Combustion Processes Combustion Processes

• What is combustion?
Be to determine:
–Composition of air • Combustion is a process of releasing chemical
–Equivalent formulae/chemical reactions of fuel from energy by burning a combustible (able to burn)
given composition of combustion fuels. material in the present oxygen thus releasing
–Composition of combustion products. enormous amounts of energy and gases.
–Equivalent formulas/chemical reaction of fuel from • This energy is harnessed in various forms
given composition of products (fuels).
C + O2 CO2 14. 093 Btu/lb
–Actual combustion process
H + 0.5O2 H2O 61.100 Btu/lb
–Stoichiometric combustion process.
S + O2 SO2 61.100 Btu/lb
–Air to fuel Ratio, Dilution coefficient, %Excess Air.
Task 1:
Classify different types of fuels as fossils and non-
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 1 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 2
fossil

Combustion Fuels Combustion Fuels

• A combustible material is called a fuel.
• Combustible elements in fuels such as coal are
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with other trace
elements.
• A dry bituminous coal may contain 88%C, 6%H,
4%O, 1%N and 1%S.
• The above composition exclude Ash and
moisture.
• Task 1: A “wee bit” of Chemistry 1:
– Determine the equivalent formula for a fuel containing
85%C and 15%H (2.0 min)
Determine the equivalent formula for a fuel
containing 85%C and 15%H
1.0 Take A Basis of 100g samples such that 85% is
equal to 85g C and 15% is 15 g H
2.0 Calculate number of moles, e.g. a and b in CaHb
Answer :C7.08H15
Task 1b :Determine the equivalent formula for
bituminous coal may containing 88%C, 6%H,
4%O, 1%N and 1%S. (2.0min)
CaHbScOdNe

COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 3 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 4

Combustion Air Combustion Air

• For combustion to take place, oxygen is required, oxygen is
not “freely” available, it is a component of air. • Relative Weight = mole fraction X Molecular Wt
• Task 2: Molecular mass of air is 28.967 g/mol, use data to
prove this (5 min) Gas %vol. Mole Frac MolecrWt Reltve Weight
O2 20.99 0.2099 32.00 6.717
Gas %vol. Mole Molecular Relative
N2 78.03 0.7803 28.016 21.861
Fractions Weight Weight
Ar 0.94 0.0094 39.933 0.376
O2 20.99 0.2099 32.00 CO2 0.03 0.0003 44.003 0.013
N2 78.03 0.7803 28.016 H2 0.01 0.0001 2.016
Ar 0.94 0.0094 39.933 Total 100 1.0000 28.967
CO2 0.03 0.0003 44.003
28.016 is pure nitrogen in the air, in combustion
H2 0.01 0.0001 2.016
processes apparent nitrogen is used
Total 100 1.0000
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 5 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 6

1
PDF Creator: PDF4U Pro DEMO Version. If you want to remove this line, please purchase the full version
 Combustion Air Combustion Air
• Apparent nitrogen is the sum of pure nitrogen • Ratio of nitrogen to oxygen on volume basis
plus other inert gases found in air i.e. 79.01% 79.01 moless aparent N 2
= 3.764
20.99 moles O2
Mole Fraction =78.03/79.01 =0.9876
• Ratio of nitrogen to oxygen on mass basis
Gas Vol Mole Fraction Mol Wt Relative wt
22.25 grams aparent N 2
N2 78.03 0.9876 28.016 27.6686 = 3.313
6.717 gram O2
Ar 0.94 0.0119 39.944 0.4753
• In other words, dry combustion air supplies 3.76
CO2 0.03 0.00037 44.003 0.01628 moles of air in every mole of oxygen.
H2 0.01 0.00013 2.016 0.00026
Tot 79.01 1.000 28.161 C + O2 + 3.76N2 CO2 + 3.76N2
For hydrocarbons
28.161 g/mol is the apparent nitrogen mass
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 7
CaHb + cO2+3.76cN2 mCO +3.76cN +nCO+xH2O+H2+zO
2
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 2 8 2

