CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The following literature review examines and compares various studies about the state
and challenges of physics SSS curriculum development. It explores such issues as curriculum
content, scope, and relevance, as well as pedagogy. The review also includes thoughts about the
support and implementation of curricular content across the nation.
Simisola (2009) stated that Curriculum development is vital to educational success and
nation building. Nations expend vast amounts of time and resources on designing what ought to
be learned in schools in order to elevate social consciousness and improve economic viability.
Curriculum issues are inextricably linked to current thinking and action on educational concerns
and reforms around the world. Experiences of educational reform almost all over the world have
shown that curriculum is at the same time a policy and a technical issue, a process and a product,
involving a wide range of institutions and actors. Due to the ambiguity of the term “innovation,”
it is necessary to establish characteristics of how innovations are defined for this paper. Mintrom
(2000) uses the term “innovative” to refer to “ideas or practices that are new within the context of
the school.” More clearly stated, an innovation is “an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as
new by an individual or other unit of adoption” (Rogers, 1995). Another definition of innovation
involves newly introduced method, custom, device etc; “change in the way of doing things”;
“renew, alter” (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 2001) or doing things differently or doing
different things” (Dunkin, 2000).
Curriculum can be simply termed a brief written account of one’s past history e.g. of
education and many other aspects of life endeavour. Innovations reported under this category are
in the area of curriculum and programme development; new approaches to teaching and learning,
often combined with the introduction of new educational technologies; and quality assurance.
Innovations therefore overlap with the relevance category. Innovations in curriculum have also
increasingly taken the form of introducing new programmes as indicated above.
The process of constructing the curriculum is unique to each national setting. It is a
complex outcome of the opinions and solutions that key stakeholders propose for society’s
requirements and needs. There are no ‘successful’ international models to copy. Many
innovations with the curriculum include an emphasis on a particular field and the use of the core
knowledge curriculum where basic factual information is presented before any abstract concepts,
leading to a focus on the mastery of basics. The problems related to curricula became noticeable
soon after Nigeria’s independence from colonial rule in 1960. By the mid-1960s, educators and
educational planners were rethinking Nigeria’s education system and in particular, the curriculum
being taught in the schools (Federal Ministry of Education, 2005).
The question is, has Nigerian educational policy been capable of providing the needed
manpower development to stir the nation’s socio-economic exigencies left by the colonial
masters? The non-directional policy issue has been the main bane of the educational system
particular with reference to the curriculum structure. So far, we have had three different systems
borne out of incessant changes in policies. It has become a tradition to abandon policy in mid-
stream. The effect of this policy somersault cannot be over-stressed.
Curriculum reform was intimately tied to changes in educational structure. Education was
signaled to be a human right, and for the first six years of formal education, it would be
accessible, free and mandatory for all children. Thus, in 1983, the nation’s 6-3-3-4 system was
born. The system consisted of six years of primary school education, three years of junior
secondary school (JSS), three years of senior secondary school (SSS) and four years of
postsecondary education (Omotayo, Ihebereme, & Maduewesi, 2008). The new curriculum

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placed emphasis on science, pre-vocational studies (including technology, home economics and
business studies), and performance-based learning. These initiatives were designed to

Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria (STAN) is a body that has worked hard to
translate national and educational objectives into curricula and teaching objectives through the
development of curricula designed to help individuals attain cognition, acquire process skills and
develop scientific attitudes which will enable them to think critically, manage and use available
resources, to effectively adapt to their environment, assume responsibilities and fulfill domestic,
economic, social, and political roles. STAN has continued to give a critical appraisal of the
science education curriculum with a view to identifying defects and devising original solutions.
To this effect, STAN has devoted its efforts to science curriculum innovation and renewal
particularly at the primary and secondary education levels.
Conclusively, Olowo (2010) stated that it is this curriculum that gives birth to syllabus
and the manner in which it is implemented goes a long way in the development of any Nation.

2.1 The Philosophy and Historical Perspective of Nigerian Educational System

Taiwo (1986) was able to analyze in detail the post-war reconstruction and development
that involved rehabilitation of education in Nigeria after the civil war on 12th January 1970 that
marked the beginning of a new decade, which was significant for quick recovery from the
damage of war. However, the then Federal Military Government was guided in its national
planning by its national objectives. The five national objectives are to establish Nigeria firmly as:
i. A united, strong and self-reliant nation
ii. A great and dynamic economy
iii. A just and egalitarian society
iv. A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens, and
v. A free and democratic society
The above objectives are in tune with the philosophy for Nigerian education, which was
formulated at the 1969 National Conference on Curriculum Development. The recommendations
formed the basis for drawing up the National Policy on Education (NPE) of 1977. The curriculum
is aimed at permanent literacy and numeracy and effective communication. It covered the basic
needs of children including religious and moral instruction, mathematics, science and skills
preparatory to trade and craft education.
The medium of instruction will be principally the mother tongue or the language of the
immediate community, and at a later stage, English. The government will make a special effort to
promote the education of girls and provide the facilities and supervision for ensuring quality in
the education. Nigeria’s educational system since then has witnessed a number of changes. These
changes can be classified into policy, objective, content, methods, material and changes in
evaluation techniques.

