Professional Documents
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A Project Report on
By
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By
APPROVED
(**************) (**************)
Contents
List of Tables..........................................................................................................7
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List of Figures.........................................................................................................7
CHAPTER I............................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................8
Definition of Ultra Light Aircraft..................................................................................8
Objective................................................................................................................8
Methodology followed..............................................................................................8
Market Surveys and Research...................................................................................8
Conceptual Design..................................................................................................8
Aerodynamic Evaluation...........................................................................................9
Detailed design & CAD modeling...............................................................................9
Full Scale Fabrication...............................................................................................9
CHAPTER II.........................................................................................................10
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN............................................................................................10
Introduction..........................................................................................................10
Phases of Aircraft Design.......................................................................................10
Conceptual Design Process....................................................................................11
Selection of Specification........................................................................................12
Mission Profile......................................................................................................12
Base Structure......................................................................................................13
Wing Geometry Selection.......................................................................................13
Airfoil Selection.....................................................................................................16
Engine Location....................................................................................................18
Landing Gear........................................................................................................19
Propeller Selection................................................................................................19
Engine Cooling System..........................................................................................19
Horsepower to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading.........................................................20
Aircraft Final Specifications.....................................................................................21
Three Dimensional Conceptual Model......................................................................22
CHAPTER III...........................................................................................................23
AERODYNAMICS....................................................................................................23
Lift Slope Curve....................................................................................................23
Profile Drag..........................................................................................................23
Induced Drag Factor..............................................................................................24
Thrust Available and Thrust Required.......................................................................25
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CHAPTER IV........................................................................................................26
DETAILED DESIGN..................................................................................................26
Fuselage..............................................................................................................26
Cockpit................................................................................................................28
Flight Instruments..................................................................................................29
LANDING GEAR ANALYSIS...................................................................................42
Firewall................................................................................................................47
Safety..................................................................................................................47
Control Surfaces...................................................................................................47
Buckling Analysis..................................................................................................53
Bolt Size Calculation..............................................................................................55
POWER PLANT SELECTION.................................................................................57
Modifications:........................................................................................................58
Alternative engine suggestions:...............................................................................60
PROPELLER DESIGN...........................................................................................61
Results................................................................................................................62
Conclusion:..........................................................................................................66
Solid edge view of the designed propeller:................................................................66
Fuel system..........................................................................................................67
CHAPTER V.........................................................................................................68
FABRICATION.........................................................................................................68
Material Selection..................................................................................................68
Fabrication of Connectors.......................................................................................71
Fabrication of Custom Designed Joints and Hinges....................................................72
Fuselage Construction...........................................................................................74
2d Truss Construction............................................................................................82
Wing Construction.................................................................................................85
Empennage Assembly...........................................................................................88
Control Surfaces...................................................................................................92
Fabrication of Landing Gear....................................................................................99
Fabrication of Aircraft Skin Covering:......................................................................103
Solid Edge Figures..............................................................................................104
CONCLUSION....................................................................................................109
CONCLUSION
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List of Tables
Table 1: Aircraft Specifications...................................................................................7
Table 2: Airfoil Comparison......................................................................................11
Table 3: Wing Loading and HP/W..............................................................................14
Table 4: Aircraft Final Dimensions............................................................................15
Table 5: Loads Estimation........................................................................................23
Table 6: Top View showing wing spars and major ribs of the wing...........................24
Table 7: Side View showing wing spars and struts...................................................24
Table 8: Fuselage Truss members............................................................................60
Table 9: Wing members...........................................................................................63
Table 10: Horizontal Tail members...........................................................................66
Table 11: Vertical Tail members...............................................................................68
Table 12: Landing Gear members............................................................................76
Table 12: Landing Gear members
List of Figures
Figure 1: Iterative Procedure of Concept Design........................................................6
Figure 2: Mission Profile..............................................................................................7
Figure 3: Base Structure.............................................................................................8
Figure 4: Clark Y Airfoil Coordinates.........................................................................11
Figure 5: Clark Y Characteristics...............................................................................12
Figure 6: Constraint Diagram...................................................................................14
Figure 7: Three Dimensional Views of Conceptual Design........................................16
Figure 8: Lift Slope Curve.........................................................................................17
Figure 9: Profile Drag................................................................................................17
Figure 10: Profile Drag at Different Altitude.............................................................18
Figure 11: Induced Drag Factor................................................................................18
Figure 12: Drag Polar................................................................................................19
Figure 13: Thrust Available and Thrust Required.....................................................19
Figure 14: Effect of Fineness Ratio on Fuselage Drag..............................................21
Figure 15: Definition of Upsweep and its effect on Drag..........................................21
Figure 16: FEM Model of the Wing............................................................................25
Figure 17: Application of Loads on the Wing............................................................25
Figure 18: von Misses Stress distribution in wing members.....................................26
Figure 19: Horizontal Tail Geometry.........................................................................28
Figure 20: von Misses Stress distribution in Horizontal Tail members......................29
Figure 21: Vertical Tail Geometry.............................................................................30
Figure 22: von Misses Stress distribution in Vertical Tail members..........................31
Figure 23: Fuselage Truss dimensions......................................................................32
Figure 24: von Misses Stress distribution in modified Fuselage Truss......................35
Figure 25: Fuselage Cabin........................................................................................36
Figure 25: Fuselage Cabin
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1. The definition of ultra light aircraft varies from country to country the aviation
regulatory body of the country decides the weight of an aircraft to be classifies as ultra
light aircraft. However, the civil aviation authority of Pakistan has no such definition for
ultra light aircraft. As a result we selected the empty weight of our aircraft closer to that
used in India and set it to 800lb.
Objective
2. The aim of the project is to design and fabricate a full scale ultra light aircraft using
in-country resources.
Methodology followed
3. First step was initiated by carrying out a thorough web research followed by many
surveys done at Peshawar, Lahore and Karachi flying and ultra light hobby clubs. Raw
data of different ultra light aircraft made worldwide and in Pakistan was collected and
arranged for comparison purposes. This step helped in setting the initial specification of
the aircraft.