COMBUSTION PRODUCTS COMBUSTION STOICHIOMETRY

CaHb + cO2+3.76cN2 mCO2+3.76cN2+nCO+xH2O+H2+zO2 CaHb + cO2+3.76cN2 mCO2+3.76cN2+xH2O
Notice in the above reaction that O2, H2,CO, the same • Subscript a, b, subscript as in the ordinary molecular
amount of N2.in reactants and products and formula.
O2 is the excess air that the required for complete • Other parameter e.g. c, m and x are coefficients in the
combustion so that thee will no COs and H2 reaction
COs are H2 undesirable products resulting from the lack of Task 3 : If a = 8, b = 18 :
O2 1. What is the name of the fuel?
NOx, will results if the combustion processes take place at 2. Balance the chemical reaction (atom balance).
higher temperatures 3. What are the values of c and x (5.0 min)
SOx are product sulphur containing fuels e.g. coal and Answers to Task 3
some fuel oils. 1. Octane?
Typical complete combustion process yield no O2, H2,CO 2. m = 8 and c = 12.5
CaHb + cO2+3.76cN2
COMBUSTION
mCO 2+3.76cN2+xH2O
STOICHIMETRY 9
C8H18 + 12.5 O2+3.76COMBUSTION
x 12.5 N2STOICHIMETRY
8CO2+3.76 x12.5 N2+9H10
2O

COMBUSTION STOICHIOMETRY The Actual Combustion Process

Homework 2: Bituminous coal may containing 88%C, 6%H,
4%O, 1%N and 1%S (on dry basis) and its complete
combustion rxn is as follows: The five conditions for good combustion are:
CaHbOcNdSe+fO2+3.76f N2 gCO2+hH2O + iSO2 +(3.76f+d)N2 • proper mixing of reactants,
1. Balance the reaction
• sufficient air,
2. If 100kmol of bituminous coal and 105.06 kmol air is
supplied into the burner. • temperature above the ignition temperature,
2.1 Calculate kmol of each species as in the actual
chemical equation.
• sufficient time for the reaction to occur, and
2.2 Determine Dilution Coefficients (DC) • a reactant density sufficient to propagate the
2.2 Calculate %excess air.
flame. (MATTρ)

COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 11 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 12

2
PDF Creator: PDF4U Pro DEMO Version. If you want to remove this line, please purchase the full version
 Excess Air Task 4
Since perfect mixing is never attained in practice, good 1. Is the above reaction complete or incomplete And why,
combustion can only be achieved by supplying excess air (give any two observation from the data)?
2. What is the % of excess oxygen?
for the process.
3. Is the analyses wet or dry and why
Too much excess air however increases the losses in the 4. Balance the equation (atoms or elements or molecules).
combustion process and increases NOx emissions. 5. Calculate %excess air
Excess air will only be revealed in the flue gas (fg) by Answers to Task 4
• Incomplete reaction and because of the present of CO,
presence of O2 in an analyser CH4, H2 etc in the flue gas.
wCaH b + cO 2+3.76cN 2 mCO 2+3.76cN2+nCO+oH2O + xCH 4+yH 2+zO2 • % of excess oxygen is equal to 0.3%O2
• Dry, water is not included in the data.
Task 4 : O2 is shown in the above reaction as z mols, if the flue gas • Balancing the equation: Mole balance
analyser shows, 8.7%CO 2, 0.3%O2, 8.9% CO, 3.7%H 2, 0.3%CH4and wCaH b + cO 2+3.76cN 2 mCO 2+3.76cN2+nCO+oH2O + xCH 4+yH 2+zO2
78.1%N2. If a = 8 and b = 17, Answer the following (10.0min)
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 13 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 14

