CONTENTS

 Introduction
 Deference between grid solver robot and a common line
follower robot
 Need of Grid Solving Robot
 Block Diagram
 Sensors
 Microcontroller
 Stepper Motor
 Components detail
 LM358
 Microcontroller AT89S52
 ULN2803
 Algorithm
 Microcontroller Programming
 PCB Manufacturing
 Applications
 Component List
 Datasheets
 References
 INTRODUCTION

This Project Grid solving Robot is based on 8 bit Microcontroller AT89S52.

This Robot follows the black line which is drawn over the white surface or it
follows the white line which is drawn over the black surface. The sensors
are used to sense the line. When the light signal falls on the white surface, it
gets reflected and if it falls on the black surface, it is not reflected, this
principle is used to scan the Lines for the Robot. All the above systems are
controlled by the Microcontroller. In our project we are using the popular 8
bit microcontroller AT89S52. It is a 40 pin microcontroller. The
Microcontroller AT89S52 is used to control the motors. It gets the signals
from the sensors and it drives the motors according to the sensor inputs.
Two stepper motors are used to drive the robot.

The basic principle used for grid following is detecting the intersection and
taking a turn accordingly. When a junction is detected we take a single
wheel turn, thus aligning the robot on to the right angled path. A small
amount of delay is included after each turn to prevent false input to be taken
by robot while turning.

2
GRID SOLVING ROBOT

3
GRID SOLVING ROBOT WITH POWER SUPPLY

4
 Deference between grid solver robot
and a common line follower robot
A common line follower robot follows a single path. This path is commonly
made from black or white continuous strip on opposite color background. A
pair of sensor is used to detect this path. The feedback signal is then sent to
the motors using motor driver circuit, which drive and steer the wheels of
robot.
This problem can not be solved by simple line follower because there are no
alternate path hence in such type of situation simple line follower robot are
failed to serve. However even we provide alternate path, the path sensed by
circuit will be unpredictable.
This problem can be solved by enhancing circuit sensing capability with the
help of microcontroller and few more sensor circuit. Unlike common line
follower which usually consist of two sensors, enhanced circuit consists of
four sensors. Now to serve the robot in number of places, whole area is
divided into horizontal and vertical continuous path. Two center sensors are
used to sense single line as in common line follower. Since there has been
number of junctions created due to number of continuous horizontal and
vertical lines crossing one another.
To Sense these junction extra sensing capability required, which can be
solved with the help of two sensors fitted on the side of middle sensors and
using microcontroller. Now whenever junction occurs, two side sensors
sense it and send the feedback signal to microcontroller, now
microcontroller examine it and decide where to turn according to program
stored into the memory of microcontroller. The microcontroller also controls
the speed of motors and the direction of the robot. In this way we can steer
the robot wherever we want in the given arena in a minimum time as
compare to simple line follower robot.

5
 NEED OF GRID SOLVING ROBOT
Grid solving robots are one of the most exciting and dynamic areas in
material handling today. Grid solving robot is the computer remote
controlled robots that operates automatically along desired pathways.
Through the years the technological developments (mainly in electronics and
robotics) have offered grid solver robot’s several advantages over other
material handling systems, such as, routing, flexibility, reliability, low
operating costs, unobstructed movement and easy integration with other
systems.
Grid solver robot’s have onboard microcontroller and are able to navigate a
guided path network on the grid that is flexible and easy to program. Grid
solver robots are programmed for many different and useful maneuvers such
as in security, surveying and tracking systems. Some are designed for the
use f an operator, but most are capable of operating independently.
Corporations that use Grid solver robots, often factories, warehouses,
hospitals and other large facilities, benefit from the many advantages Grid
solver robots has to offer. One of the most beneficial is reduced labor costs
and working speed. Grid solver robots do not tire like human workers, and
when their batteries are drained, charging the Grid solver robots easily
replenishes their energy. Loads that Grid solver robots carries as far heavier
than any single human could manage, which makes transporting heavy
objects quick and simple. Grid solver robots help to give companies a
competitive edge because they increase productivity and complete the job in
an effective and time efficient manner. They are flexible and can be adapted
to many different needs. Also, using Grid solver robots as guided vehicle
reduces damage to products and increases safety among workers.
Currently, Grid solver robots are fairly pricey, and this discourages some
companies, but in truth, the money is quickly earned back through reduction
of other costs. Manufactures of Grid solver robots are working on reducing
costs and making the units easier to understand to attract more potential
buyers. Research on it is on going and new developments on software and
movement techniques are frequently being made.

6
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Sensor

Sensor Moto
r1
2 Micro-
controller
AT89S52 ULN
Sensor
(8051 Family) 2803
Moto
3
r2

Sensor

Power Supply

Block diagram shown above consist of mainly five sections; power supply,
sensor circuit, microcontroller, ULN2803 (motor driver) and motors.
Robot is powered by 12V DC supply either through 220VAC/12VDC
converter or by 9V DC battery. Sensor circuit used to detect path and the
respective information are then sent to microcontroller’s input where
microcontroller take decision according to programming. Microcontroller’s
Output is then given to the motors which drive and steer the wheels of robot.
Since motor can not be driven directly from microcontroller’s output,
therefore a motor driver is used.