2.1.1. Policy changes

On this premise, right from attainment of independence, the need for change and
innovation had always been prevalent in the educational systems of developing countries. The
works of Fafunwa (1967, 1974), confirm that changes and innovations were needed in Nigeria
educational system after attainment of independence. The type of education imported to Nigeria
under British control reflected the needs of the colonial government. Thus, we had the 7-5-4
which represents 7 years of primary education, 5 years of secondary education and 4 years of
tertiary education. While in some regions, it was 6-5-4 across the three tiers respectively.

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 This system was later replaced for the entire country in 1983 by the 6-3-3-4, that is, 6
years of primary education, 3years of Junior Secondary School (JSS), 3 years of Senior
Secondary School (SSS) and, 4 years of tertiary education. The difference is the additional one
year to the secondary education and its split to 2-tiers: junior and senior secondary. This system
sought to correct the structural imbalances in the colonial system of education. Many people
regarded the NPE as both an innovation and as a reform in education (Adeniyi, 2001). It is a
reform in that it introduced a 6-3-3-4 school system incorporating a nine-year basic education
programme as a clear departure from the past.
The Universal Primary Education Scheme which was launched in Nigeria in 1976 and
now Universal Basic Education (UBE) in 1999 calls for innovation in curriculum development,
classroom teaching techniques, and adequate supervision of instructional programs in the schools
(Ayo and Adebiyi, 2008). This scheme is monitored by the universal basic education commission
(UBEC), and has made it free and a right of every child. The law establishing UBEC stipulates a
9-year formal schooling, adult literacy and non-formal education, skill acquisition programmes
and the education of special groups such as nomads and migrants, girl child and women, Al-
majiri, street children and disabled group (Aderinoye, 2007). However, poor implementation of
the reforms inherent in the 6-3-3-4 system of education did not allow innovation and changes to
have an appreciable impact on the Nigerian society.

2.1.2. Changes in Evaluation Strategies

With the introduction of the National Policy on Education adopted in 1981, and revised
in 1995 and 2006, some special emphasis have been placed in the use of comprehensive and
continuous assessment in schools. Besides, objective multiple choice questions have also been
given special attention at both primary and secondary levels. Similarly, new attention is been
given to practical experiences and tests in the form of teaching practice and industrial attachment
during which learners are observed and assessed.
These changes brought about changes in hitherto accustomed practices in learning or
teaching, objectives, content and methods. However, in most cases these changes were hurriedly
done and problems associated with such changes surfaced when applied on a large scale. Lack of
initiative, innovation, skills, independent/constructive mind and creative ideals characterize
today’s system of Nigeria education. This is a system that encourages memorization in learning
processes and theoretical explanation to areas that need practical illustration. The system favours
cognitive development above other domains of education. It is pathetic that Nigeria’s school
system is geared toward building pupils with cultural orientation with deficiency in problem-
solving approach that requires more than simply recall or performance of rudimentary skills
(Bolaji, 2007).

2.2 Curriculum Scope and Textbook Reliance

Curriculum overload is one of the hallmarks of ineffective policy implementation.

Oduolowu (2007), in a comparative study between Nigeria’s U.B.E scheme and Sweden’s
Grundskola, affirms that the Nigerian curriculum covers too much information, and suggests
redesigning its content to remove unnecessary, irrelevant facts. She further suggests the
interdisciplinary integration of subject matter in order to condense course material. Maduewesi
(UNESCO, FME, 2001) in her contribution to a report about introducing new curricula to African
nations, also voices concern for an ever-expanding curriculum due to “additions and/or
integration of new materials” (p. 27). What exacerbates the situation is that teachers are
unprepared to cope with growing curricula, which means that instruction becomes ineffective,
inappropriate and often inaccurate.
Some authors consider the effect of textbook reliance on education. In Nigeria the

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 National Education Research and Development Council (NERDC) is responsible for
curriculum development (Oduolowu, 2007). The council also sees to the selection and publication
of textbooks, instructional guides and lesson plans for teachers. Because most teachers are
inadequately trained, what has emerged is an over-reliance on printed text to guide instruction, as
well as and an inability to draw on sources outside classroom books (Amuseghan, 2007).
Woolman (2001), comparing post-colonial curriculum development among four African nations,
writes that the selection of irrelevant textbooks should be abandoned. He attributes the over
dependence of textbooks to valuing content over understanding and skill especially in “the
climate of competition and high-stakes testing which encourages memorization for examinations”
(Woolman, 2001, p. 40).