wCaH b + cO 2+3.76cN 2 mCO 2+3.76cN2+nCO+oH2O + xCH 4+yH 2+zO2

FLUE GAS
Flue Gas Analysers
ANALYSER
Task 4.3 :Mole balance Gas %vol gmol
• There various flue gas analyser in the market.
Step 1 A basis of 100gmol sample O2 0.3 0.3
• One of them is Orsat Flue gas analyser.
CO2 8.7 8.7
• These analyser measure concentrations of the
Step 2 substitute gmol data into equation flue gas
coefficients i.e. z = 0.3, y=3.7, m = 8.7, n = 8.9, CO 8.9 8.9
• The gas chromatograph is a very sensitive
x = 0.3, H2 3.7 3.7
device that can be used to detect trace amounts
3.76c = 78.1, therefore c= 78.1/3.76=20.77, a and b CH4 0.3 0.3 of gases.
are given in the problem, therefore a = 7 and b = 17 N2 78.1 78.1
• This is however a sophisticated and expensive
o &w not part of analyses but can be calculated Tot 100
%
100. apparatus.
by element balance etc • The Orsat apparatus is a relatively simple,
compact and portable gas analyzer
Oxygen(O2) balance :20.8= 8.7+8.9/2+o/2+0.3, o = 14.7
• It is specifically designed to measure three of the
Hydrogen balance :w x 17 =0.3(4)+3.7(2)+14.7(2), w =2.235 compounds found in the combustion products.
2.235C8H17 + 20.77O2+3.76cN2 8.7CO +78.1N
COMBUSTION
2 +8.9CO+oH
STOICHIMETRY
2 2O + 0.3CH4+3.7H2+0.3O
15
2
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 16

Orsat Apparatus
• Since the gas is collected at room temperature
over water, it is usually assumed that any water
vapour in the exhaust gas will have condensed
and that any SO2 will have reacted with the
water vapour in the exhaust gas and in the
collecting bottle.
• Consequently, it is assumed that the resulting
dry gas sample is composed of CO2, O2, CO
and nitrogen.

COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 17 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 18

3
PDF Creator: PDF4U Pro DEMO Version. If you want to remove this line, please purchase the full version

COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 19
The Orsat Apparatus
The first reactor contains an aqueous solution of
KOH, which preferentially removes any CO2 in
the gas sample.
•The second reactor contains a solution of
pyrogallic acid in potassium hydroxide and water,
and this solution preferentially removes any
oxygen in the sample.
•The third reactor contains a solution of cuprous
chloride in ammonia and this solution absorbs
any CO present in the gas.
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 21
•It also includes some products of incomplete
combustion, including some unburnt fuel, carbon
monoxide, some hydroxyls and aldehydes along
with nitrogen, unused oxygen, ash particles, and
nitrogen oxides.
•All of these products except water, oxygen and
nitrogen are considered to be atmospheric
pollutants.
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 23
PDF Creator: PDF4U Pro DEMO Version. If you want to remove this line, please purchase the full version
The Orsat Apparatus
•A 100cm3 sample of exhaust gas is taken at
room temperature in the burette by using the
levelling water bottle to collect and transfer the
gas sample.
•Once the gas sample has been obtained, it is
then sequentially passed through three chemical
reactors in the device
•A typical Orsat gas analyzer shown is used to
determine the molar fractions of carbon monoxide;
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the dry exhaust
gases.
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 20
Determination of Air to Fuel Ratio
• The actual air-fuel ratio for a given combustion process is
normally estimated from an experimental measurement of
the gaseous component of the exhaust gas.
•There are several ways of experimentally determining the
concentration of the various gas compounds in a mixture of
gases.
•These systems include
•the gas chromatography and
•the orsat apparatus among others.
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 22
• By carefully measuring the decrease in sample
volume as the gas passes through each
chemical reactors, in series, and dividing each
decrease by the original gas volume, the volume
or mole fractions of carbon dioxide, oxygen and
carbon monoxide in the dry exhaust gas are
obtained.
• Any gas that remains after the sample has been
passed through all three reactors (usually
around 80% )is assumed to be nitrogen.
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 24
4
 The Actual Air to Fuel Ratio
The amount of air supplied to a combustion process
Task 4 is Used to calculate using air to fuel ratio.
can either be expressed as the dilution coefficient or
Below is an actual processes chemical equation
the percent excess air.
The dilution coefficient is defined as the ratio of the 2.24C8H17 + 20.77O2+78.1N2 8.7CO2+78.1N2+8.9CO+oH2O + 0.3CH4+3.7H2+0.3O2
actual to the theoretical air-fuel ratio:
actual ( A / F ) nAir = 20.77gmolO2+78.1gmolN2= 98.9gmol Air
Dilution Coefficient ( DC ) =
theoretical ( A / F )
The percent excess
actual ( A / F ) − theoretica l ( A / F ) Mass of Air = 98.9gmol Air x 29g/gmol =2868.1g air
air is defined as: = X 100 %
% Excess air theoretica l ( A / F ) nFuel = 2.24gmol C8H17
= 100 ( dilution coefficient-1) Mass of Fuel = 2.24gmol C8H17 x 113g/gmol =253 g air
mass of Air , A 2868gAir
air-fuel (A/F) ratio is the ratio of air to fuel on mass AF = AF = = 11.3
mass of Fuel, F) 252.9 g Fuel
basis AF =
mass of Air , A Theoretical, everything should burn completely without excess air
mass of Fuel, F)
C8H17 + aO2+ 3.76aN2 bCO2+ 3.76aN2+ cH2O
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 25 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 26

