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›
   

  

›
    

      ›


   are instructional
approaches in which the teacher structures lessons in a straightforward, sequential manner.
The teacher is clearly in control of the content or skill to be learned and the pace and
rhythm of the lesson. Generally, direct strategies allow the teacher to introduce new skills or
concepts in a relatively short period of time. Direct instructional strategies are academically
focused, with the teacher clearly stating the goals for the lesson to the students. The
teacher closely monitors student understanding and provides feedback to students on their
performance.

Direct Instruction is effective because it is based on behavioralistic learning

principles, such as obtaining students¶ attention, reinforcing correct responses, providing
corrective feedback, and practicing correct responses. It also tends to increase the
academic learning time, or the amount of instructional time during which students are
attending to the task and performing at a high success rate. Many studies have found that
students learn basic skills more rapidly when they receive a greater portion of their
instruction directly from the teacher.

Two well-known direct instruction approaches are examined in the next sections: 1.
 
 proposed by Barak Rosenshine and 2.  
 ›    
 
› proposed by Madeline Hunter.

›
 calls for the teacher to gain student attention reinforce correct responses,
provide feedback to students on their progress and increase the amount of time that
students spend actively engaged in learning course content. Its objective is to teach skills
and help students to master a body of knowledge. Rosenshine (1987) believes this strategy
to be most effective in the ³teaching of mathematical procedures and computations,
reading, decoding, explicit reading procedures 9such as distinguishing fact from opinion),
science facts and concepts and rules, and foreign language vocabulary and grammar´ .

Ten general principles apply when developing an explicit teaching lesson (Rosenshine,
1987, p.76):

1. Begin a lesson with a short statement of goals

2. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous, prerequisite learning
3. Present new material in a small steps, with student practice each step
4. Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations
5. Provide a high level of active practice for all students
6. Ask many questions, check for student understanding and obtain responses from all
students
7. Guide students during initial practice
8. Provide systematic feedback and corrections
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9. Provide explicit instruction and practice for seatwork exercise and, when necessary,
monitor students during seatwork.
10. Continue practice until students are independent and confident.

Based on studies of Explicit teaching, Rosenshine (1987) identified six 
 .

1. Daily review. The purpose of daily review is to determine if the students have
obtained the necessary prerequisite knowledge or skills for the lesson. Typically, an
effective teacher will begin the lesson by reviewing previously covered material,
correcting homework, or reviewing prior knowledge relevant to the day¶s lesson.
2. Presenting new material. Research indicates that effective teachers spend more
time presenting new material and guiding practice than do less effective teachers. To
begin a lesson, effective teachers capture the students¶ attention by explaining the
learning objectives to be covered during the lesson. In this way, students are able to
better focus on the lesson¶s purpose without being distracted by extraneous material.
It is important to realize that presenting too much material to the students can often
leave them confused. Thus, it is better to proceed in small steps, pausing
periodically assess to assess student achievement.
3. Conducting guided practice. The purpose of guided practice is to supervise the
students¶ initial practice of a skill and to provide the reinforcement necessary to
progress new learning from short-term into long-term memory.
4. Provide feedback and correctives. During guided practice, it is important to give
process feedback to the students. Process feedback provides the student with an
additional explanation that is sometimes needed when the student is correct but
hesitant about how he or she arrived at the answer. When a student has made an
error, it is inappropriate to simply provide the correct answer. This does not provide
you with an opportunity to determine how the student made the incorrect response
and robs the student of a learning opportunity. Rather, when a student has made an
error, it is appropriate to simplify the question and to then probe for the correct
answer. Often this is done by providing clues or reteaching the material. It is
important that errors not go uncorrected.
5. Conduct independent practice. After conducting guided practice, it is important to
have the student do independent practice. Independent practice provides the
additional review and reinforcement necessary to become fluent in a particular skill.
Independent practice differs from guided practice in that you do not provide the cues
that you gave during guided practice. The independent practice should involve
identical material as the covered during guided practice. It is appropriate for you to
cover the material before the students take it home.
6. Weekly and monthly review. Much of the previous discussion about the teaching
functions has suggested frequent review and reinforcement of new material for the
students.
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›   . Instructional Theory into Practice (ITIP) is a method for planning and
implementing instruction developed by Madeline Hunter. ITIP is essentially a lesson design
process that considers relevant factors in making instructional decisions. Furthermore, it is a
teacher-directed approach to instruction. Robin Hunter (2004) provided an update of
Madeline Hunter¶s mastery teaching.