7
Circuit Diagram

8
Components Location

1. LM358
2. Voltage Regulator.
3. ULN2803.
4. Connecting wires of stepper motor coils.
5. Capacitor 1000µF.
6. Voltage Regulator.
7. Diodes 1N4007 (4).
8. Crystal 11.0592 MHz.
9. Microcontroller AT89S52.
10.10k resistance network.
11.Output from LM358 to microcontroller’s input.
12.Variable resistance or preset.

9
 SENSORS

There are four sensors in our Robot. Working of each sensor is same. Each
sensor consists of a Red LED and a LDR and an OpAmp comparator
LM358.
The LDR is two terminal semiconductor device: two terminals are connected
to a thin sheet of photo conducting material. When this thin layer of photo
conducting material is exposed to light, its resistance varies. In absence of
light a very low current called dark current flows through LDR. The
resistance corresponding to this dark current called dark resistance. It is in
order of few hundred mega ohm.
When light falls on semiconductor electron hole pair are generated, this
generated electron hole pair change the condutivity of the material and these
generated electron hole pair moves in opposite direction under the influence
of external electric field, if applied across it, leading to current flow.

10
The circuit is quite self explanatory. The light emitted from the LED is falls
on the black or white surface. The black surface absorbs the large
component of light and the white surface reflects the incident light. The
reflection of light from balck and white surface is taken into account. This
reflected light varies the resistance of the LDR. The LM358 OpAmp is used
in the comparator mode. The LDR (receiver) is used in a potential divider in
a reverse bias mode. A threshold voltage is set at the inverting terminal of
the OpAmp using a potentiometer. So when the Red light reflects from a
lighter surface, say white, the resistance of the light dependant resistor
would decrease and this in turn when exceeds the threshold voltage will
make the output of the OpAmp go high. The out put from the comparator is
send to the port 1 of the microcontroller.
LM358 has two OpAmps in its 8 pin package, thus two sensors could be
built out of one IC. For four sensors, two LM358 used. We can also use LM
324 which has 4 OpAmps inside it.

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 MICROCONTROLLER
MICROCONTROLLRER VERSUS GENERAL PURPOSE
MICROPROCESSOR:
microprocessor is meant the general-purpose microprocessors such as Intel’s
family (8086,80286,80386,80486 and the Pentium) or Motorola’s 680x0
family(68000,68010,68020,68030,68040,etc.). These microprocessors
contain no RAM, no ROM, and no I/O ports on the chip itself. For this
reason, they are commonly referred to as general-purpose microprocessors.
A system designer using a general –purpose microprocessor such as the
Pentium or the 68040 must add RAM, ROM, I /O ports, and timers
externally to make them functional. Although the addition of external RAM,
ROM, I /O ports make these systems bulkier and much more expensive, they
have the advantage of versatility such that the designer can decide on the
amount of RAM, ROM, I /O ports needed to fit the task at the hand. This is
not the case with microcontrollers. A microcontroller has a CPU (a
microprocessor) in addition to fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I /O ports, and
a timer all on a single chip. In other words, the processor, RAM, ROM, I /O
ports, and timer are all embedded together on one chip; therefore, the
designer cannot add any external memory, I /o, or timer to it. The fixed
amount of on chip ROM, RAM, and number of I/ O ports in a
microcontrollers make them ideal for many applications in which cost and
space are critical.
In many applications, for example a TV remote control, there is no need for
the computing power of a 48/6 or even an 8086 microprocessor. In many
applications, the space it takes, the power it consumes, and the price per unit
are much more critical considerations than the computing power. These
applications most often require some I /O operations to read and turn on and
off certain bits.
It is interesting to note that some microcontroller manufacturers have gone
as far as integrating an ADC (analog-to-digital converter) and other
peripherals into the microcontroller.

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CHOOSING A MICROCONTROLLER

There are four major 8-bit microcontrollers. They are: Freescale’s 6811,
Intel’s 8051, Zilog’s Z8, and PIC 16X from Microchip Technology. Each of
these microcontrollers has a unique instruction set and register; therefore,
they are not compatible with other. Programs written for one will not run on
the others. There are also 16-bit and 32-bit microcontrollers made by various
chip makers. With all these different microcontrollers, what criteria do
designers consider in choosing one?

Three criteria in choosing microcontrollers are as follows:

1. Meeting the computing needs of the task at and efficiently and cost
effectively,
2. Availability of software development tools such as compilers,
assemblers, and debuggers.
3. Wide availability and reliable sources of the microcontroller.