Conceptual Design
4. Conceptual design was generated following Design books by Daniel P Raymer and
Roskam. An iterative process resulted in optimized conceptual design.
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Aerodynamic Evaluation
6. Structural analysis was carried out using ANSYS software and a detailed sketch of
the aircraft was created using Solid Edge software. Geometric drawings were obtained
to use for fabrication process.
7. After creating detailed geometry, full scale templates of different parts were
created. Fabrication was done using tools and technology available locally. Pipe
marking, cutting, drilling and welding are few of main processes done in fabrication
phase. All the structural parts including cabin, truss, wings, control surfaces, landing
gear and empennage assembly were fabricated separately and assembled together to
complete the aircraft structure.
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CHAPTER II
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
Introduction
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4. Conceptual design is the very first step of aircraft designing where the basic
configuration, size, layout, weight and performance are set. It is done by going over the
set or desired requirements repeatedly while validating their feasibility. This process
answers the questions whether an aircraft with the requirements can be built to fly or
not. As it has been made clear that there is a set of certain characteristics that the
design has to meet. These specifications can be the requirement of the user or the
designer. Conceptual design process starts with the rough sketch of the aircraft, which
is being designed. This gives us a very crude idea of what we are going to design. This
sketch may include approximate wing geometry, location of engines, payload,
passengers, cockpit and landing gears etc.
5. After this initial sketch rough weight estimation will be done, it will be followed by
wing geometry selection and the calculation of other important parameters of the aircraft
such as wing loading, thrust to weight ratio etc. After all this has been done, initial sizing
will be carried out. In the last an iteration process will be carried out which will result in
the final values of all the parameters of the aircraft.
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Selection of Specification
6. Ultra light aircrafts are usually used for recreation and therefore loiter time rather
than the range is more important. As no design requirements were given therefore a
survey was conducted and the specifications were selected accordingly.
Range 10 mile
Endurance 20 min
Stall speed 25 mph
Max speed 60 mph
Cruise speed 52 mph
TO distance 400 ft
Landing distance 300 ft
Ceiling 5000 ft
Climb rate 550 fpm
Table 1: Aircraft Specifications
Mission Profile
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Base Structure
9. The wing geometry includes taper ratio, aspect ratio, dihedral, sweep, planform,
twist, wing location, thickness and incidence.
I. Taper Ratio
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Hence, it was decided to have a straight wing as flow separation downstream from
the root region causes buffeting as it flows over the horizontal tail, thus providing
stall warning to the pilot. Moreover, as the wing tip still has attached flow control
surfaces would still be operatable. Besides, a straight wing is cheaper and easy to
manufacture. However, special efforts would be made in manufacturing as Lift
distribution is such that the centroid is away from the root causing greater bending
moment.
I. Monoplane/Biplane
Monoplane
Bi - plane
Cantilever Braced
Weight High Low Very low
Profile Drag Low High Higher
Interference Drag Low High Higher
For less weight and greater structure strength, braced wings would be used and to
make sure that drag is not very high, monoplane was preferred over biplane. More
importantly from manufacturing point of view monoplane construction is much easier
than biplane.
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None Sweep
Lift curve slope High Low
Pitch attitude in low speed level flight Low High
Ride through turbulence Poor Good
Stall Good Poor
Lateral control at stall Good Poor
Wing weight Low High
No sweep was selected as it gives lower weight, better performance at low speed
(our regime) and gives better stall characteristics(assuring safety).
Effect of Dihedral
angle
Positive Negative
Spiral stability Increased Decreased
Dutch Roll Stability Decreased Increased
Ground clearance of Increased Decreased
wing
As Ultra light aircrafts are supposed to be stable therefore a small positive dihedral
angle would be used.
Large Small
Cruise drag High Low
Cockpit visibility Good Average
As incidence angle would increase drag therefore it was decided to use zero
incidence angle.
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V. Wing Thickness
As greater thickness ratio increases lift as well as decrease weight, we will use
higher t/c but greater than 12 Cl max starts to deteriorate, thus , we will use t/c less
than 12.
VII. Twist
Large Small
Induced drag High Small
Tipstall Good Poor
Wing Weight Mildly lower Mildly higher
To decrease complexity and to improve induce drag as wing span is already very
large, we will use no twist.
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Airfoil Selection
Airfoil CLmax
CLARK Y 1.65
NASA GA(W)-1 1.7
NASA GA(W)-2 1.8
NACA 1.65
2412,43012
Table 2: Airfoil Comparison
Clark Y was used as an airfoil as it is easy to build and is most commonly used is Ultra
light aircrafts worldwide.
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Engine Location
Tractor configuration
Advantages
1. CG moves forward. Improving stability and allowing a shorter and smaller tail
2. Propeller works in an undisturbed free stream
3. More effective flow of cooling engine
Disadvantages
1. The propeller slipstream disturbs the quality of air over the wing
2. Skin friction increases over the wing
Pusher configuration
Advantages
Disadvantages
After considering the pros and cons of both the configurations it was decided to use the
more conventional Tractor configuration. The major factor in making this decision was
the use of an automobile engine. As we have modified the engine therefore, it would be
a huge risk if we are using the pusher configuration as any cooling problem could result
in a crash.
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Landing Gear
Although the Tricycle landing gear has more advantages but the tail dragger
configuration was selected as:
Propeller Selection
Three practical constraints would be kept in mind while buying the propeller:
The final choice of propeller used would solely depend on the availability of propeller as
they are not easily available.
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Updraft cooling system is used as it, unlike downdraft cooling system, flows the
cooling air upward through the cylinders and exits it into low pressure air above the
fuselage, creating more efficient cooling flow due to a suction effect.
