 Show Characteristics

There are a number of characteristics of a show that must be described: -
Oil in Mud Evaluate the présence of oil in the mud as well as the cuttings.
Microgas Evaluate the hydrocarbons in tbe mud and sample using the Microgas
System.
Analysis
Odour Is there any hydrocarbon odour?
Oil staining and Examine cuttings or core chips under naturel light and microscope. Is oil
staining apparent
bleeding
Fluorescence Check samples for uniformity, percentage, colour, and intensity of
fluorescence under UV light.
Solvent eut Check rate colour and character of solvent cut fluorescence.
Crush Cut Is there an improvement when the sample is crushed? Re-check
fluorescence and cut
Residue Is there any residue? Note colour, fluorescence and amount
6.11.2 Equipment
To ensure quality show descriptions you will need to ensure that you hâve working equipment This needs to be
checked well before it is used - if the UV box is not working it may take days to get another one to the wellsite.
Make sure it Works well before you need it and check that there are spare UV bulbs. Other equipment that will be
required are good quality, clean spot trays. It is a good idea to
wash ail spot trays with détergent before using them for show
évaluation.
Figure 6.56
6.56
Sample and Show Figure 6.57 Author
Date: October 2001 TJH
Version: 2.01 Description
Geology
6.11.3 Oïl in Mud

If inspection of the washed cuttings and/or the ditch gas readings indicate a show, examine a fresh mud sample from
the return flowline in the UV box for spots and 'pops' of fluorescence. If none or very weak fluorescence is
observed, stir the sample and note any changes. Use the following guidelines to 'standardise' your description.
Take a set amount of mud (e.g. 200 ml - as long as it is the same each rime) in a dish and examine under UV light.
Describe colour and intensîty of oil fluorescence.
If none, dilute with half as much volume of water (e.g. 100ml) and leave for 5 minutes. Describe again.
(Fluorescence is described below)
Oil shows in the mud are evaluated on the basis of the percentage of the mud surface covered by oil fluorescence
with a rating of poor, fair, good or very good. Oil and gas in the cuttings indicates that the formations is releasing
the hydrocarbons relatively easily and indicates permeability is fairly good. It should tie in with high total gas and
chromatograph readings.
Before an expected hydrocarbon bearing zone always check for oil in mud from samples before and after bottoms
up of the top of the zone so you hâve a 'control' sample. Double check for any contaminants. -\
6.11.4 Microgas (Blender) Gas Samples

Take microgas readings on a mud sample and on a sample of unwashed cuttings. This will give an indication of
permeability of the cuttings in which show is contained. If the permeability is good the hydrocarbons will expand as
the cuttings corne to the surface and will be expelled from the cuttings. The microgas readings in this case will be
low in the cuttings and high in the mud and should tie in with a high Total Gas peak. If permeability of the cuttings
is poor hydrocarbons will be retained inside them and microgas will be low in the mud and high in the cuttings in
relative ternis.
AH microgas readings should be recorded on your worksheets to be used in you full évaluation later.
6.11.5 Odour
Note any hydrocarbon odour from the mud or unwashed cuttings or in fresh core chips.
Type
High and médium API gravity oils
Odour
Strong gassy odour
J
condensâtes Strong petroliferous odour
Low API oils Do not smell strongly.
The degree of odour, e.g. faint, moderate, strong should be applied. Alway s examine fresh samples.
J
Geology
6.11.6 Oil Staining/Bleeding

Examine a sample of washed cuttings under the microscope for oil staining. Note the percentage of grains with a
stain and its colour. State whether the stain is live or dead oil. Use descriptive adjectives to note the character of the
stain (e.g. none, spotry, patchy, even, uniform, irregular etc.).
Oil may be seen to be bleeding from cores and this should be noted on any descriptions. However, if the permeability
in the core was good the oil would hâve swiftly flowed out of the core so the observation of bleeding oil generally
means that permeability may be poor. Note the percentage of stain in whole cores or core chips.
The colour of any stain or bleeding oil can be fairly characteristic:-
API Gravity Colour of oil

Above45° Clear to pale yellow brown
15°to45° Yellow brown through brown
Below 15° Dark brown through black
6.11.7 Fluorescence
Fluorescence is the property to glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. The fluorescence varies with the API gravity of
the oil. Examine fresh surfaces of cuttings and core chips in the UV box for fluorescence and note the:-
• Uniformity - Is the fluorescence uniform throughout or patchily developed?