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 STEPPER MOTORS
Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. A stepper motor
converts electrical pulses into specific rotational movements. The movement
created by each pulse is precise and repeatable, which is why stepper motors
are so effective for positioning applications. Permanent Magnet stepper
motors incorporate a permanent magnet rotor, coil windings and
magnetically conductive stators. Energizing a coil winding creates an
electromagnetic field with a north and South Pole as shown in figure 1. The
stator carries the magnetic field which causes the rotor to align itself with the
magnetic field. The magnetic field can be altered by sequentially energizing
or “stepping” the stator coils which generates rotary motion

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTORS

Stepper motors are not just rated by voltage. The following elements
characterize a given stepper motor:
Voltage
Stepper motors usually has a voltage rating. This is either printed directly on
the unit, or is specified in the motor's datasheet. Exceeding the rated voltage
is sometimes necessary to obtain the desired torque from a given motor, but
doing so may produce excessive heat and/or shorten the life of the motor.
Resistance
Resistance-per-winding is another characteristic of a stepper motor. This
resistance will determine current draw of the motor, as well as affect the
motor's torque curve and maximum operating speed.

14
Degrees per step
This is often the most important factor in choosing a stepper motor for a
given application. This factor specifies the number of degrees the shaft will
rotate for each full step. Half step operation of the motor will double the
number of steps/revolution, and cut the degrees-per-step in half. For
unmarked motors, it is often possible to carefully count, by hand, the
number of steps per revolution of the motor. The degrees per step can be
calculated by dividing 360 by the number of steps in 1 complete revolution
Common degree/step numbers include: 0.72, 1.8, 3.6, 7.5, 15, and even 90.
Degrees per step are often referred to as the resolution of the motor. As in
the case of an unmarked motor, if a motor has only the number of
steps/revolution printed on it, dividing 360 by this number will yield the
degree/step value.

STEPPER MOTOR WORKING

Stepper motors are very different from a regular DC motors. Instead of
spinning like DC motors do stepper motor steps at a specific resolution for
each pulse. The motor that we are using needs 48 steps / pulses just to
complete a single revolution! That should be enough to tell about its
precision.
Another advantage of stepper motors is the fact that their speed of rotation
can be achieved almost instantly even if you change the spinning direction.

15
Stepper motor consists of a rotor - the permanent magnet that rotates inside,
and stator - four coils (north, east, south, and west) that are part of the case,
and which don't move. Rotor can be moved by sequentially applying a
pulsed DC voltage to one or two coils at a time.
The most common stepper motors have four stator windings that are paired
with a center tapped common as shown. This type of stepper motor is
commonly referred as a four-phase or unipolar stepper motor. The center tap
allows a change of current direction in each of the two coils when a winding
is grounded, thereby resulting in polarity change of the stator. We see that
while a conventional motor shaft runs freely, stepper motor shaft moves in
fixed repeatable increment, which allow one to move it to a precise position.
This repeatable fixed movement is possible as a result of basic magnetic
theory where poles of the same polarity repel and of opposite polarity attract
each other.
The direction of rotation is dictated by the stator poles. The stator poles are
determined by the current sent through the wire coils. As the direction of
current is changed, the polarity is also changed causing the reverse motion of
the rotor. The stepper motor used has 6 leads: 4 leads representing 4 stator
windings and 2 commons for the centre tapped leads. As the sequence of
power is applied to each stator winding, the rotor will rotate. There are some
widely used sequences where each has a different degree of precision.
The table shows 2-phase, 4-step stepping sequence.
Normal 4-step Sequence

Step # Winding A Winding B Winding C Winding D

1 1 0 0 1
2 1 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 0
4 0 0 1 1

It must be noted that we can start with any of the sequences; once we start it
must be in a proper sequence. For example, if we start with step 3(0110), we
must continue in the sequence of steps 4, 1, 2 etc.

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STEP ANGLE
The amount of movement associated with a single step depends on the
internal construction of the motor, in particular number of teeth on the stator
and rotor. The step angle is the minimum angle of rotation associated with a
single step. Various motors have different step angles. The table some step
angles for various motors.
Table: Stepper motor Step angles

Step Angle Steps per Revolution

0.72 500
1.8 200
2.0 180
2.5 144
5.0 72
7.5 48
15 24

The term steps per revolution is the total number of steps need to rotate one
complete rotation or 360 degree (e.g., 180 steps*2 degree=360).

STEPS PER SECOND and RPM RELATION

The relation between rpm (revolutions per minute), steps per revolution and
steps per second is as follows.
Steps per second= rpm* steps per revolution
60

17
UNIPOLAR versus BIPOLAR stepper motor interface
There are three common types of stepper motor interfacing: universal,
unipolar and bipolar. They are identified by the number of connections to the
motor. A universal stepper motor has eight, while unipolar has six and
bipolar has four. The universal stepper motor can be configured for all three
modes, while unipolar can either be unipolar or bipolar.
Unipolar stepper motor can be controlled using the basic interfacing
circuitry as shown, while bipolar stepper requires H-bridge circuitry. Bipolar
requires high operation current than unipolar; advantage of this is a higher
holding torque.
ADVANTAGES OF STEPPER MOTORS
•Position error is noncumulative. A high accuracy of motion is possible,
even under open-loop control.
•Large savings in sensor (measurement system) and controller costs are
possible when the open-loop mode is used.
•Because of the incremental nature of command and motion, stepper motors
are easily adaptable to digital control applications.
•No serious stability problems exist, even under open-loop control.
•Torque capacity and power requirements can be optimized and the response
can be controlled by electronic switching.
•Brushless construction has obvious advantages.
DISADVANTAGES OF STEPPER MOTORS
•They have low torque capacity (typically less than 2,000 oz-in) compared to
DC motors.
•They have limited speed (limited by torque capacity and by pulse-missing
problems due to faulty switching systems and drive circuits).
•They have high vibration levels due to stepwise motion.
•Large errors and oscillations can result when a pulse is missed under open-
loop control.