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The thrust to weight ratio (HP/W) and the Wing Loading (W/S) are the two most
important parameters affecting the aircraft performance. Wing loading and horsepower
to weight ratio are interconnected for a number of performance. The major part of the
analytical design is the optimization of these factors as these are more interconnected
in the segments of take off, landing, turn and glide etc. To achieve their values,
constraint diagram was formulated, using the most critical segment of our profile:
W/S 4.7941
HP/W 0.08
Power Loading 12.5
Table 3: Wing Loading and HP/W
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CHAPTER III
AERODYNAMICS
Lift Slope Curve
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Drag Polar
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CHAPTER IV
DETAILED DESIGN
1. Wing
2. Fuselage Cabin
3. Fuselage Truss
4. Horizontal Tail
5. Vertical Tail
6. Flaps
7. Control Surfaces (Ailerons, Elevators, Rudder)
8. Engine Mount
9. Wing Mount
10. Connectors/Joints
11. Landing Gear
12. Control System
Fuselage
Fuselage is responsible for the largest portion of overall drag for most of the airplanes.
Thus it should be sized and shaped accordingly for minimum drag. It contributes to
various drags:
• Friction drag.
• Profile drag.
• Base drag.
• Compressibility drag.
• Induced drag.
If fuselage length is decreased, for the same level of static stability, tail size can be
decreased, thus, decreasing the friction drag. Thus, the optimum fineness ratio is 4 to 8.
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Upsweep is needed for clearance during take-off. It also gives clearance during taxi in
tail dragger arrangement.
As we can see in figure, drag does not increase much up to the upsweep of 15
degrees.
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Cockpit
The basic idea behind the cockpit design is to provide comfort to the pilot besides easy
excess to the all vital controls and accessories without diverging the pilot’s attention.
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Flight Instruments
Following are the most common instruments used in most of the homebuilders:
1. airspeed indicator
2. altimeter
3. magnetic compass
4. tachometer
5. oil pressure gauge
6. oil temperature gauge
7. fuel quantity indicator
Load Estimation
Before going for further structural design, it is necessary to know the loads the structure
is going to sustain. The total takeoff weight of the aircraft is 568 lbs and it will take a
Load Factor of 2.0 during its flight. A Factor of Safety of 1.5 will be used for the
structural design of the aircraft.
Assuming that the wing generates all the lift, the wing must produce lift equal to the
weight of the aircraft. Thus, total vertical force experienced by the wing will be the
weight multiplied by both the Load Factor and the Factor of Safety which gives a value
of 1700 lbs. Wing drag is estimated to be 10% of its lift which equals 170 lbs.
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The lift and drag of horizontal tail is estimated to be 20% of that of the wing. So, lift and
drag of horizontal tail becomes 340 lbs and 34 lbs respectively.
Since the vertical tail has similar configuration as half of the horizontal tail, so we can
take the side force and drag of the vertical tail to be half of the lift and drag of the
horizontal tail respectively. Thus, the side force becomes 170 lbs with a drag force of
17 lbs.
The following table summarizes the load estimation. These loads will be used to
analyze the design.
Dimensions
Span 28 ft
Chord 3.5
Length ft
Components
The wing will be constructed in two symmetrical parts which will be later joined at the
wing mount. Each of the part will be 13 ft long and a 2 ft connector at the wing mount
will make the total span to 28 ft. The following design is proposed for the wing part.
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Table 6: Top View showing wing spars Table 7: Side View showing wing
and major ribs of the wing spars and struts
All the members consist of Al pipes. An iterative trial and error structural analysis will
determine the dimensions of these pipes.
In order to determine the outer diameter and thickness of the pipes, the proposed
design was analyzed in ANSYS using different combinations of available diameters and
thicknesses. The best combination was then selected as the final dimensions of the
pipes.
Procedure of Analysis
The basic geometry was predetermined and the variable parameters were outer
diameter and thickness of the spars, ribs and struts as well as the span wise location of
the struts. So, the basic geometry was generated in ANSYS and arbitrary values of
outer diameter and thickness were given.
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The analysis showed the following combination to be best suited which was selected as
the final dimensions.
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Dimension Value
Spar Outer Diameter 2.00 in
Spar Thickness 0.78 in
Strut Outer Diameter 1.50 in
Strut Thickness 0.75 in
Major Rib Outer 2.00 in
Diameter
Major Rib Thickness 0.78
Strut Location Mid Span
For the above combination, plot of von Misses Stress is shown below:
Since, we have already multiplied the applied loads with 1.5 as a FOS, so the actual
FOS will be 1.5 X 1.03 = 1.54.
One of the most important parts of wing design is to give its cross section the shape of
desired airfoil. In order to do so, seven ribs are placed on each side of the wing at a
distance of 2.25 ft apart. The ribs are constructed from two pipes. A straight pipe is used
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for the lower surface to get a flat bottom, as designed. The upper surface will be given
the required curvature by using a bended pipe.
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Horizontal Tail
Dimensions
9.50 ft (114
Span
in)
Root Chord
3.25 ft (39 in)
Length
Taper Ratio 0.60
Sweep Angle 15 Deg
Keeping in mind the above dimensions, the following geometry is proposed for the
horizontal tail.
In order to determine the outer diameter and thickness of the pipes, the proposed
design was analyzed in ANSYS using different combinations of available diameters and
thicknesses. The best combination was then selected as the final dimensions of the
pipes.
Procedure of Analysis
The basic geometry was predetermined and the variable parameters were outer
diameter and thickness of the spars and ribs. So, the basic geometry was generated in
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ANSYS and arbitrary values of outer diameter and thickness were given. The geometry
was then meshed with element type of PIPE16. Loads were applied as estimated before
at 06 Hard Points. It is assumed that the loads are equally distributed among these
points. The Load Step was solved and von Misses Stress was plotted and maximum
stress was noted. These steps were repeated until a satisfactory result was obtained.
The analysis showed the following combination to be best suited which was selected as
the final dimensions.
Dimension Value
Outer 1.50
Diameter in
Thickness 0.75
in
For the above combination, plot of von Misses Stress is shown below:
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Since, we have already multiplied the applied loads with 1.5 as a FOS, so the actual
FOS will be 1.5 X 1.05 = 1.58.