• Percentage - Estimate the percentage of cuttings or the chip where show is apparent
• Colour - What is the colour? This is very subjective. There are no colour charts but use
descriptive ternis such as white, straw yellow etc.
• Intensity - The intensity varies from weak to very bright and dépends on the API
gravity. The more intense the colour the lower the API gravity.
Any changes of thèse parameters with depth can give évidence for différent zones within an oil column, possibly
transition zones. The information should be combined with gas ratio data to try and give a better évaluation.
Pick out several of the fluorescent grains and check them under the microscope for staining.
The relation between the colour of fluorescence and the gravity of the crude oil can be very useful in the
interprétation of shows and evaluating the readings of the gas detector. A comparison between gravity and colour of
fluorescence is shown below.
Fluorescence Colour of Crude Oils

Gravity, °API Colour of Fluorescence
Below 15 Brown
15-25 Orange
25-35 Yellow to cream
35-45 White
Over45 Blue-white to violet
OH Gravitv
N.B. Oil gravity in degrees API is computed as:
°API = (141,5 / spec. grav.) -131,5
Where spec. grav. means spécifie gravity of oil at 60 °F referred to water at 60 °F.

Geology
Minerai Fluorescence
Note that there are a number of rock types that bave natural minerai fluorescence:
Rock Type Natural Minerai fluorescence

Limestones Non - brown
Chalk Purple
Dolomite and arenaceous limestones Yellow to yellow brown
Mari Vellow to brown grey
Fluorescence Summarv
Light Spectrum (100 nm) 2.8 3.2 3.6
Light
Crude
APIGravity >45 35-45
Chalk Anhydrite Some Limestones

4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 6.0 6.4 6.8 7.2 7.6 8.0
Dolomite, Sandy
Llmestone, Paper,
Shale, Fosslls,
Mari, Clay Mari
6.11.8 Solvent Cut Fluorescence

Put several of the fluorescent grains in a spot dish and add solvent. Place in UV box. The solvent will cause
hydrocarbons in the sample to flow out at a rate dépendent on penneability and mobility of the hydrocarbon. Note
the:-
• Rate - how fast is the cut - slow, fast, instantaneous? If very slow a cut may not be
apparent for several minutes. Low API oils will cut more slowly than light oils in the
same penneability rock.
• Colour - The intensity and colour of the cut should be described. For example bright
Figure 6.58 :°ld, nùlky white etc.
• Cnaracter - ibis may variously be described as blooming, streaming, clouding and
diffuse (or intermediate variants) (See Figure 6.59, below), and reflects the prosity and
penneability of the chosen cuttings.
Streaming Blooming Clouding Diffuse Figure 6.59
N.B. Most solvents or cutting agents used at the wellsite are highiy toxic and may be carcinogenic. Care
should be taken to avoid direct inhalation and contact with the skin.
Minerai fluorescence will not give a solvent cut. Use mis fact to distinguish real shows.
J
Geology
6.11.9 Crush Cut

Crush the grains in the solvent and note any change in the character of the cut. If there is fluorescence in the sample
but no solvent or crush eut, try adding some 10% HCL to the sample. If there is still no cut the fluorescence is likely
to be due to very low permeability, a dead oil show, or is minerai fluorescence.
6.11.10 Residue Colour

Wait several minutes for the solvent in the spot dish to evaporate and note the colour of the residue in natural light.
Note the colour and intensity of fluorescence under ultraviolet light Is the residue spotty, ring like, uniform well
developed etc.?
6.11.11 Show Description Example

An example of a show description in a sandstone réservoir using the above scheme might read:
SHOW: 10% free oil in mud with pale yellow fluorescence and strong hydrocarbon odour, 50% unwashed cuttings
with pale to bright yellow fluorescence, 40% sandstone grains with irregular pale brown oil stain showing bright
yellow fluorescence, instantaneous pale yellow-blue streaming eut, slightly improved on crushing, with strong
yellow residue.
6.11.12 ShowQuality
The primary objective of the Percent of cuttings QUAUTYOF THE SHOW
with a fluorescense In
show évaluation is to provide, a sample (caving
through a detailed analysis of ignored)
Utile or no porosity. Some visible porosity. Good porosity. Good
the show characteristics, some UWeornostaining. Fair visible stalning. Fair visible stalning. Bright
understanding of the in-situ Weak fluorescense. fluorescense. Slow fluorescense. Good
Cutonlyafter streaming cut. streaming cut.
permeability and porosity cnjshlng.
relationships in the réservoir.
For example, a strong show in
the mud, but a poor show in the 10% Very Poor-Trace Poor Poor-Fair
cuttings would suggest good

permeability in the réservoir 10- 25% Poor Fair Fair-Good
since most of the hydrocarbons
had been liberated into the mud 25- 50% Trace Good Good-Very Good
during the drilling action and
transport through the annulus. 50% Good Very Good Very Good-Excellent
Figure 6.60
Combined with porosity évaluation and gas readings, shows are rated as a POOR, FAIR, GOOD or VERY GOOD
OIL SHOW. (See Figure 6.60)