18
Here we are using unipolar magnetic motor.

Unipolar stepper motors are recognized by their centre-tapped windings. The

number of phases is twice the number of coils, since each coil is divided in
two. So the diagram below, which has two centre-tapped coils, represents
the connection of a 4-phase unipolar stepper motor.

19
 COMPONENT DETAILS
Operational Amplifier LM358
The LM358 consists of two independent, high gain, internally frequency
compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to
operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation
from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current
drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks and all the
conventional op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in
single power supply systems. For example, the LM358 can be operated off
of the standard +5V power supply voltage which is used in digital systems
and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring
the additional ±15V power supplies.

Unique Characteristics
1. In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes
ground and the output voltage can also swing to ground, even though
operated from only a single power supply voltage.
2. The unity gain cross frequency is temperature compensated.
3. The input bias current is also temperature compensated.

20
Advantages
1. Two internally compensated op amps
2. Eliminates need for dual supplies
3. Allows direct sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND
4. Compatible with all forms of logic
5. Power drain suitable for battery operation
6. Pin-out same as LM1558/LM1458 dual op amp
Features
1. Internally frequency compensated for unity gain
2. Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB
3. Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1MHz (Temperature compensated)
4. Wide power supply range:
— Single supply: 3V to 32V
— Or dual supplies: ±1.5V to ±16V
5. Very low supply current drain (500 µA)—essentially independent of
supply voltage

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MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52
Features
• Compatible with MCS®-51 Products
• 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory
– Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles
• 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
• Three-level Program Memory Lock
• 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
• 32 Programmable I/O Lines
• Three 16-bit Timer/Counters
• Eight Interrupt Sources
• Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
• Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
• Watchdog Timer
• Dual Data Pointer
• Power-off Flag
• Fast Programming Time
• Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode)
• Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option

22
1. Description

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit

microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory.
The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry- standard 80C51 instruction
set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system
programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful
microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution
to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the
following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O
lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a Six-
vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip
oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with
static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software
selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to
continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but
freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next
interrupt or hardware reset.

23
2. Pin Configurations

24
3. Block Diagram

25
26
4. Pin Description
4.1 VCC Supply voltage.
4.2 GND Ground.
4.3 Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each
pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins
can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be
the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external
program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups.Port 0 also
receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code
bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during
program verification.
4.4 Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups.In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can
be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and
the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the
following table.

4.5 Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order
address byte during fetches from external program memory and during
accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @
DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when
emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit
addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special

27
Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits
and some control signals during Flash programming and
verification.
4.6 Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for
Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of
various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the following table.
4.7 RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is
running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after
the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can
be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the
RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.
4.8 ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of
the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program
pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is
emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for
external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is
skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE
operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit

28
set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction.
Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable
bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution
mode.
4.9 PSEN
Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program
memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program
memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN
activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.
4.10 EA/VPP
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the
device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at
0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA
will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for
internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming
enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.
4.11 XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.
4.12 XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

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ULN 2803
The ULN2803 consists of 8-bit TTL-input NPN Darlington sink drivers.
Each Darlington Driver can handle a maximum of 500mA continuous (when
using a single channel only) and can withstand a maximum 50V in its off
state. This makes the ULN2803 well suited to provide an interface between
the low logic level interfaces and higher current/voltage devices such as
relays, solenoids, motors and lamps.
The ULN2803 is designed to be compatible with standard TTL families

The output of the ULN2803 is "inverted". This means that a HIGH at the
input becomes a LOW at the corresponding output line.
The ULN2803 is described as an "8-line driver". This means that it contains
the circuitry to control eight individual output lines, each acting
independently of the others. The IC can be thought of an 8-line 'black box'.
The 'schematic diagram' (above) is all we need to understand.

30
The "common" line is connected to the positive rail via a 15 volt Zener
diode to prevent damage to the IC due to "back emf" when loads such as
motors and relays switch ON and OFF.
These Darlington arrays are furnished in 18-pin dual in-line
Plastic packages (suffix ‘A’) or 18-lead small-outline plastic packages
(Suffix ‘LW’). All devices are pinned with outputs opposite inputs to
facilitate ease of circuit board layout. Prefix ‘ULN’ devices are rated for
operation over the temperature range of -20°C to +85°C; prefix
‘ULQ’ devices are rated for operation to -40°C.
FEATURES
• Output current (Single Output) 500mA (max.)
• High sustaining output voltage 50mV (min.)
• Output clamp diodes.
• Input compatible with various types of logic.