2.3 Curriculum Relevance to Life

For students to remain interested and focused on their education, it is vital that
curriculum content is relevant to their needs. One of the objectives of the U.B.E. scheme is to
reduce the incidence of drop-outs by making curricula more relevant. It remains to be seen
whether the Nigerian government, under the new 9-3-4 system, will be able to achieve this goal.
However, several experts express the fact that Nigerian curricula continues to be unrelated to the
everyday experiences of students. Adeniyi and Maduewesi (UNESCO, FME, 2001) both agree
that curriculum should be designed to meet the needs and goals of society. Maduewesi adds that
curricula must be sensitive to the culture, traditions, values and norms of the society for which it
is created (UNESCO, FME, 2001). Woolman (2001) suggests using former traditional modes of
knowledge transmission to elevate current issues such as environmental degradation, gender and
sex education. He also proposes tapping into local community-based resources to promote such
issues.
Omolewa (2007), shares Woolman’s perspective on using authentic traditional modes of
learning to make curriculum relevant. He recommends contextualizing the curriculum by
integrating cultural concepts with modern ones. An example he cites is infusing indigenous
knowledge systems about agriculture into modern science instruction. For this type of contextual
integration to occur, Omolewa stresses that curriculum designers must become familiar with
traditional modes of knowledge accumulation in order to make learning meaningful and useful.
Like Woolman, he also advocates the use of creating strong links between schools and
communities within which they exist. He explains that such connections allow students to
experience cross-cutting themes that can be integrated into various disciplines. Community
collaboration with school not only allows students to draw on local tradition, it also makes
learning relevant, while enhancing the educational experience.

2.4 Curriculum Innovations and National Manpower Needs

One major aspect of Nigerian education that has been quite often criticized is the
curriculum. The early critics include members of the Phelps-Stokes and Advisory Commissions
who submitted their separate reports in 1925. They observed that education in Africa generally
had not been adapted to the needs and aspirations of the people. It is quite difficult to advance
with improving the processes and the outcomes of educational quality without developing a
comprehensive curriculum vision that justifies why and what it is relevant and pertinent (basic
and needed) to teach children and young people according to an overall interpretation of societal
expectations and demands. This interpretation is always subject to debate and controversial, and
is deeply grounded in historical, ideological and political concerns and arguments. A good
example is the passionate discussion about the objectives and the content of national history
lessons in secondary education, particularly in post-conflict societies like Nigeria.

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 Moreover since the 1960s, education in African schools, particularly in Nigerian
grammar schools, was still "too literary; not practical, not adapted to the needs of a developing
agricultural nation." It was observed, for instance, that the education Nigerians received was
meant to serve colonial purposes. This type of academic education only tends to produce proud,
lazy people who dislike manual labour and prefer white-collar jobs (Ajayi, 1963). This assertion
by Ajayi (1963) is representative of the opinions of later critics on African education curricula
generally. The flaws in this aspect of African education have been traced to missionary influence.
The National Curriculum Conference of September 1969 was the first attempt by
Nigerians to formulate a school curriculum that is relevant to the goals, needs and aspirations of
Nigerians. Today, all educational authorities in Nigeria are aware of the pressing need to relate
our curricula, at all levels of education, to our national man-power needs. Unfortunately, 46 years
after independence, none of the stated goals has been fully achieved. These goals are centered on
achieving some national objectives through the instrumentality of education, such as: the
development of a free and democratic society; a just and egalitarian society; a great and dynamic
economy; and a land of bright future and opportunities for all (Soyombo, 2007).
The new curriculum is content-driven and examination centred. Teachers’ efforts are
geared towards covering the content of the curriculum within approved time frame of the school
calendar. Both the teacher and the student work towards ensuring that the examination syllabi are
covered.
Oduolowu (2001) observed that there are strands of evidence of lack of creativity in
Nigerian child. The issue is, will the Nigerian children be able to cope with the work-force of the
twenty-first century which require manipulative skills and a much great ability to solve problems
on their own than it has been in the past. No positive impact of whatsoever will be made with
system that promotes theoretical knowledge, places emphasis on paper certification rather than
stressing the development of innate abilities in a learner evolving through training or practice. In
a nutshell, there exists an aberration in policy formulation and implementation. That is to say, that
the need to revisit the policy becomes necessary, hence the urgent need to save our educational
system from the gully of irrelevances and hopelessness. This demands a new surgical operation
under this democratic dispensation. Thus, the need for curriculum transformation becomes
imperative. Bolaji, Stephen (2007).