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Vertical Tail
Dimensions
04 ft (48
Span (Height)
in)
Root Chord 2.5 ft (30
Length in)
Taper Ratio 0.60
Sweep Angle 15 Deg
Keeping in mind the above dimensions, the following geometry is proposed for the
horizontal tail.
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Since, dimensions of pipes for horizontal tail are selected, we will check, whether these
dimensions can be used for vertical tail or not. If the Factor of Safety is acceptable, we
will use the same pipes for vertical tail construction.
Procedure of Analysis
The basic geometry was generated in ANSYS and the values of outer diameter and
thickness were given as 1.5 in and 0.75 in respectively. The geometry was then meshed
with element type of PIPE16. Loads were applied as before at 06 Hard Points. It is
assumed that the loads are equally distributed among these points. The Load Step was
solved and von Misses Stress was plotted and maximum stress was noted.
The von Misses Stress distribution is shown below. The maximum stress comes out to
be 26,679 psi.
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Since, we have already multiplied the applied loads with 1.5 as a FOS, so the actual
FOS will be 1.5 X 1.12 = 1.69.
The Factor of Safety came out to be 1.69 which is quiet acceptable. So, the same pipes
will be used for vertical tail.
Dimension Value
Outer 1.50
Diameter in
Thickness 0.75
in
Fuselage Truss
Dimensions
The fuselage truss must be 9.5 ft (114 in) long. The other dimensions are as shown
below.
The Fuselage Truss will be constructed from the same pipes used for the tails i.e.
Dimension Value
Outer 1.50
Diameter in
Thickness 0.75
in
A 2 dimensional truss was proposed as the initial design. This design was analyzed
using ANSYS. By noting the results, necessary modifications were made. The proposed
design is shown below.
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Procedure of Analysis
The basic geometry was generated in ANSYS and the values of outer diameter and
thickness were given as 1.5 in and 0.75 in respectively. The geometry was then meshed
with element type of PIPE16. Loads were applied at the attachment points of the
horizontal and vertical tail as well as the rear landing gear. The loads at these points
were obtained from previous analysis of horizontal and vertical tails. An estimated
vertical load of 140 lbs was applied at rear landing gear attachment point. The loads
are summarized below:
The Load Step was solved and von Misses Stress was plotted and maximum stress
was noted.
The analysis showed that the lateral displace of the truss structure is very large. The
displacement came out to be 20 in which is not acceptable. So, design must be
modified to restrict the lateral diplacement of the tail. Plot of lateral displacement is
shown below.
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In order to restrict the lateral displacement, members must be added which can take
lateral loads. So, four members are added as shown below.
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Lateral Displacement: The lateral displacement of the tail of the modified truss
structure came out to be about 4 in. this value is acceptable if the stress does not
exceeds the strength of the material used. Plot of lateral displacement is shown below.
von Misses Stress: The maximum von Misses Stress came out to be 26, 385 psi which
gives a FOS of about 1.70. So, the design is safe and can be accepted. Distribution of
von Misses Stress is shown as under:
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Fuselage Cabin
Fuselage cabin is the part of aircraft where most of the components get jointed. Wing,
landing gears, engine mounts and fuselage truss are connected to the cabin. It also has
the provision for installment of flight instruments and control system. It will also serve as
the cockpit to house the pilot. The following figures show the sketch of fuselage cabin.
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For the landing gear analysis of ultra light aircraft a standard drop test is carried out. In
this test the aircraft is dropped from a height of 3 ft and the impact taken by landing gear
is closely observed if the landing gear is able to fully survive the impact it is declared
safe. However, we have used ANSYS to simulate all the critical landing loads.
According to FAR 23 regulation the most severe conditions for landing were
However, most discussion forums on the internet suggested that forces up to 3g’s could
be experienced during poor landing and hence vertical loads were selected accordingly.
The corresponding loads used were:
Dimensions Selection
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ANSYS ANALYSIS
The greatest challenge we faced during the analysis was the non availability of damping
coefficient and spring constant value of dampers. Although spring constant could be
found. It was impossible to calculate the damping coefficient without proper
experimental setup. Therefore, it was decided to find the loads in the rods connecting
the dampers and hope that a damper could be found with the required load rating
inscribed on it.
The element used for landing gear analysis was Pipe 16:
The element has six degrees of freedom at two nodes: translations in the nodal
x, y, and z directions and rotations about the nodal x, y, and z axes.
Material Used
Steel 4130 N is used. Use of steel also means that the structure can be easily welded
therefore analysis of welded structure was done.
PROCEDURE
As we couldn’t get the values of “k” and “c” for the shock absorber and the design
papers were only specified for oleo shock absorbers therefore they couldn’t be
used
Hence it was decided that if individual load in the member where shock absorber
is to be installed could be found then the shock absorber can be selected
Usually FOS of 1.5 is used but I have used 2 as the local material might not have
perfect strength
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The results as calculated by ANSYS were max. stress of 3269 psi. which corresponded
to a force of 845 lbs. The maximum stress was also less than the failure stress.of 105
ksi
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Firewall
Stainless steel or galvanized iron sheet of minimum thickness .015 inch (according to
FAR 23) is installed between cockpit and engine to prevent pilot from engine heat.
Safety
Ballistic Parachute
Fire Extinguisher
Control Surfaces
Flight control systems can be divided into primary and secondary flight control systems.
Based on their design, flight control systems are further divided into:
In a reversible flight control system, when the cockpit controls are moved, the
aerodynamic surface controls moves and vice-versa. They are typically mechanized
with cables, push rods or a combination of both.
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• Simplicity.
• Low cost.
• Reliability.
• Relatively maintenance free.
In laying out a reversible flight control systems, the following important design aspects
need to keep in mind:
Major design problems associated with reversible flight control system are:
• Cable stretch.
• Cable slack.
• Friction.
• Weight.
• Handling qualities.
• Elastic control system deformation.
• Flutter.
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Cable stretch:
Cable slack:
Turnbuckles are used to prevent cable slack and to prevent cables from leaving pulley,
cable guards are used.
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Friction:
For every cable turn, additional pulley is needed which introduces extra weight and
extra friction.