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 ALGORITHM
Algorithm for Programming the Grid Robot
First we under stand the algorithm for simple two sensor line follower:
-Start
-Check for line
-If center two sensors are on line go straight
-If only left sensor is on the line, turn left till both sensors are on the line
-If only right sensor is on the line, turn left till both sensors are on the line

32
Let under stand the algorithm for four sensor line follower with junction
detection:
-Start
-Check for line
-If center two sensors are on line go straight
-If only left sensor is on the line, turn left till both sensors are on the line
-If only right sensor is on the line, turn left till both sensors are on the line
-If side sensors detect line, decide which direction to turn or go straight
A simple question where are the sensors placed?
If 4 sensors are placed in a straight line at the front of the robot?
Than

33
To overcome this problem the sensors should be placed at the centre of the
wheel’s axel or as possible near to axel.

34
Now the question arises how to turn the robot 90 degree?
There are many tricks to solve this problem
Trick No. 1:
The simplest approach is using Delay loops. Using delay the algorithm will
be as follows
- Junction detected.
- Stop
- Turn Left/Right (as desired) for a delay
- Stop
- Go Straight
In this approach we need to calibrate the delay such that the motors are on
till the robot completes a 90 degree turn. Well no other approach can get
simpler than this while coding.
After having many runs, the battery of the robot has drained out, so the
motor turns at a much lower speed, but the delay generated by the software
is for the same amount of time. So at a slower speed the angle turned will be
less than what it was calibrated for
Trick No.2
Write a program such that when it detects a junction it stops, it turns and
when it turns through 90 degrees it will again detect a junction, at that time
stop and go straight.
Trick No.3
Another approach that we can have is that we depend on the delay for a
much menial task. This is the extension to make approach no. 2 feasible.
After detecting a junction, stop and turn, execute a small delay such that it
turns either junction sensors are not on the junction. Then stop when both
junction sensors detect the line.

35
Trick No.4
Detect the transition between the white and black areas. The algorithm in
this method will be
- Junction detected
- Stop
- Turn Left/Right
- Set a variable when first transition when sensor moves over from junction
to white area
- Reset it when transition occurs from white to junction again at the end of
desired turn
- If variable reset then Stop
- Go straight
As we are using DC12V regulated power supply from 220V AC than there is
no chance of getting weak power hence we use the first approach using
delay.

36
 MICROCONTROLLER PROGRAMMING

WHY PROGRAM THE 8051 IN C?

Compilers produce hex files that we download into the ROM of the
microcontroller. The size of the hex file produced by the compiler of
microcontroller programmers, for two reasons:
• Microcontrollers have limited on-chip ROM.
• The code space for the 8051 is limited to 64KB.
How does the choice of programming language affect the compiled program
size? While Assembly language is tedious and time consuming. C
programming, on the other hand, is less time consuming and easier to write,
but the hex file size produced is much larger than if we used Assembly
language.
The following are some of the major reasons for writing programs in C
instead of Assembly:
• It is easier and less time consuming to write in C than Assembly.
• C is easier to modify and update.
• C code is portable to other microcontrollers with no modification.

TIME DELAY
There are two ways to create a time delay in 8051 C:
• Using a simple for loop
• Using the 8051 timers
In either case, when we write a time delay we must use the oscilloscope to
measure the duration of our time delay. Next we use the for loop to create
delays.

37
In creating a time delay using a for loop, we must be mindful of three factors
that can affect the accuracy of the delay.
1. The 8051 design. Since the original 8051 was designed in 1980, both
the fields of IC technology and microprocessor architectural design have seen
great advancements. The number of machine cycles and the number of clock
periods per machine cycle vary among different versions of the 8051/52
microcontroller. While the original 8051/52 design used 12 clock periods per
machine cycle.
2. The crystal frequency connected to the X1-X2 input pins. The duration
of clock period for the machine cycle is a function of this crystal frequency.
3. Compiler choice. The third factor that affects the time delay is the
compiler used to compile the C program. When we program in Assembly
language, we can control the exact instructions and their sequences used in the
delay subroutine.
In the case C programs, it is the compiler that converts then C statements
and functions to Assembly language instructions. As a result, different
compilers produce different code. In other words, if we compile a given 8051
C programs with different compilers, each compiler produce different hex
code.
For the above reasons, when we write time delays for C, we must use
oscilloscope to measure the exact duration.
I/O PROGRAMMING IN 8051 C
Byte size I/O
Ports P0-P3 are byte-accessible. We use the P0-P3 labels as defined in the
8051/52 C header file.
Bit-addressable I/O programming
The I/O ports of P0-P3 are bit addressable. We can access a single bit without
distributing the rest of the port. We use the sbit data type to access a single bit
of P0-P3. One way to do that is to use the Px^y format where x is the port 0,
1, 2, or 3, and y is the bit 0-7 of that port.
For example, P1^7 indicates P1.7. When using this method, you need to
include the reg51.h file.