2.5 QUALITIES OF A PHYSICS TEACHER

Wenning (2007) stated some characteristics which a physics teacher must posses.
Moreover, he submitted that the physics teacher must have adequate mastery of his subject
matter. He stated these characteristics thus;

1. Knowledge of Curriculum
The prospective teacher must possess a broad understanding of the practices of physics
teaching as reflected in the aims, goals, and objectives of both national and state science teaching
standards.
This includes a working knowledge of long-term and short-term planning required for
teaching an inquiry-based program; an ability to align teaching goals, objectives, and assessment
with these standards; an ability to provide needs-based rationales for inclusion of material in the
curriculum grounded on student interests, community values, teacher strengths, and societal
needs. The prospective teacher must be able to identify the various curricula that are available for
physics teaching.

2. Understanding What “Scientifically Literate” Means

The prospective teacher must have a working definition of what it means for a person to
be scientifically literate, and must be so. That is, the prospective teacher will have a well-founded

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“knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision
making, participating in civic and cultural affairs, and economic productivity” (National Science
Education Standards, 1996, p. 22).

3. Understanding Students
The prospective teacher must be aware of the psychological basis for effective science
teaching. The prospective teacher must also demonstrate an ability to come to know students as
individuals, to assess their knowledge and background, and show willingness to work with
parents to serve the best interests of students. This includes dealing effectively with different
student learning styles, sources of interest, motivation and inspiration, and cultural and emotional
differences. This also includes identifying and correcting learning difficulties where possible
using personal knowledge and experiences, or through conferral and referral.

4. Classroom Management Skills

The prospective teacher must demonstrate excellent student management skills by
maintaining classroom discipline using a firm, fair, friendly, and focused demeanor. The skilled
classroom manager will effectively present lessons so that students will perceive time in the
classroom as of significant positive value. The atmosphere so maintained should not be rigid and
regimented, but should be flexible and conducive to student inquiry.

5. Communication Skills
The prospective teacher must be an excellent and effective communicator, both in
conducting instruction and in receiving and responding to information. The prospective teacher
will demonstrate excellence in communication by using proper vocalization (diction, grammar,
enunciation, and projection). The prospective teacher will demonstrate effectiveness in
communication by presenting information systematically and logically, by questioning students
using appropriate means (using a variety of question types, making effective use of wait time,
etc.), and by listening and responding well to students’ questions, answers and comments.

6. Knowledge of the Teaching-Learning Relationship

The prospective teacher should be aware that teaching is what teachers do, that learning
is what students do, and that there might be no direct relationship between teaching and learning.
The prospective teacher sees the role of teacher as that of a science guide who facilitates learning,
and is aware of the major principles of learning.

7. Scientific and Philosophical Dispositions

The prospective teacher should demonstrate scientific dispositions (beliefs, behaviors,
attitudes, values) and should be able to engage students in activities that help clarify the need for
a consistent scientific ethic. The prospective teacher should demonstrate the habits of mind
closely associated with the intellectual rigor of scientific inquiry and attitudes and values
conducive to science learning. The prospective teacher should understand the assumptions and
limitations of scientific knowledge.

8. Social and Technological Context

The prospective teacher must demonstrate an understanding of and an appreciation for
the broad applicability of physics to real world situations. Prospective teachers must be able to
provide a rationale for including physics in the school curriculum as it relates to any area of life
in general, and technology in particular. The rationale must deal with the value of scientific
knowledge to their students, to society, and to the scientific professions. The prospective teacher
must demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between science and technology, and the
relationship between scientific values and social values.

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9. Learning Environment
The prospective teacher should have an understanding of how to create among students a
disposition in favor of science, and scientific ways of knowing. The learning environment should
be physically and emotionally safe, and one in which questioning is valued as much as knowing
and process is valued as much as product. The prospective teacher should know how to provide
stimulating learning environments that develop a community of learners who share time, space,
and materials to learn science. The prospective teacher should know the meaning, differences,
benefits, and consequences of competitive, cooperative, and individualistic learning atmospheres.
The prospective teacher should know the effect of expectations on student achievement, and how
to exert appropriate classroom control measures.

10. Active and Engaged Learning

The prospective teacher should have an understanding of how to teach in active and
engaging ways that create and sustain student interest in science generally, and in physics in
particular. This engagement should sustained student participation in learning activities, should
include learning cycles, and involve students in cooperative group processes.

11. Student Assessment

The prospective teacher should have an understanding of the goals and procedures of
both “regular” and alternative/authentic assessment. The prospective teacher should know how to
use a variety of means to assess stated objectives that are fair, valid, and reliable, and consistent
with the decisions they are intended to inform. The prospective teacher will see ongoing
assessment of student learning as a valuable adjunct to teaching. The prospective teacher should
be aware of sources, and uses for standardized tests, and be able to accurately interpret results.

