Types of Forest Ecosystems

Approximately 30 percent of the earth's surface is covered in forests. The

forests plays a crucial role in maintaining a healthy planet, such as controlling
the water cycle and stabilizing soils, assisting in leveling the climate by
saturating and storing carbon dioxide, providing a habitat for wildlife and
supplying wood, food and medicines. Across the world there are several
different types of forest ecosystems. The definition of ecosystem, is, "a self-
regulating association of living plants, animals and their non-living physical
and chemical environment."

Tropical Rain Forest

1. Days usually last 12 hours, temperatures averaging around 77 degrees F,

surplus of rain and high insolation (sunlight) are all attributes of a tropical rain
forest year-round. Tropical rain forests cover the Amazon region, as well as
equatorial regions in Africa, Southeast Asia, the east coast of Central America
and elsewhere along the equator. These areas are characterized by broadleaf
evergreen trees, vines, tree ferns and palms.

LAYERS OF A RAINFOREST

a.EMERGENT LAYER

The tallest trees are the emergents, towering as much as 200 feet above the
forest floor with trunks that measure up to 16 feet around.   Most of these trees
are broad-leaved, hardwood evergreens. Sunlight is plentiful up here.  Animals
found are eagles, monkeys, bats and butterflies.

b.CANOPY LAYER
This is the primary layer of the forest and forms a roof over the two remaining
layers.   Most canopy trees have smooth, oval leaves that come to a point. It's a
maze of leaves and branches.  Many animals live in this area since food is
abundant.   Those animals include: snakes, toucans and treefrogs.

c.UNDERSTORY LAYER

Little sunshine reaches this area so the plants have to grow larger leaves to
reach the sunlight.   The plants in this area seldom grow to 12 feet.  Many
animals live here including jaguars, red-eyed tree frogs and leopards.  There is
a large concentration of insects here.

d. FOREST FLOOR

It's very dark down here.  Almost no plants grow in this area, as a result.  Since
hardly any sun reaches the forest floor things begin to decay quickly.  A leaf
that might take one year to decompose in a regular climate will disappear in  6
weeks.   Giant anteaters live in this layer.

Tropical Seasonal Forest (monsoon forest)

Located on the edges of rain forests are the tropical seasonal forests that
receive dwindling and irregular rainfall. These areas are characterized by
broadleaf evergreen trees, some deciduous trees and thorn trees. Deciduous
trees lose their leaves during the winter.

Monsoon forest presents a more open tree growth than the equatorial and
tropical rainforests. Consequently, there is less competition among trees for
light but a greater development of vegetation in the lower layers. Maximum
tree heights range from 40 to 100 ft (12 to 35 m), which is less than in the
equatorial rainforest. Many tree species are present and may number 30 to 40
species in a small tract. Tree trunks are massive; the bark is often thick and
rough. Branching starts at comparative low level and produce large round
crowns. Perhaps the most important feature of the monsoon forest is the
deciduousness of most of the tree species present, e.g. the abundance of
tropophytes. The shedding of leaves results from the stress of a long dry
season, which occurs at time of low sun and cooler temperatures. Thus the
forest in the dry season has somewhat the dormant winter aspect of deciduous
forest of middle latitudes. A representative example of a monsoon forest tree is
the teak wood tree (Tectona grandis).

Lianas and epiphytes are locally abundant in monsoon rainforest but are fewer
and smaller than in the equatorial rainforest. Undergrowth is often a dense
shrubs thicket. Where second-growth vegetation has formed, it is typically
jungle. Clumps of bamboo are an important part of the vegetation in climax
teakwood forest.

Temperate Evergreen and Deciduous Forest

Found in North America, Europe and Asia, temperate evergreen and deciduous
forests tend to blend together at times. Needleleaf and broadleaf trees inhabit
the forests. In southern and eastern areas that are fervent with evergreen pines,
controlled forest fires still take place as the natural cycle of forest re-growth
and enrichment. As far as weather conditions, it is a moderate climate with a
cold season.

It is dominated by tall, broadleaf trees, which provide a continuous and dense

canopy in summer but shed their leaves completely in the winter. Lower layers
of small trees and shrubs are weakly developed. In spring a luxuriant low layer
of herbs quickly develops, but this is greatly reduced after the trees have
reached full foliage and shaded the ground.
Common trees of the deciduous forests are oak, beech brich, hickory, walnut,
maple, basswood , elm, ash, tulip tree, sweet chestnut and hornbeam.
The summergreen deciduous forest represents a response to a continental
climatic regime, which at the same time receives adequate precipitation in all
months.
Boreal Forest
The boreal forest, also known as the needleleaf forest. There are mountain
forests comprised of needleleaf trees that survive all over the world at
extremely high elevations.

Needleleaf forest is composed largely of straight trunked, conical tress with

relatively short branches, and small, narrow, needlelike leaves. These tress are
conifers. Where evergreen, the needleleaf forest provides continues and deep
shade to the ground so that lower layers of vegetation are sparse or absent
except for a thick carpet of mosses in many places. Species are few and large
tracts of forest consist almost entirely of but one or two species. The needleleaf
forest is composed of evergreen conifers, such as spruce , fir and pine, larch,
willow, brich, Aspen and balsam poplar which sheds its needles in winter and
comprises a deciduous forest.