According to Hunter, three categories are basic to lesson design. First, teachers
decide what content to teach within the context of the grade level, student ability, and the
lesson rationale. Next, teachers must decide what student will do to learn and to
demonstrate that they have learned. Finally, teachers must decide which research-based
teaching behaviors will most effectively promote learning.

Hunter is perhaps best known for her seven elements of a lesson (see table). To
implement the three categories mentioned previously, Hunter maintains that the seven
elements be used. Hunter asserts that these seven elements should be considered in
planning a lesson and then included or excluded for a reason. Each lesson does not need
every element, nor are they steps that necessarily are taken in sequence. When used as
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intended to select objectives and to plan instruction, ITIP is a useful tool. This is no surprise,
since ITIP contains elements that educators have long associated with effective teaching
and learning.

›
 

  

   

In the days of Socrates and Plato, lectures were a means of conveying facts,
information, and ideas that could not readily be obtained elsewhere. Books, charts, and
tapes were not available, so the lecture became an essential means of teaching.

In lecture technique, a teacher talks while students listen and make notes. It is agreed,
however, that in order for lecturing to be effective, there must be communication between
the teacher and students. The teacher should organize his/her lecture in such a way that
students take an active role in the learning process.

   

Lectures can be efficient means of introducing learners to new topics. The teacher
can use the lecture to set the stage for a new area of learning and place the topic into the
perspective of what is already known. The lecture method can be used to stimulate
students¶ interest in a subject. Another purpose of the lecture is to integrate and synthesize
a large body of knowledge from several fields or sources (McLaughlin & Mandin, 2001). A
knowledgeable teacher can synthesize the information more readily than a learner who is a
novice in the field. Difficult concepts can also be clarified in lectures. Finally, the lecture is
valuable when there are recent knowledge advances and when up-to-date textbooks are
not available.

 

      

The greatest advantage of lecture over other methods is that it is economical. The
size of the class is limited only by classroom space. Formal lectures are just as effective for
200 students as they are for 20, as long as the lecturer can be heard in a large room.
Lectures are also economical interms of student time. A great deal of information can be
communicated in a one-hour lecture 0 usually mmre information than that gained from a
discussion, for instance. More pertinent information can often be taught in one hour
compared to what a student could learn from a textbook in that time. The lecturer can sift
through the text book information and pull out what is most important as well as include
information from other sources that a student could take hours to locate and read.
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During a lecture, the teacher serves as a role model for students. The teacher is an
authority on the subject and is a model of someone who has developed expertise in a field
and who cares about knowledge and learning. Learners have the advantage of watching
critical thinking and problem solving being done by an expert.




      

One of the primary disadvantages of this method is the lecturer has the tendency to
impose the learners into a passive role of a sponge, just there to soak up knowledge. That
may be true if the lecturer is not planned and carried out well.

Educators who decry the lecture method claim that few teachers are good lecturers
and therefore few can achieve class objectives by this method. Much less hold students¶
attention or serve as good role models.

One of the chief disadvantages of the lecture is that by nature it lends itself to the
teaching of facts where placing little emphasis on problem solving, dicision making,
analytical thinking, or transfer of learning.

Another serious drawback is that lecturing is not conducive to meeting student¶s

individual learning needs. Students are limited to learning from an authority figure leaning
by the stimulation of only one of the senses- hearing. In a formal lecture, students have no
opportunity to learn from peers, to learn by manipulation of data, to discover, to learn
visually or through touch and so on. The lecture works best for auditory, linguistic learners
and may disadvantage those with other learning styles.

Lecturing also brings out the problem of limited attention span on the part of the learners. In
1978, Stuart and Rutherford founded that the concentration rose to a peak at 15minutes
and then fell steadily until the end of the lecture regardless of the lecturer and level of
students. Parker (1993) attributes this loss of novel stimulation. He states that although
people are very attentive to new stimuli in any situation, the novelty soon wears off and they
become somewhat immune to the stimulus unless it is varied in some way. Thus, during a
lecture, the listener is stimulated in the beginning by the Lecturers voice and content, but
the person soon gets used to stimulus and stops paying close attention.

Comparing the advantages to the disadvantages of lecturing, it seems that the method is
valuable and should be retained, but it should use skillfully and supplemented with other
teaching methods. By using a variety of strategies, the teacher can enhance the
advantages of all the techniques.


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a.  

  

 lecture is the most commonly used form, especially in
nursing. In this approach, information is grouped, divided and subdivided in typical
outline form.

b.       
is also popular. In this structure, a problem is posed, and

various hypotheses and solutions are developed.

c. Comp

 !
 " #may be used if its objective is to differentiate between two
entities.
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d. › ! 
 on the other hand involves the lecturer taking a position on an issue
or a particular view point on a subject and then supporting or justifying that viewpoint
or position with evidence or logic.