38
39
PROGRAMME CODE:

#include<at89x52.h>
#include<stdio.h>
/*
P0 for stepper control
P1_2 for ldr detect

*/
#define ldra P1_3
#define ldrb P1_1
#define ldrc P1_2
#define ldrd P1_4
unsigned char speed=20;
void delay()
{
unsigned char i,j;
for(i=0;i<speed;i++)
for(j=0;j<128;j++);
}
void dely(int i) //stop for 40 seconds
{
int j,k;
for(k=0;k<i;k++)
for(j=0;j<1250;j++);
}
void left(int i)
{
int k;
for(k=0;k<i;k++)
{
P0=0x11;
delay();
P0=0x33;
delay();
P0=0x22;
delay();
P0=0x66;

40
 delay();
P0=0x44;
delay();
P0=0xCC;
delay();
P0=0x88;
delay();
P0=0x99;
delay();
}
}
void forw(int i)
{
int k;
for(k=0;k<i;k++)
{
P0=0x91;
delay();
P0=0x83;
delay();
P0=0xC2;
delay();
P0=0x46;
delay();
P0=0x64;
delay();
P0=0x2C;
delay();
P0=0x38;
delay();
P0=0x19;
delay();
}
}
void leftforwmix(int i)
{
int k;
for(k=0;k<i;k++)
{
P0=0x90;

41
 delay();
P0=0x81;
delay();
P0=0xC0;
delay();
P0=0x43;
delay();
P0=0x60;
delay();
P0=0x22;
delay();
P0=0x30;
delay();
P0=0x16;
delay();
P0=0x90;
delay();
P0=0x84;
delay();
P0=0xC0;
delay();
P0=0x4C;
delay();
P0=0x60;
delay();
P0=0x28;
delay();
P0=0x30;
delay();
P0=0x19;
delay();

}
}
void rightforwmix(int i)
{
int k;
for(k=0;k<i;k++)
{

42
 P0=0x09;
delay();
P0=0x91;
delay();
P0=0x03;
delay();
P0=0x82;
delay();
P0=0x06;
delay();
P0=0xC4;
delay();
P0=0x0C;
delay();
P0=0x48;
delay();
P0=0x09;
delay();
P0=0x61;
delay();
P0=0x03;
delay();
P0=0x22;
delay();
P0=0x06;
delay();
P0=0x34;
delay();
P0=0x0C;
delay();
P0=0x18;
delay();

}
}
void right(int i)
{ int k;
for(k=0;k<i;k++)
{

43
P0=0x88;
delay();
P0=0xCC;
delay();
P0=0x44;
delay();
P0=0x66;
delay();
P0=0x22;
delay();
P0=0x33;
delay();
P0=0x11;
delay();
P0=0x99;
delay();

}
}

void takeleft()
{
// forw(6);
right(22);
forw(20);

}
void takeroto()
{
// forw(6);
right(44);
forw(20);

}
void takeright()
{
// forw(6);
left(22);
forw(20);

44
}
void stop() //stop
{
while(P2_0!=0);
}
void main()
{unsigned char c,d;
int i=0,junction=0;
P0=0x00;
P1=0xFF;
P2=0xFF;
ira=1;
irb=1;
irc=1;
ird=1;
forw(13);
while(1)
{ c=P1&0x1E;
if(c==0x18)// if robot is at the center
{
c=P1&0x06;
forw(1);
}
else if(c==0x1C)// if right misalign
{
c=P1&0x06;
leftforwmix(1);
}
else if(c==0x1A)// if left misalign
{ c=P1&0x06;
rightforwmix(1);
}
else if(c==0x00)
{ junction++;
forw(10);
d=P1&0x18;
switch(junction)
{
case 2:speed=15;takeright();break;

45
 case 4:speed=15;dely(5000);takeleft();break;
case 7:speed=15;takeright();break;
case 8:speed=15;dely(5000);break;
case 9:speed=15;takeright();break;
case 13:speed=15;takeright();break;
case 17:speed=8;P0=0x00;stop();break;
}
}
else
{
forw(1);
}
//P0=0x00;
}
}

46
 P.C.B. MANUFACTURING PROCESS
It is an important process in the fabrication of electronic equipment. The
design of PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards) depends on circuit requirements
like noise immunity, working frequency and voltage levels etc. High power
PCBs requires a special design strategy.
The fabrication process to the printed circuit board will determine to a large
extent the price and reliability of the equipment. A common target aimed is
the fabrication of small series of highly reliable professional quality PCBs
with low investment. The target becomes especially important for customer
tailored equipments in the area of industrial electronics.
The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information of the board
before one can go on the artwork preparation. This means that a concept
which clearly defines all the details of the circuit and partly defines the final
equipment, is prerequisite before the actual lay out can start. The detailed
circuit diagram is very important for the layout designer but he must also be
familiar with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the
equipment.
BOARD TYPES:
The two most popular PCB types are:
1. Single Sided Boards
The single sided PCBs are mostly used in entertainment electronics
where manufacturing costs have to be kept at a minimum. However in
industrial electronics cost factors cannot be neglected and single sided
boards should be used wherever a particular circuit can be
accommodated on such boards.
2. Double Sided Boards
Double-sided PCBs can be made with or without plated through holes.
The production of boards with plated through holes is fairly
expensive. Therefore plated through hole boards are only chosen
where the circuit complexities and density of components does not
leave any other choice.