Savanna and Woodland

Savanna and woodland ecosystems have a susceptibility to fires and the ability
to rejuvenate and re-grow. Savannas and woodlands are characterized by vast
areas of grasslands, bush thickets and clusters of sparse trees with flattened
crowns.

Savanna woodland consists of trees spaced rather widely apart, permitting

development of a dense lower layer, which may be of grasses or shrubs. This
formation class is sometimes referred to as parkland because of the open,
parklike appearance of the vegetation. Savanna woodland is associated with a
climate regime in which aridity is sufficiently developed to prevent the tree
growth from forming a closed canopy.

Desert:

In geographical studies, deserts are defined as regions wherein the average

annual precipitation seldom exceeds more than 10 inches per year, and the
amount of water lost to evapotranspiration is much more than the amount of
water gained by precipitation. Like hot deserts, such as the Sahara and Mojave,
there are cold deserts as well, the best example being Antarctica. One of the
prominent difference between the two is the form of precipitation, which is
snowfall in cold deserts and rainfall in hot deserts. Irrespective of whether it is
a hot or a cold desert, the characteristic traits of both almost remain the same.
It may comes as a surprise, but the areas which we refer to as hot deserts have
a chilling temperature at night. .

Desert Ecosystem

Though a desert may seem like a barren land devoid of lifeforms, life does
exist in this harsh environment. Numerous plants and animal species have
adapted to these seemingly unsuitable conditions. In the desert ecosystem,
climate is a deciding factor for the existence of lifeforms. In deserts,
temperatures can reach up to 115° F during the day, and come down to 32° F at
night. Such extreme temperature makes it difficult for lifeforms to survive in
the deserts, unless they adapt to this harsh climate. Surprisingly though, many
plants and animals have adapted themselves over the years, and have become
an important part of the desert ecosystem today.

There are 5 types of desert according to the landscapes :

Sand desert --- a wavy sand sea

Stony desert --- gravel surfaces

Rock desert --- bare rock surfaces with huge pavement that kept clear of sand
or gravel by wind

Plateau desert --- rocky plateaux , deeply eroded wadis, buttes or  inselbergs

Mountain desert --- bare and arid arrays of jagged rock peaks

Deserts can be classified is " Hot deserts" and " Cold deserts".

Hot desert --- It has high daytime temperature for the whole year, though
rather cold at night as temperature may fall below 10 oC (50oF) or even below
the freezing point When the maximum daytime temperature is above 40 oC
(104oF). Examples : Sahara, Namib/Kalahari, Arabian, Iranian, Atacama,
Australian and in North America: Sonoran, Mojave and Colorado.

Cold desert--- It has hot summers but extremely cold winters.

Examples : the desert complex in Western North America (Great Basin),
Patagonian, Turkestan & Gobi Deserts.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSEM

Grassland landscape is a very important topic in the study of the ecosystem

because grasslands cover nearly one third of the earth’s land surface and
supply three quarters of the energy that the world needs. Grasslands can be
divided into two types: savannas and temperate grasslands, but both types have
some similar features in several aspects.

     Generally, grasslands are open and continuous areas made up of many
different kinds of grasses, like, Cocksfoot, Upright Brome, Tor Grass, Sheep's
Fescue, Crested Dog's-tail, Common Quaking-grass, Common Fox-tail, Rough
Meadow Grass, False Oat-grass, Blue Moor-grass and Yorkshire Fog. Also,
there are various types of grassland flowers such as Salad Burnet, Meadow
Buttercup, Red Campion, Cuckoo Flower Cowslip, Sainfoin, Field Gentian,
Meadow Saffron, Harebell, Knapweed and Bee Orchid. Besides plants, there
are also a huge number of animals and many of them have their own survival
mechanism to escape from their enemies and to adapt to the environment.

     Grasslands are very important to human because crops can be grown on

them to provide the food that people need. Sometimes, sunflowers, linseed and
lupins are especially grown for the oil in their seeds. Grasslands also benefit
other animals by providing them with their habitats and food. With the
interaction between grasslands and animals, the existence of grasslands is
made possible because without the grazing by animals, they will be colonized
by shrubs quickly and become woodland.
Grasslands are extremely hot in summer time and are very cold during the
winter.

Grasslands receive between 10 and 30 inches of rainfall a year

There are three different types of grasslands -

Tall Grasslands Mixed Grasslands Short Grasslands

 almost 30 inches of  about 20 inches of  only about 10

rain per year. rain per year. inches of rain per
 grasses grow up to  grasses between 2 year.
5 feet tall. and 3 feet tall.  grasses grow up to
2 feet tall.

 In Asia and Europe grasslands are known as Steppes.

 Pampas are what grasslands are called in South America.
 Grasslands are called Savannas in Africa.
 In North America, we call grasslands Prairies.
 Many grassland animals are becoming extinct.
 Savannah's have two seasons, a dry season and a wet season.