  

 

There are a number of variations on the lecture theme that can be used if they fit the
learning situation.

Lecture variations include   
 
 
 
 (Fredrick, 1986). In this lecture
type, the teacher is an orator and is the only speaker. The class consists of a complete
polished exposition on a topic that can be inspirational and informative. Unfortunately, this
type of lecture is often overused, resulting in passive and sometimes bored learners. Some
teacher use the oral essay exclusively, not because it is the best way to teach the material,
but because they fear loss of control of the learning situation if they get the class too
involved. They also fear not being able to   all the material (Steinert & Snell, 1999).

The 

     (Fredrick, 1986) begins with learners brainstorming ideas
on the lecture topic on the basis of what they have read in preparation. It progresses with
the teacher oragainzing the students¶ ideas and fleshing them out with expertise. Students
feel some ownership of the topic and are able to attaché new information to existing mental
schemata.

The lecture with     
  (Butler, 1992) involves a somewhat
traditional oral-essay format. However, learners are supplied with handouts containing the
lecture outline in some detail with blank spaces for learner to fill in information. The handout
helps learners focus attention on important points without having to take notes on every
single piece of information.

The  
#  (Butler, Phillmann, & Smart, 2001; Cross et al., 1997) actually
consists of mini-lectures interspersed with 10-minute small-group discussions structured
around questions related to the lecture content. This approach gives the learner the
opportunity to manipulate the lecture content and apply it immediately, thus enhancing
learning and memory recall.

The  
   is a term describing the use of media such as films, slides, or
Web-based images along with traditional lecture. This approach can be used for Web-
based courses as well as for classroom courses. Using images of some type can add an
emotional component to the lecture and assist in changing attitudes. A trend today is for
teachers to use PowerPoint presentation software in their lectures. PowerPoint slides can
give visual attraction to a lecture and help the lecturer to stay organized.
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The following guidelines will help the teacher conduct an interesting effective lecture and
promote student participation:

a. Avoid speaking in monotone.

b. Outline the main ideas to be presented first and review these points at the end of the
lecture.
c. Provide concrete examples (s) whenever possible with the assistance of teacher
made and/or commercially made audio/visual aids.
d. Get the students¶ attention immediately with some interest-catching device..
Stimulate interest in the topic. Hold students¶ attention by varying the pace and
tempo of the voice, making eye contact, moving around the room, providing
interesting and exciting oral and visual examples and talking with students, no to the
chalkboard.
e. Repeat and emphasize important points.
f. Ask questions and be prepared to answer questions during the lecture.
g. Include humorous anecdotes whenever possible.
h. Include an element of surprise whenever possible.
i. Keep the language at the students¶ level of understanding. Be sure to clarify any
terminology students are unsure of.
j. Use strategically placed pauses of silence so that students can think about the
material presented.
k. Discuss a parallel story in order to illustrate and clarify a point. Include familiar
experiences whenever possible.
l. Give a forceful summation.
m. Always consider that students with short attention spans may have trouble
concentrating. Take special care to pose questions and create short discussions.
n. Be prepared. Prepare a detailed outline and a lesson plan. Prepare appropriate
visual materials and questions.
o. Create a stress-free environment. One way to do this is not to emphasize the
formality of a lecture situation and provide information in written form if possible,
and/or if students request it.
p. Involve students in the lecture by asking questions and encouraging a brief
discussion.
q. Bring in meaningful examples whenever possible. Students should be encouraged to
share relevant examples from their own backgrounds when appropriate.
r. Do not be afraid to stray from the lesson plan if a teachable moment on an unrelated
topic or issue arises.
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Class discussions may be formal or informal. In a formal discussion, the topic is

announced in advance and the class is asked to prepare to take part in the discussion by
reading certain materials or watching a videotape, and so on. Informal discussions may take
place spontaneously at any point during the class including at the end of a lecture when the
teacher asks, ³Are there any questions?´

 
 

  

The most obvious purpose of discussions is to give learners an opportunity to apply

principles, concepts, and theories, and, in that process, to transfer their learning to new and
different situations. This approach presupposes that the learners have already been
introduced to a body of information on which they can base their discussion.

Another purpose is clarification of information and concepts. The discussion method,

perhaps more than any other, helps the teacher gauge learners¶ understanding as leaning is
taking place. Misconceptions and hazy thinking can be assessed and corrected
immediately.