12. Self-Assessment and Reflective Practice

The prospective teacher should demonstrate the habit of regular self-assessment –
reflecting objectively upon personal teaching practice with an eye toward improving professional
practice and increasing student learning. The prospective teacher will engage in ongoing
assessment of personal teaching practice, in cooperation with formative feedback provided
through clinical supervision. The prospective teacher should demonstrate the disposition of a
life-long learner in all areas of professional life.

13. Technology of Teaching

The prospective teacher should have knowledge of and first-hand experience with the
wide range of instructional and scientific technology to be used in the classroom. This includes
demonstration and laboratory equipment, computers and their applications, microcomputer- and
calculator-based laboratory equipment, and the software associated with accessing the Internet to
be used by students.

14. Professional Responsibilities

The prospective teacher should abide by a code of professional ethical conduct. It is
incumbent upon the teacher to improve educational practice personally, and at the level of the
school and the wider academic community. The prospective teacher should perceive professional
organizations and publications as instrumental in professional improvement.

15. Nature of Science

The prospective teacher must possess a broad understanding of the nature of science. The
teacher candidate must be able to define the values, beliefs and assumptions inherent in the
creation of scientific knowledge within the scientific community. This includes being able to:

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distinguish science from other ways of knowing; distinguish basic science, applied science and
technology; identify the processes and conventions of science as a professional activity; and
define acceptable evidence and scientific explanation.

16. Responsive Teaching

The prospective teacher must know what it means to be a culturally responsive teacher in
order to ensure participation of all students independent of gender, disabilities, and cultural
differences. The prospective teacher must teach in such a way as to provide for gender
differences, physical and mental disabilities, and racial/ethnic differences.

17. Knowledge of Authentic Best Practices

The prospective teacher must have a thorough understanding of authentic best practices,
and how they relate to how students learn science. As such, the teacher candidate will understand
the importance of dealing effectively with student preconceptions, will understand how to use
inquiry practices effectively, will understand the meaning and roles of student meta-cognition and
self-regulation, and will be well versed in the use of cooperative/ collaborative learning practices.

18. Knowledge of Generic Best Practices

Many teaching skills come from practical experience and are not well grounded on a
research base. Much of what is handed on as “grounded in research” tends to be nothing more
than idiosyncratic anecdotal experience – it constitutes the craft wisdom of teaching.
Nonetheless, these best practices so-called constitute the “art of teaching” and often can provide a
number of valuable alternative avenues for effective teaching.

2.6 A PHYSICS TEACHER’S KNOWLEDGE BASE

According to wikipedia (2010), it is sometimes noted that in order to teach well, teachers
must possess an identifiable knowledge base. Philosophers as early as Aristotle addressed the
question of what teachers need to know and be able to do in order to be effective at their chosen
profession. Writing in Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle saw the teacher’s knowledge base as
consisting of Sophia (“wisdom”) and phronesis (“prudence”). Sophia is the ability to think well
about the nature of the world. It is used in the effort to discover phronesis, the ability to think
about how and why we should act in order to accomplish a particular end.
In more recent times, the knowledge base of physics teachers has been described as
consisting of three elements or components: content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and
pedagogical content knowledge (Etkina, 2005). Content knowledge is knowledge of the discipline
itself, and includes such things as procedural methods and possibly even dispositions. According
to Etkina (2005), content knowledge consists of “knowledge of physics concepts, relationships
among them, and methods of acquiring knowledge”.
Teachers must know what they are expected to teach their students, and probably
substantially more as well. Pedagogical “know-how to” of teaching. Etkina also submitted that
pedagogical knowledge consists of “knowledge of brain development, knowledge of cognitive
science, knowledge of collaborative learning, knowledge of classroom discourse, knowledge of
classroom, and management and school laws” (2005, p. 3).
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) represents a situation- specific overlap of content
knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. PCK deals with the “specific why and how to” of
teaching a given discipline. According to Etkina, PCK consists of “knowledge of physics
curriculum, knowledge of student difficulties, knowledge of effective instructional strategies for a
particular concept, and knowledge of assessment methods” (2005, p. 3). PCK per se is hard to

8
teach, and is often the result of many years of classroom experience (Wells et al., 1995). It can be
described as “knowledge in action.”

