Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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generates
through the use of -
research, using methods such as *
or structured
..
This type of research reaches many more people, but the contact with those
people is much quicker than it is in qualitative research.
explores
, /
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through such methods as interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an in-
depth opinion from participants. As it is attitudes, behaviour and experiences
which are important, fewer people take part in the research, but the contact
with these people tends to last a lot longer. Under the umbrella of qualitative
research there are many different methodologies.
Quantitative Research Methodologies
Experimental
Single-
Survey
subject
Causal
Correlational
Comparative
Experimental Research
Examples:
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.
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Experimental Research
Manipulation
of the
Independent
Variable
Comparison of
Randomization
Groups
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COMPARISON OF GROUPS
A group receives a
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sort
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A group receives
no (
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teaching method, type of counseling, learning activities,
assignments, materials.
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gender, ethnicity, age, religious preference.
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DIntroduction of the Interdependent Variable
DPhase length should be approximately at least as long as baseline (for comparison
purposes)
DRepeated measurement of the Dependent Variable continues
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Single-Subject Research
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͞A child having trouble working on school work (i.e. staying on task), the
treatment is setting up a reinforcement contingency that gives him a Ringgit
for every minute he stays on task͟
DProblem:
There is a limited control over threats to internal validity.
No control for extraneous variables - that is changes in the Dependent
Variable could be caused by numerous things
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Single-Subject Research
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Single-Subject Research
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D1 baseline - 1 treatment ʹ 1 baseline phase.
DAdvantage
DProblem:
DDoesn͛t completely control for extraneous variables (but more
evidence!)
DIrreversibility (Some IVs can͛t be withdrawn and some behaviors can͛t
be reversed)
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Correlational Research
Explanatory Prediction
Studies Studies
Purposes of
Correlational
Research
Correlational Research
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Examples:
Identify factors which might have caused underachievement among senior
high school students
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Results: Study habits were highly associated with the students͛ academic
performance
Correlational Research
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If a relationship of
(
exists between .
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becomes
/ to
a score on one variable if a score on the other
variable is known.
For example:
Secondary school grades are highly related to university/college grades.
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Three types of causal-comparative research
Similarities Differences
Associational research ʹ researchers seek to Causal-comparative studies typically
explore relationship among variables. compare two/more groups of subjects while
correlational studies require a score on each
Explain phenomena of interest. variable for each subject
Similarities Differences
In experimental research, the independent variable is
manipulated; in causal-comparative research, no
One categorical variable. manipulation takes place.
Compare separate groups of subjects. * In experimental studies, the researcher has much greater
flexibility in formulating the structure of the design.
Cross-sectional surveys
ͻ A cross-sectional survey collects information
from a sample that has been drawn from a
predetermined population.
ͻ The information is collected at just one point
in time.
ͻ When an entire population is surveyed, it is
called a census.
Types of Survey
Longitudinal survey
ͻ Information is collected at different points in time.
ͻ Three longitudinal designs commonly employed in survey
research are:
ͻ |
: different samples from a population whose
members may change are surveyed at different points in
time.
ͻ
: sample from a particular population
whose members do not change over the course of the
survey.
ͻ Ô
: sample are the same sample of individuals
at different times during the course of the survey.
Qualitative Research Methodologies
Phenomenology
Observation
Ethnographic and
Interviewing
The Nature of the Qualitative Research
Phenomenology
Case Studies
Ethnographic
Research
Historical
Research
Observation
Why observation?
Certain kinds of research questions can best be answered by
observing how people act or how things look.
Example:
Researcher could interview teachers about how their students
behave during class discussions, but a more accurate indication
of their activities would probably be obtained by actually
observing such discussions while they take place.
Two types of observation:
Participant Observation Nonparticipant Observation
(researchers participate in (researchers do not
the situation they are participate in the situation
observing) they are observing)
Complete Observer-as-
participant participant
Participant- Complete
as-observer observer
Participant Observation
Purpose:
- To find out how they think or feel about something
- To find out what is on their minds
Opinion (or
Feeling Sensory
values)
questions questions
questions
Interviewing Behavior
Respect the culture of the group being studied
Be natural
Don͛t interrupt
Ethnographic Research
Holistic Perspective
Contextualization
An Emic Perspective
Thick Description
Member Checking
A Nonjudgmental
Orientation
Data Analysis in Ethnographic Research
Triangulation
Crystallization Patterns
Visual
Key Events
Representations
Statistics
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Ethnographic Research
Advantages Disadvantages
ͻ Provide a much more ͻ Highly dependent on the
comprehensive perspective. particular researcher͛s
ͻ Its lends itself well to topics observations.
that not easily quantified. ͻ Bias
ͻ Particularly appropriate for ͻ Generalization is practically
studying behaviors. nonexistent
Historical Research
To learn how
things were
To test
To make people done in the past
hypothesis
aware of what to see if they To assist in
concerning
has happened might be prediction.
relationships or
in the past . applicable to
trends.
present-day
problems.
Four (4) Steps Involved in Historical
Research
Defining the problem or questions to be investigated.
Numerical records
Oral statements
Relics
Primary and Secondary Sources
Secondary
Primary Sources
Sources
Document prepared by an individual
One prepared by an individual who
who was not a direct witness to an
was a participant in or a direct
event but who obtained his or her
witness to the event being
description of the event from
described.
someone else.
Example :
Essays written during World War II Example:
by students in response to the A textbook on educational research,
question, original documents, newspapers.
artifacts.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Historical Research
Advantages Disadvantages
Quantitative Qualitative
Much attention to assessing and improving Preference for assuming that reliability of
reliability of score obtained from instruments inferences in adequate
Quantitative Qualitative
Willingness to manipulate
Unwillingness to tamper with
aspects, situations, or conditions
naturally occurring phenomenon
in studying complex phenomena
Which types of educational
research to use?
Quantitative
Research?
Mixed
Research? Qualitative
Research?
Mixed-Method Research
Mixed-Method research involves the use of both *
and *
methods in a single study.
DHelp to
and 0
relationships found to exist between variables.
DAllow researchers to 0 the relationships between variables in depth.
DHelp to
( or
-
relationships discovered between
variables, as when quantitative and qualitative methods are compared to see
if they converge on a single interpretation of a phenomenon.
Examples:
The Quantitative
Qualitative Study Combine and
Study
Explanatory (lower priority) interpret result
(higher priority)
Design
time
Qualitative Study
The (higher priority)
Combine and
Triangulation interpret result
Design Quantitative
Study
(higher priority)
time