Through discussions, students can learn the process of group problem solving. The
discussion group may be divided into subgroups, so that each can work on some aspect of
the problem, or the entire group can work together to fully define the problem and then work
toward a solution. From this interaction, participants learn how different people apply the
steps of the problem-solving process, and they learn to draw on the expertise of group
members, capitalizing on each other¶s strengths.

Finally, an advantage of the discussion method is that many students like it and may
even prefer it to other methods (Beishline & Holmes, 1997)




     

One drawback of discussions is that they take a lot of time. There is no doubt that
discussion is an inefficient way to communicate information. Methods such as lecture of
computer-assisted instruction are superior in terms of time efficiency.

Conventional wisdom tells s that the discussion method is effective only with small
groups, which makes it an expensive strategy. McKeachie (2002) believes that discussions
can be held with groups of all sizes. One approach is to divide a large class into smaller
discussion groups. The disadvantage of this procedure is that the teacher cannot be the
moderator and facilitator for all groups at the same time. Another approach advocated is an
    " technique in which an inner circle of 6 to 15 students is involved in
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most of the discussion while the outer circle observes. The teacher may rotate students
through the inner circle in subsequent discussions. There is no doubt that small-group
discussion is more effective in most situations because more students can take an active
role.

Finally, many discussions are valuable only if the participants come prepared with
the necessary background information. The contribution of uninformed opinions and
misinformation benefits no one, and the discussion becomes simply a sharing of each
other¶s ignorance.


  
 

a. The teacher needs to consider fully the topic/issue to be discussed. The discussion
must have a purpose and a focus.
b. The teacher should consider group dynamics. Some rules will have to be
established.
c. The teacher should decide which form of discussion (formal, informal, large group,
small group, debate, panel) is most appropriate for the topic being discussed.
d. The teacher needs to establish, before the discussion, whether or not learners will
have to do any research in preparation for the discussion.
e. The teacher may wish to develop a procedure to be followed in every discussion.
This procedure, however, must be flexible. Because students will become familiar
with the procedure nd, therefore, know what is expected, they will be relaxed and
self-disciplined.
f. Having students arrange their desks/chairs in a circle works well because they make
eye contact.
g. Establish a stree-free environment. Students will be more responsive in a relaxed
atmosphere.
h. Never establish or encourage the attitude that the teacher is the ³all knowing´ leader.
Let students in on the fact that the teacher often learns as much from the
discussions as they do.
i. The teacher must be supportive. He/she should encourage participation from all
students, discourage ridicule and refrain from dominating the discussion.
j. Teachers should be aware that the following may occur during a discussion:
i. One or a few students may try to dominate the discussion
ii. Because of the unpredictable nature of discussion, there is always a
chance that it will lag or , on the other hand, really take off. Hence, the
discussion may have to take anther direction in order to boost interest
or more time may be needed when a discussion becomes involved.
The environment for discussion should therefore be flexible.
iii. Volatile arguments based on differing opinions may occur.
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iv. Students who are uncomfortable with the discussion process may
³tune out´ and not benefit from the discussion.
k. The teacher could use discussion to take advantage of a teachable moment.

    

Asking questions is such an integral part of teaching that many teachers take it for
granted. They ask questions to assess learner comprehension but do not give much
thought to using questioning as a teaching strategy.

Research has shown that although educators tend to ask their students a lot of
questions, most of these questions are very low level, requiring only recall of factual
material. They do not ask many questions that require higher-order thinking (Profetto-
McGrath, Smith, Day, & Yonge, 2004; Savage, 1998; Tanenbaum, Tilson, Cross, &
Rodgers, 1997; Wink, 1993; Yip, 2004). Educators can benefit from a structured program
designed to teach them to formulate high-level questions (Wink, 1993), and it is hoped that
when teachers begin asking questions that elicit critical thinking, it will prompt students to
develop the same questioning skills in their own practice.

Awareness of the effectiveness of questioning as a teaching strategy seems to have

begun with Socrates. In the Socratic method of teaching, a teacher asks a series of
questions that are designed to first make the students aware of their ignorance. Each
answer by a student is met with another question from the teacher. Each question is
designed to bring the student closer to reasoning out the fundamental truth about an issue.
Although few educators today use the Socratic Method, instructors would do well to put
more emphasis on questioning as a means of teaching reasoning and critical thinking.
Research over time has confirmed that questioning by both teachers and learners increases
learning of facts and comprehension (Watts & Pedrosa deJesus, 2005).