2.6.1 A Physics Teacher Candidate’s Knowledge Base

Wenning (2007) stated that a broader description of what a physics teacher candidate’s
knowledge, skills, and dispositions should be is provided in a less generic description as follows:

A. Content and Procedural Knowledge

Knight, (2002) further stated that the prospective teacher should have a broad and current
understanding of the major content areas of physics. These include such areas as mechanics,
electricity and magnetism, heat and thermodynamics, waves and light, optics, and modern
physics. The prospective teacher’s understanding will be at a level consistent with appropriate
national and state standards, and includes a familiarity of the unifying principles of physics such
as conservation of energy, momentum, mass, and charge. This presupposes that the prospective
teacher will possess a general understanding of the closely allied fields of astronomy, chemistry,
and mathematics, and will be aware of the major findings of the biological and environmental
sciences.
The prospective teacher must have an accurate understanding of the processes of science,
and its underlying assumptions. The prospective teacher should see scientific knowledge as
emergent, and not absolute. Ideally, the prospective teacher will have learned content knowledge
through methods of inquiry thereby acquiring closely associated procedural knowledge. The
prospective teacher should have had an opportunity to experience the processes of scientific
investigation: observing; defining a problem; hypothesizing from an evidence base; creating an
experiment; identifying and controlling variables; collecting, graphically representing, and
interpreting data; conducting error analyses; drawing conclusions; and communicating results.
Knowledge so gained and communicated should help students understand that science is a way of
knowing, and help them distinguish information that is not so derived.

B. Pedagogical Knowledge
Wenning (2007) added that the prospective teacher must understand what constitutes
effective teaching, and be able to distinguish authentic teaching practices from practices so called
such as instructing, informing, training, and brainwashing. The prospective teacher should have a
demonstrable understanding of:

• Planning and preparation – Prospective teachers must demonstrate an ability to prepare lesson
plans for a variety of lesson types, create a unit plan, and deal with the broad implications of
year-long curriculum planning. The prospective teacher must know how to integrate lecture-
demonstrations, laboratory work, homework, discussion, presentations, assessment, student
research projects, and out-of-class activities in a way that maximizes student learning.

• Quality teaching – Prospective teachers must understand the difference between the
transmission and constructivist views of teaching. They must understand the worth and power of
constructivist forms of teaching, and the limitations of transmission forms.

• Inquiry practices – Prospective teachers must be able to use inquiry practices effectively to
help students construct knowledge from evidence, be familiar with concept change and its
relationship to constructivism, be able to assist students participate in the procedures whereby
knowledge of nature and technology is constructed.

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• Cooperative/collaborative learning – Prospective teachers must demonstrate an ability to
utilize any of a number of cooperative and collaborative learning strategies, and be able to
distinguish these strategies from traditional group learning.

• Problem-based learning – Prospective teachers must demonstrate an ability to utilize problem-

based learning as a means to promote problem solving and enhance critical thinking skills, and as
a way to integrate diverse elements of the physical and biological sciences.

• Multiple representations – Prospective teachers must demonstrate the ability to use a variety
of representations to help students learn and understand the content of physics.

• Preconceptions and concept change – Prospective teachers must demonstrate an

understanding of a student's need for the construction of knowledge and its relationship to
preconceptions derived though casual observations of the world.

• Learning cycles – Prospective teachers must demonstrate an understanding of the relationship

between learning cycle’s and classroom activities, and their effects on individual lessons and the
broader curriculum. The complex interrelationship of lecture-demonstrations, laboratory work,
homework, discussion, presentations, assessment, and student research projects, and out-of-class
activities must be understood.

• Instructional resources – Prospective teachers must demonstrate an ability to select, use, and
adapt instructional resources to the needs of students.

2.6.2 Uses of this Knowledge Base

Arons (1997) stated that this knowledge base can be used in a variety of fashions, not the
least important of which is as a guide for developing or reformulating physics teacher education
programs. Another way that this knowledge base can be used is to help school administrators
make informed hiring decisions or prospective teacher candidates to make an informed choice
about the school in which to enroll.
It can also be used by in-service teachers to self-assess. It’s not uncommon that school
administrators such as superintendents, principals, and department chairpersons need to call upon
one or more experts in making a hiring decision. Often that expert is an established physics
teacher. However, when such an expert is not available as when in replacing one solitary physics
teacher with another or having only a less qualified cross-over physics teacher on staff, then
reference to this knowledge base can provide that administrator with the background he or she
needs for making meaningful inquiries into a teacher candidates’ preparation.
According to Knight (2002), students seeking the best teacher preparation program in
which to enroll might also want to consult this knowledge base in an effort to determine which of
the elements contained herein is, in fact, addressed or ignored in a given physics teacher
education program. Reflective practice consists of self-assessment and auto regulation. In-service
teachers who wish to improve their practice will compare their performance against established
standards, and the current knowledge base can serve as one such set. Professional development
plans can be based on any deficiencies that have been identified in comparison with this
knowledge base.