Theoretical Combustion Process Theoretical Amounts

2.235C8H17 + 20.8O2+78.1N2 8.7CO2+8.9CO+14.7H2 O + 0.3CH4+3.7H2+ 78.1N2 + 0.3O2
CxHy + aO2+ 3.76aN2 bCO2+ 3.76aN2+ cH2O CxHy + 20.8O2+78.1N2 8.7CO2+78.1N2+8.9CO+14.7H2O + 0.3CH4 +3.7H2 +0.3O2
1. C: 2.235x8 = 18 = x
The five conditions for good combustion are: 1. 18 C = 18C,
2. H: 2.235x17 = 38 = y
2. 38 H = (38/2)H = 19H 2
• proper mixing of reactants, Theoretical combustion for 3. Always balance O 2 last:
• sufficient air, 1.0 gmol of fuel mixture 2(17.9) O2 in CO2 +19O 2 in H2O
=27.4(54.8/2)O2 =27.4 O 2
• temperature above the ignition temperature, C18H 38 +27.4O2+ 3.76 x 27.4N2 18CO 2+ 3.76x27.4N2+19H 2O
C18H 38 +27.4O2+ 103N 2 18CO 2+ 103N2+19H 2O
• sufficient time for the reaction to occur, and
C 18H 38 + 130.9 Air 18CO 2+ 103N2+19H 2O
• a reactant density sufficient to propagate the flame.
Theoretical combustion for 1.0 gmol of C18H38
(MATTρ) C 18H 38 + 27.4 (O 2+3.76N2) 18CO 2+ 103N2+19H 2O
•However, this is not always the case: Theoretical combustion for hydrocarbons
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 27 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 28
Cx Hy + a (O2+3.76N 2) bCO2+ cN2+dH 2O

Combustion Stoichiometry Combustion Stoichiometry

• Actual combustion process for 1.0 mol C18H38 Theoretical Air is the air that is theoretical required to
• Let us use the data from the previous examples complete the reaction.
Theoretical Ai r is sometimes referred to as stoichiometric
C17.9H38+ 20.8O2+78.1N2 8.7CO2+8.9CO+0.3CH2+14.7H2O+0.3O2+78.1N2 air.
If the combustion is taking place with air less than
stoichiometric air it is referred to as sub-stoichiometric
Consistence, round 17.9 in C17.9 to 18 in C18 and a combustion.
complete combustion becomes The actual combustion processes took place under sub-
stoichiometric combustion.
C18H38 +27.4O2+ 103.5N2 18CO2+ 103N2+19H2O
Combustion processes are normally carried out in excess
Observe that there is: air environment.
27.4O2+103.5N2 = 130.9 Theoretical Ai r Although, there is 0.3molO2 in products of the actual
In the theoretical combustion equation combustion equation, that oxygen might be due
inefficiency of the process I.e. improper mixing
Also observe that there is: Let us suppose, now the above reaction takes with excess
20.8O2+78.1N2 = 98.9 Actual Air air of about 163.7 gmol air.
In the actual combustion
COMBUSTION equation
STOICHIMETRY 29 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 30