      

The use of questioning places learners in an active role. They are asked to recall, to
form links between previously isolated information, to analyze statements or beliefs, to
evaluate the worth of ideas, and to speculate about what would happen ³if´. As questions
are asked, learners start to mentally formulate answers if they think they may be called on
in class.

Questions can be used to assess baseline knowledge- to find out what group
already knows about a subject. They can also help the teacher to assess understanding
and retention of information. Questioning can also be used to review content.
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Motivation to learn can increase as learners hear questions for which they would like
to know the answers. A really good question can arouse learners¶ curiosity. Knowledgeable
teachers use questions to guide learners¶ thought processes in a certain direction.

  !    

Questions can stimulate specific levels of cognitive activity in learners can be formulated.
Educators have devised several classification systems for questions.

Questions can be classified as being either     or    (Profetto-

McGrath et al, 2004). Convergent questions require learners to recall or integrate
information they have learned. This requires fairly low-level cognitive activity. Convergent
questions have specific, usually short, and expected answers. Divergent questions ask the
learner to generate new ideas, draw implications, or formulate a new perspective on a topic.
There is no single correct answer. This process requires a higher level of cognitive activity.

Questions can be categorized also as  "    questions or    

questions (Profetto-McGrath et al, 2004; Yip, 2004). Lower-order questions are those that
require learners to recall information they have read or memorized. Higher-order questions
require more than a recall. To answer a higher-order question, the learner would have to be
able to comprehend or think critically about the information. Barden (1995) contends that
question classifications that have more than these two levels are probably not valid. She
believes that although hierarchical classifications, like the one discussed next, are
theoretically helpful, in practice it is difficult to determine whether a learner is answering a
question at the comprehension, analysis, or synthesis level, for example.

The most popular classification system is based on Bloom¶s taxonomy (Bloom,

1956). Although this taxonomy is often used to classify educational objectives, it nicely
explains cognitive levels of questions also. Thus, many educators refer to questions that
elicit thinking at the levels of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation. Table 7-3 lists Bloom¶s cognitive levels, explains them, and gives some
sample words and phrases that could be used in questions at that level.

TABLE 7-3 QUESTION CLASSIFICATION USING BLOOM¶S TAXONOMY

  !  "!#   !   › 
 
  & 
›
$ %     
Knowledge (Remember) Involves recall of memorized Define, How, What, List,
data When, Where
Comprehension Includes understanding and Compare, Contrast, Explain,
(Understand) interpretation of information Give an example, Put in your
own words, Why
Application (Apply) Require using information in Apply, Consider, Use this
new situations information, How would you
Analysis (Analyze) Involves breaking the whole Classify, Explain your
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into parts, and showing reasons, What evidence,
relationships What hypotheses, What if
Synthesis (Create) Requires combining Create, Generalize, Plan,
elements into a new Predict
structure
Evaluation (Evaluate) Includes assessing a
Appraise, Decide, Evaluate,
situation based on criteria Justify, Judge, How would
you rate
Ê Krathwohl (2002) revised the cognitive domain of Bloom¶s taxonomy and proposed
the use of verb form for the category.

You can see that Bloom¶s taxonomy forms more of a hierarchy compared to other
classifications. The advantage of using this complex tool, however, is that it helps the
educator realize the types of higher-order thinking that can be drawn upon in helping
learners to be critical thinkers.

›%    

Besides varying the cognitive levels of questions, instructors can choose from seven types
of questions to achieve different purposes.

V  !

$   Factual questions can be used to assess learner¶s understanding

or to simply find out whether they are paying attention.
%    $    Probing questions are helpful in assessing learner¶s thought
processes. House, Chassie and Spohn (1990) delineate five types of probing
questions:       that ask learners to elaborate on a response;


     used when learners¶ responses are unclear; &
    
that ask learners to justify their responses;     that help a responder
who is unsure of an answer or gives an incorrect answer; and       to
elicit a variety of responses from the group of learners.
'      $    Multiple choice questions usually test recall and can be
used to begin a discussion.
(  )   $   This broad category encompasses all questions that require
learners to construct an answer.
*   
 $    Once discussion about a subject has been
initiated, the teacher can use various questions to promote it.
+  ,   
         A teacher needs to phrase and sequence
questions carefully to guide learners through problem-solving thinking.
-  .  
 $   It is sometimes appropriate to ask questions for which you
expect no answers at the time. Such questions can be used to stimulate thinking in
the class and may guide learners into asking some of their own questions as they
study a topic. What is used as a rhetorical question in one session may become a
source of discussion in a later session.
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   ›  '  

Incorporating good questioning procedures into class requires planning and

forethought. The first prerequisite is to establish an atmosphere in which students feel fairly
relaxed and free to ask questions. Research has supported the belief that students who
perceive their teacher as supportive are more likely to ask questions than those who believe
their teacher to be unsupportive (Schell, 1998).