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2.7 Methods of Teaching and Learning

Traditional, teacher-centered methods of teaching do little to advance conceptual

understanding and critical thinking. In Nigeria, however, evidence shows that this is the dominant
pedagogical mode. Oduolowu (2007) mentions that, among other outdated instructional
techniques, rote learning which focuses on the “memorization and regurgitation of facts” is still in
use. Ajibola (2008) points out that this form of instruction and learning hampers creativity and
does little to foster innate abilities for problem-solving and decision-making. He calls for the need
to incorporate child-centered approaches in curriculum development. These approaches foster
cooperation, tolerance, self-reliance, and self-expression (Woolman, 2001, p. 40). When teaching
and learning is directed towards the needs of the child, there is an accompanying tendency to
make sure that he fully understands the material he is being taught.
The focus is no longer on how much a student can remember, but how he understands;
what meaning he makes of his understanding; and, whether he can apply the knowledge and
meaning in real-world situations. This is the measure of an effective educational system.

2.8 GOVERNMENTS ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCIENCE EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

According to Odia and Omofonmwan(2007), government, private and corporate

organization, non-governmental organization and individuals should as a matter of due
responsibility encourage and finance research programmes, inventions and mass production of
invented products as a way of discouraging prospective students from indulging in any form of
academic irregularities, who may not have seen any thing good or meaningful on the part of those
who have be hardworking and creative, research and invention wise in terms of reward for their
effort. Currently research interest by the government at all levels and corporate organization is
nothing to write home about.
Many teachers and school administrators got frustrated and discouraged due to lack of
assistance and encouragement resulting in brain drain to other parts of the world, where such
innovations are well recognized and encouraged. Despite the amount of knowledge and
experience claimed to have been acquired or possess by some scholars, occupying some
prestigious and sensitive units as heads still try to thwart the effort of fellow scholars and that of
up coming ones as a way of perpetuating mediocrity with low productivity and underdevelopment
of the society as its resultant effect. Suffice to say, that this set of scholars in their own selfish
interest have decided to ignore and abandon the implementation process of school syllabus.
Omofonmwan (2007) identifies the major problem that comes from the government
towards the implementation of senior secondary school syllabus as the funding problem.

2.8.1 Funding of Physics Education

NPE (1998) stated that “education is an expensive social service and requires adequate
financial provision from all tiers of government for successful implementation of the
educational programmes”.

Olowoye (2007) identified the major sources of school finance thus:

1. Allocations from government (federal, state & local)
2. Levies
3. Institution – school fees, school proceeds e.g. in fine Arts, fisheries Agric, home
econs, poultry, e.t.c.
4. Taxes
5. Loans
6. Endowment and scholarships

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 7. Philanthropists
8. External / assistance

Teaching conditions have deteriorated, more so, in many of these schools, classrooms,
libraries and laboratories are nothing to write home about, all leading to decline in academic
standards. Attention must be focused on these areas if the implementation level is to be increases
and this is only in possible through adequate funding, Olowoye (2007). Since 1986 when the
federal military government introduced the structural adjustment programme SAP, allocation of
financial resource started to fall coupled with the consistent decline in the value of local currency
till date. This has also consistently affected the procurement of imported technical and scientific
equipments, books and other instructional needs in the educational system.
Education system in Nigeria today, needs a total overhauling and restructuring, this
reform is required to improve the performance of senior secondary school science education in
the country, the nation entered the 21st century insufficiently prepared to cope or compete in the
global economy, where growth will be based even more heavily on technical and scientific
knowledge (World Bank 1994). It is also a well known fact that the inadequacies always
observed among many undergraduates and graduates alike is as a result of the inadequacies
associated with the primary and the secondary education system in Nigeria. It is however
pertinent for the government of the day to design a suitable guidelines for funding education. For
instance, UNESCO has recommended that 26% of the total budget of a nation should be allocated
to education. But Longe Commission of 1991 observed that the percentage of recurrent budgetary
allocation to education in Nigeria has never exceeded 10%. Though, the system is expensive to
keep afloat, quality however in any form is partly a function of the total fund made available to
the system and judiciously utilized for the purpose to which it is meant for. Funds are required
and necessary to maintain both the human and material resources of the system in order to
achieve desired goals. Also there is the need for an effective monitoring of the management of
fund presently being allocated to the sector, as effort should be intensify to improve on what is
currently being allocated to the system.

2.9 Problem with Implementing New Curriculum

The problem is not only related to the redefinition of the traditional boundaries among
disciplines in response to the changing epistemological nature of how knowledge is constructed,
validated and finally applied in daily life, but also about how the new knowledge organization
really affects the processes of teaching and learning in the classroom. For example, a social
sciences syllabus would surely be a better way of sharing with students more comprehensive
frames of reference in order to understand the world they live in than a traditional syllabus based
on history and geography as separate and disconnected subjects. But it could also generate a lot of
confusion and uncertainty if teachers and heads of department oppose the new syllabus and do
not even try to understand it (Bolaji, 2007).
There is also problem associated with overloading of the curriculum and curriculum
content because of the high number of subjects that must be taken by students for their
certification. Overcrowded classes and timetable became pronounced as a result rapid population
change in Nigeria. An average classroom in the primary or JSS contains 70 to 120 pupils at any
given time. This puts added stress on school personnel, resources and school scheduling, teacher
workload, classroom management and the maintenance of order and discipline. There is strain on
teachers, learners’ and material resources of the school. One of the biggest obstacles to enhancing
technological literacy in the
Nigeria is the limited amount of high-quality instructional materials to cope with the curriculum.
Although some good materials have been developed, the developers do not have the sustained