5
PDF Creator: PDF4U Pro DEMO Version. If you want to remove this line, please purchase the full version
 Combustion Stoichiometry •Task 6: Use the previous example to calculate
• This is 34.25 gmolO2 and 129.37gmolN2 Theoretical and Actual Air to Fuel ratios
• Now the actual combustion equation is • Theoretical A/F: Changing gmoles to mass
C18H38 + 34.3O2+ 129.4N2 18CO2+129.4N2+6.9O2 +19H2O 1.0 gmolC18 H 38 254 g C18 H 38
= 254 gC18 H 38
1.0 gmolC18 H 38
Actual air = 34.25 gmolO2+129.37gmolN2 =163.7gmolAir
Theoretical air = 27.4 gmolO2+103.5gmolN2 =130.9gmolAir Theoretical needed
Oxygen to complete 27.4O2+ 103N2=130.4 gmol Air
C18H38 +27.4O2+ 103.5N2 18CO2+ 103N2+19H2O the reaction
•Theoretical and Actual quantities are related 130.9 gmolAir 29 gAir
= 3781.6 g air
by Air to Fuel (AF) Ratio 1.0 gmolAir
mass of Air, A
AF =
mass of Fuel, F) 3781.6 g
Theo, AF = = 14.8
•There is a Theoretical and Actual Air to Fuel 254 g
(AF) Ratio COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 31 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 32

Combustion Stoichiometry Combustion Stoichiometry

• Actual Air to fuel ratio: changing moles to Task 7:Use the above data to calculate DC
mass 163.6 gmolAir 29 gAir actual( A / F ) 18.76
Dilution Coefficient ( DC ) = = = 1.26
= 4744.4 g air theoretical ( A / F ) 14.88
1.0 gmolAir Dilution coefficient can be used to calculate
4744.4 gAir %air.
Actual , AF = = 18.67 % Excess Air = ( Dilution Coefficient −1) X 100
254 g Fuel
Task 8:Use the above data to calculate %Excess Air
• Actual and Theoretical Air to Fuel ratios
are related by dilution coefficiency (DC) % Excess Air = ( Dilution Coefficient −1) X 100
Dilution Coefficien t ( DC ) =
actual ( A / F ) %Excess Air = (1.26 −1) X 100% = 26%
theoretical ( A / F )
There are various other ways to calculate
Task 7: Use the data from the above
%excess air.
example to calculate DC.
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 33 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 34

Combustion Stoichiometry Combustion Stoichiometry

actual ( A / F ) − theoretica l ( A / F ) Excess Air O 2
% Excess Air = X 100 %
theoretica l ( A / F ) % Excess Air = ×100% • Various
Re quired Air
• Task 9: Use Task 6 solution to calculate %excess formulae to used
O Entering − O2 Re quired
air using the above formula % Excess Air = 2 ×100% in calculating
Re quired O2
18 .8 − 14 .88 %excess Air
% Excess Air = X 100 % = 26 % Excess O2
14 .88 % Excess Air = ×100%
Entering O2 − Excess O2
• Other ways of calculating %Excess Air
 
 (nO 2 ) prod 
• Where: Exercise 1:A boiler use 20 kg propane based fuel
%Excess Air =  ×100
( nN )
2 prod
− nO
 and a 400kg air to make steam. Calculate %
 3.76

( )
2 prod 
 • ‘prod’ denotes products excess air by various methods.
 
 ( xO2 ) prod  • x mole fractions
% Excess Air =  ×100
( xN 2 ) prod 
 3.76

− ( xO 2 ) prod . 