Make sure pulleys are attached to stiff structural components. Do not attach them to flat
plates, they deform easily.
Flutter
The solution to the control surface flutter is :
• To make sure that centre
of mass not behind hinge
line
• try to have chordwise cg at
hinge line
• prevent any play in the
linkages
Design consideration:
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• Primary flight control system cables should have a diameter greater than .11inch
(2.8mm) according to FAR 23.
• Rotation efficiency is highest if the angle between the cable and the driving
sector is 90 degrees with the system in its neutral position.
• Kinematic feasibility.
Mechanisms A and B are kinematically sound, the quadrangles ABFE and CDFE
remain parallelograms when the system is used. Mechanism A is better than B
because of its higher rotation efficiency. Mechanism C and D are unworkable
because the cable lengths AB and CD do not remain constant after some rotation.
Thus mechanism C and D are undesirable.
Reversible flight control system is selected, which consists of only cable pulley.
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Front View
Side View
Top View
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Buckling Analysis
Our aircraft cabin contained vertical members that would take compressive stresses at
landing as indicated by ANSYS Analysis therefore buckling analysis was necessary. As
we had chosen pipes for constructing cabin therefore we had the added advantage in
Buckling as a circular pipe is the most efficient column section to resist buckling. This is
because it has an equal radius of gyration in all directions and it has its area distributed
as far away as possible from the centroid.
For the purpose of Analysis a long column with central loading case was considered.
Euler column equation was used and the equation was formed by using boundary
condition for the case where both ends of the column are fixed. For obtaining the Euler
column formula we began by assuming a pipe of length l loaded by a force P acting
along the centroid axis as the bar is bent a negative moment is required, and hence
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M = -Py
Comparing with the beam deflection formula d2ydx2=MEI we get the equation
d2y P
2
+ y=0
dx EI
Solving the differential equation for initial conditions gives us the final buckling analysis
4π 2 EI
Pcr =
l2
Since the maximum compressive force to be experienced by the pipes is known we
need to keep all variables constant while finding out one variable. In our case P, E, l is
known. We decided to keep pipe thickness and internal diameter constant and find out
the minimum required outer diameter to keep the pipe from buckling. The Moment of
Inertia of pipe is given by
π ( d o 4 − di 4 )
I=
64
Substituting in Euler Equation and solving we got the final equation:
2
16 P l
d o 4 = 3cr + di 4
π E
All the variables were substituted in the equation the result we got for minimum outer
diameter requirement was 1.42 inch. Hence it was verified that a pipe of outer diameter
1.5 inch, thickness 2mm would not buckle under the given loads. As with aviation rules
a Factor of Safety of 1.5 was also kept in mind while doing calculations.
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To ensure that it’s an Euler column one last check is done the slenderness ratio of this
size pipe was found out to be l/k=105.3 which is greater than the limiting slenderness
ratio of hence the use of Euler Equation is justified
( l k) l
= 82.3
1. Crushing/bearing failure
2. Tearing failure
3. Shearing failure
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Fig. (a) Crushing failure (b) tearing failure (c) shearing failure
In our case the Crushing or bearing failure is the bolt size determining factor. In order to
prevent pipes from crushing during tightening a small 3 in piece of wood was inserted in
the pipe before drilling. Hence, the bolt passed through the wood sandwiched between
aluminum pipe of thickness 2mm.
To calculate the bolt size software, MITCALC was used however two calculations were
also done manually and the answers matched with the software to validate MITCALC.
Pc=t.d.σc
Where,
t= pipe thickness
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Lock nuts were used with bolts. These nuts are not manufactured locally and are
imported. However, at the moment lock nuts for size smaller than 6 mm were not
available. As a result we were forced to use only 6mm and 8mm bolts.
The carbon steel bolts selected were of highest available grade of 12.9. Allen Key bolts
were selected as Hex Bolts of the specified grades were not available. Bolts of length
2.0 and 2.5 inch were used.
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However, all these engines were water-cooled and added weight. Therefore it was
decided to use air-cooled engines and hence it was decided to use VW engines another
advantage of an original VW engine is that VW claims that its engines can automatically
adjust fuel requirement with altitude. An extensive search for VW engines was carried
out and a list of VW engines available in Pakistan was made:
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After the survey it was decided to use 1800cc VW engine or 1600cc engine produced in
1966 or 1969. For this purpose the five major VW mechanics and engine suppliers were
contacted in Karachi in May and they provided us with surety that the engine would be
provided. The estimate engine cost was Rs 20,000/-.
Modifications:
For engine modifications local mechanics and ultra light aircraft owners were consulted.
Although help was also taken from internet but local mechanics were unfamiliar with
most of these foreign techniques as a result following modifications were finalized:
• Removal of gear box: As our aircraft would operate at a constant rpm therefore
gearbox use was judged irrelevant.
Fig. the removal of bulky gear box would significantly reduce weight
• Double carburetor: This would allow the pistons to work differentially allowing
for a much better and efficient compression
• Engine Overhaul: As these engines are about 30 years old therefore engine
overhaul is necessary to ensure optimum performance.
• Replacing flywheel: The standard and heavier steel flywheel would be replaced
with Al. flywheel. This would cause significant weight reduction.
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• Rotax engine: A second hand dual carburetor Rotax 503 engine was available in
Peshawar at a cost of Rs 2 lakh. The engine had flown for 40 hours. It provided
47 hp but at the same time its weight was 85 lbs which is almost half the
estimated weight of VW engine. Propeller specifications for Rotax engines are
directly available on the internet. For Rotax 503 carrying a weight in the range of
700-850 lbs the propeller specs are: 56x32 where 56 is the diameter and 32
degrees is the pitch.
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PROPELLER DESIGN
Initially it was decided that a propeller would be bought directly from the market for the
ultra light aircraft. However, no ready made wood propellers were available for sale in
the market leaving us with no choice but to fabricate the propeller. A manufacturer was
contacted and he asked for the diameter and pitch of the propeller.