47
DESIGN SPECIFICATION:
STEPS TAKEN WHILE PREPARING CIRCUIT
(A) PCB DESIGNING:-
The main purpose of printed circuit is in the routing of electric currents and
signal through a thin copper layer that is bounded firmly to an insulating
base material sometimes called the substrate. This base is manufactured with
an integrally bounded layer of thin copper foil which has to be partly etched
or removed to arrive at a pre-designed pattern to suit the circuit connections
or other applications as required.
The term printed circuit board is derived from the original method where a
printed pattern is used as the mask over wanted areas of copper. The PCB
provides an ideal baseboard upon which to assemble and hold firmly most of
the small components.
From the constructor’s point of view, the main attraction of using PCB is its
role as the mechanical support for small components. There is less need for
complicated and time consuming metal work of chassis contraception except
perhaps in providing the final enclosure. Most straight forward circuit
designs can be easily converted in to printed wiring layer the thought
required to carry out the inversion cab footed high light an possible error that
would otherwise be missed in conventional point to point wiring .The
finished project is usually neater and truly a work of art.
Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown is drawn on the copper board.
The board is then immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12 hours. In this process
only the exposed copper portion is etched out by the solution.
Now the petrol washes out the paint and the copper layout on PCB is rubbed
with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only the oxide layers
over the Cu are removed. Now the holes are drilled at the respective places
according to component layout as shown in figure.

48
LAYOUT DESIGN:-
When designing the layout one should observe the minimum size
(component body length and weight). Before starting to design the layout we
need all the required components in hand so that an accurate assessment of
space can be made. Other space considerations might also be included from
case to case of mounted components over the printed circuit board or to
access path of present components.
It might be necessary to turn some components around to a different angular
position so that terminals are closer to the connections of the components.
The scale can be checked by positioning the components on the squared
paper. If any connection crosses, then one can reroute to avoid such
condition.
All common or earth lines should ideally be connected to a common line
routed around the perimeter of the layout. This will act as the ground plane.
If possible try to route the outer supply line to the ground plane. If possible
try to route the other supply lines around the opposite edge of the layout
through the center. The first set is tearing the circuit to eliminate the
crossover without altering the circuit detail in any way.
Plan the layout looking at the topside to this board. First this should be
translated inversely; later for the etching pattern large areas are
recommended to maintain good copper adhesion. It is important to bear in
mind always that copper track width must be according to the recommended
minimum dimensions and allowance must be made for increased width
where termination holes are needed. From this aspect, it can become little
tricky to negotiate the route to connect small transistors.
There are basically two ways of copper interconnection patterns under side
the board. The first is the removal of only the amount of copper necessary to
isolate the junctions of the components to one another. The second is to
make the interconnection pattern looking more like conventional point
wiring by routing uniform width of copper from component to component.

49
(C) ETCHING PROCESS:-
Etching process requires the use of chemicals. Acid resistant dishes and
running water supply. Ferric chloride is mostly used solution but other
etching materials such as ammonium per sulphate can be used. Nitric acid
can be used but in general it is not used due to poisonous fumes.
The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the board using a latex
type of adhesive that can be cubed after use. The pattern is laid firmly on the
copper using a very sharp knife to cut round the pattern carefully to remove
the paper corresponding to the required copper pattern areas. Then apply the
resistant solution, which can be a kind of ink solution for the purpose of
maintaining smooth clean outlines as far as possible. While the board is
drying, test all the components.
Before going to next stage, check the whole pattern and cross check
with the circuit diagram. Check for any free metal on the copper. The
etching bath should be in a glass or enamel disc. If using crystal of ferric-
chloride these should be thoroughly dissolved in water to the proportion
suggested. There should be 0.5 lt. of water for 125 gm of crystal.
To prevent particles of copper hindering further etching, agitate the solutions
carefully by gently twisting or rocking the tray.
The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is needed to
remove just the right amount of copper. Inspite of there being a resistive
coating there is no protection against etching away through exposed copper
edges. This leads to over etching. Have running water ready so that etched
board can be removed properly and rinsed. This will halt etching
immediately.
Drilling is one of those operations that call for great care. For most purposes
a 0.5mm drill is used. Drill all holes with this size first those that need to be
larger can be easily drilled again with the appropriate larger size.