Aquatic ecosystems

Aquatic ecosystems refer to entities with plants and animals relying on a

watery environment. An aquatic ecosystem is broadly classified into marine
and freshwater ecosystems. An in-depth explanation on the types of aquatic
ecosystems is provided in this article.
Aquatic Ecosystem Meaning

An ecosystem is an entity formed by the interaction between living organisms

and the physical environment. It is classified into two main categories:
Terrestrial ecosystems and Aquatic ecosystems. Terrestrial ecosystems contain
organisms that depend on physical environment on land masses of continents.
Aquatic ecosystems are systems composed of living organisms and non-living
elements interacting in a watery environment. In simple terms, an aquatic
ecosystem is a community of plants and animals that primarily depend on
water. There are two major types of ecosystems:

 Marine Ecosystems

 Freshwater Ecosystems

Marine Ecosystems

While terrestrial ecosystems cover only about 28 percent, marine ecosystems

cover approximately 71 percent of the earth’s surface. Different habitats
ranging from coral reefs to estuaries make up this largest aquatic ecosystem in
the planet. Prime examples of marine ecosystems include:

 Ocean: Main body of salty water that is further divided into important
oceans and smaller seas. Major oceans include the Pacific Ocean, Indian
Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean and Southern Ocean.

 Intertidal zone: Area which remains underwater at high tide and remains
terrestrial at low tide. Different types of habitats including wetlands, rocky
cliffs and sandy beaches fall under intertidal zones.
 Estuaries: Areas between river and ocean environments that are prone to
tides and inflow of both freshwater and saline water. Due to this inflow,
estuaries have high levels of nutrients. There are different names of estuaries
such as inlets, lagoons, harbors etc.

 Coral Reefs : Often referred as the “rainforests of the sea”, coral reefs are
mounds found in marine waters as a result of accumulation of calcium
carbonate deposited by marine organisms like corals and shellfish. Coral reefs
form the most varied marine ecosystems in the planet, but cover less then one
percent of the world’s ocean. Nevertheless, around 25 percent of marine
animals including different types of fishes, sponges and mollusks are found in
coral reefs.

Common species found in marine ecosystems include:

 Marine mammals such as seals, whales and manatees

 Different species of fish including mackerel, flounder, dogfish, sea bass, etc.

 Organisms such as the tiny planktonic, brown algae corals, echinoderms, etc.

Marine ecosystems are important for the well-being of both terrestrial and
aquatic environments. However, they are vulnerable to environmental
problems such as climate change, pollution and overfishing, which can be a
serious harm to marine biodiversity.

Freshwater Ecosystems

Although freshwater ecosystems are one of the main types of aquatic

ecosystems, only 0.8 percent of the earth’s surface is covered by them. The
water in freshwater ecosystems is non-saline (which means water has no salt
content). Approximately 41 percent of the earth’s fishes are found in
freshwater ecosystems.

Examples of freshwater ecosystems are:

 Streams and rivers (Lotic): Lotic ecosystems refer to systems with rapid
flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way. Best examples are rivers and
streams, which harbor several species of insects and fishes. Crustaceans like
crayfish and crabs; and mollusks such as clams and limpets are commonly
found in streams and rivers. Various mammals such as beavers, otters and river
dolphins also inhabit lotic ecosystems.

 Lakes, ponds and pools (Lentic): Lentic ecosystems are still waters such as
lakes and ponds that have a community of biotic (living organisms) and abiotic
(physical objects) interactions. Ponds and lakes have a diverse variety of
organisms including algae, rooted and floating-leaved plants, invertebrates
such as crabs, shrimps, crayfish, clams etc, amphibians such as frogs and
salamanders; and reptiles like alligators and water snakes.

 Wetlands: The best examples of wetlands include swamps and marshes,

where the water is completely or partially shallow. Biologically, wetlands are
known to be too diverse as it harbors numerous animals and plant species.
Plants such as black spruce, water lilies, mangrove, tamarack and sedges are
commonly found in wetlands. Various species of reptiles and amphibians are
also found in wetlands.

Freshwater ecosystems, which are one of the major types of aquatic

ecosystems, are in danger because of the rapid extinction rates of several
 invertebrates and vertebrates, mainly because of overfishing and other
activities that harm the ecosystem.

Estuary
Where River Meets the Sea

Brown and green are the colors of the estuary. It is here that the river meets the sea
in shallow, protected bays. The estuary serves a banquet of decaying plants, tiny
floating plants and animals called plankton, and little fishes. Millions of sea
animals get their start in life feeding in the quiet waters of the estuary. They can
find shelter in salt marshes, beds of slender eelgrass, or wide mudflats.

An estuary has very little wave action, so it provides a calm refuge from the open
sea. Some of the animals, such as horseshoe crab(extinct), flounder, eels, and
striped bass are just visitors to the estuary. Small fishes such as stickleback and
mummichogs, mud snails, and oysters may spend their entire lives there.

Classification of estuaries

Classification based on geomorphology

Drowned river valleys

Lagoon-type or bar-built estuaries

Fjord-type estuaries

Tectonically produced estuaries

Classification based on water circulation

Salt wedge estuaries

Partially mixed estuaries

Vertically homogenous estuaries

Inverse estuary

Intermittent estuaries