For propeller design a free software javaprop® was used. The software is based on
Adkins, C. N.: Design of Optimum Propellers, AIAA-83-0190. The main improvements
were:
• Momentum losses due to radial flow can be estimated by either the Prandtl or
Goldstein momentum loss function.
• In the analysis portion "Blade Element Method" is used and it uses the same
airfoil polars as the design procedure
• The influence of blade number and tip loss are taken into account by the "Prandtl
Tip-Loss Factor
Four major design criterions were kept in mind while carrying out propeller design:
The number of blades has a small effect on the efficiency only. Usually a propeller with
more blades will perform slightly better, as it distributes its power and thrust more
evenly in its wake. But for a given power or thrust, more blades also mean more narrow
blades with reduced chord length, so it’s difficult to manufacture.
DENSITY:
The density of the fluid has no influence on the efficiency of a propeller, but strongly
affects its size and shape. As the forces and the power are directly proportional to the
fluid density. Aircraft operating at high alt. usually need a smaller diameter then those
operating at low alt.
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PITCH
Large pitch propellers may have a good efficiency in their design point, but may run into
trouble when the have to operate at axial velocity. In this case, the blades tend to stall.
Usually the best overall propellers will have a pitch to diameter ratio in the order of 1.
DIAMETER
The propeller diameter has a big impact on performance. Usually a larger propeller will
have a higher efficiency, as it catches more incoming fluid and distributes its power and
thrust on a larger fluid volume.
Results
The software javaprop® is a very user friendly software a six step procedure was
followed to come to final result.
Airfoils were selected according to the most popularly used airfoils in ultralight
propellers
At r/R=0 MH 126
Fig. MH 126
MH 126, this airfoil was designed for the root section of a full size propeller. It covers a
wide angle of attack range without separation and has the required thickness for this
region.
At r/R=0.33 MH 112
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Fig. MH 112
MH 112 16.2%, this airfoil was designed to follow the root section. It covers the typically
needed range of lift coefficients for the inboard region.
At r/R=0.67 MH 114
Fig. MH 114
MH 114 13%, this airfoil is well suited for the middle part of the propeller halfway
between root and tip.
At r/R=1.0 MH 116
Fig. MH 116
MH 116 9.8%, this airfoil can be used for the tip of propellers operating at tip Mach
numbers of 0.6 and below.
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The thrust graph was then imported to MS Excel and required thrust vs available thrust
graph was made
As can be seen there is excessive thrust available. Especially at cruise Mach which is
about 0.067.
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Next Cl, Cd plots were made against r/R. As desired the Cl value is greater than Cd
throughout the blade diameter
A Mach number vs r/R curve was also plotted. The Mach number throughout the
diameter remained below 0.7 Mach as desired.
A chart showing the velocity of the slipstream of propeller was also made. Vx is the axial
velocity, V is the inflow velocity. The graph shows that the flow has accelerated by
about 80%.
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Conclusion:
The propeller design was satisfactory as it was close to common propeller results for
ultra light aircrafts with 50hp engine as shown in the table below
Commonly used
Propeller designed using javaprop®
propeller
The propeller efficiency is 65% which is less than the ideal 80%. However the efficiency
is dependent on a number of factors like HP, RPM, Diameter, Velocity etc.In our case
the HP is fixed. The rpm and diameter are also restricted with the thrust requirement
and the need to keep the tip velocity below 0.75 Mach. All these restraints have resulted
in a lower efficiency. An iterative method was used to get the best combination of
Diameter and Rpm.
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Fuel system
Two types of fuel systems were considered:
Gravity-Feed Systems use only the force of gravity to push fuel to the engine fuel-
control mechanism. The bottom of the fuel tank must be high enough to provide
adequate pressure to the fuel-control component. This type of system is often used in
high-wing light aircraft. We have preferred gravity fed system as it is simple, does not
need any installation of pump and suits our aircraft configuration i.e. high-wing light
aircraft. However, we need to install two valves to ensure fuel supply at all time
Thus, our fuel tank has two valves to counter for every phase of flight. Fuel from these
valves merged together before entering into the engine.
• Tanks
• Lines
• Valves
• Fuel Flow-meters
• Filters and Strainers
Fuel lines and hoses should be routed free of conflict with moving parts and should be
secured so they will not vibrate against the airframe. It should also be ensured that fuel
lines do not hinder pilot’s movement.
The fuel line from the tank to the engine must be routed continuously down hill. If this is
not maintained, air pockets or bubbles can get trapped in any high spots and severely
restrict the flow of fuel.
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Towards
engine
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CHAPTER V
FABRICATION
Material Selection
Before starting fabrication it was imperative to select material which had a high strength
to weight ratio. Al 6061-T6 is the most commonly used material in ultralight aircraft
industry. However, this material is not available locally and hence an alternate Al 6063-
T6 was used in aircraft structure. A comparison of AL6061-T6 and AL 6063-T6 is given
below:
T 6063 T 6061
Density (lb / cu. in.) 0.098 0.097
Specific Gravity 2.7 2.7
Melting Point (Deg F) 1090 1150
Modulus of Elasticity Tension 10 10
Modulus of Elasticity Torsion 3.8 3
Tensile strength 42,000 psi (290 MPa) 30,000 psi (207 MPa)
Yield strength 35,000 psi (241 MPa) 25,000 psi (172 MPa)
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Tools Used
Hand Drill
Center punch
Hacksaw
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Following steps were taken in building and assembling of the designed ultra light
aircraft. Some steps like pipe marking and cutting are in series while others were
completed in parallel. it should be noted that all the fabrication work was done in
backyard of a house and therefore this project is a true home built product.
As the standard size of aluminum pipes available from local market was 12 ft..So they
had to be cut into smaller pieces so that they can be used on different locations as
required by structural design of the aircraft. This Task was completed in two steps
1) Marking:
Marking scheme was such that a single 12 ft piece could be fully utilized in
making different size pieces and minimum material was wasted. Also the defined
nomenclature for different members was used to write Name, Length and
Diameter of each piece
2) Cutting:
Pipe Cutter was used to cut the larger pipes into smaller precise pieces which
were to be used in different parts of aircraft. Procedure followed for cutting
purpose was to hold the marked pipe in bench vise and provide a support to
keep balance then a straight cut was made which ensured dimensions to be
exact as marked on pipes.