50
(D) COMPONENT ASSEMBLY: -
From the greatest variety of electronic components available, which runs
into thousands of different types it is often a perplexing task to know which
is right for a given job.
There could be damage such as hairline crack on PCB. If there are, then they
can be repaired by soldering a short link of bare copper wire over the
affected part.
The most popular method of holding all the items is to bring the wires far
apart after they have been inserted in the appropriate holes. This will hold
the component in position ready for soldering.
Some components will be considerably larger .So it is best to start mounting
the smallest first and progressing through to the largest. Before starting, be
certain that no further drilling is likely to be necessary because access may
be impossible later.
Next will probably be the resistor, small signal diodes or other similar size
components. Some capacitors are also very small but it would be best to fit
these afterwards. When fitting each group of components mark off each one
on the circuit as it is fitted so that if we have to leave the job we know where
to recommence.
Although transistors and integrated circuits are small items there are good
reasons for leaving the soldering of these until the last step. The main point
is that these components are very sensitive to heat and if subjected to
prolonged application of the soldering iron, they could be internally
damaged.
All the components before mounting are rubbed with sand paper so that
oxide layer is removed from the tips. Now they are mounted according to the
component layout.

51
(E) SOLDERING: -
This is the operation of joining the components with PCB after this
operation the circuit will be ready to use to avoid any damage or fault during
this operation following care must be taken.
1. A longer duration contact between soldering iron bit & components
lead can exceed the temperature rating of device & cause partial or
total damage of the device. Hence before soldering we must carefully
read the maximum soldering temperature & soldering time for device.
2. The wattage of soldering iron should be selected as minimum as
permissible for that soldering place.
3. To protect the devices by leakage current of iron its bit should be
earthed properly.
4. We should select the soldering wire with proper ratio of Pb & Tn to
provide the suitable melting temperature.
5. Proper amount of good quality flux must be applied on the soldering
point to avoid dry soldering.

52
PCB LAYOUT

53
 APPLICATIONS
Such robots can also be called as and function as that of an AGV (Automated
Guided Vehicle). The major applications are:
1). Manufacturing – Transportation of raw materials and finished products is
typical in an industry. Controlled transportation and product identification, as
well as safe movement throughout the facility, are the key to such type of
installations.
2). Automotive – the automotive industry utilizes such robots or we can say
guided vehicles in a number of applications. In many assembly plants they are
used for delivering the parts and kits to the assembly line, ensuring that the
stations never stop the process.
3). Roll Handling – Awkward rolls of paper, plastics or textiles are easily and
safely be handled. Handling these rolls by the core, “eye to he sky” or on the
bilge will drastically reduce the opportunity for product damage.
4). Towing applications – We can use it for the bulk movement of the
product into and out of warehouse or manufacturing/assembly operations.
Chain movement of product is also popular.
5). Unit load applications – unit load vehicles move individual loads, each on
a specific mission. They are a very efficient means of horizontal transportation
between hardware intensive material handling subsystems. The unit load
carrier over moderate distances, moves high volumes of material, linking
other automated subsystems in a totally integrated facility. Typically, the unit
load systems involve an automatic pickup and delivery of product with remote
management of vehicles.

54
 COMPONENT LIST
Component Quantity Rate
ICs
AT89S52 1 200/-
LM358 2 40/-
ULN2803 1 65/-
LM7805 3 60/-
LED 6 18/-
Diode(1N4007) 4 20/-
Capacitors
1000µF/25V 1 12/-
10µF 1 8/-
Variable Resister
(Preset 10K) 4 20/-
10K resistance
network(Ladder) 2 10/-
Carbon Resistors
(0.25W) 15 25/-
(10K,270K)
Transformers
12V/0V/12V 1Amp 1 125/-
PCB 6”X9” 1 30/-
IC Base
40pin 1 15/-
18pin 1 10/-
8pin 2 10/-
Crystal(11.0592MHz) 1 30/-
Stepper Motor 2 1600/-
Castor Wheel 1 50/-
Soldering wire 20gms. 20/-
Connecting wires 2mtrs. 30/-
Plug+ wire 3mtrs. 25/-
Arena for driving 1 100/-
robot
Robot Base 1 50/-
Ferric Chloride 100gms. 30/-
Miscellaneous -- 500/-
Total 3143/-

55
DATA
SHEETS

56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
 REFERENCES
BOOKS:

• AJOY KUMAR RAY & KISHOR M BHURCHANDI, “Advanced

Microprocessor & Interfacing”, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.

• JOHN LOVINE, “Robots, Androids, and Animatrons 12

Incredible Projects You Can Build”, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002.

• AJAY DESHMUKH, “The 8051 Microcontroller”, Tata McGraw

Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2005.

• MUHAMMED ALI MAZIDI, “8051 Microcontroller &

Interfacing”, Prentice Hall, 2005.

• MYKE PREDKO, “8051 Programming & Customizing”, Tata

McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, 1999.

WEB SEARCH:
• www.robotroom.com
• www.howstuffworks.com
• www.wikipedia.com
• www.answers.com
• www.datasheet.in
• www.nationalsemi.com
• www.fairchildsemi.com

83
84