Geology
6.11.13 Basic Oïl Show Types/Contaminants

Crude Oil
Liquid hydrocarbon- présent in flushed samples as a thin coating or stain on grains. Rarely seen as true bulbs of
liquid, and often no visible staining at ail is preserved in which case ail descriptions are based upon fluorescence
and eut.
When staining is visible it varies from honey -coloured to brown- black, depending on the gravity and composition
of the crude oil. Experienced geologists can distinguish 'dead oil1 from 'live oil' staining. The following is intended
as a gênerai guide to help distinguish between live and dead oil shows:
Live Oil Stain

Usually gold to brown to Iight brown-black indistinct staining on grains or brown patches in
microgranular/microcrystalline rock, commonly with a 'greasy' appearance and gold to yellow to white direct
fluorescence. Depending on porosity and oil gravity, the solvent eut is slow or fast, médium to high intensity, yellow to
gold, often milky white. Gaseous réservoirs often hâve a flash milky eut and bright white speckled direct fluorescence.
Dead OH Stain
Dead oil staining is the remnant of bitumen bulbs or a Veathered1 remains of a live oil stain. It usually appears as a
'powdery', non-lustrous coating on grains. Dead oil commonly appears as a dull brown-black, non-lustrous, irregular or
patchy stain. It may yield a rare and poor direct fluorescence and/or eut fluorescence.
Contaminants that miaht be confused with an oil show

The présence of diesel or other refined oils used around the rig and occasionally added to the drilling mud may
fluoresce white to bluish white, in the same range as Iight crude. Fortunately, the Iight crades are generally
associated with the largest amount of gas which should be readily indicated by the gas détecter.
One problem is contamination of the sample by pipe dope. High grade 'dopes' used on the drill collars usually hâve
a metallic base and are normally very distinctive under the microscope. The pipe dope used liberally on the drill
pipe is often a cheaper variety and non-metallic. Following a bit change the ditch samples may be heavily
contaminated with pipe dope which fluoresces blue-white through to yellow. If the wellsite geologist is in doubt as
to the origin of fluorescence in the cuttings samples, and suspects that it may be due to pipe dope contamination, he
should inspect samples of the pipe dopes in use on the rig floor and compare their fluorescent characteristics with
x
the cuttings. Pipe dope contamination can also be a problem during coring as the pipe dope can be forced into the J
periphery of the core, thereby simulating oil staining. If the staining is confined to the outside of the sample or core
and not évident on a freshly broken or crushed pièce, it probably is pipe dope.
Also note that certain mud additives hâve a natural minerai fluorescence in the pale yellow white to milky white
range. Glycol is widely used as a shale swelling inhibiting agent in drilling fluids. It does however seem to give a
weak milky white eut fluorescence to cuttings exposed to the drilling mud.
Oraanic Materials which miaht aive a eut

Confusion frequently anses over the détection and description of carbonaceous material and bitumen in ditch
cuttings and core samples. Part of the problem is variably applied terminology and part is due to the inévitable
intégration and intermixing of thèse materials: -
Carbonaceous Material
Black or brown disseminated flakes of plant remains, opaque to translucent, no direct fluorescence, usually no eut but may
hâve occasional low intensity milky white eut fluorescence due to minor associated 'solubles'. Where abundant in
cuttings, or in cores, carbonaceous material may occur as bedded units of COAL (black, shiny, conchoidal fracture),
LIGNITE (brown, earthy, often crumbly) or PEAT (brown, fîbrous, 'woody').

Geology
N.B. Coal beds often show higb associated Cl and C2 ditch gas readings, but no C3.
Bitumen
A solid or semi-solid "hydrocarbon1. The terni bitumen is used hère to cover a range of carbonaceous compounds
including gilsonite, asphalt, pitch, tar etc. Note that bituminous substances (particularly asphaltines) are commonly
added to the mud system to improve hole conditions. If the Wellsite geologist sees bituminous material in the
cuttings, he should first check with the Mud Engineer whether such material has been added to the mud.
Bitumen occurs as discrète nodules or bulbs in rock pores. It is hard to "plastic' or 'slippery' when probed and is
commonly black in colour or opaque. Bitumen and bituminous substances generally show nil to moderate
fluorescence, with a streaming white to yellow eut. The bitumen often occupies the larger pore spaces and when
reached by the solvent, the 'enlivened' bitumen tends to radiate through the remaining pores mimicking an overall eut
fluorescence. Thus it is extremely important to locate and identify the bitumen particle within the sample before
adding the solvent
Bitumen may be présent in water wet réservoirs as a biodegraded or weathered oil residue in which case it may be
wrongly identified as an 'oil show', or may be a minor component in oil zones in which case it may wrongly
ORGANIC MATERIAL IN
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Figure 6.61 shows thèse relationships in

diagrammatic form
LIQUIO souo 8OUO8
1
«"WKBBSSSS"
Figure 6.61
I
l
CRUDE OIL | [___ BITUMEH |