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Fabrication of Connectors
I. 3d Elbow connector
These are 3d joints which were used to join cabin pipes meeting at 90 degree
angles. Mild steel material joints were used due to availability and cost
constraints.
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Due to unavailability of required connectors and joint members from local market, a
number of connectors were designed, analyzed and fabricated with the help of local
professionals, given below are the details of design and fabrication of different type of
joining members
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For deflection of flaps and control surfaces some rotating mechanism was
necessary, market survey showed that desired deflection could not be achieved
using ordinary hinges and so male female couple type hinges of different desired
sizes were designed and fabricate, for this purpose MS bars were machined and
welded over MS pipes of different required diameters, then these completed
hinges were clipped to control surfaces mounted on Horizontal and vertical tail as
well as on wing spars.
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Fuselage Construction
1) Cabin compartment
2) 2d Truss Structure
Both the components were fabricated separately and then joined to complete the
fuselage structure. Details of both the processes are given below.
Cabin Construction:
Cabin is a critical portion of aircraft as it gives places for attachment of wing, rear truss,
engine mounts, and landing gear ,it also houses the pilot and works as a base for
placement of control components. List of members used is given below followed by
steps taken to complete the cabin structure.
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Diameter/Widt
SN. Members Length h Thickness Material
1 FCL 015 18 1.5 2
2 FCL 016 18 1.5 2
3 FCL 017 58 1.5 2
AL6063
4 FCL 018 58 1.5 2
5 FCL 019 50 1.5 2
6 FCL 020 50 1.5 2
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Connectors Used
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Sheet
Construction process:
The pipes were connected using Elbow, TEE and Clip joints????Reason of using
MS (Mild steel) for Tee and elbow joints was unavailability of Aluminum joints.
The joints were strengthened using wooden pieces of 3inch length and were
snugly fit inside the Aluminum pipes .This procedure has been proved effective
by previous designs fabricated worldwide.
Rear portion joints of the cabin were specially designed and custom fabricated to
ensure strength and sleekness of this portion. All the joints were Bolted using
6mm diameter,2 and 2.5 inch length Allen Bolts. Lock nuts were used to ensure
safety and reliability.
As wing and landing gear are two main loads bearing components of the aircraft,
their attachments to the cabin needed to be strong enough to bear loads
transferred from this component.
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To fulfill this requirement L beam of Aluminum and Stain less steel were used for
Wing and landing gear attachment respectively. These beams were joined to
base pipe structure using nuts and bolts.
• Cabin floor is required for mounting of pilot seat, control stick and pedals;
it also provides a base for installment of various subsidiary components.
For construction purpose hard plywood sheet was used. After cutting the
sheet in precise dimensions it was attached to base members (pipes and
L beams) with the help of nuts bolts and washers.
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• Wind Shield serves the purpose of protecting the pilot from prop wash,
bird strike and foreign objects .It also gives aerodynamic shape to cabin
front portion thus reducing drag and increasing performance.
It was constructed using plastic sheet which were cut to size. Front portion
of wind shield was bended to give curvature, for this purpose aluminum
pipes of 15 mm diameter were used. Finally sheet was riveted to Cabin
Pipes.
• Cabin Firewall is used for thermal insulation or the cabin thus providing a
safety wall between engine and cabin so that engine heat might not injure
the pilot or damage instruments inside cabin.
Galvanized iron sheet was used for this purpose as suggested by Daniel P
Raymer.
2d Truss Construction
Second main portion of fuselage fabrication was construction of rear truss, it provides
connections for Empennage assembly and is structural backbone of the aircraft,
structural analysis showed adequate strength of simple 2d truss and its ease of
construction made it an attractive choice for fabrication. Given below is the list of
members used in fabricating this part followed by the procedure of construction
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Material Used:
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Assembling of Fuselage:
After completion of both cabin and truss structures, they were joined, following joints
and strengthening members were used to make the fuselage rigid and to constraint it in
all degrees of freedom.
Members Used:
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Connector Used:
Connecto
r Quantity Material
Assembling Procedure: Assembly was joined first with the help of 90 deg clip
connectors but they were unable to take all the loads acting on truss so to strengthen
the structure members FA001 and FA002 were used which joined the cabin roof L
beams to truss while Elements FA003 and FA004 supported the truss by connecting it
to cabin base members.
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Wing Construction
Wing is the lift producing surface. It bears aerodynamic loads like lift and drag and also
provides resistance towards flutter and fatigue phenomenon.
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Material Required
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9 Rib 005 40 in 2 in 2 mm
10 Rib 006 40 in 2 in 2 mm
11 Rib 007 (Qty 14) 40 in 15 mm 2 mm
12 Airfoil 001 (Qty 14) 46.2 in 15 mm 2 mm
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Connectors Used:
The aircraft’s wing span was calculated to be 28ft. however; 14ft aluminum pipes were
not available in the market. As a result 13ft pipes were bought and to join then a 5ft Mild
steel pipe was snugly inserted into the two pipes. This meant that a 1.5ft MS pipe was
inserted into each Spar.
The two main spars were connected with 6 ribs of AL diameter 2 inch while 14 15mm
ribs were also attached. The positioning of the 2 in Ribs was done to accommodate the
control system pulley besides providing strength to the wing. The 2 in ribs were
connected with clip joints and were bolted. Riveting was also an option but since the
aircraft had to be transported to Risalpur therefore Bolts were given preference.
Next Step was the bending of pipe into airfoil shape. For this purpose a full scale airfoil
shape was taken from plotter. Next this shape was cut onto a card board. This template
was given to the pipe bender who accurately bent 14 pipes according to the template.