The following questioning techniques will help educators become more confident and
proficient in asking questions that will help to meet educational objectives.

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One of the outcomes of questioning as a teaching strategy should be that learners

learn how to ask questions. As Elder and Paul (1998,p.297) state, ³thinking is driven not by
answers but by questions´.

Teachers can stimulate student questioning by guiding their thinking along a path that will
lead to the development of questions and hypotheses about a subject. But this guidance
must take place in an atmosphere where it is safe to take risks and to ask questions that
might seem stupid (Donohue-Smith, 2006).

   
 

A demonstration is similar to a lecture in its direct communication of information from

teacher to students. A  
  involves a visual presentation to examine processes,
information, and ideas. The demonstration allows students to see the teacher as an active
learner and a model. It allows for students to observe real things and how they work. There
may be pure demonstration, demonstrations with commentary, or participative
demonstrations with students. I
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( ! 

Demonstration can be used to illustrate points or procedures efficiently, stimulate

interest in a particular topic, provide a model for teaching specific skills, and provide a
change of pace. To carry out effective demonstrations, consider the following guidelines:

a. Carefully plan the demonstration

b. Break down complex procedures into separate components that cn be
adequately demonstrated,
c. Practice the demonstration
d. Develop an outline to guide the demonstration.
e. Make sure that everyone can see the demonstration.
f. Introduce the demonstrationto focus attention.
g. Describe the procedure at the same that you demonstrate it. Repeat as
needed.
h. Ask and encourage questions.
i. Permit students to practice the procedure if they are expected to use the
procedure.
j. Provide individual corrective feedback.
k. Plan a follow-up to the demonstration.


 ) 
 

A recitation involves a teacher asking students a series of relatively short answer question
to determine if students remember or understand previously covered content. You might
use recitations as a means to diagnose student progress. The typical interaction pattern is
teacher questions, student response, and teacher reaction questions often deal with who,
what, where and when, recitation in highly structured with the teacher clearly in control of
students directing the learning.

Teachers usually ask ³known´ information questions during recitations. Thus, you
ask questions to find out if the student knows the answer, not to get information (Dillon,
1998). Recitation has its flexible use because it can be tailored to the amount of time and
the number of students. Gage and Berliner (1998) noted that the most common uses of
recitation are in review, introduction of new material, checking answers, practice, and
checking understanding of materials and ideas.

 
 
!!

Practice involves going over material just learned. Practice is intended to consolidate,
clarify, and emphasize what the student has already learned. Practice sessions are more
meaningful when spread out over time (not just the day before a test), when conducted in
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context, when whole issues are examined rather than parts, and when used in different
activities.

Drill involves repeating information on a particular topic until it is firmly established in

the students¶ minds. It is used for leaning that needs to be habitualized or to be retained a
long time. Many teachers find that drill works best at a certain point in the lesson, such as
at the beginning of class.

Practice and drills involve repetition that is intended to help students to better
understand and recall the information. They are useful in developing speed and accuracy in
the recall of facts, generalizations, and concepts.

 )  

A review is an opportunity for students to look at a topic another time. A review differs
from practice and drill in that it does not require drill techniques. It does involve reteaching
and is intended to reinforce previously learned material and to sometimes give new
meaning to the material.

 &  
!

If used appropriately, audiovisuals can greatly enhance teaching and can add interest
stimulation to the classroom. They can address all three modes of learning ± cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor. If used inappropriately, audiovisuals simply become time fillers
and entertainers, serving no real purpose. It is important for the educator to know what
media are available, how to select them, and how to use them effectively.

!   
 

How does an educator begin to select the appropriate media and how and when
should they be used? These decisions are based on a number of factors. The chief
determinants are the learning objectives. Some objectives may be best met by using
lectures. Some by discussion, some by individual student assignments, and some through
traditional media. If several methods would be suitable, it may be best to opt for
variety.Another factor to consider in deciding on media use is availability of both materials
and technical assistance.

The level, ability, and number of learners are also important considerations,
especially if you want to assign audiovisuals for individual use. If the material is either too
complex or too simplistic, the learners will be frustrated or turned off.
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›% ›

! 
!

The most commonly used audiovisual media are handouts, chalkboards or

whiteboards, overhead transoarencies, powerpoint presentations, audiotapes, videotapes,
and DVDs.