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funding, time, or expertise to disseminate their work to a broad audience. Some teachers,
education researchers, and curriculum developers have created interesting and effective
approaches to engaging students in technology and design activities, but most of them are known
only in the school or school system where they originated.
Furthermore, paucity of textbooks and other learning aids is another problem. The
problems of book scarcity and the cost have hindered the successful implementation of many
laudable educational programmes and curriculum projects (Ivowi, 1998). To teach a new
curriculum at all levels of education, the teachers or instructors currently employed by the
Government have to receive further training in teaching the new body of knowledge. Most of the
teachers are not qualified to teach the subjects introduced in the new curriculum. In addition, new
experts have to be trained locally or abroad while some experts have to be recruited from abroad
in such disciplines where no qualified Nigerians are yet available. All these projects depend on
the availability of funds and unfortunately, the picture today is that funds are not sufficiently
available for the kinds of curriculum innovation activities described above; therefore the National
Policy on Education has not been fully implemented.

2.10 Curriculum Support

One of the major problems of curriculum development and implementation in Nigeria is

the fact that education policy lacks some vital support mechanisms that allow goals to be realized.
Omotayo, Ihebereme and Maduewesi (2008) refer to problems related to inadequate funding,
poor planning (including inaccurate research data), inadequate facilities and infrastructure,
teacher incompetence, and inconsistent monitoring and evaluation poor materials and resources.
It is a point of view shared by Maduewesi (UNESCO, FME, 2001), who addresses the fact that
funding has remained a major deterrent to progressive curriculum development, and recommends
that more funding be allocated to curriculum development, acquisition and maintenance of
materials and equipment. Woolman (2001) adds that limited resources hamper the expansion of
education across the entire African continent.
None of the reports make any allusion to the influence of systemic corruption on
education. The problem with education funding in Nigeria is not just its inadequacy, it is also the
fact that the system is fraught with corruption and fund misappropriation. Unfortunately, as
curriculum planners integrate ethical issues into civics education, few reports mention the effect
that corruption has on public policy, education and curriculum development. More often than not,
monies intended for the implementation of certain programs, including research, teacher training
and acquisition of teaching aids, are either misappropriated or simply disappear into the pockets
of politicians, policy makers, contractors or civil servants.
Subsequent to the implementation of the 9-3-4 system, teachers are, for the first time,
actively involved in curriculum design. Woolman (2001) suggests that teachers should be
involved at every decision-making stage concerning curriculum reform. However, the question
arises about teachers’ competence and ability to actually design curricula. Most Nigerian teachers
are poorly trained and ill-equipped to teach, much less produce curricula. Those who are well-
trained may be uninterested in advancing new techniques. Amuseghan (2007), in discussing
English language instruction at the SSS level, points out that most teachers are “more concerned
with disseminating facts, information and principles on how to do this or that...than teaching
language skills or allowing students to do and learn, practice and engage in language activities
aimed at acquiring communicative skills or competence”.

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2.11 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN STUDYING PHYSICS AT THE SECONDARY
SCHOOLS
Boyo (2007) identified a number of deep-rooted issues peculiar to physics subject in
secondary schools which need to be addressed. These problems, common to secondary schools
are:
• Inadequacy of materials and personnel with respect to teaching the subject.
• Lack of laboratories and Equipment
• Inability of the teachers to impact the subject to the student s, which might be due to the
problem of teachers qualification and effectiveness.
• The overloading of West African examination council syllabus.
• Shortages in the supply of physics teachers and poor environments in which physics practical
are taught.
• The ability of this subject to inspire and interest pupils, particularly girls; and other factors such
as careers advice which affect pupils’ desire to study physics at higher levels.
• The inflexibility, irrelevance and repetitiveness of the curriculum;
• The lack of engagement in debate and quiz in this subject
• The limitations on practical and fieldwork
• The low educational value of coursework
• Non implementation of ICT in science teaching.
• The shortage of qualified science teachers is a well-known problem. The increasing demand for
science graduates in other more lucrative sectors and the decreasing number of graduates in these
subjects means that we are caught in a seemingly endless cycle of decline in specialist science
teachers
• Insufficient account taken of pupils' previous learning and attainment, including what they had
already learned in primary school;
• Some tasks set for pupils were either too difficult for them or insufficiently challenging
• Insufficiently high teacher expectations of the pace of pupils' learning and of the quality of
presentation of their written work.

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