Geology
6.12 Interprétation and Quality Control

6.12.1 Interprétation
Having ensured that samples are représentative and the descriptions hâve been carried out methodically and
accurately a geological log will hâve to be prepared. In the majority of cases the wellsite geologist will draw an
interpreted Iithology although occasionally a percentage Iithology will be required.
A percentage Iithology column will not always be totally représentative of what has actually been drilled and the
wellsite geologist will hâve to use ail the available tools to ensure that the interpreted Iithology column is an
accurate représentation. This will very much dépend on what tools are available.
Apart from the sample descriptions there will be:
• Rate of Pénétration
• Torque
• Gas levels
• LWD curves, usually minimum gamma ray and resistivity
Having LWD information can help the most in lithological identification and formation tops. Without thèse data
there is much more dependence on the ROP, torque and gas.
Gas Higher
6.12.2 Quality Control
The final interprétation will also be an opportunity for quality control: ROP Faster
¦
Does Iithology, as described in samples, fit in with the real-time and
lagged, drilling and LWD parameters (Figure 6.62)? ¦M -¦ _ ¦
c »
—i
t j: j
An offset between the real-time (i.e. ROP and lagged data (gas and m
samples) could occur as in the Figure 6.62. This would indicate a
problem with the lag that should be resolved using a carbide
L 1
. l
•• ».
¦ il
4*
other tracer. bomb or CC 1 r km»
Figure 6.62 _
¦ |
'" L
M
M
ROP Min /m \J J J
LWDGRAAPI *
WÊm
Mudloggeis LWD L1 m
^
« ¦ '4
*
•
f r
Ft/hr or m/hr 0
Min/m or min/5ft 50
Another common occurrence is

where the mudlogging and
Interprétation ^WD depths are slightiy
différent causmg some difriculty
in placing distinctive thin beds
such as limestone . streaks.
(Figure 6.63).
Résolve any problems before

log is finalised
50


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The Description of Samples

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Geology Wellsite _and, Opérations

Oxford Brookes University

The Description of Samples and

Date: October 2001 6.1 Author

6.0 Sample and Show Description

This section provides: •

• The correct equipment required for proper description of samples

Date: October 2001 6.2 Author

6.1 Equipment for Sample Description

Equipment Who provides it? Notes

Date: October 2001 6.3 Sample and Author

6.1.2 Equipment and Location

Sample Travs and Tweezers

Tweezers and prods for manipulating

grain size charts - use will be discussed in the sample description

Date: October 2001 6.5 Sample and Show Description Author

6.1.3 Wellsite Lithology Description Sheets

Guidelines for Wellsite Lithologv Description sheet completion

Date: October 2001 6.6 Sample and Author

6.2 Représentative Samples

6.2.2 Types of Sample )

Interval for main! Sample

• Bottoms up from positive or négative drilling breaks

Date: October 2001 6.7 Atithor

6.2.3 Sample Catching Equipaient

The sieves should be not be damaged. The fine sieves, through

6.2.4 Safety Equipment

Masks may also be required to combat fumes in the shaleshaker

Date: October 2001 6.8 Sample and Author

6.2.5 The Shaleshaker

Date: October 2001 6.9 Sample and Show Description Author

6.2.6 Sïeves, Shaker Screens and Sampie Grain Sîze

BOULDER Always be aware of

Bârite" 400- SILT

Date: October 2001 6.10 Sampie and Author

6.2.7 Interval Sample Catching Quality

First, let us review how an interval

Figures 6.15-6.19 show, in order, how a

6.2.8 Catching the Sample

-QAS TRAP LOCATED

Représentative sample through

For a représentative sample: Spot samples sbould be

Date: October 2001 6.12 Sample and Author

Date: October 2001 6.13 Author

6.2.9 Sample Processing Quality Figure 6.23

•Samples are being processed in the correct manner.

It is extremely important that depth tags are

J Date: October 2001 6.14 Sample and Author

6.2.10 Mudlogger's Sample Processîng tasks

6.2.11 Oil Based Muds - Sample Processing

Thinas the wellsite aeoloaist should watch

Date: October 2001 6.15 Sample and

6.2.12 Other useful tips

6.2.13 Macroscopic as well as Microscopic

Note depth tags on ail samples

J Date: October 2001 6.16 Sample and Author

6.2.14 Description Consistency

6.3 Systematic Sample Description

6.3.1 Sample Description Overview

Ail samples should be examined for :-

• Lithology and accessory minerais, microfaunal content

The description of samples is split into four main catégories:*

• Gênerai descri ptive séquence

Date: October 2001 6.18 Sample and Author