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Airfoils were connected to main wing spars using specially designed ring connectors
which gave not only ease of installation of rib but also came up as strong and light
weight solution to the problem
Pictures:
• Full wing
• MS pipe
• Clip connector
• Welded connector
• U bolts
• Jig
Empennage Assembly
Empennage
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Horizontal Tail
Horizontal stabilizer is an integral part of any airplane it provides stability to the aircraft
and prevents it from going into spin. As before the material required is tabulated
followed by the joints required and then the fabrication process is mentioned
MATERIAL REQUIRED
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During Horizontal tail construction it was of utmost importance that the horizontal tail be
kept symmetric. So that during flight the aircraft won’t tilt to one side.
At first the 90⁰ clips were attached to HT 004. Afterwards members HT001, HT002,
HT003 were cut accurately and joined with the angle clip to HT 004. During this entire
process it was necessary that the members should be kept perpendicular to HT 004 for
this reason a triangle was kept with the connecting members.
After assembling the horizontal tail a pendulum was used to confirm the symmetry of
the Horizontal tail. The pendulum pointed at the midpoint of HT 004 which confirmed
that the HT is symmetric. For final test of symmetry diagonal length of the HT was
measured from both sides and was found equal.
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The horizontal tail was connected by sandwiching the horizontal stabilizer between the
L beam and plate. It was ensured that the centre of horizontal stabilizer matched the
centre of fuselage truss structure.
As these connections were not sufficient therefore they were enforced by attaching
struts to the horizontal stabilizer.
Pics
• Uncut pipes at 90
• Full HT
• Connectors
• Struts
• Pendulum hanging
VERTICAL STABILIZER
Vertical stabilizer is an integral part of any airplane it provides stability to the aircraft and
prevents it from going into spin.
MATERIAL REQUIRED
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o (in) (in)
1 VT 001 18 1.5 2
2 VT 002 22 1.5 2
3 VT 003 26 1.5 2 AL 6063
4 VT 004 64 1.5 2
5 VT 005 49.5 1.5 2
Horizontal tail fabrication was relatively easy first we joined members with 90 clips at a
distance of 18 in from centre to centre. Afterwards the pipes were cut to size and joined
using angle connectors. It should be remembered that the members were cut at an
angle to fit them in the vertical stabilizer.
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The vertical tail was attached to the truss structure by using two plates of dimension 6x6
in front and by using a 90 connector and 2 L beams at the rear.
Control Surfaces
Four control surfaces were to be fabricated: elevators, ailerons, flaps and rudder. The
construction of control surfaces was relatively easy.
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Ailerons
MATERIAL REQUIRED
JOINTS USED
The construction of Ailerons was straight forward the Connector’s centre was placed at
a distance of 30in from each other. While joining the AL 003 members to AL 001
members it is suggested that first the connector should be placed at the marked position
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and checked for its perpendicularity with member AL 001. Even a slight mishap in this
case would render the whole Aileron useless. Once the AL 003 members have been
joined with AL 001 the members should then be joined with AL 002 members if the
procedure is correctly followed the AL 003 members should automatically come
perpendicular to AL 002.
Flaps
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MATERIAL REQUIRED
JOINTS USED
For flaps it was necessary that the flap leading edge be a single piece as it was to be
connected with control system. This would ensure equal and timed movement of the
entire flap. To achieve this Aluminum pipe was bought whose internal diameter was 1.5
inch and hence the two FL 001 members would snugly fit into the pipe both the
members were inserted 1 ft into the Aluminum pipe.
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Once through with the leading edge of the flap rest of the procedure is same with the
connectors joined at a distance of 30 inch from each other and perpendicular to the FL
001 and FL 002.
Rudder
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MATERIAL REQUIRED
JOINTS USED
Rudder fabrication is similar to Vertical stabilizer construction the 90⁰ clips are placed at
a distance of 29 inch from centre to centre. Rest it should be kept in mind that a triangle
should be used while fixing the 90⁰ clip.
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Elevator
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MATERIAL REQUIRED
JOINTS USED
Since the hinges designed for the movement of control surfaces did not allow for a
single elevator therefore the two elevators had to be fabricated. The first 90⁰ clip was
positioned at the end while the second was placed at a distance of 20 inch from the
centre of the first.
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Although the lengths stated above are accurate but it is highly suggested that the angle
pipes be kept a bit longer and later cut down after fixing the members. Again it is
imperative that both the elevators be kept symmetric.
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Coming to the fabrication of the finally selected landing gear design following members
were used followed by the steps taken in fabrication.
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Tires Used:
Shock absorber:
Fabrication Process:
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b) Tires: Two tires were selected for main landing gear design, for this
purpose local market survey was done to find the closest match to our
designed landing gear tires. Finally tires were obtained which met the
design specifications and also incorporated the feature of in build shoe
brake system for ground brake purposes These tires were welded to
landing gear rods to ensure strong joints.
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After completion of each component separately they were attached as a final assembly
consisting of cabin fuselage truss, wing and tail assemblies and in the end control
surfaces and landing gears were attached to give the aircraft final shape. All the
components fit perfectly and were bolted, hinged and welded to make the whole
structure as one piece.
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Material Used:
Fabrication Process:
First of all clothing material was cut to dimension of wing, empennage and control
surfaces then it was stitched to give a tight fitting so that there won’t be any slack or
loose surface left. Last step was to fix the skin with aircraft components with the help of
riveting process. Thus giving the aircraft a complete aerodynamic shape.
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CONCLUSION
Full detail design of the aircraft was carried out which would ensure the integrity of the
aircraft. Every possible aspect of design was taken care off from the selection of Bolt
size to installation of aircraft engine. Due to shortage of time the fabrication could not be
completed. However, the most important part of fabrication, aircraft structure, was fully
completed. Material for aircraft covering and controls has also been acquired while the
propeller has also been fabricated. The entire fabrication process was carried out using
the most economical resources and it was proven that an aircraft can be fabricated in
Pakistan using local resources and that too at an extremely low cost.
It is suggested that this project be continued. Inshallah by next semester this project
would be fully completed and CAE would be able to claim that its students have
successfully designed and flown their own aircraft.
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