• n is moles
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 35 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 36

6
PDF Creator: PDF4U Pro DEMO Version. If you want to remove this line, please purchase the full version
 Combustion Stoichiometry Combustion Stoichiometry
• C3H8 + 5O2 + 3.76N2 3CO2 + 4H2O + 3.76N2 O2 Entering − O2 Re quired
% Excess Air = ×100%
– Theoretical Required O2 Re quired O2
• Using one of the 2.90 − 2.27
20 kgmolC 3 H 8 1 .0 kgmolC 3 H 8 5 .0 kgmolO % Excess Air = ×100%
2
= 2 .27 kgmolO 2.27
44 kgC 3 H 8 1 .0 kgmolO 2
2
formulae.
–Actual entering O2 • Try all other
400 kgmolAir 1 .0 kgmol Air 21kgmolO 2 formulae to
= 2 . 90 kgmolO 2
29 kgAir 29 kgmol Air prove if you can
get the same
Excess O2 = Entering O2 – Required O2
results
Excess O2 = 2.90 kgmol O2 – 2.27kgmol O2
Excess O2 = ……….kgmol O2
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 37 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 38

• The hot products of combustion rise and circulate

round the water tubes, usually being directed by
baffles so that they pass over the tubes three
The air Circuit: times.
• A fan draws in air and forces it through a • On leaving the boiler, the gases pass over the
heater where it passes over plates heated on tubes of the economizer and the plates of the air
the other side by exhaust furnace gases on heater to be discharged at the chimney.
their way to the chimney. • A large supply of cooling water is required to
•The hot air is ducted partly as primary air to extract the latent heat from the steam in order to
the underside of the moving chain grate and condense it.
partly as secondary air above the firebed. • When the power station is sited near a river,
•This air provides the oxygen necessary for the cooling water for the condensers is taken from
complete combustion of the coal supplied from the river and is pumped through the condenser
the automatic stokers on to the fire-grate. tubes and finally discharged downstream.
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 39 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 40

HOMEWORK 2 HOMEWORK 2: Balancing the rxn continues

• 1.0 Take Basis of 100g such C a H bS cO d N e Sulfphur Balance: 0.03 S, LHS = 0.0312SO2,RHS
that % composition become
C H 6S O N d moles of N in fuel = 0.071 0.071
masses. N, rhs = = 0.036
88 1 4 1
12 1 32 16 14

• Calculate no of moles. 0.071N, LHS = 2dN, RHS 2

• 1.1 Balance the rxn:
C7.33H6S0.03O0.25N0.071 d=
0.071
= 0.036
Recapping and now 2
C7.33H6O0.25N0.071S0.03 + fO2+ 3.76f N2
CaHbOcNdSe + fO2+3.76f N2 gCO2+hH2O+iSO2 +(3.76f+d)N2
7.33CO2+ 3H2O + 0.0312SO2+ (3.76f+0.036)N2

CaHbOcNdSe + fO2+ 3.76f N2 gCO2+ hH2O + iSO2+(3.76f+d)N2 Balance O2 last because is a stand alone substance
ÓO2, LHS = ÓO2, RHS
C7.33H6O0.25N 0.071S0.03 + fO 2+ 3.76f N 2 gCO2+ hH 2O + iSO 2+(3.76f+d)N2 3
0 .25 0.0312 + + 7.33 = 8.864 O 2 , RHS
+ O 2 , LHS =
Carbon balance: 7.33 C, LHS = 7.33CO3 , RHS 2 2
3 0.25
O 2 , LHS = 0.0312 + + 7.332 −
Hydrogen Balance: 6 H, LHS = 3H2O, RHS 2 2
COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 41 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 42

7
PDF Creator: PDF4U Pro DEMO Version. If you want to remove this line, please purchase the full version
 HOMEWORK 2: Balancing the rxn continues
O 2 , LHS = 8.864 − 0.125 = 8.74 f = 8.74
Recuperating and now
C7.33H6O0.25N0.071S0.03 + 8.74O2+ 3.76 x 8.74 N2
7.33CO2+ 3H2O + 0.0312SO2+ (3.76 x8.74+0.036)N2
HOMEWORK 2: Stoichiometric Calculations
2.1) I think you can try this question of the
homework again.

C7.33H6O0.25N0.071S0.03 + 8.74O2+ 32.85 N2

7.33CO2+ 3H2O + 0.0312SO2+ 32.88N2

COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 43 COMBUSTION STOICHIMETRY 44

8
PDF Creator: PDF4U Pro DEMO Version. If you want to remove this line, please purchase the full version