 

Printed material or handouts have been around for a long time and can be used to
communicate facts, figures, and concepts. It may save a lot of time to give information in
handout form rather than spend class time lecturing on it. If handouts are distributed in
person or posted on a course website before a given class, learners can review them in
preparation for class discussion. Printed materials also ensure that all learners have access
to the same information and review that information whenever necessary. Handouts that will
help learners to take class notes from lectures can also be formulated.

Sakraida and Draus (2005) present some guidelines for preparing quality handouts for
hard copy or online use. These guidelines are as follows:

1. Include key points and minimize unnecessary detail

2. Format text with headings, paragraphs, or bullets
3. Use font size of 12 to 14 for hard copy and online use
4. Include diagrams or graphics
5. Add to visual appeal with color, borders, or varied fonts
6. Edit carefully
7. Include appropriate references


#
  2 
 

Chalkboards or the newer laminate white (or gray) boards are universally used in
education. Although they have several uses, their outstanding feature is that they allow for
spontaneity in the classroom. New ideas or solutions to problems can be jotted down as
they are mentioned. If learners are suddenly confused about something that point can be
illustrated on the board. If learners cannot visualize an object, it can be quickly sketched.
Chalk/whiteboards are especially useful for working out mathematical problems, for spelling
new words, for outlining material to be covered in class, and for having several students
place their ideas on the board at the same time. Creative use of the board can add
dimension to almost any class.

Among the drawbacks of the chalkboard are the mess made by chalk, the fact that
material on the board usually cannot be saved until the next class, and the fact that the
board may not be visible to very large groups. Also, while writing on the chalk-/whiteboard,
your back is to the class, which may cause you to lose the flow of contact with the learners
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and interfere with their ability to hear you. Finally, this method is not good for the instructor
who has poor hand-writing, since the information may be lost to students who cannot
decipher it.

) 


  

Transparencies are sheets of acetate placed on an overhead projector that enlarges

and projects the image onto a screen. Transparencies are easy to make, use, store and
transport and can be asset to any teacher.

Transparencies can be used like a chalkboard for writing down spontaneous ideas,
outlining class content, or doing math problems, but their use surpasses that of chalk-
/whiteboards. Transparencies can be prepared beforehand to save class time and to help
organize and illustrate content. Diagrams and drawings can be drawn or copied onto
transparencies. Concepts can be illustrated and lectures can be outlined. Charts and
graphs can be presented. Cartoons can be projected for humor and illustration.

One of the nice features of the overhead projector is that it stands in front of the
audience and you can face the class while using it; thus, eye contact can be maintained.
The room does not have to be dark, although it is helpful to dim the lights around the
screen. The projector is easy to use, requiring only manipulation of the on-off switch and a
focus knob, so even if you are wary of technology, you will probably feel comfortable using
an overhead projector.

3 
 

In academic settings, videotape technology can also be used to film students while
they role-play interviewing, communication and counseling skills, and while they practice
psychomotor skills (Burnard, 1991; Winters, Hauck, Riggs, Clawson & Collins, 2003).
Playback of the videos for individual feedback or group critique can be very instructional.

In clinical settings, videotapes have been found to an effective means of health

education that meets accreditation requirements by the Joint Commission on Accreditation
of Health Care Organizations. Videotape technology has several advantages over other
traditional media. On a videotape, a teacher can still maintain eye contact with the class and
provide something of a personal touch, even though the performance is not live. Also,
motion enhances the realism of the situation and often increases interest and affective
learning.

All learners watching the videotape are exposed to the same teaching, even though
they may be in different locations. This helps maintain consistency and quality for the
teaching of each individual learner. In academic settings, this consistency reduces the
problem of slightly different information and emphasis being given for different class
sections taking the same examinations.
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When videotapes are used for individual learning, they can be used at the learner¶s
own pace. The learner can replay and freeze frames according to his or her needs. In
classroom settings, the teacher may choose to freeze the action and discuss what has just
been played before proceeding.

The disadvantages of videotape technology include the fact that only one-way
communication occurs and learners cannot interact with the medium; they become passive
recipients of information. This effect can be minimized by instructor involvement before,
during or after showing the videotape. In addition, videotapes are fairly fragile and can
break or get earsed.


3 

Digital video discs, otherwise known as digital versatile discs (DVDs), are gradually
replacing videotapes in many educational programs. DVDs serve the same purposes as
videotapes but have distinct advantages. They are smaller, more portable, more durable,
and easier to store. They have higher-quality audio and video capability compared to
videotapes. They can include closed captioning and can accommodate embedded Web
links. DVDs can be played on desktop or laptop computers with DVD drive or on televisions
with a DVD player. One of the greatest advantages of DVDs in classroom use is the ability
of the instructor to quickly navigate to various sections of the DVD to point out critical points
in the program. Old videotapes on topics not yet commercially available in DVD fromat can
be copied onto DVDs, with permission of the copyright holder.

6
*+ ›


a. Direct teaching strategies are instructional approaches in which the teacher

structures lessons in a straightforward, sequential manner.
b. Two well-known direct instruction approaches are examined in the next sections: 1.
 
 proposed by Barak Rosenshine and 2.  
 ›   

 › proposed by Madeline Hunter.
c.  ›
 calls for the teacher to gain student attention reinforce correct
responses, provide feedback to students on their progress and increase the amount
of time that students spend actively engaged in learning course content. Its objective
is to teach skills and help students to master a body of knowledge
d. ITIP is essentially a lesson design process that considers relevant factors in making
instructional decisions.
e. In lecture technique, a teacher talks while students listen and make notes. It is
agreed, however, that in order for lecturing to be effective, there must be
communication between the teacher and students.
f. Comparing the advantages to the disadvantages of lecturing, it seems that the
method is valuable and should be retained, but it should use skillfully and
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supplemented with other teaching methods. By using a variety of strategies, the
teacher can enhance the advantages of all the techniques.
g. In formal discussion, the topic is announced in advance and the class is asked to
prepare to take part in the discussion while Informal discussions may take place
spontaneously at any point during the class including at the end of a lecture when
the teacher asks, ³Are there any questions?´
h. Questions are used to assess learner comprehension. It can be used to assess
baseline knowledge- to find out what group already knows about a subject. They can
also help the teacher to assess understanding and retention of information.
Questioning can also be used to review content.
i. A demonstration is similar to a lecture in its direct communication of information from
teacher to students. A  
  involves a visual presentation to examine
processes, information, and ideas.
j. A recitation involves a teacher asking students a series of relatively short answer
question to determine if students remember or understand previously covered
content.
 Practice involves going over material just learned. Practice is intended to
consolidate, clarify, and emphasize what the student has already learned. 

Drill involves repeating information on a particular topic until it is firmly established in
the students¶ minds. It is used for leaning that needs to be habitualized or to be
retained a long time. 
m. A review is an opportunity for students to look at a topic another time. A review
differs from practice and drill in that it does not require drill techniques. It does
involve reteaching and is intended to reinforce previously learned material and to
sometimes give new meaning to the material.
n. Audiovisuals can greatly enhance teaching and can add interest stimulation to the
classroom. They can address all three modes of learning ± cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor.
o. There are number of direct, teacher- centered instructional strategies. These include
lectures, discussion, questioning, demonstration, recitation, review, practice and
drills and use of audio visuals.

&)


As a method of instruction, direct teaching or direct instruction is probably the one

that has the fewest flashes and sparkles. The students are not divided into groups. There
are no experiments. And there is very little drama and student participation involved. But the
effectiveness of direct teaching is evident.

Direct instruction does not assume that students will develop insights on their own.
Instead, direct instruction takes learners through the steps of learning systematically,
helping them see both the purpose and the result of each step. When teachers explain
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exactly what students are expected to learn, and demonstrate the steps needed to
accomplish a particular academic task, students are likely to use their time more effectively
and to learn more.

The structure of direct teaching can be rigid enough to hinder the creativity of the
teacher. There is very little room to improvise because this method follows a step-by-step
procedure. The procedure usually starts with an introduction, followed by the rationale for
the instruction, then by the instruction itself. The procedure ends with a summary and then
followed by an assessment.

Direct teaching, if utilized by unprepared teachers, can be disastrous. For direct

teaching or direct instruction to be effective, the teacher must have a mastery of the subject
matter, must prepare a well-organized content, and must have excellent communication
skills. Without these traits, a teacher could not effectively carry out direct teaching or direct
instruction. And without these traits, direct teaching could not develop higher order thinking
skills in the students.

Direct teaching is best for learning specific concepts or skills. The specificity of the
objectives or learning targets also makes it easier for teachers to create assessment tests
of high validity and high reliability. Students, for their part, do not suffer much confusion in
determining which part of the lesson is important and which part is not. However, to take
advantage of these benefits of direct teaching or direct instruction, the teacher must ensure
that the contents of instruction are logically organized. The teacher must also ensure that
the students already possess the prerequisite knowledge.